2361:, results in the sample reflecting different colours as it is turned, while pleochroism describes the change in colour as light passes through a mineral in a different orientation. Iridescence is a variety of the play of colours where light scatters off a coating on the surface of crystal, cleavage planes, or off layers having minor gradations in chemistry. In contrast, the play of colours in opal is caused by light refracting from ordered microscopic silica spheres within its physical structure. Chatoyancy ("cat's eye") is the wavy banding of colour that is observed as the sample is rotated; asterism, a variety of chatoyancy, gives the appearance of a star on the mineral grain. The latter property is particularly common in gem-quality corundum.
3001:), and its associated group, which are simple oxides. These silica tetrahedra are then polymerized to some degree to create various structures, such as one-dimensional chains, two-dimensional sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. The basic silicate mineral where no polymerization of the tetrahedra has occurred requires other elements to balance out the base 4- charge. In other silicate structures, different combinations of elements are required to balance out the resultant negative charge. It is common for the Si to be substituted by Al because of similarity in ionic radius and charge; in those cases, the tetrahedra form the same structures as do the unsubstituted tetrahedra, but their charge-balancing requirements are different.
29:
8024:
1089:
Chemical substitution will occur between ions of a similar size and charge; for example, K will not substitute for Si because of chemical and structural incompatibilities caused by a big difference in size and charge. A common example of chemical substitution is that of Si by Al, which are close in charge, size, and abundance in the crust. In the example of plagioclase, there are three cases of substitution. Feldspars are all framework silicates, which have a silicon-oxygen ratio of 2:1, and the space for other elements is given by the substitution of Si by Al to give a base unit of ; without the substitution, the formula would be charge-balanced as SiO
2408:
descriptors, in order of decreasing quality, are "perfect", "good", "distinct", and "poor". In particularly transparent minerals, or in thin-section, cleavage can be seen as a series of parallel lines marking the planar surfaces when viewed from the side. Cleavage is not a universal property among minerals; for example, quartz, consisting of extensively interconnected silica tetrahedra, does not have a crystallographic weakness which would allow it to cleave. In contrast, micas, which have perfect basal cleavage, consist of sheets of silica tetrahedra which are very weakly held together.
4373:. The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names adopted in 2009 a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names. According to these new rules, "mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification."
1097:
four O. An alternate way of describing the coordination of the silicate is by a number: in the case of the silica tetrahedron, the silicon is said to have a coordination number of 4. Various cations have a specific range of possible coordination numbers; for silicon, it is almost always 4, except for very high-pressure minerals where the compound is compressed such that silicon is in six-fold (octahedral) coordination with oxygen. Bigger cations have a bigger coordination numbers because of the increase in relative size as compared to oxygen (the last
3131:. Crystal twinning is common in feldspars, especially polysynthetic twins in plagioclase and Carlsbad twins in alkali feldspars. If the latter subgroup cools slowly from a melt, it forms exsolution lamellae because the two components β orthoclase and albite β are unstable in solid solution. Exsolution can be on a scale from microscopic to readily observable in hand-sample; perthitic texture forms when Na-rich feldspar exsolve in a K-rich host. The opposite texture (antiperthitic), where K-rich feldspar exsolves in a Na-rich host, is very rare.
3793:, of which sulfur is most common. Tellurium, arsenic, or selenium can substitute for the sulfur. Sulfides tend to be soft, brittle minerals with a high specific gravity. Many powdered sulfides, such as pyrite, have a sulfurous smell when powdered. Sulfides are susceptible to weathering, and many readily dissolve in water; these dissolved minerals can be later redeposited, which creates enriched secondary ore deposits. Sulfides are classified by the ratio of the metal or semimetal to the sulfur, such as M:S equal to 2:1, or 1:1. Many
2106:
8109:
4498:
4176:
2263:
3239:
3165:
2931:; most rocks are composed of greater than 95% silicate minerals, and over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of these minerals. The two main constituents of silicates are silicon and oxygen, which are the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust. Other common elements in silicate minerals correspond to other common elements in the Earth's crust, such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and potassium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the
928:
4022:
9208:
3752:
1855:), equant, which is typical of garnet, prismatic (elongated in one direction), and tabular, which differs from bladed habit in that the former is platy whereas the latter has a defined elongation. Related to crystal form, the quality of crystal faces is diagnostic of some minerals, especially with a petrographic microscope. Euhedral crystals have a defined external shape, while anhedral crystals do not; those intermediate forms are termed subhedral.
3760:
1149:
2392:
726:
2272:
3474:
2970:
1835:
polysynthetic twins. Contact, or simple twins, consist of two crystals joined at a plane; this type of twinning is common in spinel. Reticulated twins, common in rutile, are interlocking crystals resembling netting. Geniculated twins have a bend in the middle that is caused by start of the twin. Penetration twins consist of two single crystals that have grown into each other; examples of this twinning include cross-shaped
2457:
3406:
3054:
3318:
3276:
and one element can occupy both remaining ones. Finally, the amphiboles are usually hydrated, that is, they have a hydroxyl group (), although it can be replaced by a fluoride, a chloride, or an oxide ion. Because of the variable chemistry, there are over 80 species of amphibole, although variations, as in the pyroxenes, most commonly involve mixtures of Ca, Fe and Mg. Several amphibole mineral species can have an
2432:
example, as the amphiboles are double-chain silicates and the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates, the angle between their cleavage planes is different. The pyroxenes cleave in two directions at approximately 90Β°, whereas the amphiboles distinctively cleave in two directions separated by approximately 120Β° and 60Β°. The cleavage angles can be measured with a contact goniometer, which is similar to a protractor.
1496:
1781:. Kyanite is triclinic, while andalusite and sillimanite are both orthorhombic and belong to the dipyramidal point group. These differences arise corresponding to how aluminium is coordinated within the crystal structure. In all minerals, one aluminium ion is always in six-fold coordination with oxygen. Silicon, as a general rule, is in four-fold coordination in all minerals; an exception is a case like
2516:
3111:). The silica polymorph that is most stable at the Earth's surface is Ξ±-quartz. Its counterpart, Ξ²-quartz, is present only at high temperatures and pressures (changes to Ξ±-quartz below 573 Β°C at 1 bar). These two polymorphs differ by a "kinking" of bonds; this change in structure gives Ξ²-quartz greater symmetry than Ξ±-quartz, and they are thus also called high quartz (Ξ²) and low quartz (Ξ±).
2174:
1870:
4149:. Secondary dolomitization of limestone is common, in which calcite or aragonite are converted to dolomite; this reaction increases pore space (the unit cell volume of dolomite is 88% that of calcite), which can create a reservoir for oil and gas. These two mineral species are members of eponymous mineral groups: the calcite group includes carbonates with the general formula XCO
1821:
3737:, whereas the nickel content of taenite ranges from 7β37%. Arsenic group minerals consist of semi-metals, which have only some metallic traits; for example, they lack the malleability of metals. Native carbon occurs in two allotropes, graphite and diamond; the latter forms at very high pressure in the mantle, which gives it a much stronger structure than graphite.
3707:
1813:
In diamond, the carbons are in sp hybrid orbitals, which means they form a framework where each carbon is covalently bonded to four neighbours in a tetrahedral fashion; on the other hand, graphite is composed of sheets of carbons in sp hybrid orbitals, where each carbon is bonded covalently to only three others. These sheets are held together by much weaker
2843:
into several other classes by their dominant chemistry, which includes native elements, sulfides, halides, oxides and hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and organic compounds. Most non-silicate mineral species are rare (constituting in total 8% of the Earth's crust), although some are relatively common, such as calcite,
3496:β are structurally composed of one tetrahedron, and one Al in octahedral coordination. The remaining Al can be in six-fold coordination (kyanite), five-fold (andalusite) or four-fold (sillimanite); which mineral forms in a given environment is depend on pressure and temperature conditions. In the olivine structure, the main olivine series of (Mg, Fe)
2369:, which is coloured black, silver, or red in hand sample, but has a cherry-red to reddish-brown streak. Streak is more often distinctive for metallic minerals, in contrast to non-metallic minerals whose body colour is created by allochromatic elements. Streak testing is constrained by the hardness of the mineral, as those harder than 7 powder the
3721:, semi-metals, and non-metals, and various alloys and solid solutions. The metals are held together by metallic bonding, which confers distinctive physical properties such as their shiny metallic lustre, ductility and malleability, and electrical conductivity. Native elements are subdivided into groups by their structure or chemical attributes.
3671:) is useful in geochronology as U can substitute for Zr; furthermore, because of its very resistant structure, it is difficult to reset it as a chronometer. Staurolite is a common metamorphic intermediate-grade index mineral. It has a particularly complicated crystal structure that was only fully described in 1986. Topaz (Al
2306:, which does not apply to minerals). Two broad classes of elements (idiochromatic and allochromatic) are defined with regards to their contribution to a mineral's colour: Idiochromatic elements are essential to a mineral's composition; their contribution to a mineral's colour is diagnostic. Examples of such minerals are
3272:), where X is an octahedral site, while Y can vary in coordination number from six to eight. Most varieties of pyroxene consist of permutations of Ca, Fe and Mg to balance the negative charge on the backbone. Pyroxenes are common in the Earth's crust (about 10%) and are a key constituent of mafic igneous rocks.
595:, followed by discovery location; names based on chemical composition or physical properties are the two other major groups of mineral name etymologies. Most names end in "-ite"; the exceptions are usually names that were well-established before the organization of mineralogy as a discipline, for example
3229:
Because of their chemical structure, phyllosilicates typically have flexible, elastic, transparent layers that are electrical insulators and can be split into very thin flakes. Micas can be used in electronics as insulators, in construction, as optical filler, or even cosmetics. Chrysotile, a species
3114:
Feldspars are the most abundant group in the Earth's crust, at about 50%. In the feldspars, Al substitutes for Si, which creates a charge imbalance that must be accounted for by the addition of cations. The base structure becomes either or There are 22 mineral species of feldspars, subdivided into
2436:
structure allows for that property. In general, parting is caused by some stress applied to a crystal. The sources of the stresses include deformation (e.g. an increase in pressure), exsolution, or twinning. Minerals that often display parting include the pyroxenes, hematite, magnetite, and corundum.
4111:
are those in which the main anionic group is carbonate, . Carbonates tend to be brittle, many have rhombohedral cleavage, and all react with acid. Due to the last characteristic, field geologists often carry dilute hydrochloric acid to distinguish carbonates from non-carbonates. The reaction of acid
3252:
Inosilicates consist of tetrahedra repeatedly bonded in chains. These chains can be single, where a tetrahedron is bound to two others to form a continuous chain; alternatively, two chains can be merged to create double-chain silicates. Single-chain silicates have a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:3 (e.g.
3204:
The kaolinite-serpentine group consists of T-O stacks (the 1:1 clay minerals); their hardness ranges from 2 to 4, as the sheets are held by hydrogen bonds. The 2:1 clay minerals (pyrophyllite-talc) consist of T-O-T stacks, but they are softer (hardness from 1 to 2), as they are instead held together
2478:
High specific gravity is a diagnostic property of a mineral. A variation in chemistry (and consequently, mineral class) correlates to a change in specific gravity. Among more common minerals, oxides and sulfides tend to have a higher specific gravity as they include elements with higher atomic mass.
1812:
have vastly different properties; diamond is the hardest natural substance, has an adamantine lustre, and belongs to the isometric crystal family, whereas graphite is very soft, has a greasy lustre, and crystallises in the hexagonal family. This difference is accounted for by differences in bonding.
3188:
groups. In addition to the tetrahedra, phyllosilicates have a sheet of octahedra (elements in six-fold coordination by oxygen) that balance out the basic tetrahedra, which have a negative charge (e.g. ) These tetrahedra (T) and octahedra (O) sheets are stacked in a variety of combinations to create
2830:
in 1837; as of 1997, it is in its eighth edition. The Dana classification assigns a four-part number to a mineral species. Its class number is based on important compositional groups; the type gives the ratio of cations to anions in the mineral, and the last two numbers group minerals by structural
2474:
of a mineral. The dimensions of density are mass divided by volume with units: kg/m or g/cm. Specific gravity is defined as the density of the mineral divided by the density of water at 4 Β°C and thus is a dimensionless quantity, identical in all unit systems. It can be measured as the quotient
2447:
Tenacity is related to both cleavage and fracture. Whereas fracture and cleavage describes the surfaces that are created when a mineral is broken, tenacity describes how resistant a mineral is to such breaking. Minerals can be described as brittle, ductile, malleable, sectile, flexible, or elastic.
2407:
By definition, minerals have a characteristic atomic arrangement. Weakness in this crystalline structure causes planes of weakness, and the breakage of a mineral along such planes is termed cleavage. The quality of cleavage can be described based on how cleanly and easily the mineral breaks; common
1088:
Chemical substitution and coordination polyhedra explain this common feature of minerals. In nature, minerals are not pure substances, and are contaminated by whatever other elements are present in the given chemical system. As a result, it is possible for one element to be substituted for another.
981:
The minerals that form are those that are most stable at the temperature and pressure of formation, within the limits imposed by the bulk chemistry of the parent body. For example, in most igneous rocks, the aluminium and alkali metals (sodium and potassium) that are present are primarily found in
4124:
landforms. Carbonates are most often formed as biogenic or chemical sediments in marine environments. The carbonate group is structurally a triangle, where a central C cation is surrounded by three O anions; different groups of minerals form from different arrangements of these triangles. The most
3280:
crystal habit. These asbestos minerals form long, thin, flexible, and strong fibres, which are electrical insulators, chemically inert and heat-resistant; as such, they have several applications, especially in construction materials. However, asbestos are known carcinogens, and cause various other
3275:
Amphiboles have great variability in chemistry, described variously as a "mineralogical garbage can" or a "mineralogical shark swimming a sea of elements". The backbone of the amphiboles is the ; it is balanced by cations in three possible positions, although the third position is not always used,
3155:
ratio of 1:2, as opposed to 1:6 in alkali feldspar. Zeolites often have distinctive crystal habits, occurring in needles, plates, or blocky masses. They form in the presence of water at low temperatures and pressures, and have channels and voids in their structure. Zeolites have several industrial
2439:
When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is termed to have been fractured. There are several types of uneven fracture. The classic example is conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by smooth curved
1529:
These families can be described by the relative lengths of the three crystallographic axes, and the angles between them; these relationships correspond to the symmetry operations that define the narrower point groups. They are summarized below; a, b, and c represent the axes, and Ξ±, Ξ², Ξ³ represent
1140:
Because the eight most common elements make up over 98% of the Earth's crust, the small quantities of the other elements that are typically present are substituted into the common rock-forming minerals. The distinctive minerals of most elements are quite rare, being found only where these elements
861:
are minerals with an ornamental value, and are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about 20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common gemstones. Gem minerals are often present in several varieties,
537:
atoms. Other examples include layered crystals with variable layer stacking, or crystals that differ only in the regular arrangement of vacancies and substitutions. On the other hand, some substances that have a continuous series of compositions, may be arbitrarily split into several minerals. The
2842:
As the composition of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicon and oxygen, silicates are by far the most important class of minerals in terms of rock formation and diversity. However, non-silicate minerals are of great economic importance, especially as ores. Non-silicate minerals are subdivided
2416:. Two-directional cleavage is described as prismatic, and occurs in minerals such as the amphiboles and pyroxenes. Minerals such as galena or halite have cubic (or isometric) cleavage in three directions, at 90Β°; when three directions of cleavage are present, but not at 90Β°, such as in calcite or
2364:
The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may not be identical to its body colour. The most common way of testing this property is done with a streak plate, which is made out of porcelain and coloured either white or black. The streak of a mineral is
2184:
Lustre indicates how light reflects from the mineral's surface, with regards to its quality and intensity. There are numerous qualitative terms used to describe this property, which are split into metallic and non-metallic categories. Metallic and sub-metallic minerals have high reflectivity like
1096:
Coordination polyhedra are geometric representations of how a cation is surrounded by an anion. In mineralogy, coordination polyhedra are usually considered in terms of oxygen, due its abundance in the crust. The base unit of silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron β one Si surrounded by
617:
A topic of contention among geologists and mineralogists has been the IMA's decision to exclude biogenic crystalline substances. For example, Lowenstam (1981) stated that "organisms are capable of forming a diverse array of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere."
2435:
Parting, sometimes called "false cleavage", is similar in appearance to cleavage but is instead produced by structural defects in the mineral, as opposed to systematic weakness. Parting varies from crystal to crystal of a mineral, whereas all crystals of a given mineral will cleave if the atomic
1192:
conditions make it favourable for mineral assemblages to react with each other to produce new minerals; as such, it is possible for two rocks to have an identical or a very similar bulk rock chemistry without having a similar mineralogy. This process of mineralogical alteration is related to the
704:
Skinner's (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous. Although biominerals are not the most common form of minerals, they help to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral proper. Nickel's (1995) formal definition
700:
Prior to the
International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been discovered, named, and published. These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam (1981)) are considered minerals proper according to Skinner's (2005) definition. These biominerals are not listed in the
2859:
are a way to densely pack atoms while minimizing interstitial space. Hexagonal close-packing involves stacking layers where every other layer is the same ("ababab"), whereas cubic close-packing involves stacking groups of three layers ("abcabcabc"). Analogues to linked silica tetrahedra include
1844:, sixlings, and eightlings. Sixlings are common in aragonite. Polysynthetic twins are similar to cyclic twins through the presence of repetitive twinning; however, instead of occurring around a rotational axis, polysynthetic twinning occurs along parallel planes, usually on a microscopic scale.
