Biology - Knowledge

14447: 3090:, animals were selectively bred for specific traits. Given that traits are inherited, populations contain a varied mix of traits, and reproduction is able to increase any population, Darwin argued that in the natural world, it was nature that played the role of humans in selecting for specific traits. Darwin inferred that individuals who possessed heritable traits better adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and produce more offspring than other individuals. He further inferred that this would lead to the accumulation of favorable traits over successive generations, thereby increasing the match between the organisms and their environment. 2137:. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or 2817: 1371: 2160: 3062: 3136: 2617: 4181: 14471: 1825: 12133: 3496: 962: 14483: 2379: 1126: 1927: 14409: 13964: 13138: 12796: 775: 1599: 13974: 5175: 2013: 1735: 14435: 12784: 762: 14459: 1541:, which is a large family of organic compounds that are composed of hydrogen atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound. Groups of atoms that contain these elements (O-, H-, P-, and S-) and are bonded to a central carbon atom or skeleton are called 1480: 3779: 12816: 4367: 13984: 12806: 36: 60: 4263: 3991: 2227:(PSI). The transport of electrons is coupled to the movement of protons (or hydrogen) from the stroma to the thylakoid membrane, which forms a pH gradient across the membrane as hydrogen becomes more concentrated in the lumen than in the stroma. This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration. 3192:

of descendants of a particular species or population. When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a fork or split on the phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetic trees are the basis for comparing and grouping different species. Different species that share a feature inherited from a common ancestor

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into an early eukaryote about one billion years ago, which gave rise to chloroplasts. The first several clades that emerged following primary endosymbiosis were aquatic and most of the aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms are collectively described as algae, which is a term of convenience as

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that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup

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In the global ecosystem or biosphere, matter exists as different interacting compartments, which can be biotic or abiotic as well as accessible or inaccessible, depending on their forms and locations. For example, matter from terrestrial autotrophs are both biotic and accessible to other organisms

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designated as Q. In the second stage, electrons move from the quinone primary electron acceptor through a series of electron carriers until they reach a final electron acceptor, which is usually the oxidized form of NADP, which is reduced to NADPH, a process that takes place in a protein complex

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containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. The different stages of mitosis all together define the mitotic phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two genetically identical daughter cells. The cell cycle is a vital process by which a single-celled

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that can later be released to fuel the organism's metabolic activities via cellular respiration. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants,

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at the start of chapter XII noted “The first and most important of the conclusions which may be drawn from the observations given in this volume, is that generally cross-fertilisation is beneficial and self-fertilisation often injurious, at least with the plants on which I experimented.”

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on the cell. Before binary fission, DNA in the bacterium is tightly coiled. After it has uncoiled and duplicated, it is pulled to the separate poles of the bacterium as it increases the size to prepare for splitting. Growth of a new cell wall begins to separate the bacterium (triggered by

1970:, in which one chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, each step being facilitated by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive desirable reactions that require energy that will not occur by themselves, by 2713: 3584: 10146: 4351:

of a trophic level per unit of time is about one-tenth of the energy of the trophic level that it consumes. Waste and dead material used by decomposers as well as heat lost from metabolism make up the other ninety percent of energy that is not consumed by the next trophic level.

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began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells, continuing to support

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Biologists could say, with confidence, that forms change, and that natural selection is an important force for change. Yet they could say nothing about how that change is accomplished. How bodies or body parts change, or how new structures arise, remained complete

4462:, and ecosystem diversity. The concern stems from estimates suggesting that up to 50% of all species on the planet will disappear within the next 50 years, which has contributed to poverty, starvation, and will reset the course of evolution on this planet. 3031:, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals. Differences in deployment of toolkit genes affect the body plan and the number, identity, and pattern of body parts. Among the most important toolkit genes are the 6062: 2035:, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are 3104:

A species is a group of organisms that mate with one another and speciation is the process by which one lineage splits into two lineages as a result of having evolved independently from each other. For speciation to occur, there has to be

10162: 3760:, mouth, and on the skin. Their morphological, metabolic, and geographical diversity permits them to play multiple ecological roles: carbon fixation; nitrogen cycling; organic compound turnover; and maintaining microbial symbiotic and 9456:"There are more viruses than stars in the universe. Why do only some infect us? – More than a quadrillion quadrillion individual viruses exist on Earth, but most are not poised to hop into humans. Can we find the ones that are?" 2308:

cells, for example, can reproduce uncontrollably because they release signals that initiate their own self-division. In paracrine signaling, the ligand diffuses to nearby cells and affects them. For example, brain cells called

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are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of

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The history of life on Earth traces how organisms have evolved from the earliest emergence of life to present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago and all life on Earth, both living and extinct, descended from a

6059: 2979:, and growth. Determination sets the developmental fate of a cell, which becomes more restrictive during development. Differentiation is the process by which specialized cells arise from less specialized cells such as 1381:

Life arose from the Earth's first ocean, which formed some 3.8 billion years ago. Since then, water continues to be the most abundant molecule in every organism. Water is important to life because it is an effective

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living together in a community have on each other. They can be either of the same species (intraspecific interactions), or of different species (interspecific interactions). These effects may be short-term, like

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Brandeis M. New-age ideas about age-old sex: separating meiosis from mating could solve a century-old conundrum. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2018 May;93(2):801-810. doi: 10.1111/brv.12367. Epub 2017 Sep 14. PMID

8410: 2967:(plant or animal) goes through a series of changes, starting from a single cell, and taking on various forms that are characteristic of its life cycle. There are four key processes that underlie development: 2333:

of plants to reach their target cells. Once a ligand binds with a receptor, it can influence the behavior of another cell, depending on the type of receptor. For instance, neurotransmitters that bind with an

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and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is concerned with factors that influence the maintenance, loss, and restoration of biodiversity and the science of sustaining evolutionary processes that engender

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and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix. At the end of the cycle, the total yield from 1 glucose (or 2 pyruvates) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH

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showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, white are stored carbon. Effects of the

1966:) of compounds (such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids). Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy. The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into 2238:

in the second and third stages, respectively, provide the energy and electrons to drive the synthesis of glucose by fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide into existing organic carbon compounds, such as

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in an organism. The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes; the conversion of food/fuel to monomer building blocks; and the elimination of

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that are available. The carrying capacity of a population can be affected by changing environmental conditions such as changes in the availability of resources and the cost of maintaining them. In

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Photosynthesis – the synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, esp. carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than the oxidation of chemical compounds.

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in 1865. This outlined the principles of biological inheritance. However, the significance of his work was not realized until the early 20th century when evolution became a unified theory as the

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are eukaryotes that digest foods outside their bodies, secreting digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes. Many fungi are also

2498:). Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle. Both are believed to be present in the last eukaryotic common ancestor. 9543:"The Secret Life of a Coronavirus - An oily, 100-nanometer-wide bubble of genes has killed more than two million people and reshaped the world. Scientists don't quite know what to make of it" 3847:), protists by themselves do not constitute a separate clade as some protists may be more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists. Like groupings such as 1494:

are molecules that contain carbon bonded to another element such as hydrogen. With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon. Carbon can form

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Sugar in the form of glucose is the main nutrient used by animal and plant cells in respiration. Cellular respiration involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, which has four stages:

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is the transcription factor that stimulates transcription when it binds to the sequence near or at the promoter. Negative regulation occurs when another transcription factor called a

2662:, states that genes of different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes, i.e., genes are unlinked. An exception to this rule would include traits that are 1896:, all of which provide support for the cell and are involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles. In terms of their structural composition, the microtubules are made up of 4849:

Mosconi, Francesco; Julou, Thomas; Desprat, Nicolas; Sinha, Deepak Kumar; Allemand, Jean-François; Vincent Croquette; Bensimon, David (2008). "Some nonlinear challenges in biology".

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have helped increase the Earth's carrying capacity for humans over time, which has stymied the attempted predictions of impending population decline, the most famous of which was by

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Wible, John R.; Rougier, Guillermo W.; Novacek, Michael J.; et al. (June 21, 2007). "Cretaceous eutherians and Laurasian origin for placental mammals near the K/T boundary".

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Yanes, Oscar; Clark, Julie; Wong, Diana M.; Patti, Gary J.; Sánchez-Ruiz, Antonio; Benton, H. Paul; Trauger, Sunia A.; Desponts, Caroline; Ding, Sheng; Siuzdak, Gary (June 2010).

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The beneficial effect of genetic complementation, derived from outcrossing (cross-fertilization) is also referred to as hybrid vigor or heterosis. Charles Darwin in his 1878 book

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Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363

1950:. These enzyme-catalyzed reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolic reactions may be categorized as 9455: 1884:

that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds. Eukaryotic cells also have cytoskeleton that is made up of

4893: 3023:. Morphogenesis, or the development of body form, is the result of spatial differences in gene expression. A small fraction of the genes in an organism's genome called the 3887:, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae. Unlike glaucophytes, the other algal clades such as 10714:

Koh, Lian Pin; Dunn, Robert R.; Sodhi, Navjot S.; Colwell, Robert K.; Proctor, Heather C.; Smith, Vincent S. (2004). "Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis".

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Water and carbon: The chemical basis of life".

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with up to four other atoms, enabling it to form diverse, large, and complex molecules. For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in

2634:, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring. It has several principles. The first is that genetic characteristics, 6143:

Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold.; Kaiser, Chris A.; Krieger, Monty; Scott, Matthew P.; Bretscher, Anthony; Ploegh, Hidde; Matsudaira, Paul (2008). "Cellular energetics".

7532: 1777:, allowing small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water to pass through while restricting the movement of larger molecules and charged particles such as 7437: 5976: 5803:

Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Lipids, membranes, and the first cells".

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that corresponds to a region of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that carries genetic information that controls form or function of an organism. DNA is composed of two

3799:) that gave rise to mitochondria and chloroplasts, both of which are now part of modern-day eukaryotic cells. The major lineages of eukaryotes diversified in the 2234:

from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the ATP synthase is coupled to the synthesis of ATP by that same ATP synthase. The NADPH and ATPs generated by the

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that loosely attach to the outer side of the cell membrane, acting as enzymes shaping the cell. Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as

3292:, which lasted approximately 4 billion years. Each eon can be divided into eras, with the Phanerozoic eon that began 539 million years ago being subdivided into 911:

Life on Earth, which emerged more than 3.7 billion years ago, is immensely diverse. Biologists have sought to study and classify the various forms of life, from

4331:, which are the species that obtain energy by breaking apart organic compounds from other organisms. Heterotrophs that consume plants are primary consumers (or 9198:

Moissl-Eichinger. C.; Pausan, M.; Taffner, J.; Berg, G.; Bang, C.; Schmitz, R. A. (January 2018). "Archaea Are Interactive Components of Complex Microbiomes".

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Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi; et al. (January 2014). "Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks".

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Nucleic acids and the RNA world".

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "An introduction to carbohydrate".

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of a new cycle. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis results in four haploid daughter cells by undergoing one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions.

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writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on

1003:(384–322 BCE) contributed extensively to the development of biological knowledge. He explored biological causation and the diversity of life. His successor, 6178: 5723:

Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Protein structure and function".

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encode proteins that are not involved in gene regulation. In addition to regulatory events involving the promoter, gene expression can also be regulated by

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Biology and the three of life".

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dates from 1.85 billion years ago, and while they may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when they started using oxygen in their

10042: 9542: 8581: 3859:, the protist grouping is not a formal taxonomic group but is used for convenience. Most protists are unicellular; these are called microbial eukaryotes. 11257: 2129:

of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is

8757: 8732: 3620:. Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of 1413:

O). Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge. This polar

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of a protein. Gene expression can be influenced by positive or negative regulation, depending on which of the two types of regulatory proteins called

1070:. Advances in microscopy had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, biologists pointed to the central importance of the 13093: 10361: 9330:"The collapse of the two-kingdom system, the rise of protistology and the founding of the International Society for Evolutionary Protistology (ISEP)" 8367: 8127: 2325:. In juxtacrine signaling, there is direct contact between the signaling and responding cells. Finally, hormones are ligands that travel through the 1678:

are the fundamental units of life, that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from preexisting cells through

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O'Malley, Maureen A.; Leger, Michelle M.; Wideman, Jeremy G.; Ruiz-Trillo, Iñaki (2019-02-18). "Concepts of the last eukaryotic common ancestor".

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of that dominant allele. During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate, so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

10771: 10483: 9002: 8543: 6118: 8363:"Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events" 6615:

Hörandl E. Apomixis and the paradox of sex in plants. Ann Bot. 2024 Mar 18:mcae044. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcae044. Epub ahead of print. PMID 38497809

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through conservation action plans that direct research, monitoring, and education programs that engage concerns at local through global scales.

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological and evolutionary consequences within and among species".

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The structure and function of large biological molecules".

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Evolution, the themes of biology, and scientific inquiry".

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than it is as a solid (or ice). This unique property of water allows ice to float above liquid water such as ponds, lakes, and oceans, thereby

13402: 8848: 7288: 6509: 5211: 1629:, and fats, largely nonpolar and hydrophobic (water-repelling) substances. Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules. They include 2043:, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a cell because of the slow, controlled release of energy from the series of reactions. 12852: 8535: 7918: 7462:

Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Descent with modifications: A Darwinian view of life".

3146: 9842: 6915: 6740: 4806: 2638:, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents. Based on the 7989:

Rosing, Minik T. (January 29, 1999). "C-Depleted Carbon Microparticles in >3700-Ma Sea-Floor Sedimentary Rocks from West Greenland".

5195: 4067:. Because viruses possess some but not all characteristics of life, they have been described as "organisms at the edge of life", and as 4055:—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of 3464:

became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. After the

3201:). Phylogeny provides the basis of biological classification. This classification system is rank-based, with the highest rank being the 2850:

in 1958. According to the Central Dogma, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. There are two gene expression processes:

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Freeman, Scott; Quillin, Kim; Allison, Lizabeth; Black, Michael; Podgorski, Greg; Taylor, Emily; Carmichael, Jeff (2017). "Meiosis".

3465: 3152: 96: 6557:"Targeting Bacterial Cell Division: A Binding Site-Centered Approach to the Most Promising Inhibitors of the Essential Protein FtsZ" 1621:

include monomers and polymers of sugars. Lipids are the only class of macromolecules that are not made up of polymers. They include

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Darwin, C. R. 1878. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray. darwin-online.org.uk

5554: 5433:, chapter 10: "Darwin's evidence for evolution and common descent"; and chapter 11: "The causation of evolution: natural selection" 4541: 3144: 10020: 8249: 1998:

of the rate of a metabolic reaction, for example in response to changes in the cell's environment or to signals from other cells.

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Carbon and the molecular diversity of life".

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eon and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment. The earliest evidence of

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process whereby each strand serves as a template for a new strand of DNA. Mutations are heritable changes in DNA. They can arise

2593:, often produced as a byproduct of sexual reproduction, may provide long-term advantages to those sexual lineages that engage in 3149: 1115: 3154: 13863: 13225: 11308: 11131: 11104: 11072: 11045: 11015: 10986: 10954: 10924: 10895: 10855: 10580: 10552: 10466: 10293: 10156: 10088: 9947: 9922: 9836: 9810: 8682: 7965: 7865: 7406: 7282: 6711: 6684: 6324: 5970: 5456: 5309: 5284: 5252: 5225: 5145: 5114: 5087: 5053: 5017: 4833: 3457: 3188:, a diagram showing lines of descent among organisms or their genes. Each line drawn on the time axis of a tree represents a 2639: 1344:

is the branch of biology that seeks to understand the molecular basis of biological activity in and between cells, including

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The distribution of Earth's ecological systems".

8469: 8176: 7412: 1449:. Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into 13667: 12559: 8607: 7491: 6007: 5462: 5258: 5120: 5010:

The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context

3418:, at least 2.7 billion years ago. Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the 2659: 2264:

to receive, process, and transmit signals with its environment and with itself. Signals can be non-chemical such as light,

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The origin and diversification of eukaryotes".

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that feed on the waste products or dead bodies of organisms. On average, the total amount of energy incorporated into the

13235: 12141: 2679: 2533:) fully develops, resulting in the complete split of the bacterium. The new daughter cells have tightly coiled DNA rods, 893: 707: 6671:

Griffiths, Anthony J. F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M., eds. (2000).

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indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell. Cellular differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape,

1397:. Once dissolved in water, these solutes are more likely to come in contact with one another and therefore take part in 13025: 13000: 11729: 10630: 10392: 10336: 10312:

Edwards, Katrina. "Microbiology of a Sediment Pond and the Underlying Young, Cold, Hydrologically Active Ridge Flank".

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play a role in the synthesis and packaging of proteins, respectively. Biomolecules such as proteins can be engulfed by

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were able to reify the third tenet, and by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets which consolidated into

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with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Membrane structure and function".

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A phylogeny is an evolutionary history of a specific group of organisms or their genes. It can be represented using a

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Hillis, David M.; Heller, H. Craig; Hacker, Sally D.; Laskowski, Marta J.; Sadava, David E. (2020). "Studying life".

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by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Carbon and molecular diversity of life".

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results from the cohesive force due to the attraction between molecules at the surface of the liquid. Water is also

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Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "The chemical context of life".

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Modell, Harold; Cliff, William; Michael, Joel; McFarland, Jenny; Wenderoth, Mary Pat; Wright, Ann (December 2015).

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relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only about 27 percent of the

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Rybicki, E. P. (1990). "The classification of organisms at the edge of life, or problems with virus systematics".

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution and diversity of fungi".

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Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Reconstructing and using phylogenies".

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Algae-like multicellular land plants are dated back to about 1 billion years ago, although evidence suggests that

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showed that organic compounds could be synthesized abiotically within a closed system mimicking the conditions of

1453:. As a molecule, water is not completely stable as each water molecule continuously dissociates into hydrogen and 39:

Biology is the science of life. It spans multiple levels from biomolecules and cells to organisms and populations.

13256: 12972: 12912: 12882: 8897:"Geomicrobiology of high-level nuclear waste-contaminated vadose sediments at the Hanford site, Washington state" 6168: 4536: 3844: 3150: 2896:

bind to the DNA sequence close to or at a promoter. A cluster of genes that share the same promoter is called an

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If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of

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sequence itself. Thus, different cells can have very different physical characteristics despite having the same

2124:. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to 2082:, and 2 ATP molecules. Finally, the next stage is oxidative phosphorylation, which in eukaryotes, occurs in the 12947: 11184: 8569: 7194:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Genes, development, and evolution".

3929: 3261: 2931: 2927: 2218:. The absorbed light energy is used to remove electrons from a donor (water) to a primary electron acceptor, a 2071: 799: 8873: 6088:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cells: The working units of life".

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A (a) trophic pyramid and a (b) simplified food web. The trophic pyramid represents the biomass at each level.

3158: 2800:, particles emitted by unstable isotopes). Mutations can lead to phenotypic effects such as loss-of-function, 2031:

into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are

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Canchaya, C.; Fournous, G.; Chibani-Chennoufi, S. (August 2003). "Phage as agents of lateral gene transfer".

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Griffiths, Anthony J.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2015). "The genetics revolution".

4921: 4552: 3143: 3117:. Speciation can occur when there are physical barriers that divide an ancestral species, a process known as 2867: 2808:

for evolution. Others are harmful if they were to result in a loss of function of genes needed for survival.

2386:

exchange genetic information during meiosis I. The daughter cells divide again in meiosis II to form haploid

1402: 4085:

Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their

3729:

with no other organisms. Improved molecular detection tools led to the discovery of archaea in almost every

3157: 1118:, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of 13388: 13167: 12962: 12942: 12767: 10050: 8577: 7125:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Regulation of gene expression".

5498:"Gregor Mendel's principles of inheritance form the cornerstone of modern genetics. So just what are they?" 4562: 4044: 3703: 3608:), a term that has fallen out of use. Archaeal cells have unique properties separating them from the other 2765: 1361: 1190: 10353: 9429:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Animal origins and diversity".

7886:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The history of life on Earth".

6808:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "DNA and its role in heredity".

6410:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Cell membranes and signaling".

4270:

A community is a group of populations of species occupying the same geographical area at the same time. A

14111: 14105: 13944: 13359: 13141: 12838: 12757: 10667:"Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land" 9991:

Urry, Lisa; Cain, Michael; Wasserman, Steven; Minorsky, Peter; Reece, Jane (2017). "Population ecology".

9460: 8765: 7674: 6248: 6215: 6173: 4511: 2756:. The genetic information is held within genes, and the complete assemblage in an organism is called its 1365: 27: 3141: 2926:), thereby allowing transcription to occur. Specific genes that can be activated by inducers are called 2918:, which is part of an operon, to prevent transcription. Repressors can be inhibited by compounds called 2549:

Meiosis is a central feature of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, and the most fundamental function of

1409:

with a bent shape formed by the polar covalent bonds of two hydrogen (H) atoms to one oxygen (O) atom (H

14425: 13921: 12937: 12205: 11272: 7361: 6243: 6210: 6029:

Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002).

5356: 3198: 2574: 2355: 2062:. Glycolysis is a metabolic process that occurs in the cytoplasm whereby glucose is converted into two 2023:

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in cells to convert

1573: 10769: 10514: 8953: 6114: 3162: 1982:—they allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly without being consumed by it—by reducing the amount of 1441:

the liquid below from the cold air above. Water has the capacity to absorb energy, giving it a higher

13967: 13934: 13194: 12240: 12200: 12165: 11777: 11356: 11333: 11301: 11215: 10942: 9376:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "The evolution of plants".

6377: 6344: 6268:

Bryant, D. A.; Frigaard, N. U. (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated".

3305: 3142: 2801: 2729: 2569:, are likely maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic 2066:, with two net molecules of ATP being produced at the same time. Each pyruvate is then oxidized into 2059: 1786: 1580:, thus suggesting that complex organic molecules could have arisen spontaneously in early Earth (see 1406: 1246: 1035:

working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought.

792: 75: 10327:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Ecological communities".

8406:"Precambrian animal diversity: Putative phosphatized embryos from the Doushantuo Formation of China" 7582:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Processes of evolution".

3476:

may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.

3139: 13949: 13887: 12897: 12809: 11520: 11329: 7553: 4521: 4056: 3643: 3423: 3404: 2984: 2972: 2851: 2335: 2235: 2134: 2094:

that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (

2055: 1135: 1075: 702: 20: 9754:"Are viruses alive? The replicator paradigm sheds decisive light on an old but misguided question" 7857: 7272: 6501: 3159: 3140: 14297: 13160: 13015: 12952: 12892: 12292: 11426: 10874: 8072: 4942:; et al. (March 1, 2018). "Constraining the Time Interval for the Origin of Life on Earth". 3577: 3501: 2968: 2877: 2687: 2359: 2273: 1715: 944: 869: 13411: 8547: 7911: 7740:"Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya" 6672: 2362:

cascades. The process by which a chemical or physical signal is transmitted through a cell as a

2090:

that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH

1995: 1908:) whereas intermediate filaments are made up of fibrous proteins. Microfilaments are made up of 885: 13477: 13045: 12995: 12967: 12927: 12369: 12051: 11993: 11636: 8839: 6270: 4944: 4526: 4271: 3400: 3161: 3106: 2964: 2902: 2855: 2412:, and the subsequent partitioning of its cytoplasm into two daughter cells in a process called 2285: 2231: 2125: 2099: 1853: 1774: 1523: 1461:, the number of hydrogen ions balances (or equals) the number of hydroxyl ions, resulting in a 1442: 1357: 1155: 1084: 697: 303: 9826: 7228:

Slack, J.M.W. (2007). "Metaplasia and transdifferentiation: from pure biology to the clinic".

6911: 6728: 5045: 4810: 3544:. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its 3160: 2086:. Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four 14451: 13939: 13562: 13537: 13517: 13333: 13328: 13066: 12454: 12429: 12409: 11749: 11490: 11420: 11400: 10232: 9938:

Chapin III, F. Stuart; Matson, Pamela A.; Mooney, Harold A. (2002). "The ecosystem concept".

8615: 7805:. From the Century of the Genome to the Century of the Organism: New Theoretical Approaches. 7723:

Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Phylogeny: The unity and diversity of life".

4898: 4531: 4375: 4370: 4300: 4245: 4139:

and is incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals move

3647: 3622: 3415: 3265: 3118: 3024: 3007:, and responsiveness to signals, which are largely due to highly controlled modifications in 2960: 2885: 2873: 2631: 2562: 2530: 2487: 2383: 2318: 2297: 2277: 2239: 2210:. Light absorption is the initial step of photosynthesis whereby light energy is absorbed by 2176: 2110: 1889: 1857: 1429:

as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules. Water is

1171: 1144: 1111: 1039: 388: 363: 343: 178: 158: 9550: 7849: 5180:

One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the

5037: 14013: 13782: 13592: 13542: 13098: 13071: 13010: 12957: 12674: 12484: 12434: 12245: 12215: 12086: 12046: 12008: 11656: 11294: 10800: 10723: 10117: 9276: 9039: 8968: 8908: 8857: 8795: 8624: 8486: 8418: 8333: 8278: 8045: 8000: 7751: 7029: 6978: 5069: 4963: 4858: 4761: 4428: 4384: 4303:, harmful to both partners. Every species participates as a consumer, resource, or both in 3839:

organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals. While it is likely that protists share a

3695: 3627: 3087: 3056: 2907: 2893: 2647: 2643: 2623:

depicting a cross between two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms

2138: 2007: 1955: 1790: 1707: 1418: 1394: 1254: 936: 859: 730: 608: 418: 368: 6316: 6306: 2872:

The regulation of gene expression by environmental factors and during different stages of

1954:—the breaking down of compounds (for example, the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by 1417:

of water allows it to attract other water molecules via hydrogen bonds, which makes water

8: 14224: 14159: 13697: 13567: 13251: 13103: 13040: 12932: 12917: 12762: 12752: 12589: 12459: 12170: 12160: 12081: 12023: 11277: 9966:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Populations".

8954:"Novel Microbial Diversity and Functional Potential in the Marine Mammal Oral Microbiome" 8465: 8236: 7850: 5546: 5210:

Fahd, Toufic (1996). "Botany and agriculture". In Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi (eds.).

4501: 4483: 4296: 4257: 4213: 4201: 4104: 4086: 4064: 3961: 3937: 3609: 3269: 3234: 3189: 3109:. Reproductive isolation can result from incompatibilities between genes as described by 3027:

control the development of that organism. These toolkit genes are highly conserved among

2558: 2367: 2363: 2293: 2289: 2040: 1991: 1975: 1931: 1758: 1691: 1646: 1414: 1375: 745: 735: 523: 393: 85: 10804: 10727: 10121: 9280: 9132: 9043: 8972: 8912: 8861: 8799: 8628: 8490: 8422: 8337: 8282: 8049: 8004: 7755: 7612:

Hillis, David M.; Sadava, David; Hill, Richard W.; Price, Mary V. (2014). "Speciation".

7512: 7033: 6982: 6331:

This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation.

4967: 4862: 4765: 4470:

upon which people depend. Conservation biologists research and educate on the trends of

4002: 3422:

period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the

3015:. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the 2769: 2199:

of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.

1844:

that have their own lipid bilayers or are spatially units. These organelles include the

14475: 13858: 13812: 13792: 13777: 13602: 13597: 13220: 13215: 13183: 13113: 13061: 12922: 12907: 12887: 12861: 12704: 12684: 12669: 12494: 12489: 12287: 12235: 12118: 12113: 12028: 11983: 11910: 11832: 11782: 11344: 11339: 10823: 10788: 10747: 10691: 10666: 10506: 10434: 10409: 10236: 10080: 9911: 9778: 9753: 9680: 9632: 9605: 9515: 9488: 9310: 9065: 8994: 8819: 8502: 8389: 8362: 8302: 8199: 8149: 8122: 8103: 8076: 7826: 7686: 7524: 7516: 7335: 7310: 7253: 7053: 7002: 6893: 6650:(11th ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: W.H. Freeman & Company. pp. 1–30. 6583: 6556: 6050:

The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing

5878: 4987: 4953: 4874: 4782: 4749: 4725: 4692: 4546: 4516: 4496: 4467: 4175: 3968:—but it has been estimated there are over 7 million animal species in total. They have 3900: 3601: 3469: 3445: 3194: 3114: 3000: 2996: 2683: 2611: 2326: 2196: 2195:

perform photosynthesis, which is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the

1971: 1943: 1802: 1794: 1438: 1238: 1226: 1186: 1107: 992: 956: 692: 638: 618: 603: 428: 423: 92: 80: 11480: 10016: 9711: 9109: 9084: 8929: 8896: 8636: 7168: 7151: 2816: 13973: 13797: 13677: 13532: 13273: 12902: 12689: 12569: 12424: 12091: 11817: 11505: 11495: 11454: 11226: 11127: 11110: 11100: 11094: 11090: 11078: 11068: 11051: 11041: 11011: 10992: 10982: 10976: 10960: 10950: 10930: 10920: 10901: 10891: 10884: 10851: 10828: 10739: 10696: 10636: 10626: 10576: 10548: 10542: 10462: 10439: 10388: 10332: 10289: 10264: 10199: 10152: 10084: 9996: 9971: 9943: 9918: 9889: 9832: 9806: 9783: 9715: 9672: 9637: 9520: 9434: 9409: 9381: 9351: 9302: 9247: 9215: 9180: 9114: 9057: 8986: 8934: 8811: 8688: 8678: 8674: 8446: 8441: 8405: 8294: 8231: 8154: 8036: 8016: 7991: 7971: 7961: 7891: 7861: 7818: 7814: 7779: 7774: 7739: 7690: 7653: 7617: 7587: 7467: 7402: 7340: 7278: 7245: 7199: 7173: 7130: 7094: 7045: 6994: 6948: 6885: 6842: 6835: 6813: 6707: 6680: 6651: 6588: 6535: 6483: 6473: 6450: 6440: 6415: 6320: 6312: 6287: 6148: 6093: 5999: 5966: 5939: 5903: 5870: 5833: 5808: 5783: 5758: 5728: 5698: 5673: 5645: 5583: 5452: 5413: 5405: 5373: 5365: 5305: 5280: 5248: 5221: 5141: 5110: 5083: 5049: 5038: 5013: 4979: 4915: 4878: 4870: 4829: 4787: 4773: 4730: 4712: 4671: 4637: 4603: 4471: 4209: 4197: 4147: 4112: 4060: 4009: 3871: 3663: 3635: 3605: 3553: 3272:

that divides the history of the Earth into major divisions, starting with four eons (

3206: 3185: 3065: 2805: 2590: 2521: 2339: 2114: 2051: 1983: 1967: 1770: 1634: 1474: 1398: 1341: 1325: 1230: 1167: 897: 889: 873: 851: 740: 623: 503: 358: 191: 129: 10751: 9314: 8998: 8920: 8203: 7528: 6897: 5477: 3791:

Eukaryotes are hypothesized to have split from archaea, which was followed by their

2804:, and conditional mutations. Some mutations are beneficial, as they are a source of 2773: 2772:

as a result of replication errors that were not corrected by proofreading or can be

2520:

in eukaryotes, binary fission in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a

14505: 14212: 14101: 14071: 13522: 13118: 12799: 12414: 12101: 11988: 11598: 11561: 11446: 11416: 11280: 10818: 10808: 10731: 10686: 10678: 10618: 10610: 10498: 10429: 10421: 10228: 10189: 10125: 9773: 9765: 9707: 9684: 9664: 9627: 9617: 9510: 9500: 9341: 9292: 9284: 9260: 9207: 9170: 9104: 9096: 9069: 9047: 8976: 8924: 8916: 8869: 8865: 8823: 8803: 8786: 8724: 8632: 8603: 8506: 8494: 8477: 8436: 8426: 8384: 8376: 8341: 8306: 8286: 8269: 8245: 8191: 8172: 8144: 8136: 8098: 8090: 8053: 8008: 7830: 7810: 7769: 7759: 7682: 7508: 7487: 7330: 7322: 7257: 7237: 7163: 7084: 7057: 7037: 7006: 6986: 6875: 6578: 6568: 6279: 5882: 5862: 5075: 4991: 4971: 4866: 4777: 4769: 4720: 4704: 4388: 4324: 4241: 4233: 4163: 4108: 4068: 4005: 3753: 3561: 3537: 3514: 3473: 3222: 3202: 3079: 2347: 2314: 2265: 2203: 1840:. In addition to biomolecules, eukaryotic cells have specialized structures called 1809:

and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a

1782: 1687: 1542: 1491: 1391: 1370: 1333: 1324:

constituting essentially all the remainder. Different elements can combine to form

1281: 1242: 1032: 1016: 779: 348: 187: 11233: 10217:

Wootton, JT; Emmerson, M (2005). "Measurement of Interaction Strength in Nature".

10063:

a community of animals, plants, or humans among whose members interbreeding occurs

9100: 4482:

the well-being of human society. Organizations and citizens are responding to the

3883:

not all algae are closely related. Algae comprise several distinct clades such as

14412: 14287: 14242: 14136: 14131: 14121: 14006: 13910: 13807: 13772: 13108: 12699: 12664: 12013: 11955: 11797: 11734: 11576: 11450: 11155: 11005: 10775: 10606: 10600: 9197: 8510: 8207: 8118: 8012: 7396: 7358: 7089: 7072: 6253: 6220: 6066: 5444: 5302:

Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation

5242: 5104: 5040:

A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century

4557: 4327:, which can then be used by the rest of the community. At the next level are the 4205: 3757: 3687: 3573: 3541: 3254: 3218: 3214: 3061: 3008: 2935: 2829: 2761: 2658:

individuals produce gametes with an equal frequency of two alleles. Finally, the

2405: 2330: 2207: 2183: 2159: 2107: 2087: 1947: 1861: 1806: 1602:

The (a) primary, (b) secondary, (c) tertiary, and (d) quaternary structures of a

1550: 1519: 1422: 1217:

and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by

1148: 1079: 827: 633: 598: 12830: 11404: 10130: 10105: 9769: 8640: 7955: 5991: 2616: 2163:

Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O

163: 14487: 14463: 14439: 13977: 13662: 13472: 12788: 12554: 12364: 12195: 12190: 12180: 12175: 12076: 12018: 11950: 11945: 11807: 11802: 11696: 11651: 11628: 11510: 11500: 11442: 10972: 10882:

Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; Raff, M.; Roberts, K.; Walter, P. (2002).

10658: 10401: 8894: 8664: 8264: 7744:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7548: 6573: 6030: 5352: 5012:(2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–20. 4479: 4408: 4225: 4151: 4136: 4132: 4013: 3941: 3879: 3867: 3840: 3699: 3650:. Other aspects of archaeal biochemistry are unique, such as their reliance on 3557: 3510: 3429: 3387:

of coexisting bacteria and archaea were the dominant form of life in the early

3368: 2992: 2988: 2725: 2675: 2620: 2509: 2471: 2466: 2401: 2343: 2261: 2255: 2154: 2024: 1739: 1675: 1666: 1554: 1507: 1458: 1194: 1163: 1151: 1130: 1119: 1102:

Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians.

1092: 1071: 1055: 996: 884:

of plants and animals, and evolution of populations. Hence, there are multiple

835: 766: 488: 298: 10614: 10194: 10177: 9288: 9211: 8981: 7218:

Slack, J.M.W. (2013) Essential Developmental Biology. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford.

6283: 5079: 4208:

can be estimated by multiplying population density by the area or volume. The

2215: 14499: 14470: 14096: 13742: 13637: 13527: 13502: 13497: 13343: 12634: 12529: 12419: 12394: 12389: 12282: 12230: 12225: 12003: 11920: 11822: 11787: 11556: 11268:: A biological journal publishing significant peer-reviewed scientific papers 11241: 11238: 11150: 11055: 10905: 10640: 10203: 9697: 6966: 6936: 6701: 6554: 6487: 6454: 6239: 6206: 5853:

Mazzarello, P. (May 1999). "A unifying concept: the history of cell theory".