2431:
Minerals with many cleavages might not break equally well in all of the directions; for example, calcite has good cleavage in three directions, but gypsum has perfect cleavage in one direction, and poor cleavage in two other directions. Angles between cleavage planes vary between minerals. For
3376:
or B. Tourmalines can be subgrouped by the occupancy of the X site, and from there further subdivided by the chemistry of the W site. The Y and Z sites can accommodate a variety of cations, especially various transition metals; this variability in structural transition metal content gives the
990:
or other aluminium-rich minerals. If silicon is deficient, part of the feldspar will be replaced by feldspathoid minerals. Precise predictions of which minerals will be present in a rock of a particular composition formed at a particular temperature and pressure requires complex thermodynamic
2475:
of the mass of the sample and difference between the weight of the sample in air and its corresponding weight in water. Among most minerals, this property is not diagnostic. Rock forming minerals β typically silicates or occasionally carbonates β have a specific gravity of 2.5β3.5.
1834:
is the intergrowth of two or more crystals of a single mineral species. The geometry of the twinning is controlled by the mineral's symmetry. As a result, there are several types of twins, including contact twins, reticulated twins, geniculated twins, penetration twins, cyclic twins, and
1137:), which differ by the coordination number of the Al; these minerals transition from one another as a response to changes in pressure and temperature. In the case of silicate materials, the substitution of Si by Al allows for a variety of minerals because of the need to balance charges.
4191:, where they precipitate out of evaporating saline waters. Sulfates can also be found in hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides, or as oxidation products of sulfides. Sulfates can be subdivided into anhydrous and hydrous minerals. The most common hydrous sulfate by far is
2751:
Minerals are classified by variety, species, series and group, in order of increasing generality. The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, each of which is distinguished from the others by unique chemical and physical properties. For example, quartz is defined by its
2113:
A mineral's hardness is a function of its structure. Hardness is not necessarily constant for all crystallographic directions; crystallographic weakness renders some directions softer than others. An example of this hardness variability exists in kyanite, which has a Mohs hardness of
3189:
phyllosilicate layers. Within an octahedral sheet, there are three octahedral sites in a unit structure; however, not all of the sites may be occupied. In that case, the mineral is termed dioctahedral, whereas in other case it is termed trioctahedral. The layers are weakly bound by
1446:
analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming. Physical properties applied for classification include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, cleavage and fracture, and specific gravity. Other less general tests include
2721:. He divided the natural world into three kingdoms β plants, animals, and minerals β and classified each with the same hierarchy. In descending order, these were Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Tribe, Genus, and Species. However, while his system was justified by
3134:
Feldspathoids are structurally similar to feldspar, but differ in that they form in Si-deficient conditions, which allows for further substitution by Al. As a result, feldspathoids are almost never found in association with quartz. A common example of a feldspathoid is
1093:, giving quartz. The significance of this structural property will be explained further by coordination polyhedra. The second substitution occurs between Na and Ca; however, the difference in charge has to accounted for by making a second substitution of Si by Al.
982:
combination with oxygen, silicon, and calcium as feldspar minerals. However, if the rock is unusually rich in alkali metals, there will not be enough aluminium to combine with all the sodium as feldspar, and the excess sodium will form sodic amphiboles such as
3724:
The gold group, with a cubic close-packed structure, includes metals such as gold, silver, and copper. The platinum group is similar in structure to the gold group. The iron-nickel group is characterized by several iron-nickel alloy species. Two examples are
2980:
The base unit of a silicate mineral is the tetrahedron. In the vast majority of cases, silicon is in four-fold or tetrahedral coordination with oxygen. In very high-pressure situations, silicon will be in six-fold or octahedral coordination, such as in the
1839:
twins and
Carlsbad twinning in orthoclase. Cyclic twins are caused by repeated twinning around a rotation axis. This type of twinning occurs around three, four, five, six, or eight-fold axes, and the corresponding patterns are called threelings, fourlings,
1433:
Classifying minerals ranges from simple to difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex
3413:
Sorosilicates, also termed disilicates, have tetrahedron-tetrahedron bonding at one oxygen, which results in a 2:7 ratio of silicon to oxygen. The resultant common structural element is the group. The most common disilicates by far are members of the
4309:(REE). Monazite is important in two ways: first, as a REE "sink", it can sufficiently concentrate these elements to become an ore; secondly, monazite group elements can incorporate relatively large amounts of uranium and thorium, which can be used in
4355:
that can be deposited in hydrothermal ore veins. While hydrated calcium oxalate can be found in coal seams and other sedimentary deposits involving organic matter, the hydrothermal occurrence is not considered to be related to biological activity.
3208:
Micas are also T-O-T-stacked phyllosilicates, but differ from the other T-O-T and T-O-stacked subclass members in that they incorporate aluminium into the tetrahedral sheets (clay minerals have Al in octahedral sites). Common examples of micas are
4207:. Gypsum has very low thermal conductivity and maintains a low temperature when heated as it loses that heat by dehydrating; as such, gypsum is used as an insulator in materials such as plaster and drywall. The anhydrous equivalent of gypsum is
3862:
are divided into three categories: simple oxides, hydroxides, and multiple oxides. Simple oxides are characterized by O as the main anion and primarily ionic bonding. They can be further subdivided by the ratio of oxygen to the cations. The
1513:
arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by
2440:
lines. This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals. Other types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly. The latter describes a break along a rough, jagged surface; an example of this property is found in
2411:
As cleavage is a function of crystallography, there are a variety of cleavage types. Cleavage occurs typically in either one, two, three, four, or six directions. Basal cleavage in one direction is a distinctive property of the
625:
in the mineral kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms. Skinner expanded the previous definition of a mineral to classify "element or compound, amorphous or crystalline, formed through
814:, and calcite; except for the last one, all of these minerals are silicates. Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting.
3217:
series. Mica T-O-T layers are bonded together by metal ions, giving them a greater hardness than other phyllosilicate minerals, though they retain perfect basal cleavage. The chlorite group is related to mica group, but a
3532:, where X is a large eight-fold coordinated cation, and Y is a smaller six-fold coordinated cation. There are six ideal endmembers of garnet, split into two group. The pyralspite garnets have Al in the Y position:
5401:
GonzΓ‘lez-MuΓ±oz, M.T.; Rodriguez-Navarro, C.; MartΓnez-Ruiz, F.; Arias, J.M.; Merroun, M.L.; Rodriguez-Gallego, M. (2010). "Bacterial biomineralization: new insights from
Myxococcus-induced mineral precipitation".
3485:). Typical orthosilicates tend to form blocky equant crystals, and are fairly hard. Several rock-forming minerals are part of this subclass, such as the aluminosilicates, the olivine group, and the garnet group.
946:. Eight elements account for most of the key components of minerals, due to their abundance in the crust. These eight elements, summing to over 98% of the crust by weight, are, in order of decreasing abundance:
4129:, can have a significant percentage of magnesium substituting for calcium. Under high-Mg conditions, its polymorph aragonite will form instead; the marine geochemistry in this regard can be described as an
701:
International
Mineral Association official list of mineral names; however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78 mineral classes listed in the Dana classification scheme.
5158:
Takai, K. (2010). "Limits of life and the biosphere: Lessons from the detection of microorganisms in the deep sea and deep subsurface of the Earth.". In
Gargaud, M.; Lopez-Garcia, P.; Martin, H. (eds.).
4364:
Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science. Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new Dana and the
3947:; they form in areas with a very high rate of chemical weathering (mainly tropical conditions). Finally, multiple oxides are compounds of two metals with oxygen. A major group within this class are the
4850:
562:
The details of these rules are somewhat controversial. For instance, there have been several recent proposals to classify amorphous substances as minerals, but they have not been accepted by the IMA.
4535:
3029:
Have a sheet structure which requires three shared oxygens; in the case of double-chain silicates, some tetrahedra must share two corners instead of three as otherwise a sheet structure would result.
157:
3064:
Tectosilicates, also known as framework silicates, have the highest degree of polymerization. With all corners of a tetrahedra shared, the silicon:oxygen ratio becomes 1:2. Examples are quartz, the
3205:
by van der Waals forces. These two groups of minerals are subgrouped by octahedral occupation; specifically, kaolinite and pyrophyllite are dioctahedral whereas serpentine and talc trioctahedral.
3004:
The degree of polymerization can be described by both the structure formed and how many tetrahedral corners (or coordinating oxygens) are shared (for aluminium and silicon in tetrahedral sites):
942:
The abundance and diversity of minerals is controlled directly by their chemistry, in turn dependent on elemental abundances in the Earth. The majority of minerals observed are derived from the
1877:
The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching or indentation. This physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline structure of a mineral.
1152:
When minerals react, the products will sometimes assume the shape of the reagent; the product mineral is termed a pseudomorph of (or after) the reagent. Illustrated here is a pseudomorph of
1406:
Alternatively, a mineral may change its crystal structure as a consequence of changes in temperature and pressure without reacting. For example, quartz will change into a variety of its SiO
4053:(fluorine, chlorine, iodine, or bromine) is the main anion. These minerals tend to be soft, weak, brittle, and water-soluble. Common examples of halides include halite (NaCl, table salt),
3172:
Phyllosilicates consist of sheets of polymerized tetrahedra. They are bound at three oxygen sites, which gives a characteristic silicon:oxygen ratio of 2:5. Important examples include the
6611:
Helman, Daniel S. (2016). "Symmetry-based electricity in minerals and rocks: A summary of extant data, with examples of centrosymmetric minerals that exhibit pyro- and piezoelectricity".
2212:
of a mineral describes the ability of light to pass through it. Transparent minerals do not diminish the intensity of light passing through them. An example of a transparent mineral is
659:. The group's scope includes mineral-forming microorganisms, which exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe to depths of at least 1600 metres below the
4257:
are characterized by the tetrahedral unit, although the structure can be generalized, and phosphorus is replaced by antimony, arsenic, or vanadium. The most common phosphate is the
5498:
3481:
Orthosilicates consist of isolated tetrahedra that are charge-balanced by other cations. Also termed nesosilicates, this type of silicate has a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:4 (e.g. SiO
1722:
Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. With a restriction to 32 point groups, minerals of different chemistry may have identical crystal structure. For example,
580:(25 Β°C). However, the IMA only requires that the substance be stable enough for its structure and composition to be well-determined. For example, it has recently recognized
2703:, published in 1546, divided minerals into three types of substance: simple (stones, earths, metals, and congealed juices), compound (intimately mixed) and composite (separable).
1847:
Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of crystal. Several terms are used to describe this property. Common habits include acicular, which describes needlelike crystals as in
647:
and minerals that may shed new light on this question. For example, the IMA-commissioned "Working Group on
Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry " deals with minerals in the
463:, from mine tailings). Hypothetical substances are also excluded, even if they are predicted to occur in inaccessible natural environments like the Earth's core or other planets.
4120:), relates to the dissolution and precipitation of the mineral, which is a key in the formation of limestone caves, features within them such as stalactite and stalagmites, and
473:: it is still classified as a mineral by the IMA, even though crystallizes only below β39 Β°C, because it was included before the current rules were established. Water and
2216:(potassium mica); some varieties are sufficiently clear to have been used for windows. Translucent minerals allow some light to pass, but less than those that are transparent.
1789:, an ultra-high pressure quartz polymorph with rutile structure). In kyanite, the second aluminium is in six-fold coordination; its chemical formula can be expressed as AlAlSiO
2815:
crystal systems. Finally, a mineral variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some physical characteristic, such as colour or crystal habit. An example is
1884:
Mohs hardness scale, which measures resistance to scratching. Defined by ten indicators, a mineral with a higher index scratches those below it. The scale ranges from talc, a
3103:. The latter mineral can only be formed on Earth by meteorite impacts, and its structure has been compressed so much that it has changed from a silicate structure to that of
3504:
consist of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite. Both iron and magnesium are in octahedral by oxygen. Other mineral species having this structure exist, such as
8238:
5445:
Veis, A. (1990). "Biomineralization. Cell
Biology and Mineral Deposition. by Kenneth Simkiss; Karl M. Wilbur On Biomineralization. by Heinz A. Lowenstam; Stephen Weiner".
2556:
gas. This test can be further expanded to test the mineral in its original crystal form or powdered form. An example of this test is done when distinguishing calcite from
2568:
respectively). Calcite immediately effervesces in acid, whereas acid must be applied to powdered dolomite (often to a scratched surface in a rock), for it to effervesce.
2479:
A generalization is that minerals with metallic or adamantine lustre tend to have higher specific gravities than those having a non-metallic to dull lustre. For example,
3253:), whereas the double-chain variety has a ratio of 4:11, e.g. . Inosilicates contain two important rock-forming mineral groups; single-chain silicates are most commonly
3825:), is the most commonly occurring sulfide, and can be found in most geological environments. It is not, however, an ore of iron, but can be instead oxidized to produce
1509:
results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or
794:
In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed the rock-forming minerals. The major examples of these are quartz, the
2822:
Two common classifications, Dana and Strunz, are used for minerals; both rely on composition, specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and structure.
4203:
O. It forms as an evaporite, and is associated with other evaporites such as calcite and halite; if it incorporates sand grains as it crystallizes, gypsum can form
513:. However, certain crystalline substances with a fixed structure but variable composition may be considered single mineral species. A common class of examples are
1101:
of heavier atoms is different too). Changes in coordination numbers leads to physical and mineralogical differences; for example, at high pressure, such as in the
2495:, PbS, has a specific gravity of 7.2β7.6, which is a result of their high iron and lead content, respectively. A very high specific gravity is characteristic of
1526:, which differ by their symmetry. These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most encompassing of these being the six crystal families.
3325:
Cyclosilicates, or ring silicates, have a ratio of silicon to oxygen of 1:3. Six-member rings are most common, with a base structure of ; examples include the
7482:
Mills, J.S.; Hatert, F.; Nickel, E.H.; Ferraris, G. (2009). "The standardisation of mineral group hierarchies: application to recent nomenclature proposals".
4838:
137:. If a chemical compound occurs naturally with different crystal structures, each structure is considered a different mineral species. Thus, for example,
114:, which is any bulk solid geologic material that is relatively homogeneous at a large enough scale. A rock may consist of one type of mineral or may be an
243:
is a variable number between 0 and 9. Sometimes a mineral with variable composition is split into separate species, more or less arbitrarily, forming a
7546:
Steele, Andrew; Beaty, David, eds. (September 26, 2006). "Final report of the MEPAG Astrobiology Field
Laboratory Science Steering Group (AFL-SSG)".
6668:
1168:
Changes in temperature and pressure and composition alter the mineralogy of a rock sample. Changes in composition can be caused by processes such as
4787:
3733:, which are found in iron meteorites; these species differ by the amount of Ni in the alloy; kamacite has less than 5β7% nickel and is a variety of
3087:) is the most abundant mineral species. It is characterized by its high chemical and physical resistivity. Quartz has several polymorphs, including
4811:
E. H. Nickel & J. D. Grice (1998): "The IMA Commission on New
Minerals and Mineral Names: procedures and guidelines on mineral nomenclature".
3230:
of serpentine, is the most common mineral species in industrial asbestos, as it is less dangerous in terms of health than the amphibole asbestos.
156:(IMA) is the generally recognized standard body for the definition and nomenclature of mineral species. As of July 2024, the IMA recognizes
7005:
6590:
3333:. Other ring structures exist, with 3, 4, 8, 9, 12 having been described. Cyclosilicates tend to be strong, with elongated, striated crystals.
2572:
minerals will not effervesce in acid; instead, they become frosted after 5β10 minutes, and if left in acid for a day, they dissolve or become a
6212:
2839:, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.
2314:(blue). In contrast, allochromatic elements in minerals are present in trace amounts as impurities. An example of such a mineral would be the
7560:
4187:
all contain the sulfate anion, . They tend to be transparent to translucent, soft, and many are fragile. Sulfate minerals commonly form as
5495:
363:
Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification.
8145:
7669:
2791:. In contrast, a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that share a crystal structure. The
2788:
2615:
is a rare property found in minerals containing radioactive elements. The radioactive elements could be a defining constituent, such as
978:. Oxygen and silicon are by far the two most important β oxygen composes 47% of the crust by weight, and silicon accounts for 28%.
6719:
5601:
7691:
Grotzinger, J.P.; et al. (January 24, 2014). "A Habitable Fluvio-Lacustrine
Environment at Yellowknife Bay, Gale Crater, Mars".
2746:
163:
The chemical composition of a named mineral species may vary somewhat due to the inclusion of small amounts of impurities. Specific
6515:
6190:
4125:
common carbonate mineral is calcite, which is the primary constituent of sedimentary limestone and metamorphic marble. Calcite, CaCO
1754:; however, the former is isometric while the latter is orthorhombic. This polymorphism extends to other sulfides with the generic AX
2609:, has a pronounced bitter taste. Sulfides have a characteristic smell, especially as samples are fractured, reacting, or powdered.
7929:
2598:β but electrical properties are rarely used as diagnostic criteria for minerals because of incomplete data and natural variation.
7556:
5136:
4701:
2924:) structures. The non-silicates have great economic importance, as they concentrate elements more than the silicate minerals do.
1804:
Differences in crystal structure and chemistry greatly influence other physical properties of the mineral. The carbon allotropes
413:
153:
7943:
5756:
4555:, also known as dietary mineral β Chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform life functions
8179:
4297:(OH)). Minerals in this group are the main crystalline constituents of teeth and bones in vertebrates. The relatively abundant
447:. However, substances with such origins may qualify if geological processes were involved in their genesis (as is the case of
7529:
2733:
scheme), it had little success among mineralogists (although each distinct mineral is still formally referred to as a mineral
423:, on Earth or other extraterrestrial bodies. This excludes compounds directly and exclusively generated by human activities (
7808:
7785:
7766:
6713:
6662:
5890:
5524:
5168:
4941:
4731:
4672:
4619:
4596:
4676:
2341:
In addition to simple body colour, minerals can have various other distinctive optical properties, such as play of colours,
4640:
1519:
787:, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock. Rocks can also be composed entirely of non-mineral material;
5299:
Newman, D.K.; Banfield, J.F. (2002). "Geomicrobiology: How Molecular-Scale Interactions Underpin Biogeochemical Systems".
5229:
592:
2768:). When there exists a range of composition between two minerals species, a mineral series is defined. For example, the
87:
definition of mineral normally excludes compounds that occur only in living organisms. However, some minerals are often
7971:
4328:
2855:. There are two major structural styles observed in non-silicates: close-packing and silicate-like linked tetrahedra.
9061:
7827:
5853:
5828:
5782:
5713:
4762:
3710:
Native gold. Rare specimen of stout crystals growing off of a central stalk, size 3.7 x 1.1 x 0.4 cm, from Venezuela.
3201:, which causes a crystallographic weakness, in turn leading to a prominent basal cleavage among the phyllosilicates.
2239:), it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in a hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as
2231:
The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on the thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently thin (e.g., in a
8685:
7800:
7457:
6586:
4558:
2765:
1739:
1410:
1069:. Other examples of series include the olivine series of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, and the
6541:
6489:
6463:
6160:
4973:
4901:
4875:
2105:
8138:
7427:
2327:
817:
Commercially valuable minerals and rocks, other than gemstones, metal ores, or mineral fuels, are referred to as
3023:
Single-chain silicates have two shared corners, whereas double-chain silicates have two or three shared corners.
1761:
Polymorphism can extend beyond pure symmetry content. The aluminosilicates are a group of three minerals β
5184:
Roussel, E.G.; Cambon Bonavita, M.; Querellou, J.; Cragg, B.A.; Prieur, D.; Parkes, R.J.; Parkes, R.J. (2008).
2856:
2365:
independent of trace elements or any weathering surface. A common example of this property is illustrated with
2201:; resinous, such as members of the garnet group; silky which is common in fibrous minerals such as asbestiform
1864:
825:, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass), as a filler, or as an insulator.
313:
8202:
4523:
640:
4211:; it can form directly from seawater in highly arid conditions. The barite group has the general formula XSO
8754:
8589:
8023:
4394:
2548:
from other mineral classes. The acid reacts with the carbonate () group, which causes the affected area to
2533:
Other properties can be used to diagnose minerals. These are less general, and apply to specific minerals.
1523:
28:
6642:
3261:. Higher-order chains exist (e.g. three-member, four-member, five-member chains, etc.) but they are rare.
2228:
are examples of minerals with this property). Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque.
1793:, to reflect its crystal structure. Andalusite has the second aluminium in five-fold coordination (AlAlSiO
1053:) with four recognized intermediate varieties between them (given in order from sodium- to calcium-rich):
9078:
6582:
4779:
705:
explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article defined
7918:
9242:
9211:
9095:
9039:
8131:
6784:
4401:) that are often associated with biominerals are believed to play crucial roles in both pre-biotic and
3418:
group. Epidotes are found in variety of geologic settings, ranging from mid-ocean ridge to granites to
3123:. The alkali feldspars are most commonly in a series between potassium-rich orthoclase and sodium-rich
6757:
3264:
The pyroxene group consists of 21 mineral species. Pyroxenes have a general structure formula of XY(Si
3076:. Framework silicates tend to be particularly chemically stable as a result of strong covalent bonds.
2292:. The diagnostic features would include dodecahedral crystals, resinous lustre, and hardness around 7.
8626:
7001:
3995:). The latter is readily distinguishable by its strong magnetism, which occurs as it has iron in two
2299:
1742:
are groupings of minerals that share a chemical formula but have a different structure. For example,
1719:, which has a three-fold axis of symmetry, and the hexagonal, which has a six-fold axis of symmetry.
771:
in the latter case. Other rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a
678:
7715:
7586:"Introduction to Special Issue β Habitability, Taphonomy, and the Search for Organic Carbon on Mars"
4705:
4239:); anhydrite is not part of the barite group, as the smaller Ca is only in eight-fold coordination.
2140:, which measures the endurance of a mineral based on the indentation of a spring-loaded contraption.
1888:, to diamond, a carbon polymorph that is the hardest natural material. The scale is provided below:
8611:
6216:
1632:
1142:
20:
3060:
is a mineral series in the zeolite group; this sample has a very prominent acicular crystal habit.
2298:
Colour is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic. It is caused by
1530:
the angle opposite the respective crystallographic axis (e.g. Ξ± is the angle opposite the a-axis,
831:
are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain element, typically a metal. Examples are
8786:
8675:
3714:
3701:
1177:
899:
694:
573:
2635:. The decay of a radioactive element damages the mineral crystal structure rendering it locally
416:
has established the following requirements for a substance to be considered a distinct mineral:
9189:
9032:
8904:
7964:
7710:
7547:
4463:
4459:
4310:
3652:). While there are two subgroups of garnet, solid solutions exist between all six end-members.
1003:
372:
305:
2507:
has a specific gravity of 7.9, and gold has an observed specific gravity between 15 and 19.3.
1734:(MgO) all belong to the hexaoctahedral point group (isometric family), as they have a similar
8986:
8981:
8776:
8717:
8011:
7853:
7659:
4609:
4386:
4366:
4204:
2832:
2386:
2150:
337:
329:
591:
As of July 2024, 6,062 mineral species are approved by the IMA. They are most commonly
9180:
9152:
9117:
9044:
8844:
8781:
8599:
8420:
7862:
7845:
7702:
7599:
7491:
6690:
5598:
5564:
5454:
5411:
5308:
5263:
5197:
5094:
5034:
3190:
2982:
2586:
exhibits this property strongly, and magnetism is also present, albeit not as strongly, in
2342:
1554:
1439:
1114:
996:
780:
710:
682:
674:
436:
73:
3875:
O) and water ice. Corundum group minerals have a 2:3 ratio, and includes minerals such as
2420:, it is termed rhombohedral cleavage. Octahedral cleavage (four directions) is present in
2193:; vitreous, which is a glassy lustre very common in silicate minerals; pearly, such as in
8:
9237:
9175:
9083:
9071:
8961:
8914:
8722:
8645:
8371:
8162:
7503:
6511:
6182:
5250:
Pearce, D.A.; Bridge, P.D.; Hughes, K.A.; Sattler, B.; Psenner, R.; Russel, N.J. (2009).
4415:
4224:
3771:
2252:
2168:
1814:
818:
736:
characterized by an abundance of platy minerals. In this example, the rock has prominent
478:
325:
317:
179:
that occupy equivalent positions in the mineral's structure; for example, the formula of
115:
7866:
7706:
7603:
7495:
5568:
5458:
5415:
5312:
5267:
5201:
5098:
5038:
4543: β Hobby of systematically collecting, identifying and displaying mineral specimens
4436:
3717:
are those that are not chemically bonded to other elements. This mineral group includes
3127:; in the case of plagioclase, the most common series ranges from albite to calcium-rich
2357:. Several of these properties involve variability in colour. Play of colour, such as in
677:
have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years. Microorganisms can
9185:
9170:
9100:
9056:
8946:
8532:
8437:
8192:
8094:
7878:
7736:
5580:
5470:
5427:
5383:
5367:
5332:
5221:
5110:
5050:
4561: β Ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure
4552:
4540:
4306:
4254:
4248:
4138:
4108:
4102:
4093:, in a granitic pegmatite, was depleted, synthetic cryolite can be made from fluorite.
3935:
are the chief aluminium ore, and are a heterogeneous mixture of the hydroxide minerals
3336:
Tourmalines have a very complex chemistry that can be described by a general formula XY
2557:
2382:
1435:
1117:, where silicon is in octahedral coordination. Other examples are the aluminosilicates
333:
5128:
3377:
tourmaline group greater variability in colour. Other cyclosilicates include beryl, Al
1518:
diffraction. Minerals are typically described by their symmetry content. Crystals are
565:
The IMA is also reluctant to accept minerals that occur naturally only in the form of
424:
167:
of a species sometimes have conventional or official names of their own. For example,
9232:
9157:
8621:
8527:
8500:
8347:
8297:
8233:
8187:
7957:
7883:
7823:
7804:
7781:
7762:
7728:
7693:
7664:
7640:
7617:
7590:
6709:
6658:
5886:
5849:
5824:
5753:
5709:
5584:
5520:
5478:
5431:
5375:
5324:
5281:
5276:
5251:
5213:
5164:
5114:
5058:
4937:
4758:
4668:
4615:
4592:
4546:
4409:
4382:
3830:
2964:
2928:
2823:
2761:
2696:
2541:
1758:
formula; these two groups are collectively known as the pyrite and marcasite groups.
1506:
1443:
784:
622:
612:
585:
507:
and many other amorphous (non-crystalline) materials that occur in geologic contexts.
492:
470:
396:
388:
176:
77:
7740:
5387:
5225:
9107:
9066:
9049:
8936:
8834:
8366:
8270:
8154:
7999:
7870:
7844:
Hazen, R.M.; Grew, Edward S.; Origlieri, Marcus J.; Downs, Robert T. (March 2017).
7720:
7607:
7526:
7507:
7499:
6701:
6650:
6620:
5572:
5462:
5419:
5359:
5336:
5316:
5271:
5205:
5102:
5042:
4816:
4529:
4443:
4332:
4170:
3782:
3746:
3185:
3045:
The silicate subclasses are described below in order of decreasing polymerization.
2993:). In the latter case, the mineral no longer has a silicate structure, but that of
2836:
2753:
2467:
1831:
1490:
1464:
1161:
1102:
943:
891:
733:
577:
550:, whose magnesium-rich and iron-rich end-members are considered separate minerals (
491:; or, more generally, an ordered atomic arrangement. This property implies several
432:
368:
364:
341:
96:
5466:
4727:
3168:
Muscovite, a mineral species in the mica group, within the phyllosilicate subclass
9124:
9090:
8976:
8956:
8866:
8515:
8481:
8415:
8212:
8197:
8113:
7533:
5760:
5605:
5502:
5400:
4680:
4663:
4583:
4517:
4503:
4402:
4322:
4184:
4046:
4016:
3996:
3845:. Like the sulfides, sulfosalts are typically soft, heavy, and brittle minerals.
3794:
3393:, whose varieties include the gemstones emerald (green) and aquamarine (bluish).
2764:
that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same chemical formula (termed
2717:
2649:
2640:
2565:
2137:
1452:
991:
calculations. However, approximate estimates may be made using relatively simple
776:
628:
440:
421:
It must be a naturally occurring substance formed by natural geological processes
392:
376:
164:
146:
104:
6705:
4636:
3899:). Rutile group minerals have a ratio of 1:2; the eponymous species, rutile (TiO
3321:
An example of elbaite, a species of tourmaline, with distinctive colour banding.
2807:
than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates that crystallize in either the
125:
Some natural solid substances without a definite crystalline structure, such as
9165:
9112:
9022:
8941:
8926:
8921:
8873:
8761:
8557:
8505:
8488:
8322:
4475:
3859:
3854:
3422:. Epidotes are built around the structure structure; for example, the mineral
3177:
2780:
2722:
2553:
2504:
2144:
1885:
1480:
1098:
1007:
992:
986:. If the aluminium abundance is unusually high, the excess aluminium will form
895:
748:
514:
495:
physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. It excludes
474:
384:
119:
118:
of two or more different types of minerals, spacially segregated into distinct
111:
5185:
9226:
9129:
8966:
8856:
8813:
8594:
8471:
8357:
8307:
8171:
7924:
6654:
5885:(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 133β137.
5106:
4439:
4130:
3867:
group consists of minerals with a 1:1 ratio. Oxides with a 2:1 ratio include
3826:
3734:
3286:
3194:
2730:
2712:
2612:
2595:
2523:
2441:
2417:
2303:
2156:
1852:
1735:
1669:
1625:
1484:
1460:
1189:
1148:
862:
and so one mineral can account for several different gemstones; for example,
751:
is an aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids. Some rocks, such as
740:
709:, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy, as a mineral; named for its unique natural
644:
380:
353:
309:
244:
7724:
7612:
7585:
5363:
5320:
5209:
5046:
4153:, and the dolomite group constitutes minerals with the general formula XY(CO
3465:, which takes up a significant amount of calcium in its chemical structure.
3115:
two major subgroups β alkali and plagioclase β and two less common groups β
2725:'s theory of species formation and has been largely adopted and expanded by
2391:
1145:, to the point where they can no longer be accommodated in common minerals.
999:, which gives reasonable estimates for volcanic rock formed from dry magma.
428:
8931:
8889:
8665:
8616:
8552:
8408:
8312:
7933:
7732:
7621:
5482:
5379:
5328:
5285:
5217:
4512:
4398:
4390:
4370:
4175:
3948:
3718:
3372:
is the basic ring structure, where T is usually Si, but substitutable by Al
3092:
3069:
2808:
2804:
2678:
2654:
2496:
2280:
Colour is typically not a diagnostic property of minerals. Shown are green
2232:
2128:
2125:
1881:
1606:
1448:
1418:
1295:
1243:
1219:
1173:
714:
706:
664:
581:
566:
349:
103:). Moreover, living organisms often synthesize inorganic minerals (such as
5774:
5062:
4536:
List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
3833:, in which a metallic element is bonded to sulfur and a semimetal such as
3238:
3164:
2262:
1180:). Changes in temperature and pressure occur when the host rock undergoes
1078:
931:
927:
588:) as a mineral, even though it is formed and stable only below 2 Β°C.
9027:
8971:
8793:
8771:
8766:
8633:
8510:
8476:
8464:
8352:
8275:
8063:
8043:
7874:
5763:" entry in the Merriam-Webster online dictionary. Accessed on 2020-08-28.
5576:
5539:
4134:
4038:
4021:
3908:
3814:
3573:
3462:
3461:
facies (subduction zone setting with low temperature and high pressure),
3277:
3242:
3041:
Only need tetrahedra to share two corners to form the cyclical structure.
2657:
2582:
is a very conspicuous property of a few minerals. Among common minerals,
2354:
2350:
2331:
2236:
2209:
2198:
1770:
1197:. An example of a series of mineral reactions is illustrated as follows.
1126:
1062:
1011:
840:
737:
648:
518:
321:
180:
7449:
6183:"Hardness: Vickers, Rockwell, Brinell, Mohs, Shore and Knoop - Matmatch"
5708:(Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute.
4389:
and thus could play an important role in the search for past or present
2456:
919:, "a particular sort, kind, or type with distinct look, or appearance".
791:
is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of organically derived carbon.
569:
a few hundred atoms across, but has not defined a minimum crystal size.
9134:
8951:
8909:
8851:
8820:
8459:
8391:
8329:
8302:
8265:
8048:
8006:
6789:
6787:
6537:
6485:
6459:
6156:
6152:
5540:
5474:
5371:
5054:
4969:
4897:
4871:
4820:
4432:
4420:
4369:
schemes. The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with
4336:
3920:
3802:
3751:
3684:
3660:
3458:
3397:
is structurally similar to beryl, and is a common metamorphic mineral.
3394:
3326:
3306:
3302:
3294:
3282:
3198:
3100:
2986:
2812:
2776:
2773:
2594:. Some minerals exhibit electrical properties β for example, quartz is
2587:
2573:
2549:
2425:
2400:
2346:
2202:
2014:
1873:
Diamond is the hardest natural material, and has a Mohs hardness of 10.
1836:
1782:
1766:
1673:
1658:
1651:
1599:
1580:
1200:
1194:
1169:
1157:
1122:
1070:
1054:
983:
935:
848:
836:
668:
652:
551:
452:
142:
134:
57:
7512:
7419:
6762:
6760:
6624:
6583:"Mineral Identification Key: Radioactivity, Magnetism, Acid Reactions"
3759:
1463:, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form),
304:
Besides the essential chemical composition and crystal structure, the
9017:
8899:
8707:
8702:
8680:
8569:
8562:
8381:
8376:
8283:
8260:
8038:
6649:. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Boston: Springer. pp. 247β249.
4467:
4428:
4424:
4232:
4208:
4188:
4113:
4090:
4066:
4030:
3984:
3928:
3864:
3790:
3786:
3775:
3633:
3613:
3593:
3553:
3505:
3454:
3426:
epidote has calcium, aluminium, and ferric iron to charge balance: Ca
3298:
3290:
3258:
3245:
3210:
3181:
3136:
3128:
3120:
3088:
3057:
2944:
2889:
2848:
2729:
in the following centuries (who still use his Greek- and Latin-based
2726:
2690:
2636:
2628:
2620:
2583:
2579:
2561:
2545:
2519:
2307:
2285:
2281:
2213:
1848:
1747:
1731:
1695:
1684:
1621:
1456:
1414:
1223:
1153:
1082:
1074:
1066:
1038:
987:
975:
963:
955:
822:
803:
764:
756:
752:
725:
717:. Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered but not periodic.