5186: 5181: 4939: 4716: 4708: 4316: 4180: 4143:

and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and

4033: 4025: 3994: 3949: 3796: 3691: 3655: 3521: 3411: 3384: 3325: 3130: 2976: 2847: 2474:

develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin,

2462: 2413: 2304:. In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it. 2281: 2230:

During the third stage of photosynthesis, the movement of protons down their

2224: 2192: 2113:. The transfer of electrons terminates with molecular oxygen being the final 1921: 1893: 1849: 1798: 1762: 1750: 1723: 1679: 1610: 1593: 1558: 1495: 1222: 1178: 1159: 1103: 980: 568: 463: 353: 328: 323: 13152: 11114: 11082: 10996: 10964: 10934: 10813: 10735: 9175: 9158: 8692: 8404:

Jun-Yuan, Chen; Oliveri, Paola; Chia-Wei, Li; et al. (April 25, 2000).

7975: 7764: 5897: 4339:). And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on. 2495: 1657:. Their function is to store, transmit, and express hereditary information. 1545:. There are six prominent functional groups that can be found in organisms: 979:

The earliest of roots of science, which included medicine, can be traced to

14320: 14306: 13787: 13767: 13732: 13727: 13717: 13712: 13692: 13672: 13582: 13552: 13512: 13492: 13482: 13462: 13457: 13452: 13447: 12679: 12659: 12624: 12619: 12609: 12604: 12584: 12564: 12474: 12444: 12404: 12384: 12374: 12354: 12349: 12344: 12339: 12220: 12210: 12185: 11842: 11676: 11593: 11551: 11412: 11179: 10832: 10743: 10700: 10682: 10443: 10425: 9787: 9719: 9676: 9641: 9622: 9524: 9505: 9355: 9306: 9219: 9184: 9061: 8990: 8938: 8815: 8450: 8431: 8380: 8298: 8158: 8140: 8094: 7822: 7344: 7249: 7177: 7098: 6952: 6889: 6592: 6291: 6003: 5874: 5377: 4983: 4791: 4734: 4463: 4434: 4412: 4335:) whereas heterotrophs that consume herbivores are secondary consumers (or 4323:) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into 4319:

within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or

3953: 3852: 3816: 3792: 3718: 3490: 3364: 2881: 2781: 2749: 2655: 2491: 2243: 2179: 2121: 2103: 2095: 2063: 1963: 1905: 1901: 1845: 1837: 1818: 1699: 1626: 1618: 1329: 1234: 1218: 1198: 1088: 1004: 971: 966: 928: 613: 593: 558: 553: 543: 538: 518: 498: 408: 378: 338: 318: 308: 288: 283: 278: 273: 173: 12132: 11194: 9346: 9329: 9118: 8346: 8321: 8020: 7783: 7433: 7049: 6998: 4975: 3495: 2404:

that cause it to divide into two daughter cells. These events include the

1824: 1434: 14279: 14154: 13837: 13832: 13802: 13757: 13702: 13642: 13627: 13622: 13587: 13547: 13437: 13427: 13422: 13078: 12729: 12724: 12694: 12649: 12594: 12534: 12519: 12514: 12479: 12439: 12329: 12319: 12314: 11998: 11724: 11646: 11525: 11515: 11466: 11408: 11245: 11211: 10387:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 916–934. 10331:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 898–915. 10263:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 882–897. 9970:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 864–897. 9888:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 845–863. 9538: 9486: 9433:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 469–519. 9408:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 451–468. 9380:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 420–449. 9246:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 402–419. 8177:"The origin of the Metazoa in the light of the Proterozoic fossil record" 7890:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 357–376. 7796: 7652:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 325–342. 7616:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 343–356. 7586:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 299–324. 7326: 7198:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 273–298. 7129:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 215–233. 6812:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 172–193. 4506: 4416: 4404: 4396: 4383:

whereas the matter in rocks and minerals are abiotic and inaccessible. A

4328: 4280: 3925: 3896: 3892: 3884: 3800: 3683: 3651: 3591: 3518: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3012: 2939: 2923: 2842:

in the proteins of an organism's body. This process is summarized by the

2797: 2785: 2691: 2663: 2594: 2566: 2450: 2437: 2322: 2242:(RuBP) in a sequence of light-independent (or dark) reactions called the 2211: 2130: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1766: 1703: 1671: 1653:. Twenty amino acids are used in proteins. Nucleic acids are polymers of 1638: 1581: 1577: 1538: 1515: 1503: 1450: 1345: 1125: 1096: 1047: 984: 912: 908:, perform experiments, and form conclusions about the world around them. 901: 842:, which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme is 663: 658: 628: 583: 528: 468: 453: 448: 413: 373: 263: 253: 248: 168: 114: 10240: 9668: 9297: 8807: 8290: 8267:; et al. (May 26, 2011). "Earth's earliest non-marine eukaryotes". 7727:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 401–429. 6414:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 82–104. 4343:

heterotrophs are able to consume at multiple levels. Finally, there are

2915: 927:, fungi, plants, and animals. These various organisms contribute to the 14371: 14252: 13822: 13817: 13762: 13747: 13687: 13652: 13647: 13617: 13577: 13557: 13487: 13467: 13020: 12714: 12709: 12654: 12639: 12579: 12544: 12539: 12509: 12469: 12449: 12379: 12359: 12108: 11935: 11827: 11772: 11701: 11681: 11641: 11546: 11462: 11396: 11392: 11220: 11007:

The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance

10622: 10510: 9758:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

9085:"Walsby's square bacterium: fine structure of an orthogonal procaryote" 7567:

Futuyma, Douglas J.; Kirkpatrick, Mark (2017). "Evolutionary biology".

7520: 6092:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 60–81. 6055: 5697:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 56–65. 5530:

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includes all the processes involved in the flow of genetic information.

2741: 2733: 2667: 2501: 2483: 2482:

are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the

2475: 2442: 2395: 2378: 2067: 2047: 2032: 1939: 1869: 1814: 1695: 1683: 1682:. Most cells are very small, with diameters ranging from 1 to 100 1654: 1650: 1642: 1603: 1305: 1206: 1063: 1059: 1043: 1028: 988: 905: 881: 847: 648: 643: 588: 573: 513: 478: 473: 443: 403: 383: 313: 293: 153: 148: 14482: 13380: 11252: 8195: 7041: 6880: 6863: 6147:(6th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 479–532. 3737:. Archaea are particularly numerous in the oceans, and the archaea in 3638:

that are more closely related to those of eukaryotes, notably for the

3604:

as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria

2321:

to bind with a receptor on an adjacent cell such as another neuron or

1926: 1598: 14330: 14292: 14247: 14237: 14177: 13998: 13737: 13722: 13707: 13657: 13632: 13368: 13364: 13322: 13301: 13210: 13088: 13035: 13030: 13005: 12629: 12614: 12599: 12549: 12524: 12265: 12066: 11978: 11860: 11792: 11764: 11671: 11485: 11474: 11470: 11438: 11165: 8250:

10.1002/(SICI)1520-6602(1998)1:1<27::AID-INBI4>3.0.CO;2-6

8121:; Javaux, Emmanuelle J.; Hewitt, David; et al. (June 29, 2006). 8057: 7571:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 3–26. 6990: 6555:

Casiraghi, A.; Suigo, L.; Valoti, E.; Straniero, V. (February 2020).

5534:(4th ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. pp. 3–26. 5217: 4392: 4361: 4336: 4332: 4320: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4128: 4098: 4048: 4037: 3904: 3888: 3824: 3808: 3773: 3761: 3734: 3726: 3711: 3679: 3613: 3569: 3565: 3461: 3433: 3392: 3380: 3372: 3360: 3293: 3242: 3178: 3170: 3072: 2980: 2943: 2911: 2839: 2793: 2737: 2682:, which states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by 2651: 2458: 2454: 2446: 2417: 2409: 2028: 2017: 1979: 1951: 1841: 1810: 1754: 1743: 1711: 1562: 1321: 1275: 1051: 1000: 932: 920: 865: 855: 843: 688: 563: 548: 533: 483: 458: 211: 124: 119: 10502: 9052: 9027: 8403: 7798: 7241: 4220:

that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food,

3662:. Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from 3600:

constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially

2586:

The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom

1832:

Within the cytoplasm of a cell, there are many biomolecules such as

1522:(CO). Moreover, carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting 14434: 14381: 14325: 14257: 14192: 14078: 14066: 14038: 13827: 13752: 13682: 13612: 13607: 13432: 13318: 13287: 13083: 12783: 12719: 12644: 12574: 12504: 12499: 12324: 12258: 11855: 11812: 11711: 11583: 11458: 11434: 11206: 9603: 9266: 8843: 7311:"Metabolic oxidation regulates embryonic stem cell differentiation" 5272: 4958: 4455: 4442: 4340: 4312: 4275: 4229: 4189: 4116: 4017: 3973: 3945: 3933: 3924:

Animals are multicellular eukaryotes. With few exceptions, animals

3863: 3856: 3820: 3812: 3803:

about 1.5 billion years ago and can be classified into eight major

3741:

may be one of the most abundant groups of organisms on the planet.

3738: 3675: 3659: 3456:, dominated the land, but most of this group became extinct in the 3449: 3345: 3337: 3333: 3321: 3317: 3309: 3301: 3297: 3076: 3039: 3032: 2946:, which is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells. 2835: 2757: 2753: 2721: 2671: 2627: 2578: 2534: 2305: 1987: 1959: 1865: 1454: 1426: 1387: 1337: 1317: 1297: 1293: 1067: 1012: 940: 831: 761: 653: 578: 508: 438: 433: 258: 227: 206: 13879: 9159:"Archaea associated with human surfaces: not to be underestimated" 8951: 8498: 6864:"The bacterial nucleoid: a highly organized and dynamic structure" 5412:. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 2002. 5358:

The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842

4478:, and the negative effect these are having on our capabilities to 4466:

affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of

4131:. These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through 3787:, a single-celled eukaryote that can both move and photosynthesize 3778: 3460:

252 million years ago. During the recovery from this catastrophe,

3363:

from their common ancestor. Biologists regard the ubiquity of the

3241:(originally Archaebacteria), bacteria (originally eubacteria), or 2175:

Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to

2012: 1734: 1479: 1229:. From the 1950s onwards, biology has been vastly extended in the 14376: 14364: 14232: 14207: 14167: 14146: 14116: 13842: 13572: 13442: 13280: 12734: 12464: 12334: 12251: 12096: 12071: 12056: 12038: 11885: 11850: 11691: 11686: 11613: 11608: 11588: 11381: 10456: 9334:

International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology

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Fredrickson, J. K.; Zachara, J. M.; Balkwill, D. L. (July 2004).

5866: 4459: 4438: 4433:

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of Earth's

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have been described in detail. Viruses are found in almost every

4029: 3969: 3965: 3957: 3914: 3832: 3783: 3730: 3707: 3686:) use sunlight as an energy source, and other species of archaea 3667: 3597: 3587: 3545: 3468:

66 million years ago killed off the non-avian dinosaurs, mammals

3388: 3376: 3356: 3329: 3277: 3238: 3230: 3174: 2919: 2777: 2650:; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the 2550: 2538: 2517: 2513: 2505: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2351: 2301: 2219: 1897: 1881: 1833: 1718:, every cell in the organism's body is derived ultimately from a 1622: 1614: 1531: 1499: 1484: 1446: 1430: 1383: 1301: 1024: 924: 916: 877: 668: 398: 268: 215: 201: 9487:

Koonin, E. V.; Senkevich, T. G.; Dolja, V. V. (September 2006).

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Montévil, M; Mossio, M; Pocheville, A; Longo, G (October 2016).

6861: 6534:(6th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: Pearson. pp. 271–289. 5369: 4894:"How Did Life Become Complex, And Could It Happen Beyond Earth?" 4747: 4135:

and energy flows. Energy from the sun enters the system through

3075:

is a central organizing concept in biology. It is the change in

2744:. The set of chromosomes in a cell is collectively known as its 2712: 961: 14359: 14352: 14061: 14056: 14030: 13507: 13294: 12399: 11930: 11915: 11875: 11870: 11744: 11666: 11661: 11571: 11169: 9751: 9574: 8463: 6051: 5958: 4366: 4159: 4140: 3910: 3828: 3639: 3617: 3583: 3533: 3453: 3441: 3273: 3210: 3028: 3020: 2900:, found mainly in prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes (e.g., 2897: 2745: 2635: 2554: 2494:), and sister chromatids are separated in the second division ( 2479: 2421: 2387: 2310: 2269: 2083: 1719: 1714:, whereas eukaryotes can be single-celled or multicellular. In 1630: 1527: 1313: 1309: 1289: 1285: 1258: 333: 223: 35: 11174: 9800: 8608:"Assessing the record and causes of Late Triassic extinctions" 8262: 7737: 7673:

Kitching, Ian J.; Forey, Peter L.; Williams, David M. (2001).

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Campbell, Neil A.; Williamson, Brad; Heyden, Robin J. (2006).

4040:

on Earth and are the most numerous type of biological entity.

3831:, and animals. Five of these clades are collectively known as 3038:. Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many 2445:(during which the DNA is replicated) and is often followed by 1876:

such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell,

14389: 14347: 14340: 14335: 14172: 14126: 14088: 14046: 12061: 11960: 11892: 11880: 11618: 11566: 10570: 10410:"Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time" 9655:

Edwards, R.A.; Rohwer, F. (June 2005). "Viral metagenomics".

8832: 6670: 6232: 6199: 4407:) compartments of Earth. There are biogeochemical cycles for 4291:

of the species involved. A long-term interaction is called a

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Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective

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Barry, Patrick L. (January 28, 2002). Phillips, Tony (ed.).

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Algeo, Thomas J.; Scheckler, Stephen E. (January 29, 1998).

7152:"Eukaryotic mRNPs may represent posttranscriptional operons" 6267: 3895:

are multicellular. Green algae comprise three major clades:

2670:

can be performed to experimentally determine the underlying

2288:

a cell. There are generally four types of chemical signals:

1856:(ATP) to power cellular processes. Other organelles such as 1209:

that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as

1147:, who presented a coherent theory of evolution. The British 14267: 14202: 14197: 14187: 14182: 14051: 11940: 11925: 11865: 11541: 11430: 11386: 11189: 10978:

Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective

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Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity

6161: 4690: 4631: 4378:, such as volcanic and tectonic activity, are not included. 3745: 3631: 2703: 2529:

polymerization and "Z-ring" formation). The new cell wall (

2526: 1210: 1143:

Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of

1110:

for the natural world in 1735, and in the 1750s introduced

839: 823: 139: 11286: 10106:"The flexible application of carrying capacity in ecology" 8033: 6529: 6311:(International ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: 5989: 5827: 5807:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 119–141. 5802: 5782:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 107–118. 5777: 5722: 5639: 5364:. Cambridge: Printed at the University Press. p. 53. 4750:"Self-organization and entropy reduction in a living cell" 4665: 4184:

Reaching carrying capacity through a logistic growth curve

4115:) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, 3972:

with each other and their environments, forming intricate

3288:), the first three of which are collectively known as the 2400:

The cell cycle is a series of events that take place in a

2039:

reactions. Although cellular respiration is technically a

1300:

account for most (96%) of the mass of all organisms, with

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Conservation biology: foundations, concepts, applications

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

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Alberts, B.; Johnson, A.; Lewis, J.; et al. (2002).

5933: 5832:(6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Pearson. pp. 93–106. 5752: 5667: 5577: 4597: 3671: 3233:. All organisms can be classified as belonging to one of 3016: 2707: 2557:

that is passed on to progeny by parents. Two aspects of

2436:. Mitosis is part of the cell cycle, in which replicated 2358:. Activation of G protein-coupled receptors can initiate 1778: 1617:. Monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides. 1202: 1054:

and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by

896:

that they use. Like other scientists, biologists use the

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Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis.

9995:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 1188–1211. 8783: 8729:

10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015<4:TEOTDI>2.0.CO;2

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Lindberg, David C. (2007). "Science before the Greeks".

4937: 4848: 3990: 3917:, feeding on dead organic matter, making them important 3359:

indicate that they have diverged through the process of

2934:

that are almost constantly active. In contrast to both,

2678:

can be used to predict the results of a test cross. The

2102:. Energy from the proton motive force drives the enzyme 1938:

All cells require energy to sustain cellular processes.

1912:

molecules that interact with other strands of proteins.

1007:, began the scientific study of plants. Scholars of the 858:. Finally, all organisms are able to regulate their own 11603: 10575:(3rd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 10414:

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Oxford dictionary of biochemistry and molecular biology

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of matter are turned over or moved through the biotic (

3616:. Archaea are further divided into multiple recognized 2428:

cells), there are two distinct types of cell division:

1462: 1348:

synthesis, modification, mechanisms, and interactions.

11214:

A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the

10949:(7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. 10178:"Historical Biogeography: Evolution in Time and Space" 9937: 9819: 9156: 8844:"Major Patterns in the History of Carnivorous Mammals" 8234:(January 7, 1998). "The origins of multicellularity". 8117: 7466:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 466–483. 6912:"Genotype definition – Medical Dictionary definitions" 5938:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 126–142. 4809:. Texas State University at San Marcos. Archived from 3042:

of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.

1872:

have additional organelles that distinguish them from

1457:

ions before reforming into a water molecule again. In

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7885: 7672: 7647: 7611: 7581: 7193: 7143: 7124: 6969:(August 1970). "Central dogma of molecular biology". 6862:

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3113:. Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with 1177:

The basis for modern genetics began with the work of

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Lawrence C. M.; Menon S.; Eilers, B. J. (May 2009).