690:
656:
496:
460:
456:
345:
175:. Some mineral species can have variable proportions of two or more
37:
33:
16:
Crystalline chemical element or compound formed by geologic processes
8123:
7450:"Nickel-Strunz Classification β silicates (Germanates) 10th edition"
5543:; Paul J. Steinhardt; Nan Yao; Peter J. Lu (2011). "Icosahedrite, Al
5423:
5183:
2976:, an iron-sodium clinopyroxene, is part of the inosilicate subclass.
1817:, and this discrepancy translates to large macroscopic differences.
1531:
9144:
8712:
8638:
8579:
8574:
8522:
8432:
8403:
8396:
8386:
8317:
8291:
8287:
8279:
8068:
4298:
4086:
4070:
4058:
3972:
3940:
3936:
3904:
3888:
3876:
3834:
3810:
3768:
3726:
3488:
The aluminosilicates βbkyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite, all Al
3473:
3447:
3254:
3065:
2973:
2940:
2932:
2921:
2905:
2852:
2816:
2792:
2624:
2591:
2515:
2500:
2480:
2421:
2366:
2323:
2319:
2240:
2221:
2074:
1973:
1841:
1809:
1716:
1216:
1185:
1181:
1058:
1014:
871:
867:
858:
832:
807:
795:
636:
621:
Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes
555:
504:
500:
448:
444:
168:
130:
88:
45:
41:
4931:
4112:
with carbonates, most commonly found as the polymorph calcite and
3785:
are chemical compounds of one or more metals or semimetals with a
2969:
2271:
643:
are providing revelations on the biogeochemical relations between
9012:
8808:
8803:
8749:
8655:
8584:
8228:
8058:
7660:"Special Collection β Curiosity β Exploring Martian Habitability"
5496:
Official IMA list of mineral names (updated from March 2009 list)
4471:
4352:
4258:
4215:, where the X is a large 12-coordinated cation. Examples include
4082:
4054:
4050:
3944:
3932:
3868:
3842:
3838:
3764:
3730:
3477:
Black andradite, an end-member of the orthosilicate garnet group.
3415:
3405:
3317:
3219:
3214:
3116:
3096:
3073:
3053:
2936:
2873:
2769:
2685:. His classification was influenced by the ideas of his teachers
2616:
2606:
2569:
2526:
2471:
2396:
2335:
2311:
2217:
2190:
2189:
and pyrite. Non-metallic lustres include: adamantine, such as in
2094:
1989:
1957:
1805:
1762:
1703:
1647:
1617:
1422:
1363:
1212:
1118:
1106:
1034:
967:
951:
811:
772:
760:
600:
539:
477:
are not considered minerals, even though they are often found as
298:
100:
92:
84:
53:
7944:
The private lives of minerals: Insights from big-data mineralogy
2831:
similarity within a given type or class. The less commonly used
2693:. Theophrastus classified minerals as stones, earths or metals.
1869:
1362:
As metamorphic grade increases, the pyrophyllite reacts to form
8861:
8826:
8650:
8606:
8454:
8252:
8078:
8073:
5350:
Warren, L.A.; Kauffman, M.E. (2003). "Microbial geoengineers".
4423:
on Mars would search for evidence of ancient life, including a
4216:
4192:
4037:; a carbonate, and mineral form of sodium bicarbonate, used as
4026:
3960:
3931:). In hydroxides, the dominant anion is the hydroxyl ion, OH.
3806:
3656:
3533:
3419:
3124:
3104:
3080:
3011:
Have no linking of polyhedra, thus tetrahedra share no corners.
2994:
2948:
2844:
2784:
2632:
2602:
2492:
2460:
2289:
2186:
2177:
2034:
1936:
1825:
1820:
1743:
1727:
1723:
1699:
1677:
1643:
1595:
1591:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1495:
1291:
1110:
1022:
1018:
971:
947:
768:
729:
660:
596:
534:
172:
138:
4069:, and can be dominant minerals in chemical sedimentary rocks.
4007:), which makes it a multiple oxide instead of a single oxide.
3446:)O(OH). The presence of iron as Fe and Fe helps buffer oxygen
1290:
Under low-grade metamorphic conditions, kaolinite reacts with
533:
sulfide with a significant fraction of iron atoms replaced by
8894:
8734:
8660:
8447:
7757:
Busbey, A.B.; Coenraads, R.E.; Roots, D.; Willis, P. (2007).
5161:
Origins and Evolution of Life: An Astrobiological Perspective
4704:
Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification.
4451:
4447:
4313:
to date the rock based on the decay of the U and Th to lead.
4121:
3664:
3330:
2686:
2050:
1515:
1499:
852:
69:
6850:
5971:
5129:"Working Group on Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry"
4261:
group; common species within this group are fluorapatite (Ca
3706:
2376:
2326:. The colours of pseudochromatic minerals are the result of
1711:
The hexagonal crystal family is also split into two crystal
145:
are two different minerals consisting of the same compound,
8839:
8695:
8690:
8670:
8544:
8495:
8339:
8053:
7949:
7937:
7536:. Ima-mineralogy.org (2011-01-12). Retrieved on 2011-10-20.
4483:
4479:
4455:
3173:
2952:
2537:
2413:
2358:
2315:
2225:
2194:
2173:
1908:
1797:) and sillimanite has it in four-fold coordination (AlAlSiO
1738:
between their different constituent elements. In contrast,
1468:
959:
863:
799:
788:
530:
357:
126:
5163:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 469β86.
5135:. International Mineralogical Association. 3 August 2011.
2605:, NaCl, is table salt; its potassium-bearing counterpart,
1502:
has a characteristic orthorhombic elongated crystal shape.
407:
8798:
8442:
7481:
5911:
5249:
4697:
3916:
3798:
3450:, which in turn is a significant factor in petrogenesis.
3248:, part of the amphibole group in the inosilicate subclass
2681:
presented his classification of minerals in his treatise
2674:
1510:
828:
686:
482:
308:
usually includes its common physical properties such as
7912:
5025:
H.A., Lowenstam (1981). "Minerals formed by organisms".
4335:, but can be formed by a geologic process. For example,
1141:
have been concentrated by geological processes, such as
7843:
7633:
7631:
4563:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
4081:, is a key mineral in the extraction of aluminium from
3409:
Epidote often has a distinctive pistachio-green colour.
2826:, a leading geologist of his time, first published his
511:
It must have a fairly well defined chemical composition
489:
It must have a well-defined crystallographic structure
467:
It must be a solid substance in its natural occurrence.
4520: β Non-professional study and collecting of rocks
7420:"Dana Classification 8th edition β Organic Compounds"
6946:
5848:(2nd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p. 185.
5704:
Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Industrial mineral".
4305:, where T is phosphorus or arsenic, and A is often a
3683:, often found in granitic pegmatites associated with
1188:
movement into differing physical regimes. Changes in
7906:
7628:
6840:
6838:
5862:
5722:
4493:
3592:). The ugrandite garnets have Ca in the X position:
2399:(black), and good cleavage seen in the matrix (pink
356:, as well as its taste or smell and its reaction to
6425:
4753:Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr. (1993).
4408:In January 2014, NASA reported that studies by the
4137:, depending on which mineral preferentially forms.
3156:applications, especially in waste water treatment.
3143:); compared to alkali feldspar, nepheline has an Al
2803:, where X and Y are both cations, with X typically
1880:The most commonly used scale of measurement is the
7925:"American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database"
7896:On the creation of new minerals by human activity.
5252:"Microorganisms in the atmosphere over Antarctica"
4936:. Mineralogical Society of America. pp. 2β4.
4691:
4689:
4661:Austin Flint Rogers and Paul Francis Kerr (1942):
2302:interacting with electrons (except in the case of
7579:
7577:
6835:
6610:
4085:; however, as the only significant occurrence at
2772:series is represented by variable amounts of the
2711:An early classification of minerals was given by
2653:, is observable with various techniques, such as
2463:, PbS, is a mineral with a high specific gravity.
2185:metal; examples of minerals with this lustre are
890:The first known use of the word "mineral" in the
9224:
7778:Field guide to North American rocks and minerals
7690:
5846:Petrology: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
5404:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
5394:
4634:
4532: β List of minerals with Knowledge articles
2927:The largest grouping of minerals by far are the
2601:Minerals can also be tested for taste or smell.
1222:. When exposed to weathering, it reacts to form
7846:"On the Mineralogy of the 'Anthropocene Epoch'"
5883:Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
4757:(21st ed.). New York: Wiley. p. 440.
4686:
4327:The Strunz classification includes a class for
4141:is a double carbonate, with the formula CaMg(CO
3755:Red cinnabar (HgS), a mercury ore, on dolomite.
1160:. Here, the pseudomorph preserved the Carlsbad
759:, are composed primarily of one mineral β
7775:
7684:
7574:
7370:
7358:
7322:
7310:
7262:
7250:
7202:
7166:
7154:
7127:
7088:
6988:
6928:
6636:
6634:
6395:
6383:
6124:
6100:
5823:. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand. p. 237.
5740:
5691:
5667:
5655:
5643:
5631:
5619:
5597:Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names,
5349:
5298:
5020:
5018:
4956:
4549: β Increasing mineral diversity over time
1474:
1105:, many minerals, especially silicates such as
8139:
7965:
7756:
7652:
7138:
7136:
7111:
7109:
6347:
6255:
5880:
5746:
4932:Melinda Darby Dyar; Mickey E. Gunter (2007).
3516:. The garnet group has a general formula of X
1851:, bladed, dendritic (tree-pattern, common in
371:. Other important mineral groups include the
6856:
5881:Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
5080:
5078:
5076:
5074:
5072:
4752:
3035:Have tetrahedra that share all four corners.
3017:Have two tetrahedra sharing one oxygen atom.
2243:or pyrite, are opaque even in thin-section.
2104:
1129:(polymorphs, since they share the formula Al
898:) was the 15th century. The word came from
783:. The other minerals in the rock are termed
7545:
7477:
7475:
6631:
6379:
6377:
6375:
5615:
5613:
5015:
4755:Manual of mineralogy: (after James D. Dana)
2668:
2428:has six-directional dodecahedral cleavage.
1773: β which share the chemical formula Al
938:series, with minor quartz in the background
907:
171:is a purple variety of the mineral species
8146:
8132:
7972:
7958:
7909:, largest mineral database on the Internet
7794:
7583:
7406:
7394:
7382:
7346:
7334:
7298:
7286:
7274:
7238:
7226:
7214:
7190:
7178:
7142:
7133:
7115:
7106:
7100:
7076:
7064:
7052:
7040:
7028:
6976:
6964:
6940:
6916:
6904:
6892:
6880:
6868:
6844:
6829:
6817:
6805:
6793:
6778:
6766:
6751:
6739:
6604:
6569:
6446:
6419:
6407:
6366:
6362:
6360:
6358:
6356:
6332:
6317:
6294:
6282:
6270:
6139:
6112:
6088:
6076:
6064:
6052:
6040:
6028:
6024:
6022:
6013:
6001:
5989:
5965:
5953:
5941:
5929:
5905:
5843:
5806:
5679:
5508:
5133:Commissions, working groups and committees
5009:
4997:
4993:
4991:
4807:
4805:
4614:. Cambridge University Press. p. 10.
4608:Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrei (2004).
4607:
2699:'s classification of minerals in his book
1750:, both iron sulfides, have the formula FeS
1002:The chemical composition may vary between
572:Some authors require the material to be a
7882:
7714:
7611:
7511:
7024:
7022:
6565:
6563:
6561:
6559:
6442:
6440:
6328:
6326:
6135:
6133:
5977:
5818:
5275:
5177:
5069:
4832:
4830:
4828:
3257:, while double-chain silicates are often
2377:Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity
2162:
469:A major exception to this rule is native
7584:Grotzinger, John P. (January 24, 2014).
7472:
6372:
6288:
5844:Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996).
5802:
5800:
5734:
5610:
5343:
5292:
5243:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4921:
4919:
4696:Pasero, Marco; et al. (July 2024).
4526: β Similarity of symmetry and shape
4174:
4020:
3763:Sphalerite crystal partially encased in
3758:
3750:
3705:
3472:
3457:, a metamorphic mineral forming in the
3453:Other examples of sorosilicates include
3404:
3316:
3237:
3163:
3052:
2968:
2795:group has a common formula of XY(Si,Al)
2740:
2631:, or present as trace impurities, as in
2544:) onto a mineral aids in distinguishing
2514:
2455:
2390:
2172:
1868:
1819:
1494:
1147:
926:
915:The word "species" comes from the Latin
724:
720:
110:The concept of mineral is distinct from
27:
7557:Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group
7442:
6691:"Systematic Classification of Minerals"
6640:
6353:
6313:
6311:
6309:
6307:
6305:
6303:
6266:
6264:
6145:
6019:
5703:
5186:"Extending the Sub-Sea-Floor Biosphere"
5151:
5085:Skinner, H.C.W. (2005). "Biominerals".
5084:
4988:
4950:
4802:
4611:Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin
4589:Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks
4065:). Halite and sylvite commonly form as
3829:. Related to the sulfides are the rare
3032:Framework silicates (or tectosilicates)
2819:, which is a purple variety of quartz.
2491:, has a specific gravity of 5.26 while
934:, the manganese-rich end-member of the
414:International Mineralogical Association
408:International Mineralogical Association
154:International Mineralogical Association
48:from Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada
9225:
7019:
6556:
6437:
6343:
6341:
6323:
6251:
6249:
6247:
6245:
6243:
6231:
6163:from the original on 14 September 2019
6130:
6082:
5438:
4836:
4825:
4720:
4695:
4635:Stephenson, Tim; Stephenson, Carolyn.
4628:
4442:, as well as ancient water, including
2747:Abundance of elements in Earth's crust
1428:
8153:
8127:
7953:
7822:. New York: Oxford University Press.
7817:
7776:Chesterman, C.W.; Lowe, K.E. (2008).
7750:
7430:from the original on 12 November 2016
7412:
6952:
6518:from the original on 13 December 2017
6431:
5983:
5917:
5868:
5797:
5728:
5685:
5157:
4916:
4815:, volume 64, issue 1, pages 237β263.
4777:
4655:
3305:) are considered more dangerous than
1534:the angle between the b and c axes):
775:is defined by proportions of quartz,
72:substance with a fairly well-defined
7539:
7460:from the original on 5 November 2018
6688:
6682:
6300:
6261:
5514:
5444:
5024:
4790:from the original on 25 October 2017
4301:group has a general structure of ATO
3797:are economically important as metal
3095:at high temperatures, high-pressure
2246:
743:as large as 3 cm (1.2 in).
606:
247:; that is the case of the silicates
80:that occurs naturally in pure form.
7780:. Toronto: Random House of Canada.
7672:from the original on April 20, 2020
6338:
6240:
6193:from the original on 4 October 2021
5555:, the first natural quasicrystal".
4976:from the original on 3 January 2019
4878:from the original on 7 January 2018
4778:Klein, Cornelis (14 October 2019).
4601:
4575:
4316:
4029:(NaCl; halide class) crystals on a
3821:, an ore of molybdenum. Pyrite (FeS
2510:
2451:
2109:Mohs Scale versus Absolute Hardness
685:, contributing to the formation of
635:Recent advances in high-resolution
99:in the sense of chemistry (such as
13:
7837:
7648:(6169): 345β452. January 24, 2014.
7638:"Exploring Martian Habitability".
6544:from the original on 27 April 2018
5785:from the original on 29 March 2018
5772:
5515:K., Hefferan; J., O'Brien (2010).
4708:from the original on 25 April 2024
4359:
3695:
3226:) layer between the T-O-T stacks.
3159:
3079:Forming 12% of the Earth's crust,
3038:Ring silicates (or cyclosilicates)
2395:Perfect basal cleavage as seen in
1017:comprise a continuous series from
584:(a naturally occurring hydrate of
451:, derived from plant material; or
367:comprise approximately 90% of the
14:
9254:
7900:
7797:Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy
7795:Dyar, M.D.; Gunter, M.E. (2008).
7761:. San Francisco: Fog City Press.
7549:The Astrobiology Field Laboratory
6700:. Berlin: Springer. p. 154.
6643:"Mineral classification: History"
5139:from the original on 8 March 2020
4934:Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy
4734:from the original on 2 March 2018
4643:from the original on 18 July 2019
4385:could be important indicators of
3468:
3312:
3048:
3008:Orthosilicates (or nesosilicates)
2663:
2503:, an iron-nickel alloy common in
2330:of light waves. Examples include
1211:) is a mineral commonly found in
9207:
9206:
8107:
8022:
7946:(Robert Hazen, 15 February 2017)
7930:Minerals and the Origins of Life
7921:Mineralogical Society of America
7801:Mineralogical Society of America
7520:
7504:10.1127/0935-1221/2009/0021-1994
7400:
7388:
7376:
7364:
7352:
7340:
7328:
7316:
7304:
7292:
7280:
7268:
7256:
7244:
7232:
7220:
7208:
7196:
7184:
7172:
7160:
7148:
7121:
7094:
7082:
7070:
7058:
7046:
7034:
6994:
6982:
6970:
6958:
6934:
6922:
6910:
6898:
6886:
6874:
6862:
6823:
6811:
6799:
6587:Mineralogical Society of America
6492:from the original on 11 May 2020
6466:from the original on 11 May 2020
5277:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2009.00706.x
4904:from the original on 4 June 2020
4667:, 2nd ed., p. 374. McGraw-Hill;
4559:Polymorphism (materials science)
4496:
3690:
3687:, is a common gemstone mineral.
3400:
3020:Inosilicates are chain silicates
2835:, named for German mineralogist
2643:); the optical result, termed a
2270:
2261:
306:description of a mineral species
7919:"Mineral Identification Key II"
7563:from the original on 2020-05-11
7008:from the original on 2017-07-02
6772:
6745:
6733:
6722:from the original on 2018-11-14
6671:from the original on 2018-06-02
6593:from the original on 2012-09-22
6575:
6530:
6504:
6478:
6452:
6413:
6401:
6389:
6276:
6205:
6175:
6118:
6106:
6094:
6070:
6058:
6046:
6034:
6007:
5995:
5959:
5947:
5935:
5923:
5899:
5874:
5837:
5812:
5766:
5697:
5673:
5661:
5649:
5637:
5625:
5591:
5533:
5489:
5232:from the original on 2020-05-10
5121:
5003:
4962:
4890:
4864:
4853:from the original on 2018-08-25
4728:"Definition of mineral variety"
4376:
4331:. These rare compounds contain
3233:
2560:, especially within the rocks (
443:crystals in plant tissues, and
7484:European Journal of Mineralogy
4771:
4746:
4581:John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011):
4444:fluvio-lacustrine environments
3959:. Examples of species include
3951:, with a general formula of XY
3813:(HgS), an ore of mercury, and
3014:Disilicates (or sorosilicates)
1865:Mohs scale of mineral hardness
767:in the case of limestone, and
402:
1:
7907:Mindat mineralogical database
6215:. 7 July 2007. Archived from
5775:"Online Etymology Dictionary"
5467:10.1126/science.247.4946.1129
4839:"The definition of a mineral"
4569:
4524:Isomorphism (crystallography)
4462:. The search for evidence of
4242:
4096:
3655:Other orthosilicates include
1242:, a sedimentary mineral, and
641:X-ray absorption spectroscopy
8172:Pollution / quality
7979:
7559:(MEPAG) β NASA. p. 72.
4639:. Creetown Gem Rock Museum.
2958:
2133:Other scales include these;
922:
885:
107:) that also occur in rocks.
7:
7940:) (video, 60m, April 2014).
6706:10.1007/978-3-642-61304-3_7
4591:. Rosen Publishing Group.
4489:
4381:It has been suggested that
4285:Cl) and hydroxylapatite (Ca
4164:
3740:
2706:
1858:
1475:Crystal structure and habit
663:and 70 kilometres into the
133:, are more properly called
10:
9259:
7820:Introduction to Mineralogy
7818:Nesse, William D. (2000).
7371:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7359:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7323:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7311:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7263:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7251:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7203:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7167:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7155:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7128:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
7089:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
6989:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
6929:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
6647:Encyclopedia of Mineralogy
6396:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
6384:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
6125:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
6101:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
5741:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
5692:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
5668:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
5656:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
5644:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
5632:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
5620:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
4957:Chesterman & Lowe 2008
4837:Nickel, Ernest H. (1995).
4320:
4246:
4168:
4100:
4014:
4010:
3852:
3744:
3699:
3099:, and ultra-high pressure
2962:
2744:
2470:numerically describes the
2380:
2250:
2166:
1862:
1824:Contact twins, as seen in
1488:
1478:
1421:at high temperatures, and
835:(HgS), an ore of mercury;
632:processes," as a mineral.
610:
18:
9202:
9143:
9008:
9001:
8882:
8743:Types / location
8742:
8733:
8543:
8338:
8251:
8221:
8170:
8161:
8103:
8087:
8031:
8020:
7987:
7915:by David Barthelmy (2009)
6237:Dyar and Darby, pp. 26β28
5256:FEMS Microbiology Ecology
4843:The Canadian Mineralogist
4049:are compounds in which a
3907:; other examples include
3848:
2715:in his seminal 1735 book
2322:varieties of the mineral
2300:electromagnetic radiation
1467:and reactivity to dilute
1010:series. For example, the
6857:Klein & Hurlbut 1993
6655:10.1007/0-387-30720-6_76
6613:Periodico di Mineralogia
5819:Sinkankas, John (1964).
5107:10.1180/0026461056950275
4813:Mineralogy and Petrology
2985:or the quartz polymorph
2669:Earliest classifications
1143:hydrothermal circulation
689:deposits. They can also
485:is considered a mineral.
68:is, broadly speaking, a
21:Mineral (disambiguation)
7725:10.1126/science.1242777
7613:10.1126/science.1249944
5821:Mineralogy for amateurs
5599:Approved as new mineral
5364:10.1126/science.1072076
5321:10.1126/science.1010716
5210:10.1126/science.1154545
5047:10.1126/science.7008198
4784:Encyclopedia Britannica
4587:; p. 1. In the series
3809:(PbS), an ore of lead,
3805:(ZnS), an ore of zinc,
3702:Native element minerals
2857:Close-packed structures
1178:hydrothermal alteration
839:(ZnS), an ore of zinc;
667:(possibly entering the
538:typical example is the
481:in other minerals; but
427:) or in living beings (
7407:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7395:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7383:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7347:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7335:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7299:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7287:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7275:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7239:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7227:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7215:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7191:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7179:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7143:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7116:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7101:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7077:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7065:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7053:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7041:Dyar & Gunter 2008
7029:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6977:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6965:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6941:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6917:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6905:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6893:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6881:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6869:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6845:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6830:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6818:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6806:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6794:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6779:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6767:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6752:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6740:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6641:Staples, L.W. (1983).
6570:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6447:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6420:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6408:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6367:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6333:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6318:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6295:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6283:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6271:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6140:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6113:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6089:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6077:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6065:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6053:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6041:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6029:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6014:Dyar & Gunter 2008
6002:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5990:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5966:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5954:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5942:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5930:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5906:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5807:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5680:Dyar & Gunter 2008
5087:Mineralogical Magazine
5010:Dyar & Gunter 2008
4998:Dyar & Gunter 2008
4698:"IMA List of Minerals"
4637:"Rocks & Minerals"
4311:monazite geochronology
4180:
4042:
3903:) is the chief ore of
3778:
3756:
3711:
3478:
3410:
3322:
3285:; amphibole asbestos (
3249:
3169:
3061:
2977:
2530:
2464:
2404:
2181:
2180:has a metallic lustre.
2163:Lustre and diaphaneity
2110:
1874:
1828:
1640:Ξ± = Ξ² = 90Β°, Ξ³ = 120Β°
1503:
1165:
939:
908:
903:
847:), an ore of tin; and
744:
49:
7913:"Mineralogy Database"
7854:American Mineralogist
6698:The Magic of Minerals
5557:American Mineralogist
4780:"Mineral β Silicates"
4458:) that may have been
4437:chemolithoautotrophic
4387:extraterrestrial life
4367:Strunz classification
4178:
4024:
3762:
3754:
3709:
3476:
3408:
3320:
3309:serpentine asbestos.
3241:
3167:
3056:
2972:
2833:Strunz classification
2762:crystalline structure
2741:Modern classification
2518:
2459:
2394:
2387:Fracture (mineralogy)
2176:
2151:Vickers hardness test
2138:Shore's hardness test
2108:
1872:
1823:
1666:Ξ± = Ξ³ = 90Β°, Ξ² β 90Β°
1498:
1164:common in orthoclase.
1151:
930:
728:
721:Rocks, ores, and gems
675:Biogeochemical cycles
611:Further information:
31:
9118:remnant natural area
8755:storage and recovery
8421:habitat conservation
8239:Deforestation (REDD)
7875:10.2138/am-2017-5875
7668:. January 24, 2014.
6696:. In Wilk, H (ed.).
5920:, pp. 308, 352.
5577:10.2138/am.2011.3758
4273:F), chlorapatite (Ca
3191:van der Waals forces
2983:perovskite structure
2828:System of Mineralogy
2284:(left) and red-pink
1815:van der Waals forces
1115:perovskite structure
781:plagioclase feldspar
711:icosahedral symmetry
593:named after a person
574:stable or metastable
529:, which is mostly a
74:chemical composition
19:For other uses, see
9072:Earth Overshoot Day
8646:Marine conservation
8627:non-timber products
8114:Minerals portal
7867:2017AmMin.102..595H
7707:2014Sci...343A.386G
7604:2014Sci...343..386G
7496:2009EJMin..21.1073M
7002:"09.D Inosilicates"
5980:, pp. 238β239.
5706:Glossary of geology
5569:2011AmMin..96..928B
5519:. Wiley-Blackwell.
5459:1990Sci...247.1129S
5416:2010GSLSP.336...31G
5313:2002Sci...296.1071N
5268:2009FEMME..69..143P
5202:2008Sci...320.1046R
5099:2005MinM...69..621S
5039:1981Sci...211.1126L
4450:related to ancient
3801:; examples include
3772:Milwaukee Formation
3281:illnesses, such as
2701:De Natura Fossilium
2253:Streak (mineralogy)
2169:Lustre (mineralogy)
1429:Physical properties
1425:at high pressures.
1113:, will change to a
819:industrial minerals
9057:Ecosystem services
8180:Ambient standards
8095:Industrial mineral
7751:General references
7532:2011-08-10 at the
7004:. Webmineral.com.
6514:. Webmineral.com.
6348:Busbey et al. 2007
6256:Busbey et al. 2007
5759:2020-10-02 at the
5604:2012-03-20 at the
5501:2011-07-06 at the
4821:10.1007/BF01226571
4679:2023-01-17 at the
4664:Optical mineralogy
4553:Mineral (nutrient)
4541:Mineral collecting
4395:organic components
4307:rare-earth element
4255:phosphate minerals
4249:Phosphate minerals
4181:
4179:Gypsum desert rose
4109:carbonate minerals
4103:Carbonate minerals
4043:
3779:
3757:
3712:
3479:
3411:
3323:
3250:
3170:
3062:
2978:
2531:
2465:
2405:
2383:Cleavage (crystal)
2224:(mineral forms of
2182:
2127:but 7 parallel to
2111:
1875:
1829:
1504:
1166:
940:
785:accessory minerals
745:
50:
9243:Natural materials
9220:
9219:
9198:
9197:
8997:
8996:
8676:genetic resources
8612:genetic resources
8247:
8246:
8155:Natural resources
8121:
8120:
7810:978-0-939950-81-2
7799:. Chantilly, VA:
7787:978-0-394-50269-4
7768:978-1-74089-632-0
7759:Rocks and Fossils
7701:(6169): 1242777.
6847:, pp. 104β17
6715:978-3-642-64783-3
6664:978-0-87933-184-9
6625:10.2451/2016PM590
5892:978-0-521-88006-0
5773:Harper, Douglas.
5526:978-1-4443-3460-9
5453:(4946): 1129β30.
5358:(5609): 1027β29.
5307:(5570): 1071β77.
5170:978-1-139-49459-5
5033:(4487): 1126β31.
4943:978-0-939950-81-2
4673:978-1-114-10852-3
4621:978-0-521-52958-7
4597:978-1-61530-489-9
4547:Mineral evolution
4482:became a primary
2965:Silicate minerals
2824:James Dwight Dana
2760:, and a specific
2697:Georgius Agricola
2529:-bearing mineral.
2424:and diamond, and
2247:Colour and streak
2103:
2102:
1900:Chemical formula
1709:
1708:
1507:Crystal structure
1444:X-ray diffraction
1021:-rich end member
613:Biomineralization
607:Biogenic minerals
586:magnesium sulfate
365:Silicate minerals
177:chemical elements
160:mineral species.
97:organic compounds
78:crystal structure
9250:
9210:
9209:
9161:
9108:Natural heritage
9067:overexploitation
9006:
9005:
8740:
8739:
8686:herbal medicines
8666:FAO Plant Treaty
8206:
8183:
8168:
8167:
8148:
8141:
8134:
8125:
8124:
8112:
8111:
8110:
8026:
7974:
7967:
7960:
7951:
7950:
7895:
7893:
7891:
7886:
7850:
7833:
7814:
7791:
7772:
7745:
7744:
7718:
7688:
7682:
7681:
7679:
7677:
7656:
7650:
7649:
7635:
7626:
7625:
7615:
7598:(6169): 386β87.
7581:
7572:
7571:
7569:
7568:
7554:
7543:
7537:
7524:
7518:
7517:
7515:
7479:
7470:
7469:
7467:
7465:
7446:
7440:
7439:
7437:
7435:
7416:
7410:
7404:
7398:
7392:
7386:
7380:
7374:
7368:
7362:
7356:
7350:
7344:
7338:
7332:
7326:
7320:
7314:
7308:
7302:
7296:
7290:
7284:
7278:
7272:
7266:
7260:
7254:
7248:
7242:
7236:
7230:
7224:
7218:
7212:
7206:
7200:
7194:
7188:
7182:
7176:
7170:
7164:
7158:
7152:
7146:
7140:
7131:
7125:
7119:
7113:
7104:
7098:
7092:
7086:
7080:
7074:
7068:
7062:
7056:
7050:
7044:
7038:
7032:
7026:
7017:
7016:
7014:
7013:
6998:
6992:
6986:
6980:
6974:
6968:
6962:
6956:
6950:
6944:
6938:
6932:
6926:
6920:
6914:
6908:
6902:
6896:
6890:
6884:
6878:
6872:
6866:
6860:
6854:
6848:
6842:
6833:
6827:
6821:
6815:
6809:
6803:
6797:
6791:
6782:
6776:
6770:
6764:
6755:
6749:
6743:
6737:
6731:
6730:
6728:
6727:
6695:
6689:Wilk, H (1986).
6686:
6680:
6679:
6677:
6676:
6638:
6629:
6628:
6608:
6602:
6601:
6599:
6598:
6579:
6573:
6567:
6554:
6553:
6551:
6549:
6534:
6528:
6527:
6525:
6523:
6508:
6502:
6501:
6499:
6497:
6482:
6476:
6475:
6473:
6471:
6456:
6450:
6444:
6435:
6429:
6423:
6417:
6411:
6405:
6399:
6393:
6387:
6381:
6370:
6364:
6351:
6345:
6336:
6330:
6321:
6315:
6298:
6292:
6286:
6280:
6274:
6268:
6259:
6253:
6238:
6235:
6229:
6228:
6226:
6224:
6209:
6203:
6202:
6200:
6198:
6179:
6173:
6172:
6170:
6168:
6149:
6143:
6137:
6128:
6122:
6116:
6110:
6104:
6098:
6092:
6086:
6080:
6074:
6068:
6062:
6056:
6050:
6044:
6038:
6032:
6026:
6017:
6011:
6005:
5999:
5993:
5987:
5981:
5975:
5969:
5963:
5957:
5951:
5945:
5939:
5933:
5927:
5921:
5915:
5909:
5903:
5897:
5896:
5878:
5872:
5866:
5860:
5859:
5841:
5835:
5834:
5816:
5810:
5804:
5795:
5794:
5792:
5790:
5770:
5764:
5750:
5744:
5738:
5732:
5726:
5720:
5719:
5701:
5695:
5689:
5683:
5677:
5671:
5665:
5659:
5653:
5647:
5641:
5635:
5629:
5623:
5617:
5608:
5595:
5589:
5588:
5537:
5531:
5530:
5512:
5506:
5493:
5487:
5486:
5442:
5436:
5435:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5347:
5341:
5340:
5296:
5290:
5289:
5279:
5247:
5241:
5240:
5238:
5237:
5181:
5175:
5174:
5155:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5144:
5125:
5119:
5118:
5082:
5067:
5066:
5022:
5013:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4986:
4985:
4983:
4981:
4966:
4960:
4954:
4948:
4947:
4929:
4914:
4913:
4911:
4909:
4894:
4888:
4887:
4885:
4883:
4868:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4858:
4834:
4823:
4809:
4800:
4799:
4797:
4795:
4775:
4769:
4768:
4750:
4744:
4743:
4741:
4739:
4724:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4693:
4684:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4632:
4626:
4625:
4605:
4599:
4579:
4564:
4530:List of minerals
4506:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4393:. Furthermore,
4329:organic minerals
4317:Organic minerals
4185:sulfate minerals
4171:Sulfate minerals
3997:oxidation states
3795:sulfide minerals
3783:sulfide minerals
3747:Sulfide minerals
2919:
2918:
2917:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2871:
2870:
2869:
2837:Karl Hugo Strunz
2645:radioactive halo
2536:Dropping dilute
2511:Other properties
2468:Specific gravity
2452:Specific gravity
2274:
2265:
2123:
2122:
2118:
1891:
1890:
1692:Ξ± β Ξ² β Ξ³ β 90Β°
1614:Ξ± = Ξ² = Ξ³ = 90Β°
1588:Ξ± = Ξ² = Ξ³ = 90Β°
1562:Ξ± = Ξ² = Ξ³ = 90Β°
1549:Common examples
1537:
1536:
1491:Crystal twinning
1465:piezoelectricity
1099:orbital subshell
911:
892:English language
734:metamorphic rock
578:room temperature
433:tungsten carbide
342:specific gravity
296:
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9216:
9194:
9159:
9139:
9125:Systems ecology
9091:Natural capital
8993:
8878:
8867:reclaimed water
8729:
8691:UPOV Convention
8539:
8334:
8243:
8217:
8213:Ozone depletion
8204:
8181:
8157:
8152:
8122:
8117:
8108:
8106:
8099:
8083:
8032:Common minerals
8027:
8018:
7983:
7978:
7903:
7889:
7887:
7848:
7840:
7838:Further reading
7830:
7811:
7788:
7769:
7753:
7748:
7716:10.1.1.455.3973
7689:
7685:
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7673:
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5606:Wayback Machine
5596:
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5563:(5β6): 928β31.