8758:"Dinosaur Extinction Spurred Rise of Modern Mammals" 8457: 5757:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 66–92. 5672:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 56–65. 5582:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 28–43. 5244:

A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded

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A History of the Life Sciences, Revised and Expanded

3710:; unlike bacteria, no known species of Archaea form 2949: 2834:

Gene expression is the molecular process by which a

2577:

which masks the expression of deleterious recessive

2260:

Cell signaling (or communication) is the ability of

850:

is also important to life as it allows organisms to

11260:

science journal – see sections of the life sciences

10713: 9831:. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2004. p. 238. 9399: 9397: 9371: 9369: 9367: 9365: 9237: 9235: 9233: 9231: 9229: 8354: 7881: 7879: 7877: 7308: 6664: 4602:(11th ed.). New York: Pearson. pp. 2–26. 2553:appears to be conservation of the integrity of the 2342:of a target cell. Other types of receptors include 1880:that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and 1613:are large molecules made up of smaller subunits or 1386:, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and 10913:Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2005). 10883: 10540: 9910: 9752:Koonin, E. V.; Starokadomskyy, P. (October 2016). 9581:. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. 8708:"The Extinction of the Dinosaurs in North America" 8601: 7722: 7643: 7641: 7639: 7637: 7635: 7633: 7607: 7605: 7603: 7566: 7189: 7187: 7120: 7118: 7116: 7114: 7112: 7110: 7108: 6834: 6803: 6801: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6793: 6791: 6639: 6405: 6403: 6336: 6083: 6081: 6079: 6077: 6075: 5529: 4287:, or long-term; both often strongly influence the 3444:originated about 525 million years ago during the 3245:(includes the fungi, plant, and animal kingdoms). 2906:). In positive regulation of gene expression, the 2544: 1213:. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as 846:, which explains the unity and diversity of life. 12860: 10664: 10376: 10320: 10288:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. p. 508. 10247: 10104:Chapman, Eric J.; Byron, Carrie J. (2018-01-01). 9956: 9877: 8368:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 8128:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 8064: 7401:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. pp. 4–6. 6699: 6439:(6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 6372: 6370: 6298: 6263: 6261: 5983: 5044:. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 4933: 4931: 3878:. Plant cells were derived by endosymbiosis of a 3694:, no known species of archaea does both. Archaea 2508:and bacteria) can also undergo cell division (or 1769:that sit between phospholipids to maintain their 1649:. The basic unit (or monomer) of a protein is an 1374:Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of 26:"Biological" redirects here. For other uses, see 14497: 11195:Journal of the History of Biology (springer.com) 11126:(3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth. 10981:(reissue ed.). Princeton University Press. 10665:Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Ferry, P. A. (2010). 9931: 9489:"The ancient Virus World and evolution of cells" 9422: 9394: 9362: 9226: 8705: 8595: 8077:"Archaean metabolic evolution of microbial mats" 7874: 7738:Woese, CR; Kandler, O; Wheelis, ML (June 1990). 7666: 7394: 6941:Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology 6623: 6621: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5629: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5036:Grant, Edward (2007). "Ancient Egypt to Plato". 4826:Molecular Biology, Principles of Genome Function 3304:eras. These three eras together comprise eleven 1537:The simplest form of an organic molecule is the 1062:and helped to develop techniques of microscopic 10793:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 10216: 8952:Dudek, N. K.; Sun, C. L.; Burstein, D. (2017). 8838: 8544:California State Polytechnic University, Pomona 8319: 7982: 7799:"Theoretical principles for biology: Variation" 7630: 7600: 7575: 7395:Hall, Brian K.; Hallgrímsson, Benedikt (2007). 7184: 7105: 6788: 6693: 6400: 6072: 5718: 5716: 5714: 5686: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5603: 5601: 5599: 4111:) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving ( 3138: 2141:. The ATP generated in this process is made by 838:that process hereditary information encoded in 10919:(4th ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. 9874:(2006), p. 522; Smith & Smith 2012, p. G-5 9862:Tansley (1934); Molles (1999), p. 482; Chapin 8360: 7351: 7149: 7064: 6367: 6258: 6138: 6136: 6134: 6132: 6130: 6128: 5990:Tom Herrmann; Sandeep Sharma (March 2, 2019). 5846: 5399: 4928: 4902:. Archived from the original on 17 August 2018 4661: 4659: 4657: 4655: 4653: 4127:, and soil) of their environment is called an 2876:can occur at each step of the process such as 2382:In meiosis, the chromosomes duplicate and the 14014: 13895: 13396: 13182: 13168: 13094:History of the creation-evolution controversy 12846: 11302: 9531: 9480: 8849:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8470:"Lower Cambrian vertebrates from south China" 8165: 8027: 7856:. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 6618: 6502:"10.2 The Cell Cycle – Biology 2e | OpenStax" 5213:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 5031: 5029: 4807:"Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms" 3355:The similarities among all known present-day 2752:. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within the 2728:chains that coil around each other to form a 1328:such as water, which is fundamental to life. 1225:in 1953, marked the transition to the era of 1174:to independently reach the same conclusions. 800: 11283:journal publishing essays of broad relevance 11265:International Journal of Biological Sciences 10536: 10534: 10457:Soulé, Michael E.; Wilcox, Bruce A. (1980). 10407: 10103: 9447: 8123:"Eukaryotic organisms in Proterozoic oceans" 8070: 7803:Progress in Biophysics and Molecular Biology 7716: 7560: 7457: 7455: 7453: 7451: 7150:Keene, Jack D.; Tenenbaum, Scott A. (2002). 6523: 5821: 5796: 5771: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5711: 5663: 5661: 5596: 5573: 5571: 5523: 5491: 5489: 5199:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 5003: 5001: 4798: 4627: 4625: 4623: 4621: 4619: 3874:Plantae, which would exclude fungi and some 2716:Bases lie between two spiraling DNA strands. 2694:between eye color and sex in these insects. 2674:of an organism with a dominant phenotype. A 1848:, which contains most of the cell's DNA, or 1773:at various temperatures. Cell membranes are 1154:, combining the biogeographical approach of 10768:World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C. 10566: 10564: 10450: 10144: 9984: 9940:Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology 9801:Begon, M; Townsend, CR; Harper, JL (2006). 9726: 9157:Bang, C.; Schmitz, R. A. (September 2015). 9082: 8320:Beraldi-Campesi, Hugo (February 23, 2013). 8224: 7852:Life Evolving: Molecules, Mind, and Meaning 7841: 6826: 6125: 6022: 5965:(4th ed.). New York: Garland Science. 4650: 4593: 4591: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4581: 4579: 2838:encoded in DNA gives rise to an observable 991:. Their contributions shaped ancient Greek 935:, where they play specialized roles in the 14021: 14007: 13902: 13888: 13403: 13389: 13175: 13161: 12853: 12839: 11309: 11295: 10594: 10592: 7681:(2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 33–45. 7480: 7270: 7070: 6434: 6342: 5852: 5026: 4885: 3721:, living in extreme environments, such as 1694:. There are generally two types of cells: 1031:. Medicine was especially well studied by 807: 793: 13869:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 13231:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 13124:Relationship between religion and science 10822: 10812: 10690: 10531: 10461:. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates. 10433: 10283: 10193: 10175: 10129: 10049:. Oxford University Press. Archived from 9902: 9777: 9691: 9631: 9621: 9597: 9567: 9514: 9504: 9345: 9296: 9174: 9150: 9108: 9051: 8980: 8928: 8440: 8430: 8388: 8345: 8148: 8102: 7773: 7763: 7448: 7334: 7167: 7088: 6879: 6754: 6720: 6679:(7th ed.). New York: W. H. 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New York: Cambridge University Press. 5203: 5185: 5133: 5007: 4576: 4542:National Association of Biology Teachers 4365: 4261: 4179: 3989: 3777: 3630:similarity to bacteria, archaea possess 3582: 3494: 3134: 3060: 2815: 2711: 2630:is the scientific study of inheritance. 2615: 2377: 2158: 2011: 1925: 1823: 1733: 1597: 1478: 1369: 1124: 960: 34: 13410: 10916:Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems 10786: 10589: 10351: 10345: 10138: 9803:Ecology: From individuals to ecosystems 9732: 7953: 7942: 7847: 6832: 6703:Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes 5299: 3484: 3470:increased rapidly in size and diversity 3399:. Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, 2001: 1789:that go across the membrane serving as 1686:and are therefore only visible under a 1046:. It was then that scholars discovered 14498: 14028: 11122:Tobin, Allan; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). 9537: 9340:(6). 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By breaking down dead 3964:—of which around 1 million are 3845:last eukaryotic common ancestor 3835:, which are mostly microscopic 3440:, along with most other modern 3111:Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model 3082:of populations over successive 2890:post-translational modification 2640:law of dominance and uniformity 2545:Sexual reproduction and meiosis 2143:substrate-level phosphorylation 1930:Example of an enzyme-catalysed 1042:'s dramatic improvement of the 13026:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis 9575:"Virus Taxonomy: 2019 Release" 9269:Nature Ecology & Evolution 8870:10.1146/annurev.earth.27.1.463 5247:. CRC Press. pp. 133–44. 4842: 4817: 4305:consumer–resource interactions 4251: 4169: 4043:The origins of viruses in the 4020:. Viruses infect all types of 3733:, including soil, oceans, and 3424:Late Devonian extinction event 3268:. Geologists have developed a 3262:last universal common ancestor 2740:, and circular chromosomes in 2605: 2072:pyruvate dehydrogenase complex 1781:. Cell membranes also contain 1336:within and relating to living 1011:who wrote on biology included 1: 11225:: General journal publishing 11148: 11067:(2nd ed.). Bison Books. 10886:Molecular Biology of the Cell 10547:. Oxford: Blackwell Science. 9712:10.1016/S1369-5274(03)00086-9 9101:10.1128/JB.148.1.352-360.1981 8756:Roach, John (June 20, 2007). 8637:10.1016/S0012-8252(03)00082-5 8411:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 7169:10.1016/s1097-2765(02)00559-2 6035:Molecular Biology of the Cell 5962:Molecular Biology of the Cell 4569: 4274:is the effect that a pair of 4188:A population is the group of 4092: 4024:, from animals and plants to 3767: 3452:, including the ancestors of 3448:. During the Permian period, 3093: 3025:developmental-genetic toolkit 2868:Regulation of gene expression 2660:law of independent assortment 2373: 1915: 1280:All organisms are made up of 886:subdisciplines within biology 11010:. Harvard University Press. 9657:Nature Reviews. 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June 1970. 6174:Online Etymology Dictionary 5137:The Epic History of Biology 4512:List of biological websites 4489: 4484:current biodiversity crisis 4437:with the aim of protecting 4047:are unclear: some may have 3528:in length, bacteria have a 2600: 2512:). Unlike the processes of 2356:G protein-coupled receptors 2106:to synthesize more ATPs by 1366:Water distribution on Earth 1133:penned his first sketch of 904:, pose questions, generate 822:is the scientific study of 28:Biological (disambiguation) 10: 14522: 13245:Institutions, publications 10872: 10846:Soule, Michael E. (1986). 10787:Jackson, J. B. C. (2008). 10605:(2nd ed.). New York: 10482:Soulé, Michael E. (1986). 9870:(2005); p. 400; Gurevitch 8540:ZOO 138 Vertebrate Zoology 7912:"Stratigraphic Chart 2022" 7020:"Central dogma reversed". 6574:10.3390/antibiotics9020069 6233: 6200: 5545:Noble, Ivan (2003-04-14). 5443:Larson, Edward J. 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London: 8670:Vertebrate Palaeontology 8184:Paleontological Research 7554:On the Origin of Species 7492:"The Units of Selection" 7398:Strickberger's Evolution 5241:Magner, Lois N. (2002). 5103:Magner, Lois N. (2002). 4709:10.1152/advan.00107.2015 4522:List of biology journals 4449:from excessive rates of 4057:horizontal gene transfer 3926:consume organic material 3690:, but unlike plants and 3564:. Bacteria also live in 3513:that constitute a large 3193:are described as having 2732:. It is found as linear 2690:, which established the 2135:lactic acid fermentation 2056:electron transport chain 1660: 1351: 1136:On the Origin of Species 708:List of research methods 21:Biology (disambiguation) 12293:species discovery curve 11421:Response to environment 11065:On Becoming a Biologist 10875:Bibliography of biology 10814:10.1073/pnas.0802812105 10736:10.1126/science.1101101 10599:Van Dyke, Fred (2008). 10148:Fundamentals of Ecology 9913:Fundamentals of Ecology 9909:Odum, Eugene P (1971). 9133:"Archaea Basic Biology" 9089:Journal of Bacteriology 8840:Van Valkenburgh, Blaire 7765:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576 7315:Nature Chemical Biology 6833:Russell, Peter (2001). 6437:A dictionary of biology 6249:A Greek–English Lexicon 6216:A Greek–English Lexicon 5899:Biology: Exploring Life 5196:Encyclopædia Britannica 4295:. Symbioses range from 3921:in ecological systems. 3748:. They are part of the 3509:Bacteria are a type of 3502:Gemmatimonas aurantiaca 3401:multicellular organisms 2313:release ligands called 2232:concentration gradients 2074:, which also generates 1738:Structure of an animal 1716:multicellular organisms 1708:single-celled organisms 1698:cells, which contain a 1487:are vital to organisms. 1058:led to new interest in 1023:(865–925) who wrote on 987:in around 3000 to 1200 945:biophysical environment 179:Response to environment 13478:Biological engineering 13371:development strategies 13046:Spontaneous generation 12996:Germ theory of disease 12973:Zoology (through 1859) 12768:Plant morphology terms 12370:Biological engineering 12052:Biological interaction 10683:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 10426:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 10075:Hartl, Daniel (2007). 9623:10.1074/jbc.R800078200 9506:10.1186/1745-6150-1-29 9200:Trends in Microbiology 8464:D-G., Shu; H-L., Luo; 8432:10.1073/pnas.97.9.4457 8381:10.1098/rstb.1998.0195 8141:10.1098/rstb.2006.1843 8095:10.1098/rspb.1999.0934 7960:. Sinauer Associates. 7274:Handbook of Stem Cells 6271:Trends in Microbiology 6145:Molecular Cell Biology 6115:"Cellular Respiration" 5992:"Physiology, Membrane" 4563:Terminology of biology 4527:List of biology topics 4379: 4315:. There are different 4272:biological interaction 4267: 4185: 4063:in a way analogous to 3998: 3788: 3594: 3506: 3416:terrestrial ecosystems 3403:began to appear, with 3181: 3107:reproductive isolation 3069: 3051:Evolutionary processes 2965:multicellular organism 2903:Caenorhabditis elegans 2825: 2788:) or radiation (e.g., 2717: 2624: 2488:Homologous chromosomes 2420:(i.e., animal, plant, 2406:duplication of its DNA 2391: 2384:homologous chromosomes 2317:that diffuse across a 2172: 2020: 1935: 1890:intermediate filaments 1854:adenosine triphosphate 1829: 1746: 1607: 1574:Miller–Urey experiment 1488: 1443:specific heat capacity 1378: 1358:Planetary habitability 1140: 1085:spontaneous generation 1009:medieval Islamic world 976: 965:Diagram of a fly from 870:levels of organization 698:List of biology awards 304:Biological engineering 40: 13563:Developmental biology 13538:Computational biology 13518:Cellular microbiology 13334:Environmental science 13329:Physical anthropology 13067:Philosophy of biology 12455:Developmental biology 12430:Computational biology 12410:Cellular microbiology 11750:Mendelian inheritance 11662:Energy transformation 11063:Janovy, John (2004). 10873:Further information: 10799:(Suppl 1): 11458–65. 9828:Habitats of the world 9347:10.1099/ijs.0.02587-0 9176:10.1093/femsre/fuv010 8616:Earth-Science Reviews 8602:Tanner, Lawrence H.; 8347:10.1186/2192-1709-2-1 7434:"Evolution Resources" 7362:"The Origins of Form" 6240:Liddell, Henry George 6207:Liddell, Henry George 4976:10.1089/ast.2017.1674 4899:Astrobiology Magazine 4824:Craig, Nancy (2014). 4532:List of life sciences 4369: 4265: 4248:in the 18th century. 4183: 3993: 3950:embryonic development 3781: 3666:, such as sugars, to 3623:Haloquadratum walsbyi 3586: 3498: 3489:Further information: 3266:3.5 billion years ago 3168: 3119:allopatric speciation 3064: 2894:transcription factors 2819: 2798:ultraviolet radiation 2715: 2702:Further information: 2632:Mendelian inheritance 2619: 2563:meiotic recombination 2381: 2276:, which can be found 2272:) that interact with 2240:ribulose bisphosphate 2162: 2098:), which generates a 2084:mitochondrial cristae 2015: 1976:spontaneous reactions 1929: 1920:Further information: 1858:endoplasmic reticulum 1827: 1791:membrane transporters 1737: 1601: 1504:double covalent bonds 1482: 1473:Further information: 1373: 1274:Further information: 1191:series of experiments 1172:Alfred Russel Wallace 1145:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1128: 1114:for all his species. 1040:Anton van Leeuwenhoek 999:philosophers such as 964: 860:internal environments 389:Developmental biology 364:Computational biology 344:Cellular microbiology 38: 14288:Evolutionary history 13783:Reproductive biology 13668:Mathematical biology 13593:Evolutionary biology 13543:Conservation biology 13099:Human Genome Project 13011:Great chain of being 12978:Zoology (since 1859) 12913:Evolutionary thought 12883:Agricultural science 12675:Reproductive biology 12560:Mathematical biology 12485:Evolutionary biology 12435:Conservation biology 12246:Two-hybrid screening 12216:Protein purification 12047:Biogeochemical cycle 12009:Internal environment 11657:Cellular respiration 11190:OneZoom Tree of Life 11004:Mayr, Ernst (1982). 9541:(26 February 2021). 8764:. 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Washington, D.C.: 7327:10.1038/nchembio.364 6761:Miko, Ilona (2008). 6727:Miko, Ilona (2008). 6345:"Cell communication" 5496:Miko, Ilona (2008). 4429:Conservation biology 4385:biogeochemical cycle 3970:complex interactions 3485:Bacteria and Archaea 3414:formed the earliest 3405:differentiated cells 3088:artificial selection 3057:Evolutionary biology 2776:by an environmental 2720:A gene is a unit of 2686:'s experiments with 2453:; which divides the 2139:ethanol fermentation 2008:Cellular respiration 2002:Cellular respiration 1956:cellular respiration 1516:triple covalent bond 1255:Human Genome Project 1205:as the component of 731:Agricultural science 609:Reproductive biology 494:Mathematical biology 419:Evolutionary biology 369:Conservation biology 19:For other uses, see 14225:Natural environment 13568:Ecological genetics 13412:Branches of biology 13312:Related disciplines 13252:Bachelor of Science 13104:Humboldtian science 13041:Sequence hypothesis 12948:Molecular evolution 12460:Ecological genetics 12171:Gel electrophoresis 12161:Genetic engineering 12114:Population dynamics 12024:Reproductive system 11244:journal publishing 10805:2008PNAS..10511458J 10728:2004Sci...305.1632K 10122:2018GEcoC..1300365C 10047:Oxford Dictionaries 9669:10.1038/nrmicro1163 9579:talk.ictvonline.org 9281:2019NatEE...3..338O 9044:2006Natur.441..289P 9028:"Time for a change" 8973:2017CBio...27E3752D 8913:2004ApEnM..70.4230F 8862:1999AREPS..27..463V 8808:10.1038/nature05854 8800:2007Natur.447.1003W 8794:(7147): 1003–1006. 8629:2004ESRv...65..103T 8536:"Synapsid Reptiles" 8491:1999Natur.402...42S 8423:2000PNAS...97.4457C 8338:2013EcoPr...2....1B 8291:10.1038/nature09943 8283:2011Natur.473..505S 8237:Integrative Biology 8135:(1470): 1023–1038. 8089:(1436): 2375–2382. 8050:2014NatGe...7...25O 8005:1999Sci...283..674R 7756:1990PNAS...87.4576W 7034:1970Natur.226.1198. 6983:1970Natur.227..561C 5855:Nature Cell Biology 5482:. pp. 134–138. 4968:2018AsBio..18..343P 4863:2008Nonli..21..131M 4766:2013BiSys.111....1D 4502:Glossary of biology 4395:) and the abiotic ( 4258:Community (ecology) 4065:sexual reproduction 3952:. Over 1.5 million 3696:reproduce asexually 3580:in the laboratory. 3270:geologic time scale 2559:sexual reproduction 2368:signal transduction 2327:circulatory systems 2286:located deep inside 2284:of another cell or 2266:electrical impulses 2216:thylakoid membranes 2100:proton motive force 2041:combustion reaction 2033:catabolic reactions 1795:peripheral proteins 1759:extracellular space 1753:that separates its 1692:electron microscope 1647:structural proteins 1524:carbon–carbon bonds 1405:, water is a small 1403:molecular structure 1270:Atoms and molecules 736:Biomedical sciences 394:Ecological genetics 46:Part of a series on 13859:History of biology 13793:Structural biology 13778:Relational biology 13603:Generative biology 13598:Freshwater biology 13221:History of biology 13216:Notable biologists 13204:People and history 13114:Natural philosophy 13062:History of science 12862:History of biology 12789:Biology portal 12685:Structural biology 12670:Relational biology 12495:Generative biology 12490:Freshwater biology 12288:mark and recapture 12236:Restriction enzyme 12029:Respiratory system 11984:Circulatory system 11911:Epidermis (botany) 11091:Johnson, George B. 11038:The Way Life Works 10774:2019-10-14 at the 10385:Principles of Life 10354:"The Carbon Cycle" 10329:Principles of Life 10284:Smith, AL (1997). 10261:Principles of Life 10081:Sinauer Associates 10019:. Biology Online. 9968:Principles of Life 9886:Principles of Life 9547:The New York Times 9431:Principles of Life 9406:Principles of Life 9378:Principles of Life 9244:Principles of Life 8675:Chapman & Hall 8665:Benton, Michael J. 8265:Brasier, Martin D. 8232:Bonner, John Tyler 8175:(March 31, 2003). 7888:Principles of Life 7650:Principles of Life 7614:Principles of Life 7584:Principles of Life 7196:Principles of Life 7127:Principles of Life 6810:Principles of Life 6532:Biological Science 6412:Principles of Life 6090:Principles of Life 6065:2020-01-22 at the 5830:Biological Science 5805:Biological Science 5780:Biological Science 5725:Biological Science 5695:Principles of Life 5642:Biological Science 5406:Gould, Stephen Jay 4668:Biological Science 4547:Outline of biology 4517:List of biologists 4497:Biology in fiction 4380: 4268: 4186: 4176:Population ecology 4059:, which increases 4032:. More than 6,000 3999: 3938:reproduce sexually 3870:eukaryotes of the 3795:with bacteria (or 3789: 3636:metabolic pathways 3595: 3550:acidic hot springs 3524:. Typically a few 3507: 3446:Cambrian explosion 3432:appear during the 3182: 3115:genetic divergence 3070: 3005:metabolic activity 3001:membrane potential 2932:constitutive genes 2858:(RNA to protein). 2826: 2718: 2625: 2612:Classical genetics 2392: 2336:inotropic receptor 2173: 2054:(or Krebs cycle), 2021: 1986:needed to convert 1968:metabolic pathways 1962:—the building up ( 1944:chemical reactions 1936: 1830: 1747: 1742:depicting various 1635:transport proteins 1608: 1489: 1399:chemical reactions 1379: 1334:chemical processes 1239:Har Gobind Khorana 1227:molecular genetics 1187:classical genetics 1141: 1106:published a basic 993:natural philosophy 977: 957:History of biology 923:organisms such as 915:organisms such as 890:research questions 767:Biology portal 619:Structural biology 604:Relational biology 429:Generative biology 424:Freshwater biology 41: 14421: 14420: 14399: 14398: 14072:chemical elements 13996: 13995: 13877: 13876: 13798:Synthetic biology 13678:Molecular biology 13533:Cognitive biology 13378: 13377: 13274:Omne vivum ex ovo 13266:Terms and phrases 13150: 13149: 13016:Hierarchy of life 12963:Plant systematics 12943:Molecular biology 12828: 12827: 12690:Synthetic biology 12570:Molecular biology 12425:Cognitive biology 12301: 12300: 12127: 12126: 11818:Natural selection 11599:Organic compounds 11496:Scientific method 11486:Emergent property 11427:Hierarchy of life 11397:Energy processing 11278:interdisciplinary 11227:original research 11133:978-0-534-40653-0 11124:Asking About Life 11106:978-0-03-016723-2 11074:978-0-8032-7620-8 11047:978-0-7637-1688-2 11017:978-0-674-36446-2 10988:978-0-691-02364-9 10956:978-0-8053-7146-8 10926:978-1-4051-1117-1 10897:978-0-8153-3218-3 10857:978-0-87893-795-0 10582:978-0-87893-518-5 10554:978-0-86542-371-8 10468:978-0-87893-800-1 10358:Earth Observatory 10295:978-0-19-854768-6 10158:978-0-534-42066-6 10090:978-0-87893-308-2 9949:978-0-387-95443-1 9924:978-0-534-42066-6 9838:978-0-7614-7523-1 9812:978-1-4051-1117-1 9616:(19): 12599–603. 8967:(24): 3752–3762. 8684:978-0-412-73800-5 8604:Lucas, Spencer G. 8570:"The Great Dying" 8375:(1365): 113–130. 8277:(7348): 505–509. 8196:10.2517/prpsj.7.9 8071:Nisbet, Euan G.; 8037:Nature Geoscience 7999:(5402): 674–676. 7967:978-0-87893-187-3 7867:978-0-19-515605-8 7490:(November 1970). 7408:978-1-4496-4722-3 7284:978-0-12-385943-3 7042:10.1038/2261198a0 6967:Crick, Francis H. 6937:Crick, Francis H. 6881:10.1002/jcb.20519 6713:978-0-7637-1511-3 6686:978-0-7167-3520-5 6508:. 28 March 2018. 6326:978-0-321-73975-9 6313:Pearson Education 5972:978-0-8153-3218-3 5458:978-1-58836-538-5 5311:978-0-521-29293-1 5286:978-0-19-515618-8 5254:978-0-203-91100-6 5227:978-0-415-12410-2 5147:978-1-4899-6327-7 5116:978-0-203-91100-6 5089:978-3-319-90118-3 5055:978-052-1-68957-1 5019:978-0-226-48205-7 4940:Pudritz, Ralph E. 4835:978-0-19-965857-2 4472:biodiversity loss 4376:slow carbon cycle 4371:Fast carbon cycle 4325:organic compounds 4234:human populations 4210:carrying capacity 4196:that occupies an 4061:genetic diversity 4006:infectious agents 3901:coleochaetophytes 3664:organic compounds 3554:radioactive waste 3264:that lived about 3186:phylogenetic tree 3068:for darker traits 3066:Natural selection 2983:. Stem cells are 2930:, in contrast to 2854:(DNA to RNA) and 2806:genetic variation 2646:while others are 2591:Genetic variation 2522:spindle apparatus 2346:receptors (e.g., 2315:neurotransmitters 2115:electron acceptor 2088:protein complexes 2052:citric acid cycle 2016:Respiration in a 1984:activation energy 1852:, which generate 1783:membrane proteins 1543:functional groups 1492:Organic compounds 1475:Organic chemistry 1469:Organic compounds 1465:that is neutral. 1342:Molecular biology 1282:chemical elements 1168:natural selection 898:scientific method 876:of a cell to the 874:molecular biology 848:Energy processing 817: 816: 741:Health technology 624:Synthetic biology 504:Molecular biology 359:Cognitive biology 154:Energy processing 14513: 14486: 14485: 14474: 14473: 14462: 14461: 14460: 14450: 14449: 14448: 14438: 14437: 14429: 14411: 14410: 14283: 14273: 14272: 14213:tropical cyclone 14163: 14023: 14016: 14009: 14000: 13999: 13986: 13985: 13976: 13966: 13965: 13945:Physical science 13904: 13897: 13890: 13881: 13880: 13523:Chemical biology 13405: 13398: 13391: 13382: 13381: 13177: 13170: 13163: 13154: 13153: 13140: 13139: 13119:Natural theology 12855: 12848: 12841: 12832: 12831: 12818: 12817: 12808: 12807: 12798: 12797: 12791: 12787: 12786: 12763:Ecological terms 12415:Chemical biology 12276:Field techniques 12149: 12148: 12135: 11994:Digestive system 11989:Endocrine system 11562:Chemical element 11521:Biology journals 11417:Self-replication 11372: 11371: 11311: 11304: 11297: 11288: 11287: 11137: 11118: 11086: 11059: 11032: 11030: 11029: 11000: 10968: 10938: 10909: 10889: 10862: 10861: 10843: 10837: 10836: 10826: 10816: 10784: 10778: 10762: 10756: 10755: 10722:(5690): 1632–4. 10711: 10705: 10704: 10694: 10662: 10656: 10655: 10653: 10652: 10596: 10587: 10586: 10568: 10559: 10558: 10538: 10529: 10528: 10526: 10525: 10519: 10513:. Archived from 10488: 10479: 10473: 10472: 10454: 10448: 10447: 10437: 10420:(1636): 759–65. 10405: 10399: 10398: 10380: 10374: 10373: 10371: 10369: 10349: 10343: 10342: 10324: 10318: 10317: 10309: 10303: 10302: 10281: 10275: 10274: 10256: 10245: 10244: 10214: 10208: 10207: 10197: 10173: 10167: 10166: 10161:. Archived from 10142: 10136: 10135: 10133: 10101: 10095: 10094: 10072: 10066: 10065: 10060: 10058: 10039: 10033: 10032: 10030: 10028: 10013: 10007: 10006: 9993:Campbell Biology 9988: 9982: 9981: 9963: 9954: 9953: 9935: 9929: 9928: 9916: 9906: 9900: 9899: 9881: 9875: 9860: 9854: 9853: 9851: 9850: 9823: 9817: 9816: 9798: 9792: 9791: 9781: 9749: 9743: 9742: 9730: 9724: 9723: 9695: 9689: 9688: 9652: 9646: 9645: 9635: 9625: 9601: 9595: 9594: 9592: 9590: 9571: 9565: 9564: 9562: 9560: 9554: 9549:. Archived from 9535: 9529: 9528: 9518: 9508: 9484: 9478: 9477: 9475: 9473: 9464:. Archived from 9451: 9445: 9444: 9426: 9420: 9419: 9401: 9392: 9391: 9373: 9360: 9359: 9349: 9325: 9319: 9318: 9300: 9264: 9258: 9257: 9239: 9224: 9223: 9195: 9189: 9188: 9178: 9154: 9148: 9147: 9145: 9144: 9129: 9123: 9122: 9112: 9080: 9074: 9073: 9055: 9023: 9017: 9016: 9014: 9013: 9007: 8984: 8958: 8949: 8943: 8942: 8932: 8892: 8886: 8885: 8883: 8881: 8836: 8830: 8827: 8780: 8778: 8777: 8768:. Archived from 8753: 8747: 8746: 8744: 8743: 8737: 8712: 8703: 8697: 8696: 8661: 8655: 8654: 8652: 8651: 8645: 8639:. Archived from 8623:(1–2): 103–139. 8612: 8599: 8593: 8592: 8590: 8589: 8565: 8559: 8558: 8556: 8555: 8546:. Archived from 8531: 8525: 8524: 8522: 8521: 8515: 8509:. Archived from 8474: 8461: 8455: 8454: 8444: 8434: 8417:(9): 4457–4462. 8401: 8395: 8394: 8392: 8358: 8352: 8351: 8349: 8317: 8311: 8310: 8260: 8254: 8253: 8228: 8222: 8221: 8219: 8218: 8212: 8206:. Archived from 8181: 8169: 8163: 8162: 8152: 8119:Knoll, Andrew H. 8115: 8109: 8108: 8106: 8068: 8062: 8061: 8058:10.1038/ngeo2025 8031: 8025: 8024: 7986: 7980: 7979: 7951: 7945: 7940: 7934: 7933: 7931: 7929: 7923: 7916: 7908: 7902: 7901: 7883: 7872: 7871: 7855: 7845: 7839: 7838: 7794: 7788: 7787: 7777: 7767: 7735: 7729: 7728: 7720: 7714: 7712: 7710: 7708: 7670: 7664: 7663: 7645: 7628: 7627: 7609: 7598: 7597: 7579: 7573: 7572: 7564: 7558: 7546: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7496: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7464:Campbell Biology 7459: 7446: 7445: 7430: 7424: 7423: 7421: 7420: 7392: 7386: 7385: 7379: 7377: 7359:Carroll, Sean B. 7355: 7349: 7348: 7338: 7306: 7300: 7299: 7297: 7296: 7268: 7262: 7261: 7225: 7219: 7216: 7210: 7209: 7191: 7182: 7181: 7171: 7162:(6): 1161–1167. 7147: 7141: 7140: 7122: 7103: 7102: 7092: 7068: 7062: 7061: 7017: 7011: 7010: 6991:10.1038/227561a0 6963: 6957: 6956: 6933: 6927: 6926: 6924: 6923: 6908: 6902: 6901: 6883: 6859: 6853: 6852: 6840: 6830: 6824: 6823: 6805: 6786: 6785: 6783: 6782: 6767:Nature Education 6758: 6752: 6751: 6749: 6748: 6733:Nature Education 6724: 6718: 6717: 6697: 6691: 6690: 6668: 6662: 6661: 6643: 6637: 6634: 6628: 6625: 6616: 6613: 6607: 6603: 6597: 6596: 6586: 6576: 6552: 6546: 6545: 6527: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6517: 6498: 6492: 6491: 6465: 6459: 6458: 6432: 6426: 6425: 6407: 6398: 6397: 6395: 6393: 6382:Nature Education 6378:"Cell signaling" 6374: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6360: 6349:Nature Education 6340: 6334: 6333: 6302: 6296: 6295: 6265: 6256: 6236: 6235: 6229: 6223: 6203: 6202: 6196: 6190: 6189: 6187: 6186: 6169:"photosynthesis" 6165: 6159: 6158: 6140: 6123: 6122: 6113:Bailey, Regina. 6110: 6104: 6103: 6085: 6070: 6049: 6047: 6046: 6037:(4th ed.). 