5554:
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5527:
5517:Earth Materials
5513:
5509:
5503:Wayback Machine
5494:
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4518:Amateur geology
4504:Minerals portal
4502:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4379:
4362:
4360:Recent advances
4350:
4346:
4342:
4325:
4323:Organic mineral
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4105:
4099:
4080:
4076:
4064:
4047:halide minerals
4036:
4019:
4017:Halide minerals
4013:
4006:
4002:
3994:
3990:
3982:
3978:
3970:
3966:
3958:
3954:
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3898:
3894:
3886:
3882:
3874:
3857:
3851:
3824:
3820:
3749:
3743:
3715:Native elements
3704:
3698:
3696:Native elements
3693:
3682:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3667:. Zircon (ZrSiO
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3631:
3627:
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3599:
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3355:
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3347:
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3271:
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3225:
3162:
3160:Phyllosilicates
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3110:
3086:
3051:
3026:Phyllosilicates
3000:
2992:
2967:
2961:
2916:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2909:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2893:
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2868:
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2802:
2798:
2759:
2749:
2743:
2731:binomial naming
2718:Systema Naturae
2709:
2671:
2666:
2650:pleochroic halo
2513:
2505:iron meteorites
2499:; for example,
2490:
2486:
2454:
2389:
2381:Main articles:
2379:
2353:, tarnish, and
2296:
2295:
2294:
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2249:
2171:
2165:
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1981:
1965:
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1861:
1800:
1796:
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1753:
1540:Crystal family
1524:32 point groups
1493:
1487:
1479:Main articles:
1477:
1453:phosphorescence
1431:
1409:
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1397:
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1377:
1373:
1357:
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1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1210:
1206:
1203:feldspar (KAlSi
1136:
1132:
1092:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1032:
1028:
925:
888:
881:
877:
846:
821:. For example,
777:alkali feldspar
723:
615:
609:
549:
545:
528:
524:
515:solid solutions
441:calcium oxalate
437:urinary calculi
410:
405:
373:native elements
293:
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274:
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268:
263:
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188:
187:
186:
184:
147:silicon dioxide
105:hydroxylapatite
76:and a specific
66:mineral species
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9256:
9246:
9245:
9240:
9235:
9218:
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9199:
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9173:
9168:
9163:
9160:(perpetuation)
9155:
9149:
9147:
9141:
9140:
9138:
9137:
9132:
9127:
9122:
9121:
9120:
9113:Nature reserve
9110:
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8602:
8597:
8592:
8590:climate change
8582:
8577:
8572:
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8566:
8565:
8558:Bioprospecting
8555:
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8241:
8236:
8231:
8225:
8223:
8219:
8218:
8216:
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8210:
8209:
8208:
8203:Clean Air Act
8195:
8190:
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8165:
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8150:
8143:
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8015:
8014:
8004:
8003:
8002:
7991:
7989:
7985:
7984:
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7976:
7969:
7962:
7954:
7948:
7947:
7941:
7927:
7922:
7916:
7910:
7902:
7901:External links
7899:
7898:
7897:
7839:
7836:
7835:
7834:
7828:
7815:
7809:
7792:
7786:
7773:
7767:
7752:
7749:
7747:
7746:
7683:
7651:
7627:
7573:
7538:
7519:
7490:(5): 1073β80.
7471:
7441:
7411:
7399:
7387:
7375:
7363:
7351:
7339:
7327:
7315:
7303:
7291:
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7183:
7171:
7159:
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7105:
7093:
7081:
7069:
7057:
7045:
7033:
7018:
6993:
6981:
6969:
6957:
6955:, p. 238.
6945:
6933:
6921:
6909:
6897:
6885:
6873:
6861:
6859:, p. 524.
6849:
6834:
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6810:
6798:
6783:
6771:
6756:
6744:
6732:
6714:
6681:
6663:
6630:
6603:
6574:
6555:
6540:. Mindat.org.
6529:
6503:
6488:. Mindat.org.
6477:
6462:. Mindat.org.
6451:
6436:
6424:
6412:
6400:
6388:
6371:
6352:
6337:
6322:
6299:
6287:
6275:
6260:
6239:
6230:
6204:
6174:
6144:
6129:
6117:
6105:
6093:
6081:
6069:
6057:
6045:
6033:
6018:
6006:
5994:
5982:
5978:Sinkankas 1964
5970:
5958:
5946:
5934:
5922:
5910:
5898:
5891:
5873:
5871:, p. 226.
5861:
5854:
5836:
5829:
5811:
5796:
5765:
5745:
5733:
5731:, p. 246.
5721:
5714:
5696:
5684:
5672:
5660:
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5636:
5624:
5609:
5590:
5552:
5548:
5544:
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5507:
5488:
5437:
5393:
5342:
5291:
5242:
5196:(5879): 1046.
5176:
5169:
5150:
5120:
5068:
5014:
5002:
4987:
4972:. Mindat.org.
4961:
4949:
4942:
4915:
4900:. Mindat.org.
4889:
4874:. Mindat.org.
4863:
4824:
4801:
4770:
4763:
4745:
4730:. mindat.org.
4719:
4685:
4654:
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4573:
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4556:
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4544:
4538:
4533:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4509:
4508:
4507:
4491:
4488:
4478:on the planet
4476:organic carbon
4440:microorganisms
4378:
4375:
4361:
4358:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4333:organic carbon
4321:Main article:
4318:
4315:
4302:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4247:Main article:
4244:
4241:
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4228:
4220:
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4200:
4196:
4169:Main article:
4166:
4163:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4126:
4117:
4101:Main article:
4098:
4095:
4078:
4074:
4062:
4034:
4015:Main article:
4012:
4009:
4004:
4000:
3992:
3988:
3980:
3976:
3968:
3964:
3956:
3952:
3924:
3912:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3884:
3880:
3872:
3860:Oxide minerals
3855:Oxide minerals
3853:Main article:
3850:
3847:
3822:
3818:
3745:Main article:
3742:
3739:
3700:Main article:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3617:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3569:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3482:
3470:
3469:Orthosilicates
3467:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3402:
3399:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3314:
3313:Cyclosilicates
3311:
3269:
3265:
3235:
3232:
3223:
3195:hydrogen bonds
3161:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3108:
3084:
3050:
3049:Tectosilicates
3047:
3043:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3027:
3024:
3021:
3018:
3015:
3012:
3009:
2998:
2990:
2963:Main article:
2960:
2957:
2914:
2898:
2882:
2866:
2800:
2796:
2781:siderophyllite
2757:
2742:
2739:
2723:Charles Darwin
2708:
2705:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2664:Classification
2662:
2641:metamict state
2554:carbon dioxide
2522:(yellow) is a
2512:
2509:
2488:
2484:
2453:
2450:
2378:
2375:
2288:(right), both
2279:
2278:
2269:
2268:
2260:
2259:
2258:
2257:
2256:
2251:Main article:
2248:
2245:
2167:Main article:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2153:
2147:
2145:Rockwell scale
2141:
2101:
2100:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2080:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1960:
1955:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1934:
1930:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1894:Mohs hardness
1886:phyllosilicate
1863:Main article:
1860:
1857:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1755:
1751:
1707:
1706:
1693:
1690:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1670:Clinopyroxenes
1667:
1664:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1626:orthopyroxenes
1615:
1612:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1481:Crystal system
1476:
1473:
1430:
1427:
1407:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1360:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1208:
1204:
1134:
1130:
1090:
1081:and iron-rich
1050:
1046:
1042:
1030:
1026:
1008:solid solution
995:, such as the
993:rules of thumb
924:
921:
900:Medieval Latin
896:Middle English
887:
884:
879:
875:
844:
741:porphyroblasts
722:
719:
645:microorganisms
629:biogeochemical
608:
605:
560:
559:
547:
543:
542:group (Mg, Fe)
526:
522:
508:
486:
475:carbon dioxide
464:
409:
406:
404:
401:
291:
275:
264:
253:
233:
221:
210:
198:
189:
158:6,062 official
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9255:
9244:
9241:
9239:
9236:
9234:
9231:
9230:
9228:
9213:
9205:
9204:
9201:
9191:
9190:Non-renewable
9187:
9184:
9182:
9179:
9177:
9174:
9172:
9169:
9167:
9164:
9162:
9156:
9154:
9151:
9150:
9148:
9146:
9142:
9136:
9133:
9131:
9130:Urban ecology
9128:
9126:
9123:
9119:
9116:
9115:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9093:
9092:
9089:
9085:
9082:
9081:
9080:
9077:
9073:
9070:
9068:
9065:
9064:
9063:
9060:
9058:
9055:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9042:
9041:
9038:
9034:
9031:
9029:
9026:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9016:
9015:
9014:
9011:
9010:
9007:
9004:
9000:
8988:
8985:
8983:
8980:
8979:
8978:
8975:
8973:
8970:
8968:
8965:
8963:
8962:Privatization
8960:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8948:
8945:
8943:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8933:
8930:
8928:
8925:
8923:
8920:
8916:
8913:
8912:
8911:
8908:
8906:
8903:
8901:
8898:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8887:
8885:
8881:
8875:
8872:
8868:
8865:
8864:
8863:
8860:
8858:
8857:Surface water
8855:
8853:
8850:
8846:
8843:
8842:
8841:
8838:
8836:
8833:
8829:
8828:
8824:
8823:
8822:
8819:
8815:
8812:
8810:
8807:
8805:
8802:
8801:
8800:
8797:
8795:
8792:
8788:
8785:
8783:
8780:
8778:
8775:
8774:
8773:
8770:
8768:
8765:
8763:
8760:
8756:
8753:
8752:
8751:
8748:
8747:
8745:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8732:
8724:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8715:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8697:
8694:
8692:
8689:
8687:
8684:
8682:
8679:
8677:
8674:
8672:
8669:
8667:
8664:
8663:
8662:
8659:
8657:
8654:
8652:
8649:
8647:
8644:
8640:
8637:
8636:
8635:
8632:
8628:
8625:
8623:
8620:
8618:
8615:
8613:
8610:
8609:
8608:
8605:
8601:
8598:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8587:
8586:
8583:
8581:
8578:
8576:
8573:
8571:
8568:
8564:
8561:
8560:
8559:
8556:
8554:
8551:
8550:
8548:
8546:
8542:
8534:
8531:
8529:
8526:
8525:
8524:
8521:
8517:
8514:
8512:
8509:
8507:
8504:
8502:
8499:
8498:
8497:
8494:
8490:
8487:
8483:
8480:
8478:
8475:
8474:
8473:
8470:
8466:
8463:
8461:
8458:
8457:
8456:
8453:
8449:
8446:
8445:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8436:
8434:
8431:
8430:
8429:
8426:
8422:
8419:
8418:
8417:
8414:
8410:
8407:
8406:
8405:
8402:
8398:
8395:
8393:
8390:
8388:
8385:
8383:
8380:
8379:
8378:
8375:
8373:
8370:
8368:
8365:
8359:
8358:peak farmland
8356:
8355:
8354:
8351:
8350:
8349:
8346:
8345:
8343:
8341:
8337:
8331:
8328:
8324:
8321:
8319:
8316:
8315:
8314:
8311:
8309:
8306:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8293:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8264:
8262:
8259:
8258:
8256:
8254:
8250:
8240:
8237:
8235:
8232:
8230:
8227:
8226:
8224:
8220:
8214:
8211:
8207:
8201:
8200:
8199:
8196:
8194:
8191:
8189:
8186:
8184:
8178:
8177:
8175:
8173:
8169:
8166:
8164:
8160:
8156:
8149:
8144:
8142:
8137:
8135:
8130:
8129:
8126:
8116:
8115:
8102:
8096:
8093:
8092:
8090:
8086:
8080:
8077:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8052:
8050:
8047:
8045:
8042:
8040:
8037:
8036:
8034:
8030:
8025:
8013:
8010:
8009:
8008:
8005:
8001:
7998:
7997:
7996:
7993:
7992:
7990:
7986:
7982:
7975:
7970:
7968:
7963:
7961:
7956:
7955:
7952:
7945:
7942:
7939:
7935:
7931:
7928:
7926:
7923:
7920:
7917:
7914:
7911:
7908:
7905:
7904:
7885:
7880:
7876:
7872:
7868:
7864:
7860:
7856:
7855:
7847:
7842:
7841:
7831:
7829:9780195106916
7825:
7821:
7816:
7812:
7806:
7802:
7798:
7793:
7789:
7783:
7779:
7774:
7770:
7764:
7760:
7755:
7754:
7742:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7717:
7712:
7708:
7704:
7700:
7696:
7695:
7687:
7671:
7667:
7666:
7661:
7655:
7647:
7643:
7642:
7634:
7632:
7623:
7619:
7614:
7609:
7605:
7601:
7597:
7593:
7592:
7587:
7580:
7578:
7562:
7558:
7551:
7550:
7542:
7535:
7531:
7528:
7527:IMA divisions
7523:
7514:
7509:
7505:
7501:
7497:
7493:
7489:
7485:
7478:
7476:
7459:
7455:
7451:
7445:
7429:
7425:
7421:
7415:
7408:
7403:
7396:
7391:
7384:
7379:
7372:
7367:
7360:
7355:
7348:
7343:
7336:
7331:
7324:
7319:
7312:
7307:
7300:
7295:
7288:
7283:
7276:
7271:
7264:
7259:
7252:
7247:
7240:
7235:
7228:
7223:
7216:
7211:
7204:
7199:
7192:
7187:
7180:
7175:
7168:
7163:
7156:
7151:
7144:
7139:
7137:
7129:
7124:
7117:
7112:
7110:
7102:
7097:
7090:
7085:
7078:
7073:
7066:
7061:
7054:
7049:
7042:
7037:
7030:
7025:
7023:
7007:
7003:
6997:
6990:
6985:
6978:
6973:
6966:
6961:
6954:
6949:
6942:
6937:
6930:
6925:
6918:
6913:
6906:
6901:
6894:
6889:
6882:
6877:
6870:
6865:
6858:
6853:
6846:
6841:
6839:
6831:
6826:
6819:
6814:
6807:
6802:
6795:
6790:
6788:
6780:
6775:
6768:
6763:
6761:
6753:
6748:
6741:
6736:
6721:
6717:
6711:
6707:
6703:
6699:
6692:
6685:
6670:
6666:
6660:
6656:
6652:
6648:
6644:
6637:
6635:
6626:
6622:
6618:
6614:
6607:
6592:
6588:
6584:
6578:
6571:
6566:
6564:
6562:
6560:
6543:
6539:
6533:
6517:
6513:
6507:
6491:
6487:
6481:
6465:
6461:
6455:
6448:
6443:
6441:
6434:, p. 97.
6433:
6428:
6421:
6416:
6409:
6404:
6397:
6392:
6385:
6380:
6378:
6376:
6368:
6363:
6361:
6359:
6357:
6349:
6344:
6342:
6334:
6329:
6327:
6319:
6314:
6312:
6310:
6308:
6306:
6304:
6296:
6291:
6284:
6279:
6272:
6267:
6265:
6257:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6246:
6244:
6234:
6219:on 2007-07-07
6218:
6214:
6208:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6178:
6162:
6158:
6154:
6148:
6141:
6136:
6134:
6126:
6121:
6114:
6109:
6102:
6097:
6090:
6085:
6078:
6073:
6066:
6061:
6054:
6049:
6042:
6037:
6030:
6025:
6023:
6015:
6010:
6003:
5998:
5991:
5986:
5979:
5974:
5967:
5962:
5955:
5950:
5943:
5938:
5931:
5926:
5919:
5914:
5907:
5902:
5894:
5888:
5884:
5877:
5870:
5865:
5857:
5855:0-7167-2438-3
5851:
5847:
5840:
5832:
5830:0-442-27624-9
5826:
5822:
5815:
5808:
5803:
5801:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5769:
5762:
5758:
5755:
5749:
5742:
5737:
5730:
5725:
5717:
5715:0-922152-34-9
5711:
5707:
5700:
5693:
5688:
5681:
5676:
5669:
5664:
5657:
5652:
5645:
5640:
5633:
5628:
5621:
5616:
5614:
5607:
5603:
5600:
5594:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5574:
5570:
5566:
5562:
5558:
5542:
5536:
5528:
5522:
5518:
5511:
5504:
5500:
5497:
5492:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5452:
5448:
5441:
5433:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5397:
5389:
5385:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5346:
5338:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5295:
5287:
5283:
5278:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5262:(2): 143β57.
5261:
5257:
5253:
5246:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5199:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5180:
5172:
5166:
5162:
5154:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5124:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5096:
5093:(5): 621β41.
5092:
5088:
5081:
5079:
5077:
5075:
5073:
5064:
5060:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5040:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5021:
5019:
5011:
5006:
4999:
4994:
4992:
4975:
4971:
4970:"Mackinawite"
4965:
4958:
4953:
4945:
4939:
4935:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4922:
4920:
4903:
4899:
4893:
4877:
4873:
4867:
4852:
4849:(3): 689β90.