6026: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6015: 5987: 5981: 5980: 5956: 5950: 5949: 5936:Campbell Biology 5931: 5925: 5924: 5922: 5921: 5893: 5887: 5886: 5850: 5844: 5843: 5825: 5819: 5818: 5800: 5794: 5793: 5775: 5769: 5768: 5755:Campbell Biology 5750: 5739: 5738: 5720: 5709: 5708: 5690: 5684: 5683: 5670:Campbell Biology 5665: 5656: 5655: 5637: 5594: 5593: 5580:Campbell Biology 5575: 5566: 5565: 5563: 5562: 5542: 5536: 5535: 5527: 5521: 5520: 5518: 5517: 5502:Nature Education 5493: 5484: 5483: 5473: 5467: 5466: 5440: 5434: 5427: 5421: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5394: 5392: 5386: 5363: 5348: 5342: 5335: 5329: 5322: 5316: 5315: 5297: 5291: 5290: 5269: 5263: 5262: 5238: 5232: 5231: 5207: 5201: 5200: 5179: 5177: 5176: 5170: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5100: 5094: 5093: 5066: 5060: 5059: 5043: 5033: 5024: 5023: 5005: 4996: 4995: 4961: 4935: 4926: 4925: 4919: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4821: 4815: 4814: 4802: 4796: 4795: 4785: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4728: 4688: 4682: 4681: 4663: 4648: 4647: 4629: 4614: 4613: 4600:Campbell Biology 4595: 4242:Green revolution 4164:nutrient cycling 4069:self-replicators 3866:, predominantly 3754:human microbiome 3530:number of shapes 3505:(-=1 Micrometer) 3474:mass extinctions 3137: 2985:undifferentiated 2936:structural genes 2802:gain-of-function 2766:semiconservative 2408:and some of its 2360:second messenger 2350:for the hormone 2331:vascular systems 2204:Light absorption 1948:metabolic wastes 1722:in a fertilized 1567:sulfhydryl group 1332:is the study of 1243:Robert W. Holley 1183:modern synthesis 1112:scientific names 1033:Islamic scholars 919:and bacteria to 809: 802: 795: 782: 777: 776: 769: 765: 764: 703:List of journals 349:Chemical biology 62: 43: 42: 14521: 14520: 14516: 14515: 14514: 14512: 14511: 14510: 14496: 14495: 14492: 14480: 14468: 14458: 14456: 14446: 14444: 14432: 14424: 14422: 14417: 14395: 14312: 14281: 14262: 14219: 14161: 14141: 14132:Gaia hypothesis 14122:Plate tectonics 14083: 14033: 14027: 13997: 13992: 13954: 13926: 13913: 13911:Natural science 13908: 13878: 13873: 13847: 13808:Systems biology 13773:Quantum biology 13414: 13409: 13379: 13374: 13348: 13307: 13261: 13240: 13199: 13186: 13181: 13151: 13146: 13128: 13109:Natural history 13050: 12988: 12982: 12938:Model organisms 12875: 12869: 12859: 12829: 12824: 12781: 12780: 12772: 12758:Botanical terms 12741: 12740: 12739: 12700:Systems biology 12665:Quantum biology 12297: 12271: 12153: 12143: 12136: 12123: 12033: 12014:Muscular system 11971: 11965: 11956:Vascular tissue 11903: 11897: 11837: 11798:History of life 11759: 11740:Gene regulation 11735:Gene expression 11706: 11623: 11530: 11361: 11320: 11315: 11234:Biology Letters 11222:Current Biology 11175:OSU's Phylocode 11164: 11145: 11140: 11134: 11121: 11107: 11089: 11075: 11062: 11048: 11035: 11027: 11025: 11018: 11003: 10989: 10973:Colinvaux, Paul 10971: 10957: 10941: 10927: 10912: 10898: 10881: 10877: 10871: 10869:Further reading 10866: 10865: 10858: 10844: 10840: 10785: 10781: 10776:Wayback Machine 10763: 10759: 10712: 10708: 10671:Biology Letters 10663: 10659: 10650: 10648: 10633: 10607:Springer-Verlag 10597: 10590: 10583: 10569: 10562: 10555: 10539: 10532: 10523: 10521: 10517: 10503:10.2307/1310054 10486: 10480: 10476: 10469: 10455: 10451: 10406: 10402: 10395: 10381: 10377: 10367: 10365: 10350: 10346: 10339: 10325: 10321: 10310: 10306: 10296: 10282: 10278: 10271: 10257: 10248: 10215: 10211: 10174: 10170: 10159: 10143: 10139: 10102: 10098: 10091: 10073: 10069: 10056: 10054: 10053:on 4 March 2016 10041: 10040: 10036: 10026: 10024: 10015: 10014: 10010: 10003: 9989: 9985: 9978: 9964: 9957: 9950: 9936: 9932: 9925: 9907: 9903: 9896: 9882: 9878: 9861: 9857: 9848: 9846: 9839: 9825: 9824: 9820: 9813: 9799: 9795: 9750: 9746: 9731: 9727: 9696: 9692: 9653: 9649: 9602: 9598: 9588: 9586: 9573: 9572: 9568: 9558: 9556: 9536: 9532: 9485: 9481: 9471: 9469: 9452: 9448: 9441: 9427: 9423: 9416: 9402: 9395: 9388: 9374: 9363: 9326: 9322: 9265: 9261: 9254: 9240: 9227: 9196: 9192: 9155: 9151: 9142: 9140: 9131: 9130: 9126: 9081: 9077: 9053:10.1038/441289a 9024: 9020: 9011: 9009: 9005: 8961:Current Biology 8956: 8950: 8946: 8893: 8889: 8879: 8877: 8842:(May 1, 1999). 8837: 8833: 8775: 8773: 8754: 8750: 8741: 8739: 8735: 8710: 8704: 8700: 8685: 8662: 8658: 8649: 8647: 8643: 8610: 8600: 8596: 8587: 8585: 8566: 8562: 8553: 8551: 8532: 8528: 8519: 8517: 8513: 8485:(6757): 42–46. 8472: 8462: 8458: 8402: 8398: 8359: 8355: 8318: 8314: 8261: 8257: 8229: 8225: 8216: 8214: 8210: 8179: 8170: 8166: 8116: 8112: 8069: 8065: 8032: 8028: 7987: 7983: 7968: 7952: 7948: 7941: 7937: 7927: 7925: 7921: 7914: 7910: 7909: 7905: 7898: 7884: 7875: 7868: 7846: 7842: 7795: 7791: 7750:(12): 4576–79. 7736: 7732: 7721: 7717: 7706: 7704: 7697: 7671: 7667: 7660: 7646: 7631: 7624: 7610: 7601: 7594: 7580: 7576: 7565: 7561: 7549:Darwin, Charles 7547: 7543: 7535: 7494: 7485: 7481: 7474: 7460: 7449: 7432: 7431: 7427: 7418: 7416: 7409: 7393: 7389: 7375: 7373: 7366:Natural History 7356: 7352: 7307: 7303: 7294: 7292: 7285: 7269: 7265: 7242:10.1038/nrm2146 7226: 7222: 7217: 7213: 7206: 7192: 7185: 7148: 7144: 7137: 7123: 7106: 7069: 7065: 7019: 7018: 7014: 6977:(5258): 561–3. 6964: 6960: 6934: 6930: 6921: 6919: 6910: 6909: 6905: 6860: 6856: 6849: 6831: 6827: 6820: 6806: 6789: 6780: 6778: 6759: 6755: 6746: 6744: 6725: 6721: 6714: 6698: 6694: 6687: 6669: 6665: 6658: 6644: 6640: 6635: 6631: 6626: 6619: 6614: 6610: 6604: 6600: 6553: 6549: 6542: 6528: 6524: 6515: 6513: 6500: 6499: 6495: 6480: 6466: 6462: 6447: 6433: 6429: 6422: 6408: 6401: 6391: 6389: 6376: 6375: 6368: 6358: 6356: 6341: 6337: 6327: 6303: 6299: 6278:(11): 488–496. 6266: 6259: 6254:Perseus Project 6230: 6226: 6221:Perseus Project 6197: 6193: 6184: 6182: 6167: 6166: 6162: 6155: 6141: 6126: 6111: 6107: 6100: 6086: 6073: 6067:Wayback Machine 6044: 6042: 6027: 6023: 6013: 6011: 5988: 5984: 5973: 5957: 5953: 5946: 5932: 5928: 5919: 5917: 5910: 5894: 5890: 5851: 5847: 5840: 5826: 5822: 5815: 5801: 5797: 5790: 5776: 5772: 5765: 5751: 5742: 5735: 5721: 5712: 5705: 5691: 5687: 5680: 5666: 5659: 5652: 5638: 5597: 5590: 5576: 5569: 5560: 5558: 5543: 5539: 5528: 5524: 5515: 5513: 5494: 5487: 5474: 5470: 5459: 5441: 5437: 5428: 5424: 5404: 5400: 5390: 5388: 5384: 5361: 5353:Darwin, Francis 5349: 5345: 5336: 5332: 5323: 5319: 5312: 5298: 5294: 5287: 5270: 5266: 5255: 5239: 5235: 5228: 5220:. p. 815. 5216:. Vol. 3. 5208: 5204: 5189:, ed. (1911). " 5174: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5157: 5155: 5148: 5132: 5128: 5117: 5101: 5097: 5090: 5068: 5067: 5063: 5056: 5034: 5027: 5020: 5006: 4999: 4936: 4929: 4913: 4912: 4905: 4903: 4890: 4886: 4847: 4843: 4836: 4822: 4818: 4805: 4803: 4799: 4746: 4742: 4689: 4685: 4678: 4664: 4651: 4644: 4630: 4617: 4610: 4596: 4577: 4572: 4567: 4558:Science tourism 4492: 4431: 4425: 4364: 4358: 4260: 4254: 4206:Population size 4178: 4172: 4133:nutrient cycles 4101: 4095: 4083: 4077: 3988: 3982: 3841:common ancestor 3776: 3770: 3626:. Despite this 3612:, Bacteria and 3574:bacterial phyla 3532:, ranging from 3493: 3487: 3482: 3257: 3255:History of life 3251: 3249:History of life 3167: 3135: 3133: 3127: 3102: 3096: 3080:characteristics 3059: 3053: 3048: 3009:gene expression 2973:differentiation 2958: 2952: 2928:inducible genes 2870: 2864: 2862:Gene regulation 2832: 2830:Gene expression 2814: 2812:Gene expression 2762:DNA replication 2710: 2700: 2614: 2608: 2603: 2575:complementation 2547: 2480:internal organs 2398: 2376: 2258: 2252: 2208:carbon fixation 2184:chemical energy 2170: 2166: 2157: 2151: 2108:phosphorylating 2093: 2081: 2025:chemical energy 2018:eukaryotic cell 2010: 2004: 1924: 1918: 1862:Golgi apparatus 1807:cell signalling 1732: 1669: 1663: 1596: 1590: 1563:phosphate group 1520:carbon monoxide 1513: 1477: 1471: 1423:Surface tension 1412: 1368: 1354: 1278: 1272: 1267: 1237:was cracked by 959: 953: 834:are made up of 828:natural science 813: 772: 759: 758: 751: 750: 726: 718: 717: 684: 676: 675: 674: 673: 634:Systems biology 599:Quantum biology 242: 234: 233: 198: 183: 145: 134: 110: 102: 67: 65:Science of life 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 14519: 14509: 14508: 14491: 14490: 14478: 14466: 14454: 14452:Earth sciences 14442: 14419: 14418: 14416: 14415: 14404: 14401: 14400: 14397: 14396: 14394: 14393: 14386: 14385: 14384: 14379: 14369: 14368: 14367: 14362: 14357: 14356: 14355: 14345: 14344: 14343: 14328: 14323: 14317: 14314: 14313: 14311: 14310: 14300: 14295: 14290: 14285: 14276: 14270: 14264: 14263: 14261: 14260: 14255: 14250: 14245: 14240: 14235: 14229: 14227: 14221: 14220: 14218: 14217: 14216: 14215: 14210: 14200: 14195: 14190: 14185: 14180: 14175: 14170: 14165: 14157: 14151: 14149: 14143: 14142: 14140: 14139: 14134: 14129: 14124: 14119: 14114: 14109: 14099: 14093: 14091: 14085: 14084: 14082: 14081: 14076: 14075: 14074: 14069: 14059: 14054: 14049: 14043: 14041: 14035: 14034: 14026: 14025: 14018: 14011: 14003: 13994: 13993: 13991: 13990: 13980: 13978:Science Portal 13970: 13959: 13956: 13955: 13953: 13952: 13947: 13942: 13937: 13931: 13928: 13927: 13925: 13924: 13918: 13915: 13914: 13907: 13906: 13899: 13892: 13884: 13875: 13874: 13872: 13871: 13866: 13861: 13855: 13853: 13849: 13848: 13846: 13845: 13840: 13835: 13830: 13825: 13820: 13815: 13810: 13805: 13800: 13795: 13790: 13785: 13780: 13775: 13770: 13765: 13760: 13755: 13750: 13745: 13740: 13735: 13730: 13725: 13720: 13715: 13710: 13705: 13700: 13695: 13690: 13685: 13680: 13675: 13670: 13665: 13663:Marine biology 13660: 13655: 13650: 13645: 13640: 13635: 13630: 13625: 13620: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13570: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13550: 13545: 13540: 13535: 13530: 13525: 13520: 13515: 13510: 13505: 13500: 13495: 13490: 13485: 13480: 13475: 13473:Bioinformatics 13470: 13465: 13460: 13455: 13450: 13445: 13440: 13435: 13430: 13425: 13419: 13416: 13415: 13408: 13407: 13400: 13393: 13385: 13376: 13375: 13373: 13372: 13362: 13356: 13354: 13350: 13349: 13347: 13346: 13341: 13336: 13331: 13326: 13315: 13313: 13309: 13308: 13306: 13305: 13298: 13291: 13284: 13277: 13269: 13267: 13263: 13262: 13260: 13259: 13254: 13248: 13246: 13242: 13241: 13239: 13238: 13233: 13228: 13223: 13218: 13213: 13207: 13205: 13201: 13200: 13198: 13197: 13191: 13188: 13187: 13180: 13179: 13172: 13165: 13157: 13148: 13147: 13145: 13144: 13133: 13130: 13129: 13127: 13126: 13121: 13116: 13111: 13106: 13101: 13096: 13091: 13086: 13081: 13076: 13075: 13074: 13064: 13058: 13056: 13052: 13051: 13049: 13048: 13043: 13038: 13033: 13028: 13023: 13018: 13013: 13008: 13003: 12998: 12992: 12990: 12984: 12983: 12981: 12980: 12975: 12970: 12965: 12960: 12955: 12950: 12945: 12940: 12935: 12930: 12925: 12920: 12915: 12910: 12905: 12900: 12895: 12890: 12885: 12879: 12877: 12871: 12870: 12858: 12857: 12850: 12843: 12835: 12826: 12825: 12823: 12822: 12812: 12802: 12792: 12777: 12774: 12773: 12771: 12770: 12765: 12760: 12755: 12749: 12747: 12743: 12742: 12738: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12712: 12707: 12702: 12697: 12692: 12687: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12667: 12662: 12657: 12652: 12647: 12642: 12637: 12632: 12627: 12622: 12617: 12612: 12607: 12602: 12597: 12592: 12587: 12582: 12577: 12572: 12567: 12562: 12557: 12555:Marine biology 12552: 12547: 12542: 12537: 12532: 12527: 12522: 12517: 12512: 12507: 12502: 12497: 12492: 12487: 12482: 12477: 12472: 12467: 12462: 12457: 12452: 12447: 12442: 12437: 12432: 12427: 12422: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12402: 12397: 12392: 12387: 12382: 12377: 12372: 12367: 12365:Bioinformatics 12362: 12357: 12352: 12347: 12342: 12337: 12332: 12327: 12322: 12317: 12311: 12310: 12309: 12307: 12303: 12302: 12299: 12298: 12296: 12295: 12290: 12285: 12279: 12277: 12273: 12272: 12270: 12269: 12262: 12255: 12248: 12243: 12238: 12233: 12228: 12223: 12218: 12213: 12208: 12203: 12198: 12196:DNA microarray 12193: 12191:DNA sequencing 12188: 12183: 12181:Centrifugation 12178: 12176:Chromatography 12173: 12168: 12166:Transformation 12163: 12157: 12155: 12146: 12138: 12137: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12124: 12122: 12121: 12116: 12111: 12106: 12105: 12104: 12094: 12089: 12084: 12079: 12077:Climate change 12074: 12069: 12064: 12059: 12054: 12049: 12043: 12041: 12035: 12034: 12032: 12031: 12026: 12021: 12019:Nervous system 12016: 12011: 12006: 12001: 11996: 11991: 11986: 11981: 11975: 11973: 11967: 11966: 11964: 11963: 11958: 11953: 11951:Vascular plant 11948: 11943: 11938: 11933: 11928: 11923: 11918: 11913: 11907: 11905: 11899: 11898: 11896: 11895: 11890: 11889: 11888: 11883: 11878: 11873: 11868: 11858: 11853: 11847: 11845: 11839: 11838: 11836: 11835: 11830: 11825: 11820: 11815: 11810: 11808:Microevolution 11805: 11803:Macroevolution 11800: 11795: 11790: 11785: 11780: 11775: 11769: 11767: 11761: 11760: 11758: 11757: 11752: 11747: 11742: 11737: 11732: 11727: 11722: 11716: 11714: 11708: 11707: 11705: 11704: 11699: 11697:Photosynthesis 11694: 11689: 11684: 11679: 11674: 11669: 11664: 11659: 11654: 11652:Cell signaling 11649: 11644: 11639: 11633: 11631: 11625: 11624: 11622: 11621: 11616: 11611: 11606: 11601: 11596: 11591: 11586: 11581: 11580: 11579: 11569: 11564: 11559: 11554: 11549: 11544: 11538: 11536: 11535:Chemical basis 11532: 11531: 11529: 11528: 11523: 11518: 11513: 11508: 11503: 11501:Taxonomic rank 11498: 11493: 11488: 11483: 11481:Reductionistic 11478: 11424: 11389: 11384: 11378: 11376: 11369: 11363: 11362: 11360: 11359: 11354: 11353: 11352: 11342: 11337: 11328:Introduction ( 11325: 11322: 11321: 11314: 11313: 11306: 11299: 11291: 11285: 11284: 11269: 11261: 11249: 11230: 11218: 11209: 11198: 11197: 11192: 11187: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11144: 11143:External links 11141: 11139: 11138: 11132: 11119: 11105: 11087: 11073: 11060: 11046: 11033: 11016: 11001: 10987: 10969: 10955: 10943:Campbell, Neil 10939: 10925: 10910: 10896: 10878: 10870: 10867: 10864: 10863: 10856: 10838: 10779: 10757: 10706: 10657: 10632:978-1402068904 10631: 10588: 10581: 10560: 10553: 10530: 10474: 10467: 10449: 10400: 10394:978-1464175121 10393: 10375: 10344: 10338:978-1464175121 10337: 10319: 10304: 10294: 10276: 10270:978-1464175121 10269: 10246: 10209: 10188:(4): 555–568. 10168: 10165:on 2011-08-20. 10157: 10137: 10096: 10089: 10083:. p. 45. 10067: 10034: 10008: 10002:978-0134093413 10001: 9983: 9977:978-1464175121 9976: 9955: 9948: 9930: 9923: 9901: 9895:978-1464175121 9894: 9876: 9855: 9837: 9818: 9811: 9793: 9744: 9725: 9690: 9647: 9596: 9566: 9530: 9493:Biology Direct 9479: 9468:on 28 May 2020 9446: 9440:978-1464175121 9439: 9421: 9415:978-1464175121 9414: 9393: 9387:978-1464175121 9386: 9361: 9320: 9259: 9253:978-1464175121 9252: 9225: 9190: 9149: 9135:. March 2018. 9124: 9075: 9018: 8944: 8907:(7): 4230–41. 8887: 8831: 8829: 8828: 8748: 8698: 8683: 8656: 8594: 8560: 8526: 8456: 8396: 8353: 8312: 8255: 8223: 8164: 8110: 8073:Fowler, C.M.R. 8063: 8026: 7981: 7966: 7946: 7935: 7903: 7897:978-1464175121 7896: 7873: 7866: 7840: 7789: 7730: 7715: 7695: 7665: 7659:978-1464175121 7658: 7629: 7623:978-1464175121 7622: 7599: 7593:978-1464175121 7592: 7574: 7559: 7557:, John Murray. 7541: 7479: 7473:978-0134093413 7472: 7447: 7425: 7407: 7387: 7350: 7321:(6): 411–417. 7301: 7283: 7263: 7236:(5): 369–378. 7220: 7211: 7205:978-1464175121 7204: 7183: 7156:Molecular Cell 7142: 7136:978-1464175121 7135: 7104: 7083:(6): 791–792. 7077:Molecular Cell 7063: 7012: 6958: 6928: 6903: 6854: 6847: 6825: 6819:978-1464175121 6818: 6787: 6753: 6729:"Test crosses" 6719: 6712: 6692: 6685: 6663: 6657:978-1464109485 6656: 6638: 6629: 6617: 6608: 6598: 6547: 6541:978-0321976499 6540: 6522: 6493: 6479:978-1429229432 6478: 6460: 6446:978-0199204625 6445: 6427: 6421:978-1464175121 6420: 6399: 6366: 6335: 6325: 6297: 6257: 6224: 6191: 6160: 6154:978-0716776017 6153: 6124: 6105: 6099:978-1464175121 6098: 6071: 6021: 5982: 5971: 5951: 5945:978-0134093413 5944: 5926: 5909:978-0132508827 5908: 5888: 5845: 5839:978-0321976499 5838: 5820: 5814:978-0321976499 5813: 5795: 5789:978-0321976499 5788: 5770: 5764:978-0134093413 5763: 5740: 5734:978-0321976499 5733: 5710: 5704:978-1464175121 5703: 5685: 5679:978-0134093413 5678: 5657: 5651:978-0321976499 5650: 5595: 5589:978-0134093413 5588: 5567: 5537: 5522: 5485: 5476:Henig (2000). 5468: 5457: 5435: 5422: 5398: 5355:, ed. (1909). 5343: 5330: 5317: 5310: 5292: 5285: 5264: 5253: 5233: 5226: 5202: 5187:Chisholm, Hugh 5165: 5146: 5126: 5115: 5095: 5088: 5061: 5054: 5025: 5018: 4997: 4952:(3): 343–364. 4927: 4884: 4841: 4834: 4828:. OUP Oxford. 4816: 4813:on 2004-06-08. 4797: 4740: 4703:(4): 259–266. 4683: 4677:978-0321976499 4676: 4649: 4643:978-1319017644 4642: 4615: 4609:978-0134093413 4608: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4458:, population, 4427:Main article: 4424: 4421: 4360:Main article: 4357: 4354: 4317:trophic levels 4256:Main article: 4253: 4250: 4246:Thomas Malthus 4174:Main article: 4171: 4168: 4152:organic matter 4137:photosynthesis 4097:Main article: 4094: 4091: 4079:Main article: 4076: 4073: 4026:microorganisms 4003:submicroscopic 3995:Bacteriophages 3984:Main article: 3981: 3978: 3930:breathe oxygen 3880:cyanobacterium 3868:photosynthetic 3772:Main article: 3769: 3766: 3700:binary fission 3656:cell membranes 3558:deep biosphere 3522:microorganisms 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3436:period, while 3430:Ediacara biota 3412:microorganisms 3385:Microbial mats 3369:common descent 3253:Main article: 3250: 3247: 3129:Main article: 3126: 3123: 3098:Main article: 3095: 3092: 3055:Main article: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 2993:types of cells 2954:Main article: 2951: 2948: 2866:Main article: 2863: 2860: 2828:Main article: 2813: 2810: 2726:polynucleotide 2699: 2696: 2684:Thomas Morgans 2676:Punnett square 2621:Punnett square 2610:Main article: 2607: 2604: 2602: 2599: 2546: 2543: 2510:binary fission 2472:fertilized egg 2394:Main article: 2375: 2372: 2344:protein kinase 2338:can alter the 2329:of animals or 2319:synaptic cleft 2256:Cell signaling 2254:Main article: 2251: 2250:Cell signaling 2248: 2197:oxygen content 2168: 2167:, and fixes CO 2164: 2155:Photosynthesis 2153:Main article: 2150: 2149:Photosynthesis 2147: 2126:waste products 2091: 2079: 2006:Main article: 2003: 2000: 1942:is the set of 1917: 1914: 1894:microfilaments 1731: 1730:Cell structure 1728: 1667:Cell (biology) 1665:Main article: 1662: 1659: 1611:Macromolecules 1592:Main article: 1589: 1588:Macromolecules 1586: 1559:hydroxyl group 1555:carbonyl group 1551:carboxyl group 1511: 1508:carbon dioxide 1496:covalent bonds 1470: 1467: 1410: 1407:polar molecule 1353: 1350: 1271: 1268: 1266: 1265:Chemical basis 1263: 1195:Alfred Hershey 1152:Charles Darwin 1131:Charles Darwin 1120:common descent 1093:Rudolf Virchow 1056:Jan Swammerdam 969:'s innovative 955:Main article: 952: 949: 815: 814: 812: 811: 804: 797: 789: 786: 785: 784: 783: 770: 753: 752: 749: 748: 743: 738: 733: 727: 724: 723: 720: 719: 716: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 685: 682: 681: 678: 677: 672: 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646: 641: 636: 631: 626: 621: 616: 611: 606: 601: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 526: 521: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 491: 489:Marine biology 486: 481: 476: 471: 466: 461: 456: 451: 446: 441: 436: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 366: 361: 356: 351: 346: 341: 336: 331: 326: 321: 316: 311: 306: 301: 299:Bioinformatics 296: 291: 286: 281: 276: 271: 266: 261: 256: 251: 245: 244: 243: 240: 239: 236: 235: 232: 231: 209: 204: 197: 196: 182: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 144: 143: 138:Properties of 133: 132: 127: 122: 117: 111: 109:Key components 108: 107: 104: 103: 101: 100: 89: 88: 83: 78: 72: 69: 68: 63: 55: 54: 48: 47: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14518: 14507: 14504: 14503: 14501: 14494: 14489: 14484: 14479: 14477: 14472: 14467: 14465: 14455: 14453: 14443: 14441: 14436: 14431: 14430: 14427: 14414: 14406: 14405: 14402: 14392: 14391: 14387: 14383: 14380: 14378: 14375: 14374: 14373: 14370: 14366: 14363: 14361: 14358: 14354: 14351: 14350: 14349: 14346: 14342: 14339: 14338: 14337: 14334: 14333: 14332: 14329: 14327: 14324: 14322: 14319: 14318: 14315: 14308: 14304: 14301: 14299: 14296: 14294: 14291: 14289: 14286: 14284: 14282:(abiogenesis) 14278: 14277: 14274: 14271: 14269: 14265: 14259: 14256: 14254: 14251: 14249: 14246: 14244: 14241: 14239: 14236: 14234: 14231: 14230: 14228: 14226: 14222: 14214: 14211: 14209: 14206: 14205: 14204: 14201: 14199: 14196: 14194: 14191: 14189: 14186: 14184: 14181: 14179: 14176: 14174: 14171: 14169: 14166: 14164: 14158: 14156: 14153: 14152: 14150: 14148: 14144: 14138: 14135: 14133: 14130: 14128: 14125: 14123: 14120: 14118: 14115: 14113: 14110: 14107: 14103: 14100: 14098: 14097:Earth science 14095: 14094: 14092: 14090: 14086: 14080: 14077: 14073: 14070: 14068: 14065: 14064: 14063: 14060: 14058: 14055: 14053: 14050: 14048: 14045: 14044: 14042: 14040: 14036: 14032: 14024: 14019: 14017: 14012: 14010: 14005: 14004: 14001: 13989: 13981: 13979: 13975: 13971: 13969: 13961: 13960: 13957: 13951: 13950:Space science 13948: 13946: 13943: 13941: 13940:Life sciences 13938: 13936: 13935:Earth science 13933: 13932: 13929: 13923: 13920: 13919: 13916: 13912: 13905: 13900: 13898: 13893: 13891: 13886: 13885: 13882: 13870: 13867: 13865: 13862: 13860: 13857: 13856: 13854: 13850: 13844: 13841: 13839: 13836: 13834: 13831: 13829: 13826: 13824: 13821: 13819: 13816: 13814: 13811: 13809: 13806: 13804: 13801: 13799: 13796: 13794: 13791: 13789: 13786: 13784: 13781: 13779: 13776: 13774: 13771: 13769: 13766: 13764: 13761: 13759: 13756: 13754: 13751: 13749: 13746: 13744: 13743:Phylogenetics 13741: 13739: 13736: 13734: 13731: 13729: 13726: 13724: 13721: 13719: 13716: 13714: 13711: 13709: 13706: 13704: 13701: 13699: 13696: 13694: 13691: 13689: 13686: 13684: 13681: 13679: 13676: 13674: 13671: 13669: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13651: 13649: 13646: 13644: 13641: 13639: 13638:Human biology 13636: 13634: 13631: 13629: 13626: 13624: 13621: 13619: 13616: 13614: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13571: 13569: 13566: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13544: 13541: 13539: 13536: 13534: 13531: 13529: 13528:Chronobiology 13526: 13524: 13521: 13519: 13516: 13514: 13511: 13509: 13506: 13504: 13503:Biotechnology 13501: 13499: 13498:Biostatistics 13496: 13494: 13491: 13489: 13486: 13484: 13481: 13479: 13476: 13474: 13471: 13469: 13466: 13464: 13461: 13459: 13456: 13454: 13451: 13449: 13446: 13444: 13441: 13439: 13436: 13434: 13431: 13429: 13426: 13424: 13421: 13420: 13417: 13413: 13406: 13401: 13399: 13394: 13392: 13387: 13386: 13383: 13370: 13366: 13363: 13361: 13358: 13357: 13355: 13351: 13345: 13344:Biotechnology 13342: 13340: 13339:Life Sciences 13337: 13335: 13332: 13330: 13327: 13324: 13320: 13317: 13316: 13314: 13310: 13304: 13303: 13299: 13297: 13296: 13292: 13290: 13289: 13285: 13283: 13282: 13278: 13276: 13275: 13271: 13270: 13268: 13264: 13258: 13255: 13253: 13250: 13249: 13247: 13243: 13237: 13234: 13232: 13229: 13227: 13224: 13222: 13219: 13217: 13214: 13212: 13209: 13208: 13206: 13202: 13196: 13193: 13192: 13189: 13185: 13178: 13173: 13171: 13166: 13164: 13159: 13158: 13155: 13143: 13135: 13134: 13131: 13125: 13122: 13120: 13117: 13115: 13112: 13110: 13107: 13105: 13102: 13100: 13097: 13095: 13092: 13090: 13087: 13085: 13082: 13080: 13077: 13073: 13070: 13069: 13068: 13065: 13063: 13060: 13059: 13057: 13053: 13047: 13044: 13042: 13039: 13037: 13034: 13032: 13029: 13027: 13024: 13022: 13019: 13017: 13014: 13012: 13009: 13007: 13004: 13002: 12999: 12997: 12994: 12993: 12991: 12985: 12979: 12976: 12974: 12971: 12969: 12966: 12964: 12961: 12959: 12956: 12954: 12951: 12949: 12946: 12944: 12941: 12939: 12936: 12934: 12931: 12929: 12926: 12924: 12921: 12919: 12916: 12914: 12911: 12909: 12906: 12904: 12901: 12899: 12898:Biotechnology 12896: 12894: 12891: 12889: 12886: 12884: 12881: 12880: 12878: 12872: 12867: 12863: 12856: 12851: 12849: 12844: 12842: 12837: 12836: 12833: 12821: 12813: 12811: 12803: 12801: 12793: 12790: 12785: 12779: 12778: 12775: 12769: 12766: 12764: 12761: 12759: 12756: 12754: 12751: 12750: 12748: 12744: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12713: 12711: 12708: 12706: 12703: 12701: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12691: 12688: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12651: 12648: 12646: 12643: 12641: 12638: 12636: 12635:Phylogenetics 12633: 12631: 12628: 12626: 12623: 12621: 12618: 12616: 12613: 12611: 12608: 12606: 12603: 12601: 12598: 12596: 12593: 12591: 12588: 12586: 12583: 12581: 12578: 12576: 12573: 12571: 12568: 12566: 12563: 12561: 12558: 12556: 12553: 12551: 12548: 12546: 12543: 12541: 12538: 12536: 12533: 12531: 12530:Human biology 12528: 12526: 12523: 12521: 12518: 12516: 12513: 12511: 12508: 12506: 12503: 12501: 12498: 12496: 12493: 12491: 12488: 12486: 12483: 12481: 12478: 12476: 12473: 12471: 12468: 12466: 12463: 12461: 12458: 12456: 12453: 12451: 12448: 12446: 12443: 12441: 12438: 12436: 12433: 12431: 12428: 12426: 12423: 12421: 12420:Chronobiology 12418: 12416: 12413: 12411: 12408: 12406: 12403: 12401: 12398: 12396: 12395:Biotechnology 12393: 12391: 12390:Biostatistics 12388: 12386: 12383: 12381: 12378: 12376: 12373: 12371: 12368: 12366: 12363: 12361: 12358: 12356: 12353: 12351: 12348: 12346: 12343: 12341: 12338: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12312: 12308: 12304: 12294: 12291: 12289: 12286: 12284: 12283:Belt transect 12281: 12280: 12278: 12274: 12268: 12267: 12263: 12261: 12260: 12256: 12254: 12253: 12249: 12247: 12244: 12242: 12239: 12237: 12234: 12232: 12231:Southern blot 12229: 12227: 12226:Northern blot 12224: 12222: 12219: 12217: 12214: 12212: 12209: 12207: 12204: 12202: 12199: 12197: 12194: 12192: 12189: 12187: 12184: 12182: 12179: 12177: 12174: 12172: 12169: 12167: 12164: 12162: 12159: 12158: 12156: 12150: 12147: 12145: 12139: 12134: 12120: 12117: 12115: 12112: 12110: 12107: 12103: 12100: 12099: 12098: 12095: 12093: 12090: 12088: 12085: 12083: 12080: 12078: 12075: 12073: 12070: 12068: 12065: 12063: 12060: 12058: 12055: 12053: 12050: 12048: 12045: 12044: 12042: 12040: 12036: 12030: 12027: 12025: 12022: 12020: 12017: 12015: 12012: 12010: 12007: 12005: 12004:Immune system 12002: 12000: 11997: 11995: 11992: 11990: 11987: 11985: 11982: 11980: 11977: 11976: 11974: 11968: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11947: 11944: 11942: 11939: 11937: 11934: 11932: 11929: 11927: 11924: 11922: 11921:Ground tissue 11919: 11917: 11914: 11912: 11909: 11908: 11906: 11900: 11894: 11891: 11887: 11884: 11882: 11879: 11877: 11874: 11872: 11869: 11867: 11864: 11863: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11848: 11846: 11844: 11840: 11834: 11831: 11829: 11826: 11824: 11823:Phylogenetics 11821: 11819: 11816: 11814: 11811: 11809: 11806: 11804: 11801: 11799: 11796: 11794: 11791: 11789: 11788:Genetic drift 11786: 11784: 11781: 11779: 11776: 11774: 11771: 11770: 11768: 11766: 11762: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11748: 11746: 11743: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11726: 11723: 11721: 11718: 11717: 11715: 11713: 11709: 11703: 11700: 11698: 11695: 11693: 11690: 11688: 11685: 11683: 11680: 11678: 11675: 11673: 11670: 11668: 11665: 11663: 11660: 11658: 11655: 11653: 11650: 11648: 11645: 11643: 11640: 11638: 11635: 11634: 11632: 11630: 11626: 11620: 11617: 11615: 11612: 11610: 11607: 11605: 11602: 11600: 11597: 11595: 11594:Nucleic acids 11592: 11590: 11587: 11585: 11582: 11578: 11575: 11574: 11573: 11570: 11568: 11565: 11563: 11560: 11558: 11557:Chemical bond 11555: 11553: 11552:Carbohydrates 11550: 11548: 11545: 11543: 11540: 11539: 11537: 11533: 11527: 11524: 11522: 11519: 11517: 11514: 11512: 11509: 11507: 11504: 11502: 11499: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11487: 11484: 11482: 11479: 11476: 11472: 11468: 11464: 11460: 11456: 11452: 11448: 11444: 11440: 11436: 11432: 11428: 11425: 11422: 11418: 11414: 11410: 11406: 11402: 11398: 11394: 11390: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11379: 11377: 11373: 11370: 11368: 11364: 11358: 11355: 11351: 11348: 11347: 11346: 11343: 11341: 11338: 11335: 11331: 11327: 11326: 11323: 11319: 11312: 11307: 11305: 11300: 11298: 11293: 11292: 11289: 11282: 11279: 11275: 11274: 11270: 11267: 11266: 11262: 11259: 11255: 11254: 11250: 11247: 11246:peer-reviewed 11243: 11242:Royal Society 11240: 11236: 11235: 11231: 11228: 11224: 11223: 11219: 11217: 11213: 11210: 11208: 11205: 11204: 11203: 11202: 11201:Journal links 11196: 11193: 11191: 11188: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11167: 11162: 11158: 11157: 11152: 11147: 11146: 11135: 11129: 11125: 11120: 11116: 11112: 11108: 11102: 11098: 11097: 11092: 11088: 11084: 11080: 11076: 11070: 11066: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11049: 11043: 11039: 11034: 11023: 11019: 11013: 11009: 11008: 11002: 10998: 10994: 10990: 10984: 10980: 10979: 10974: 10970: 10966: 10962: 10958: 10952: 10948: 10944: 10940: 10936: 10932: 10928: 10922: 10918: 10917: 10911: 10907: 10903: 10899: 10893: 10888: 10887: 10880: 10879: 10876: 10859: 10853: 10849: 10842: 10834: 10830: 10825: 10820: 10815: 10810: 10806: 10802: 10798: 10794: 10790: 10783: 10777: 10773: 10770: 10767: 10761: 10753: 10749: 10745: 10741: 10737: 10733: 10729: 10725: 10721: 10717: 10710: 10702: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10684: 10680: 10676: 10672: 10668: 10661: 10646: 10642: 10638: 10634: 10628: 10624: 10620: 10616: 10612: 10608: 10604: 10603: 10595: 10593: 10584: 10578: 10574: 10567: 10565: 10556: 10550: 10546: 10545: 10537: 10535: 10520:on 2019-04-12 10516: 10512: 10508: 10504: 10500: 10496: 10492: 10485: 10478: 10470: 10464: 10460: 10453: 10445: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10427: 10423: 10419: 10415: 10411: 10404: 10396: 10390: 10386: 10379: 10363: 10359: 10355: 10348: 10340: 10334: 10330: 10323: 10315: 10308: 10301: 10297: 10291: 10287: 10280: 10272: 10266: 10262: 10255: 10253: 10251: 10242: 10238: 10234: 10230: 10226: 10222: 10221: 10213: 10205: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10187: 10183: 10179: 10172: 10164: 10160: 10154: 10150: 10149: 10141: 10132: 10127: 10123: 10119: 10115: 10111: 10107: 10100: 10092: 10086: 10082: 10078: 10071: 10064: 10052: 10048: 10044: 10038: 10022: 10018: 10012: 10004: 9998: 9994: 9987: 9979: 9973: 9969: 9962: 9960: 9951: 9945: 9941: 9934: 9926: 9920: 9915: 9914: 9905: 9897: 9891: 9887: 9880: 9873: 9869: 9865: 9859: 9844: 9840: 9834: 9830: 9829: 9822: 9814: 9808: 9804: 9797: 9789: 9785: 9780: 9775: 9771: 9767: 9763: 9759: 9755: 9748: 9740: 9736: 9729: 9721: 9717: 9713: 9709: 9706:(4): 417–24. 9705: 9701: 9694: 9686: 9682: 9678: 9674: 9670: 9666: 9663:(6): 504–10. 9662: 9658: 9651: 9643: 9639: 9634: 9629: 9624: 9619: 9615: 9611: 9607: 9600: 9584: 9580: 9576: 9570: 9555:on 2021-12-28 9553: 9548: 9544: 9540: 9534: 9526: 9522: 9517: 9512: 9507: 9502: 9498: 9494: 9490: 9483: 9467: 9463: 9462: 9457: 9450: 9442: 9436: 9432: 9425: 9417: 9411: 9407: 9400: 9398: 9389: 9383: 9379: 9372: 9370: 9368: 9366: 9357: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9324: 9316: 9312: 9308: 9304: 9299: 9294: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9274: 9270: 9263: 9255: 9249: 9245: 9238: 9236: 9234: 9232: 9230: 9221: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9205: 9201: 9194: 9186: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9169:(5): 631–48. 9168: 9164: 9160: 9153: 9138: 9134: 9128: 9120: 9116: 9111: 9106: 9102: 9098: 9095:(1): 352–60. 9094: 9090: 9086: 9079: 9071: 9067: 9063: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9045: 9041: 9038:(7091): 289. 