4848:
4844:
4840:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4808:
4806:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4774:
4766:
4764:0-471-57452-X
4760:
4756:
4749:
4733:
4729:
4723:
4707:
4703:
4699:
4692:
4690:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4665:
4658:
4642:
4638:
4631:
4623:
4617:
4613:
4612:
4604:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4585:
4578:
4574:
4560:
4557:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4545:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4531:
4528:
4525:
4522:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4510:
4505:
4494:
4487:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4418:
4413:
4412:
4406:
4404:
4400:
4399:biosignatures
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4374:
4372:
4368:
4357:
4354:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4324:
4314:
4312:
4308:
4300:
4260:
4256:
4250:
4240:
4234:
4226:
4218:
4210:
4206:
4194:
4190:
4186:
4177:
4172:
4162:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4123:
4115:
4110:
4104:
4094:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4072:
4068:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4048:
4040:
4033:matrix (NaHCO
4032:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4008:
3998:
3986:
3974:
3962:
3950:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3922:
3918:
3910:
3906:
3890:
3878:
3870:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3846:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3827:sulfuric acid
3816:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3777:
3773:
3770:
3766:
3761:
3753:
3748:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3722:
3720:
3719:native metals
3716:
3708:
3703:
3691:Non-silicates
3688:
3686:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3635:
3615:
3595:
3575:
3555:
3535:
3507:
3486:
3475:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3449:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3407:
3401:Sorosilicates
3398:
3396:
3334:
3332:
3328:
3319:
3310:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3287:anthophyllite
3284:
3279:
3273:
3262:
3260:
3256:
3247:
3244:
3240:
3231:
3227:
3222:-like (Mg(OH)
3221:
3216:
3212:
3206:
3202:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3166:
3157:
3139:((Na, K)AlSiO
3138:
3132:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3112:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3082:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3070:feldspathoids
3067:
3059:
3055:
3046:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3025:
3022:
3019:
3016:
3013:
3010:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3002:
2996:
2988:
2984:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2956:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2923:
2907:
2891:
2875:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2755:
2748:
2738:
2736:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2714:
2713:Carl Linnaeus
2704:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2651:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2613:Radioactivity
2610:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2597:
2596:piezoelectric
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2552:, giving off
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2497:native metals
2494:
2482:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2462:
2458:
2449:
2445:
2443:
2442:native copper
2437:
2433:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2418:rhodochrosite
2415:
2409:
2402:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2384:
2374:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2304:incandescence
2301:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2273:
2264:
2254:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2206:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2158:
2157:Brinell scale
2154:
2152:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2107:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2078:
2076:
2073:
2070:
2069:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2045:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2029:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2009:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1968:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1940:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1871:
1866:
1856:
1854:
1853:native copper
1850:
1845:
1843:
1838:
1833:
1827:
1822:
1818:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1784:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1736:stoichiometry
1733:
1729:
1725:
1720:
1718:
1714:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1694:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1656:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1578:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1542:
1539:
1538:
1535:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1486:
1485:Crystal habit
1482:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1461:radioactivity
1458:
1454:
1450:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1369:
1368:
1367:
1365:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1297:
1293:
1249:
1248:
1247:
1245:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1202:
1198:
1196:
1191:
1190:thermodynamic
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1144:
1138:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1040:
1036:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1006:species of a
1005:
1000:
998:
994:
989:
985:
979:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
944:Earth's crust
937:
933:
929:
920:
918:
913:
912:, mine, ore.
910:
905:
901:
897:
893:
883:
873:
869:
865:
860:
856:
854:
850:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
824:
820:
815:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
790:
786:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
742:
739:
735:
731:
727:
718:
716:
712:
708:
702:
698:
697:of minerals.
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
633:
631:
630:
624:
619:
614:
604:
602:
598:
594:
589:
587:
583:
579:
575:
570:
568:
567:nanoparticles
563:
557:
553:
541:
536:
532:
520:
516:
512:
509:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
487:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
465:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
425:anthropogenic
422:
419:
418:
417:
415:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
369:Earth's crust
366:
361:
359:
355:
354:radioactivity
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
302:
300:
299:olivine group
283:
279:
267:
256:
246:
245:mineral group
242:
225:
213:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
161:
159:
155:
150:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
121:
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
81:
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
47:
43:
39:
35:
30:
26:
22:
9188: /
9062:Exploitation
8947:Conservation
8890:Desalination
8825:
8718:conservation
8553:Biodiversity
8501:conservation
8427:
8348:Agricultural
8276:Fossil fuels
8105:
7994:
7980:
7934:Robert Hazen
7888:. Retrieved
7858:
7852:
7819:
7796:
7777:
7758:
7698:
7692:
7686:
7674:. Retrieved
7663:
7654:
7645:
7639:
7595:
7589:
7565:. Retrieved
7548:
7541:
7522:
7487:
7483:
7462:. Retrieved
7453:
7444:
7432:. Retrieved
7423:
7414:
7409:, pp. 675β80
7402:
7397:, pp. 672β73
7390:
7378:
7373:, pp. 456β57
7366:
7354:
7349:, pp. 668β69
7342:
7330:
7318:
7313:, pp. 425β30
7306:
7301:, pp. 660β63
7294:
7289:, pp. 663β64
7282:
7277:, pp. 657β60
7270:
7265:, pp. 400β03
7258:
7246:
7234:
7229:, pp. 651β54
7222:
7210:
7198:
7193:, pp. 644β48
7186:
7181:, pp. 627β34
7174:
7169:, pp. 574β75
7162:
7150:
7145:, pp. 116β17
7130:, pp. 565β73
7123:
7118:, pp. 612β27
7103:, pp. 617β21
7096:
7084:
7079:, pp. 113β15
7072:
7067:, pp. 611β12
7060:
7055:, pp. 606β12
7048:
7036:
7010:. Retrieved
6996:
6984:
6979:, pp. 593β95
6972:
6967:, pp. 602β05
6960:
6948:
6943:, pp. 110β13
6936:
6924:
6912:
6907:, pp. 589β93
6900:
6888:
6883:, pp. 583β88
6876:
6871:, pp. 578β83
6864:
6852:
6825:
6820:, pp. 104β20
6813:
6801:
6781:, pp. 641β43
6774:
6747:
6735:
6724:. Retrieved
6697:
6684:
6673:. Retrieved
6646:
6616:
6612:
6606:
6595:. Retrieved
6577:
6546:. Retrieved
6532:
6520:. Retrieved
6506:
6494:. Retrieved
6480:
6468:. Retrieved
6454:
6427:
6415:
6403:
6391:
6297:, pp. 131β44
6290:
6278:
6233:
6221:. Retrieved
6217:the original
6207:
6195:. Retrieved
6187:matmatch.com
6186:
6177:
6165:. Retrieved
6147:
6120:
6108:
6096:
6084:
6072:
6067:, pp. 631β32
6060:
6048:
6043:, pp. 654β55
6036:
6009:
5997:
5985:
5973:
5961:
5949:
5937:
5925:
5913:
5901:
5882:
5876:
5864:
5845:
5839:
5820:
5814:
5787:. Retrieved
5778:
5768:
5748:
5736:
5724:
5705:
5699:
5687:
5675:
5670:, pp. 728β30
5663:
5658:, pp. 694β96
5651:
5646:, pp. 747β48
5639:
5634:, pp. 719β21
5627:
5593:
5560:
5556:
5535:
5516:
5510:
5505:. uws.edu.au
5491:
5450:
5446:
5440:
5410:(1): 31β50.
5407:
5403:
5396:
5355:
5351:
5345:
5304:
5300:
5294:
5259:
5255:
5245:
5234:. Retrieved
5193:
5189:
5179:
5160:
5153:
5141:. Retrieved
5132:
5123:
5090:
5086:
5030:
5026:
5005:
4978:. Retrieved
4964:
4952:
4933:
4906:. Retrieved
4892:
4880:. Retrieved
4866:
4855:. Retrieved
4846:
4842:
4812:
4792:. Retrieved
4783:
4773:
4754:
4748:
4736:. Retrieved
4722:
4710:. Retrieved
4662:
4657:
4645:. Retrieved
4630:
4610:
4603:
4588:
4582:
4577:
4513:Agrominerals
4470:(related to
4464:habitability
4433:chemotrophic
4416:
4410:
4407:
4391:life on Mars
4380:
4377:Astrobiology
4371:hydrocarbons
4363:
4326:
4252:
4205:desert roses
4182:
4106:
4044:
3858:
3780:
3723:
3713:
3654:
3487:
3480:
3452:
3434:(Fe, Al)(SiO
3423:
3412:
3335:
3324:
3274:
3263:
3251:
3234:Inosilicates
3228:
3207:
3203:
3197:, or sparse
3171:
3133:
3113:
3093:cristobalite
3078:
3063:
3044:
3003:
2979:
2926:
2841:
2827:
2821:
2809:orthorhombic
2750:
2734:
2716:
2710:
2700:
2695:
2682:
2679:Theophrastus
2672:
2655:thin-section
2648:
2644:
2611:
2600:
2578:
2535:
2532:
2477:
2466:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2410:
2406:
2371:streak plate
2370:
2363:
2340:
2328:interference
2310:(green) and
2297:
2233:thin section
2230:
2207:
2183:
2132:
2124:parallel to
2112:
1879:
1876:
1846:
1830:
1803:
1760:
1721:
1715: β the
1712:
1710:
1607:Orthorhombic
1528:
1505:
1449:fluorescence
1432:
1419:cristobalite
1405:
1366:and quartz:
1361:
1296:pyrophyllite
1289:
1262:O + 2 H β Al
1244:silicic acid
1220:igneous rock
1199:
1174:metasomatism
1167:
1139:
1095:
1087:
1001:
980:
941:
916:
914:
889:
857:
851:, an ore of
827:
816:
793:
746:
715:quasicrystal
707:icosahedrite
703:
699:
681:metals from
673:
665:stratosphere
634:
627:
620:
616:
590:
582:meridianiite
571:
564:
561:
510:
488:
466:
420:
411:
362:
350:fluorescence
303:
281:
277:
265:
254:
240:
223:
211:
183:is given as
162:
151:
124:
109:
82:
65:
61:
51:
32:Crystals of
25:
9181:Nationalism
9153:Common-pool
8794:Hydrosphere
8787:remediation
8772:Groundwater
8367:Degradation
8064:Plagioclase
8044:Bridgmanite
7676:January 24,
6742:, pp 558β59
6694:(Hardcover)
6572:, pp. 44β45
6449:, pp. 43β44
6422:, pp. 30β31
6410:, pp. 31β33
6398:, pp. 30β31
6386:, pp. 29β30
6369:, pp. 39β40
6335:, pp. 24β26
6142:, pp. 28β29
6115:, pp. 32β39
6091:, pp. 41β43
6031:, pp. 69β80
6016:, pp. 22β23
5968:, pp. 12β17
5743:, pp. 14β15
5622:, pp. 15β16
5000:, pp. 20β22
4959:, pp. 13β14
4486:objective.
4429:autotrophic
4417:Opportunity
4405:reactions.
4383:biominerals
4135:calcite sea
4057:(KCl), and
4039:baking soda
4025:Pink cubic
3909:cassiterite
3815:molybdenite
3735:native iron
3574:spessartine
3463:vesuvianite
3420:metapelites
3278:asbestiform
3243:Asbestiform
3199:ionic bonds
2658:petrography
2540:(often 10%
2524:radioactive
2355:pleochroism
2351:iridescence
2332:labradorite
2237:petrography
2210:diaphaneity
2199:apophyllite
1771:sillimanite
1730:(PbS), and
1127:sillimanite
1063:labradorite
1012:plagioclase
841:cassiterite
738:sillimanite
695:dissolution
679:precipitate
649:hydrosphere
623:biominerals
519:mackinawite
493:macroscopic
431:), such as
403:Definitions
340:, parting,
322:diaphaneity
181:mackinawite
135:mineraloids
9238:Mineralogy
9227:Categories
9176:Extraction
9135:Wilderness
9096:accounting
9079:Management
9045:ecological
9033:tragedy of
8952:Peak water
8937:Efficiency
8910:Sanitation
8852:Stormwater
8845:harvesting
8821:Irrigation
8723:management
8681:gene banks
8622:management
8600:management
8516:resilience
8482:phosphorus
8438:industrial
8416:Management
8392:soundscape
8298:Geothermal
8049:K-feldspar
8007:Mineralogy
7890:August 14,
7861:(3): 595.
7567:2009-07-22
7513:2268/29163
7454:mindat.org
7424:mindat.org
7043:pp. 612β13
7012:2012-08-20
6953:Nesse 2000
6726:2018-11-13
6675:2020-08-29
6597:2012-08-15
6512:"Kamacite"
6460:"Hematite"
6432:Nesse 2000
6213:"Hardness"
6157:Mindat.org
5918:Nesse 2000
5869:Nesse 2000
5779:etymonline
5729:Nesse 2000
5236:2019-02-01
4857:2018-04-04
4570:References
4337:whewellite
4243:Phosphates
4189:evaporites
4097:Carbonates
4067:evaporites
3921:pyrolusite
3831:sulfosalts
3803:sphalerite
3685:tourmaline
3661:staurolite
3459:blueschist
3395:Cordierite
3329:group and
3327:tourmaline
3307:chrysotile
3303:riebeckite
3295:actinolite
3283:asbestosis
3259:amphiboles
3213:, and the
3186:serpentine
3180:, and the
3101:stishovite
3072:, and the
2987:stishovite
2945:amphiboles
2935:, quartz,
2813:monoclinic
2777:phlogopite
2774:endmembers
2766:polymorphs
2745:See also:
2727:biologists
2588:pyrrhotite
2574:silica gel
2550:effervesce
2546:carbonates
2426:sphalerite
2401:orthoclase
2347:chatoyancy
2203:chrysotile
2015:Orthoclase
2006:(OH,Cl,F)
1837:staurolite
1783:stishovite
1767:andalusite
1740:polymorphs
1689:a β b β c
1674:orthoclase
1663:a β b β c
1659:Monoclinic
1652:tourmaline
1637:a = b β c
1611:a β b β c
1600:andalusite
1585:a = b β c
1581:Tetragonal
1559:a = b = c
1520:restricted
1489:See also:
1413:, such as
1411:polymorphs
1201:Orthoclase
1195:rock cycle
1170:weathering
1158:orthoclase
1123:andalusite
1073:series of
1071:wolframite
1055:oligoclase
1004:end member
984:riebeckite
936:wolframite
849:colemanite
837:sphalerite
804:amphiboles
713:, it is a
669:mesosphere
653:atmosphere
552:forsterite
521:, (Fe, Ni)
479:inclusions
453:taranakite
397:phosphates
389:carbonates
324:, colour,
204:, meaning
143:stishovite
85:geological
58:mineralogy
9186:Renewable
9171:Depletion
9158:Conflict
9040:Economics
9018:enclosure
8977:Resources
8957:Pollution
8874:Watershed
8777:pollution
8708:Seed bank
8703:Rangeland
8585:Fisheries
8570:Biosphere
8563:biopiracy
8506:fertility
8382:cityscape
8377:Landscape
8284:peak coal
8271:Resources
8222:Emissions
8039:Amphibole
7884:111388809
7711:CiteSeerX
6223:4 October
6197:4 October
6153:"Kyanite"
5809:, pp. 4β7
5585:101152220
5541:Bindi, L.
5432:130343033
5115:232388764
4872:"Mercury"
4468:taphonomy
4460:habitable
4427:based on
4425:biosphere
4411:Curiosity
4233:anglesite
4225:celestine
4209:anhydrite
4131:aragonite
4114:aragonite
4091:Greenland
4031:nahcolite
3985:magnetite
3929:manganese
3927:; ore of
3915:; ore of
3865:periclase
3791:pnictogen
3787:chalcogen
3776:Wisconsin
3767:from the
3634:andradite
3614:grossular
3594:uvarovite
3554:almandine
3506:tephroite
3455:lawsonite
3299:grunerite
3291:tremolite
3255:pyroxenes
3246:tremolite
3211:muscovite
3182:kaolinite
3137:nepheline
3129:anorthite
3121:banalsite
3089:tridymite
3066:feldspars
3058:Natrolite
2959:Silicates
2941:pyroxenes
2933:feldspars
2929:silicates
2890:phosphate
2849:magnetite
2789:eastonite
2691:Aristotle
2683:On Stones
2637:amorphous
2629:carnotite
2621:uraninite
2584:magnetite
2580:Magnetism
2562:limestone
2520:Carnotite
2373:instead.
2308:malachite
2286:grossular
2282:uvarovite
2214:muscovite
1849:natrolite
1842:fivelings
1748:marcasite
1732:periclase
1696:Anorthite
1685:Triclinic
1633:Hexagonal
1622:aragonite
1555:Isometric
1457:magnetism
1415:tridymite
1224:kaolinite
1154:kaolinite
1083:ferberite
1079:hΓΌbnerite
1075:manganese
1067:bytownite
1039:anorthite
1015:feldspars
997:CIPW norm
988:muscovite
976:potassium
964:magnesium
956:aluminium
932:HΓΌbnerite
923:Chemistry
886:Etymology
870:are both
823:muscovite
808:pyroxenes
796:feldspars
765:aragonite
757:quartzite
753:limestone
661:sea floor
657:biosphere
576:solid at
497:ozokerite
483:water ice
461:alpersite
457:bat guano
445:seashells
346:magnetism
165:varieties
116:aggregate
91:(such as
38:natrolite
34:serandite
9233:Minerals
9212:Category
9145:Resource
9084:adaptive
8982:improved
8942:Conflict
8927:Security
8922:Scarcity
8915:improved
8905:Leaching
8782:recharge
8762:Drinking
8713:Wildlife
8580:Bushmeat
8575:Bushfood
8528:planning
8433:gemstone
8428:Minerals
8409:property
8397:viewshed
8387:seascape
8318:sunlight
8292:peak oil
8288:peak gas
8069:Pyroxene
7988:Overview
7981:Minerals
7741:52836398
7733:24324272
7670:Archived
7622:24458635
7561:Archived
7530:Archived
7458:Archived
7428:Archived
7385:, p. 674
7361:, p. 453
7337:, p. 667
7325:, p. 431
7253:, p. 383
7241:, p. 654
7217:, p. 649
7205:, p. 357
7157:, p. 573
7091:, p. 558
7031:, p. 112
7006:Archived
6991:, p. 537
6931:, p. 525
6919:, p. 110
6895:, p. 588
6832:, p. 105
6796:, p. 104
6769:, p. 681
6754:, p. 641
6720:Archived
6669:Archived
6591:Archived
6542:Archived
6516:Archived
6490:Archived
6486:"Galena"
6464:Archived
6191:Archived
6161:Archived
6079:, p. 166
6055:, p. 581
6004:, p. 579
5992:, p. 549
5956:, p. 585
5932:, p. 141
5908:, p. 586
5789:28 March
5783:Archived
5757:Archived
5602:Archived
5499:Archived
5483:17800080
5388:19993145
5380:12586932
5329:12004119
5286:19527292
5230:Archived
5226:23374807
5218:18497290
5137:Archived
5012:, p. 556
4974:Archived
4902:Archived
4876:Archived
4851:Archived
4794:20 April
4788:Archived
4732:Archived
4706:Archived
4677:Archived
4641:Archived
4584:Minerals
4490:See also
4351:O is an
4299:monazite
4165:Sulfates
4139:Dolomite
4087:Ivittuut
4083:bauxites
4071:Cryolite
4059:fluorite
3973:chromite
3941:gibbsite
3937:diaspore
3933:Bauxites
3905:titanium
3889:hematite
3877:corundum
3835:antimony
3811:cinnabar
3769:Devonian
3741:Sulfides
3727:kamacite
3448:fugacity
3364:W. The T
3178:chlorite
3074:zeolites
2974:Aegirine
2937:olivines
2922:vanadate
2906:arsenate
2853:hematite
2817:amethyst
2793:pyroxene
2707:Linnaeus
2625:autunite
2592:ilmenite
2566:dolomite
2558:dolomite
2501:kamacite
2481:hematite
2422:fluorite
2367:hematite
2343:asterism
2324:corundum
2320:sapphire
2241:hematite
2222:nephrite
2075:Corundum
1974:Fluorite
1897:Mineral
1859:Hardness
1832:Twinning
1810:graphite
1726:(NaCl),
1717:trigonal
1543:Lengths
1440:chemical
1294:to form
1217:plutonic
1186:magmatic
1182:tectonic
1162:twinning
1059:andesine
904:minerale
872:corundum
868:sapphire
833:cinnabar
812:olivines
691:catalyze
683:solution
637:genetics
556:fayalite
517:such as
505:obsidian
501:limonite
449:evenkite
429:biogenic
393:sulfates
377:sulfides
338:fracture
334:cleavage
330:tenacity
314:hardness
239:, where
169:amethyst
131:obsidian
89:biogenic
46:aegirine
42:analcime
9013:Commons
9002:Related
8967:Quality
8883:Aspects
8809:glacial
8750:Aquifer
8656:Pasture
8607:Forests
8533:reserve
8308:Nuclear
8278: (
8234:Trading
8229:Airshed
8088:Related
8059:Olivine
8012:History
7995:Mineral
7863:Bibcode
7703:Bibcode
7694:Science
7665:Science
7641:Science
7600:Bibcode
7591:Science
7492:Bibcode
7464:3 April
7434:3 April
6548:3 April
6522:3 April
6496:3 April
6470:3 April
6350:, p. 73
6320:, p. 24
6285:, p. 23
6273:, p. 25
6258:, p. 72
6167:3 April
6127:, p. 38
6103:, p. 39
5944:, p. 14
5754:mineral
5694:, p. 14
5682:, p. 15
5565:Bibcode
5475:2874281
5455:Bibcode
5447:Science
5412:Bibcode
5372:3833546
5352:Science
5337:1235688
5309:Bibcode
5301:Science
5264:Bibcode
5198:Bibcode
5190:Science
5143:4 April
5095:Bibcode
5063:7008198
5055:1685216
5035:Bibcode
5027:Science
4980:3 April
4908:3 April
4882:3 April
4738:1 March
4712:19 July
4647:18 July
4474:), and
4472:fossils
4435:and/or
4353:oxalate
4259:apatite
4231:), and
4055:sylvite
4051:halogen
4011:Halides
3983:), and
3949:spinels
3945:bohmite
3919:), and
3887:), and
3869:cuprite
3843:bismuth
3839:arsenic
3765:calcite
3731:taenite
3679:(F, OH)
3572:), and
3424:species
3416:epidote
3220:brucite
3215:biotite
3117:celsian
3097:coesite
2949:garnets
2908:), and
2874:sulfate
2770:biotite
2754:formula
2735:species
2673:In 315
2617:uranium
2607:sylvite
2570:Zeolite
2527:uranium
2472:density
2397:biotite
2336:bornite
2312:azurite
2290:garnets
2218:Jadeite
2191:diamond
2119:⁄
2095:Diamond
1990:Apatite
1958:Calcite
1882:ordinal
1806:diamond
1763:kyanite
1713:systems
1704:kyanite
1648:calcite
1618:Olivine
1546:Angles
1436:optical
1423:coesite
1394:+ 3 SiO
1364:kyanite
1250:2 KAlSi
1213:granite
1119:kyanite
1107:olivine
1035:calcium
1025:(NaAlSi
968:calcium
952:silicon
917:species
906:, from
773:granite
761:calcite
601:diamond
540:olivine
531:ferrous
471:mercury
455:, from
385:halides
185:(Fe,Ni)
101:mellite
93:calcite
62:mineral
54:geology
9023:global
8987:policy
8932:Supply
8895:Floods
8862:Sewage
8835:Marine
8827:huerta
8661:Plants
8651:Meadow
8511:health
8489:rights
8477:copper
8455:mining
8353:arable
8253:Energy
8193:Indoor
8079:Spinel
8074:Quartz
7881:
7826:
7807:
7784:
7765:
7739:
7731:
7713:
7620:
7553:(.doc)
6808:, p. 5
6712:
6661:
6538:"Gold"
5889:
5852:
5827:
5712:
5583:
5523:
5481:
5473:
5430:
5386:
5378:
5370:
5335:
5327:
5284:
5224:
5216:
5167:
5113:
5061:
5053:
4940:
4761:
4671:
4618:
4595:
4452:rivers
4448:plains
4421:rovers
4403:biotic
4217:barite
4195:, CaSO
4193:gypsum
4027:halite
3961:spinel
3943:, and
3849:Oxides
3807:galena
3663:, and
3657:zircon
3632:) and
3534:pyrope
3301:, and
3125:albite
3105:rutile
3081:quartz
2995:rutile
2951:, and
2851:, and
2845:pyrite
2805:bigger
2787:, and
2785:annite
2633:zircon
2627:, and
2603:Halite
2493:galena
2461:Galena
2187:galena
2178:Pyrite
2063:(OH,F)
2035:Quartz
1937:Gypsum
1826:spinel
1769:, and
1744:pyrite
1728:galena
1724:halite
1700:albite
1678:gypsum
1644:Quartz
1596:zircon
1592:Rutile
1574:pyrite
1570:halite
1566:Garnet
1292:quartz
1156:after
1125:, and
1111:garnet
1103:mantle
1077:-rich
1065:, and
1037:-rich
1023:albite
1019:sodium
972:sodium
948:oxygen
909:minera
810:, the
806:, the
802:, the
798:, the
779:, and
769:quartz
730:Schist
655:, and
597:galena
535:nickel
395:, and
381:oxides
326:streak
318:lustre
297:, the
173:quartz
139:quartz
120:phases
44:, and
9166:Curse
8972:Right
8814:polar
8804:bergs
8767:Fresh
8735:Water
8448:metal
8372:Field
8323:shade
8313:Solar
8303:Hydro
8188:Index
7879:S2CID
7849:(PDF)
7737:S2CID
6619:(3).
5581:S2CID
5471:JSTOR
5428:S2CID
5384:S2CID
5368:JSTOR
5333:S2CID
5222:S2CID
5111:S2CID
5051:JSTOR
4898:"Ice"
4456:lakes
4339:, CaC
4235:(PbSO
4227:(SrSO
4219:(BaSO
4122:karst
4116:(CaCO
3999:(FeFe
3975:(FeCr
3963:(MgAl
3841:, or
3665:topaz
3331:beryl
2953:micas
2756:, SiO
2687:Plato
2414:micas
2051:Topaz
2019:KAlSi
1516:X-ray
1511:ionic
1500:Topaz
1469:acids
1334:+ SiO
1286:+ 2 K
1278:+ 4 H
1258:+ 5 H
1041:(CaAl
1033:) to
853:boron
800:micas
732:is a
459:; or
310:habit
95:) or
70:solid
9101:good
9050:land
9028:land
8840:Rain
8696:wood
8671:food
8634:Game
8545:Life
8496:Soil
8472:peak
8465:sand
8340:Land
8330:Wind
8205:(US)
8182:(US)
8054:Mica
8000:List
7938:NASA
7892:2017
7824:ISBN
7805:ISBN
7782:ISBN
7763:ISBN
7729:PMID
7678:2014
7618:PMID
7466:2018
7436:2018
6710:ISBN
6659:ISBN
6550:2018
6524:2018
6498:2018
6472:2018
6225:2021
6199:2021
6169:2018
5887:ISBN
5850:ISBN
5825:ISBN
5791:2018
5710:ISBN
5521:ISBN
5479:PMID
5376:PMID
5325:PMID
5282:PMID
5214:PMID
5165:ISBN
5145:2018
5059:PMID
4982:2018
4938:ISBN
4910:2018
4884:2018
4796:2021
4759:ISBN
4740:2018
4714:2024
4669:ISBN
4649:2019
4616:ISBN
4593:ISBN
4484:NASA
4480:Mars
4414:and
4253:The
4183:The
4107:The
4073:, Na
4061:(CaF
4045:The
3923:(MnO
3911:(SnO
3817:(MoS
3799:ores
3781:The
3729:and
3644:(SiO
3624:(SiO
3604:(SiO
3584:(SiO
3564:(SiO
3544:(SiO
3524:(SiO
3508:, Mn
3438:)(Si
3174:mica
3151::SiO
3119:and
3107:(TiO
3091:and
3083:(SiO
2997:(TiO
2989:(SiO
2689:and
2590:and
2564:and
2538:acid
2483:, Fe
2385:and
2359:opal
2334:and
2318:and
2316:ruby
2235:for
2226:jade
2220:and
2208:The
2197:and
2195:talc
2155:The
2149:The
2143:The
1962:CaCO
1941:CaSO
1925:(OH)
1909:Talc
1808:and
1785:(SiO
1746:and
1532:viz.
1483:and
1417:and
1386:β Al
1382:(OH)
1350:(OH)
1338:β Al
1330:(OH)
1310:(OH)
1274:(OH)
1238:(OH)
1215:, a
1109:and
974:and
960:iron
874:, Al
866:and
864:ruby
859:Gems
843:(SnO
829:Ores
789:coal
749:rock
693:the
639:and
599:and
554:and
412:The
358:acid
152:The
141:and
127:opal
112:rock
83:The
60:, a
56:and
8900:Law
8799:Ice
8639:law
8617:law
8595:law
8523:Use
8460:law
8443:ore
8404:Law
8280:gas
8266:Law
8261:Bio
8198:Law
8163:Air
7871:doi
7859:102
7721:doi
7699:343
7646:343
7608:doi
7596:343
7508:hdl
7500:doi
6702:doi
6651:doi
6621:doi
5573:doi
5463:doi
5451:247
5420:doi
5408:336
5360:doi
5356:299
5317:doi
5305:296
5272:doi
5206:doi
5194:320
5103:doi
5043:doi
5031:211
4817:doi
4702:IMA
4454:or
4289:(PO
4277:(PO
4265:(PO
4223:),
4199:β
2H
4133:or
4077:AlF
3987:(Fe
3971:),
3917:tin
3891:(Fe
3879:(Al
3871:(Cu
3789:or
3774:of
3675:SiO
3636:(Ca
3616:(Ca
3612:),
3596:(Ca
3576:(Mn
3556:(Fe
3552:),
3536:(Mg
3512:SiO
3500:SiO
3492:SiO
3344:(BO
2894:AsO
2892:),
2876:),
2811:or
2737:).
2675:BCE
2647:or
2619:in
2542:HCl
2091:10
2059:SiO
2039:SiO
1998:(PO
1978:CaF
1945:Β·2H
1801:).
1777:SiO
1522:to
1442:or
1398:+ H
1390:SiO
1354:+ H
1314:):
1298:(Al
1282:SiO
1246:):
1226:(Al
1184:or
1172:or
1133:SiO
763:or
755:or
687:ore
671:).
546:SiO
287:SiO
129:or
64:or
52:In
9229::
8290:,
8286:,
8282:,
7936:,
7877:.
7869:.
7857:.
7851:.
7803:.
7735:.
7727:.
7719:.
7709:.
7697:.
7662:.
7644:.
7630:^
7616:.
7606:.
7594:.
7588:.
7576:^
7555:.
7506:.
7498:.
7488:21
7486:.
7474:^
7456:.
7452:.
7426:.
7422:.
7135:^
7108:^
7021:^
6837:^
6786:^
6759:^
6718:.
6708:.
6667:.
6657:.
6645:.
6633:^
6617:85
6615:.
6589:.
6585:.
6558:^
6439:^
6374:^
6355:^
6340:^
6325:^
6302:^
6263:^
6242:^
6189:.
6185:.
6159:.
6155:.
6132:^
6021:^
5799:^
5781:.
5777:.
5612:^
5579:.
5571:.
5561:96
5559:.
5553:13
5551:Fe
5549:24
5547:Cu
5545:63
5477:.
5469:.
5461:.
5449:.
5426:.
5418:.
5406:.
5382:.
5374:.
5366:.
5354:.
5331:.
5323:.
5315:.
5303:.
5280:.
5270:.
5260:69
5258:.
5254:.
5228:.
5220:.
5212:.
5204:.
5192:.
5188:.
5131:.
5109:.
5101:.
5091:69
5089:.
5071:^
5057:.
5049:.
5041:.
5029:.
5017:^
4990:^
4918:^
4847:33
4845:.
4841:.
4827:^
4804:^
4786:.
4782:.
4700:.
4688:^
4675:.
4466:,
4431:,
4347:β
H
4161:.
4089:,
4041:).
3939:,
3837:,
3659:,
3640:Fe
3620:Al
3600:Cr
3580:Al
3560:Al
3540:Al
3430:Al
3391:18
3385:Si
3381:Be
3374:3+
3370:18
3358:18
3297:,
3293:,
3289:,
3193:,
3176:,
3068:,
2955:.
2947:,
2943:,
2939:,
2910:VO
2878:PO
2862:SO
2847:,
2783:,
2779:,
2677:,
2660:.
2623:,
2576:.
2444:.
2403:).
2349:,
2345:,
2338:.
2205:.
2130:.
2099:C
2079:Al
2071:9
2055:Al
2047:8
2031:7
2011:6
1994:Ca
1986:5
1970:4
1954:3
1949:O
1933:2
1923:10
1917:Si
1913:Mg
1905:1
1765:,
1702:,
1698:,
1676:,
1672:,
1650:,
1646:,
1624:,
1620:,
1598:,
1594:,
1572:,
1568:,
1471:.
1459:,
1455:,
1451:,
1438:,
1380:10
1374:Si
1370:Al
1348:10
1342:Si
1322:Si
1318:Al
1308:10
1302:Si
1266:Si
1230:Si
1121:,
1085:.
1061:,
1057:,
1045:Si
970:,
966:,
962:,
958:,
954:,
950:,
902::
882:.
855:.
747:A
651:,
603:.
558:).
503:,
499:,
439:,
435:,
399:.
391:,
387:,
383:,
379:,
375:,
360:.
352:,
348:,
344:,
336:,
332:,
328:,
320:,
316:,
312:,
301:.
276:2-
271:Fe
260:Mg
249:Ca
222:9-
217:Ni
206:Fe
149:.
122:.
40:,
36:,
8294:)
8147:e
8140:t
8133:v
7973:e
7966:t
7959:v
7932:(
7894:.
7873::
7865::
7832:.
7813:.
7790:.
7771:.
7743:.
7723::
7705::
7680:.
7624:.
7610::
7602::
7570:.
7516:.
7510::
7502::
7494::
7468:.
7438:.
7015:.
6729:.
6704::
6678:.
6653::
6627:.
6623::
6600:.
6552:.
6526:.
6500:.
6474:.
6227:.
6201:.
6171:.
5895:.
5858:.
5833:.
5793:.
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5718:.
5587:.
5575::
5567::
5529:.
5485:.
5465::
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5434:.
5422::
5414::
5390:.
5362::
5339:.
5319::
5311::
5288:.
5274::
5266::
5239:.
5208::
5200::
5173:.
5147:.
5117:.
5105::
5097::
5065:.
5045::
5037::
4984:.
4946:.
4912:.
4886:.
4860:.
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4798:.
4767:.
4742:.
4716:.
4683:.
4651:.
4624:.
4446:(
4397:(
4349:2
4345:4
4343:O
4341:2
4303:4
4295:3
4293:)
4291:4
4287:5
4283:3
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