9037: 9033: 9029: 9022: 9004: 9000: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8974: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8955: 8948: 8940: 8936: 8931: 8926: 8922: 8918: 8914: 8910: 8906: 8902: 8898: 8891: 8875: 8871: 8867: 8863: 8859: 8855: 8851: 8850: 8845: 8841: 8835: 8825: 8821: 8817: 8813: 8809: 8805: 8801: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8788: 8782: 8781: 8772:on 2008-05-11 8771: 8767: 8763: 8759: 8752: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8717: 8709: 8702: 8694: 8690: 8686: 8680: 8676: 8672: 8671: 8666: 8660: 8646:on 2007-10-25 8642: 8638: 8634: 8630: 8626: 8622: 8618: 8617: 8609: 8605: 8598: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8564: 8550:on 2009-05-20 8549: 8545: 8541: 8537: 8530: 8516:on 2009-02-26 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8499:10.1038/46965 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8480: 8479: 8471: 8467: 8460: 8452: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8416: 8413: 8412: 8407: 8400: 8391: 8386: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8370: 8369: 8364: 8357: 8348: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8331: 8327: 8323: 8316: 8308: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8276: 8272: 8271: 8266: 8259: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8238: 8233: 8227: 8213:on 2009-02-26 8209: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8193: 8189: 8185: 8178: 8174: 8168: 8160: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8130: 8129: 8124: 8120: 8114: 8105: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8084: 8083: 8078: 8074: 8067: 8059: 8055: 8051: 8047: 8043: 8039: 8038: 8030: 8022: 8018: 8014: 8010: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7993: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7963: 7959: 7958: 7950: 7944: 7939: 7920: 7913: 7907: 7899: 7893: 7889: 7882: 7880: 7878: 7869: 7863: 7859: 7854: 7853: 7844: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7793: 7785: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7734: 7726: 7719: 7702: 7698: 7696:9780123847201 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7676: 7669: 7661: 7655: 7651: 7644: 7642: 7640: 7638: 7636: 7634: 7625: 7619: 7615: 7608: 7606: 7604: 7595: 7589: 7585: 7578: 7570: 7563: 7556: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7534: 7530: 7526: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7501: 7493: 7489: 7483: 7475: 7469: 7465: 7458: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7429: 7414: 7410: 7404: 7400: 7399: 7391: 7384: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7360: 7354: 7346: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7312: 7305: 7290: 7286: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7267: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7243: 7239: 7235: 7231: 7224: 7215: 7207: 7201: 7197: 7190: 7188: 7179: 7175: 7170: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7146: 7138: 7132: 7128: 7121: 7119: 7117: 7115: 7113: 7111: 7109: 7100: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7067: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7016: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6962: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6938: 6932: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6874:(3): 506–21. 6873: 6869: 6865: 6858: 6850: 6848:0-8053-4553-1 6844: 6839: 6838: 6829: 6821: 6815: 6811: 6804: 6802: 6800: 6798: 6796: 6794: 6792: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6757: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6723: 6715: 6709: 6705: 6704: 6696: 6688: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6667: 6659: 6653: 6649: 6642: 6633: 6624: 6622: 6612: 6602: 6594: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6551: 6543: 6537: 6533: 6526: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6497: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6475: 6471: 6464: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6442: 6438: 6431: 6423: 6417: 6413: 6406: 6404: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6373: 6371: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6339: 6332: 6328: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6309: 6301: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6272: 6264: 6262: 6255: 6251: 6250: 6245: 6244:Scott, Robert 6241: 6237: 6228: 6222: 6218: 6217: 6212: 6211:Scott, Robert 6208: 6204: 6195: 6180: 6176: 6175: 6170: 6164: 6156: 6150: 6146: 6139: 6137: 6135: 6133: 6131: 6129: 6120: 6116: 6109: 6101: 6095: 6091: 6084: 6082: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6068: 6064: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6025: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5986: 5978: 5974: 5968: 5964: 5963: 5955: 5947: 5941: 5937: 5930: 5915: 5911: 5905: 5901: 5900: 5892: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5861:(1): E13–15. 5860: 5856: 5849: 5841: 5835: 5831: 5824: 5816: 5810: 5806: 5799: 5791: 5785: 5781: 5774: 5766: 5760: 5756: 5749: 5747: 5745: 5736: 5730: 5726: 5719: 5717: 5715: 5706: 5700: 5696: 5689: 5681: 5675: 5671: 5664: 5662: 5653: 5647: 5643: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5618: 5616: 5614: 5612: 5610: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5591: 5585: 5581: 5574: 5572: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5541: 5533: 5526: 5511: 5507: 5503: 5499: 5492: 5490: 5481: 5480: 5472: 5464: 5460: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5439: 5432: 5429:Mayr, Ernst. 5426: 5419: 5418:0-674-00613-5 5415: 5411: 5407: 5402: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5360: 5359: 5354: 5347: 5340: 5337:Mayr, Ernst. 5334: 5327: 5324:Mayr, Ernst. 5321: 5313: 5307: 5303: 5296: 5288: 5282: 5278: 5275:(2003). "7". 5274: 5268: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5246: 5245: 5237: 5229: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5214: 5206: 5198: 5197: 5192: 5188: 5183: 5182:public domain 5169: 5153: 5149: 5143: 5139: 5138: 5130: 5122: 5118: 5112: 5109:. CRC Press. 5108: 5107: 5099: 5091: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5072: 5065: 5057: 5051: 5047: 5042: 5041: 5032: 5030: 5021: 5015: 5011: 5004: 5002: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4946: 4941: 4934: 4932: 4923: 4917: 4901: 4900: 4895: 4888: 4880: 4876: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4837: 4831: 4827: 4820: 4812: 4808: 4801: 4793: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4687: 4679: 4673: 4669: 4662: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4654: 4645: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4622: 4620: 4611: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4575: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4508: 4505: 4503: 4500: 4498: 4495: 4494: 4487: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4430: 4420: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4377: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4353: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4264: 4259: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4182: 4177: 4167: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4100: 4090: 4088: 4082: 4072: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4041: 4039: 4035: 4034:virus species 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4004: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3977: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3853:invertebrates 3850: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3817:stramenopiles 3814: 3810: 3806: 3802: 3798: 3797:symbiogenesis 3794: 3793:endosymbioses 3786: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3765: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3742: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3719:extremophiles 3715: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3704:fragmentation 3701: 3697: 3693: 3692:cyanobacteria 3689: 3685: 3682:archaea (the 3681: 3680:Salt-tolerant 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3644:transcription 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3628:morphological 3625: 3624: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3603: 3599: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3562:Earth's crust 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3504: 3503: 3497: 3492: 3477: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3353: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3326:Carboniferous 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3256: 3246: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3235:three domains 3232: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3197:features (or 3196: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3132: 3131:Phylogenetics 3122: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3101: 3091: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3078: 3074: 3067: 3063: 3058: 3043: 3041: 3037: 3035: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2977:morphogenesis 2974: 2970: 2969:Determination 2966: 2962: 2957: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2878:transcription 2875: 2869: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2852:transcription 2849: 2848:Francis Crick 2845: 2841: 2837: 2831: 2823: 2820:The extended 2818: 2809: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2770:spontaneously 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2698:Genes and DNA 2695: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2656:Heterozygotic 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2622: 2618: 2613: 2598: 2596: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2468: 2464: 2463:cell membrane 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2414:cell division 2411: 2407: 2403: 2397: 2389: 2385: 2380: 2371: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2282:cell membrane 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2257: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2228: 2226: 2225:photosystem I 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2193:cyanobacteria 2190: 2185: 2181: 2178: 2161: 2156: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2123: 2118: 2116: 2112: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2089: 2085: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2044: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2019: 2014: 2009: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1922:Bioenergetics 1913: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1838:nucleic acids 1835: 1826: 1822: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1799:cell adhesion 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1775:semipermeable 1772: 1768: 1764: 1763:lipid bilayer 1760: 1756: 1752: 1751:cell membrane 1745: 1741: 1736: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1680:cell division 1677: 1673: 1668: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1627:phospholipids 1624: 1620: 1619:Carbohydrates 1616: 1612: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1594:Macromolecule 1585: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1572:In 1953, the 1570: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1466: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1349: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1277: 1262: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1223:Francis Crick 1220: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1179:Gregor Mendel 1175: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1150: 1146: 1138: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1104:Carl Linnaeus 1100: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 997:Ancient Greek 994: 990: 986: 982: 981:ancient Egypt 974: 973: 968: 963: 958: 948: 946: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 909: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 810: 805: 803: 798: 796: 791: 790: 788: 787: 781: 771: 768: 763: 757: 756: 755: 754: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 728: 722: 721: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 690: 687: 686: 680: 679: 670: 667: 665: 662: 660: 657: 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12375:Biomechanics 12355:Biogeography 12350:Biochemistry 12345:Bacteriology 12340:Astrobiology 12264: 12257: 12250: 12221:Western blot 12211:Enzyme assay 12186:Cell culture 12087:Conservation 11972:and function 11970:Animal form 11904:and function 11677:Fermentation 11455:Organ system 11413:Reproduction 11391:Properties ( 11366: 11317: 11271: 11263: 11251: 11232: 11221: 11212:PLOS Biology 11200: 11199: 11154: 11123: 11095: 11064: 11037: 11026:. Retrieved 11006: 10977: 10946: 10915: 10885: 10847: 10841: 10796: 10792: 10782: 10765: 10760: 10719: 10715: 10709: 10677:(4): 544–7. 10674: 10670: 10660: 10649:. Retrieved 10601: 10572: 10543: 10522:. Retrieved 10515:the original 10494: 10490: 10477: 10458: 10452: 10417: 10413: 10403: 10384: 10378: 10366:. Retrieved 10357: 10347: 10328: 10322: 10313: 10307: 10299: 10285: 10279: 10260: 10224: 10218: 10212: 10185: 10181: 10171: 10163:the original 10147: 10140: 10113: 10109: 10099: 10076: 10070: 10062: 10055:. Retrieved 10051:the original 10046: 10037: 10025:. Retrieved 10017:"Population" 10011: 9992: 9986: 9967: 9939: 9933: 9912: 9904: 9885: 9879: 9871: 9867: 9863: 9858: 9847:. Retrieved 9827: 9821: 9802: 9796: 9761: 9757: 9747: 9738: 9734: 9728: 9703: 9699: 9693: 9660: 9656: 9650: 9613: 9609: 9599: 9587:. Retrieved 9578: 9569: 9557:. Retrieved 9552:the original 9546: 9533: 9496: 9492: 9482: 9470:. 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Retrieved 7906: 7887: 7851: 7843: 7809:(1): 36–50. 7806: 7802: 7792: 7747: 7743: 7733: 7724: 7718: 7705:. Retrieved 7678: 7675:"Cladistics" 7668: 7649: 7613: 7583: 7577: 7568: 7562: 7552: 7544: 7504: 7498: 7482: 7463: 7428: 7417:. Retrieved 7397: 7390: 7381: 7374:. Retrieved 7365: 7353: 7318: 7314: 7304: 7293:. Retrieved 7273: 7266: 7233: 7229: 7223: 7214: 7195: 7159: 7155: 7145: 7126: 7080: 7076: 7066: 7025: 7021: 7015: 6974: 6970: 6961: 6944: 6940: 6931: 6920:. Retrieved 6906: 6871: 6867: 6857: 6836: 6828: 6809: 6779:. Retrieved 6770: 6766: 6756: 6745:. Retrieved 6736: 6732: 6722: 6702: 6695: 6676: 6666: 6647: 6641: 6632: 6611: 6601: 6564: 6560: 6550: 6531: 6525: 6514:. Retrieved 6506:openstax.org 6505: 6496: 6469: 6463: 6436: 6430: 6411: 6390:. Retrieved 6381: 6357:. Retrieved 6348: 6338: 6330: 6307: 6300: 6275: 6269: 6247: 6227: 6214: 6194: 6183:. Retrieved 6172: 6163: 6144: 6108: 6089: 6043:. Retrieved 6034: 6024: 6012:. Retrieved 5995: 5985: 5961: 5954: 5935: 5929: 5918:. Retrieved 5898: 5891: 5867:10.1038/8964 5858: 5854: 5848: 5829: 5823: 5804: 5798: 5779: 5773: 5754: 5724: 5694: 5688: 5669: 5641: 5579: 5559:. Retrieved 5550: 5540: 5531: 5525: 5514:. Retrieved 5505: 5501: 5478: 5471: 5448: 5438: 5430: 5425: 5409: 5401: 5389:. Retrieved 5357: 5346: 5338: 5333: 5325: 5320: 5301: 5295: 5276: 5267: 5243: 5236: 5212: 5205: 5194: 5191:Theophrastus 5168: 5156:. Retrieved 5140:. Springer. 5136: 5129: 5105: 5098: 5070: 5064: 5039: 5009: 4949: 4945:Astrobiology 4943: 4904:. Retrieved 4897: 4887: 4854: 4851:Nonlinearity 4850: 4844: 4825: 4819: 4811:the original 4800: 4757: 4753: 4743: 4700: 4696: 4686: 4667: 4633: 4599: 4464:Biodiversity 4435:biodiversity 4432: 4423:Conservation 4381: 4329:heterotrophs 4269: 4240:such as the 4238:technologies 4228:, and other 4192:of the same 4187: 4102: 4084: 4042: 4001:Viruses are 4000: 3934:able to move 3923: 3909: 3897:chlorophytes 3885:glaucophytes 3861: 3790: 3782: 3746:Earth's life 3743: 3716: 3676:hydrogen gas 3658:, including 3652:ether lipids 3642:involved in 3634:and several 3621: 3596: 3508: 3500: 3491:Microbiology 3428: 3409: 3365:genetic code 3354: 3258: 3205:followed by 3199:synapomorphy 3183: 3103: 3071: 3033: 2959: 2901: 2882:RNA splicing 2871: 2833: 2782:nitrous acid 2750:cell nucleus 2730:double helix 2719: 2668:Test crosses 2626: 2585: 2583: 2573:and genetic 2548: 2500: 2399: 2340:excitability 2259: 2244:Calvin cycle 2229: 2201: 2180:light energy 2174: 2122:fermentation 2119: 2104:ATP synthase 2096:chemiosmosis 2045: 2022: 1937: 1886:microtubules 1878:chloroplasts 1874:animal cells 1850:mitochondria 1846:cell nucleus 1831: 1819:cytoskeleton 1785:, including 1767:cholesterols 1765:, including 1748: 1674:states that 1670: 1609: 1571: 1536: 1490: 1380: 1330:Biochemistry 1279: 1235:genetic code 1233:domain. The 1219:James Watson 1199:Martha Chase 1176: 1142: 1134: 1101: 1089:Robert Remak 1050:, bacteria, 1037: 1005:Theophrastus 978: 972:Micrographia 970: 967:Robert Hooke 929:biodiversity 910: 902:observations 864: 854:, grow, and 819: 818: 725:Applications 614:Sociobiology 594:Protistology 559:Photobiology 554:Pharmacology 544:Parasitology 539:Paleontology 519:Neuroscience 499:Microbiology 409:Epidemiology 379:Cytogenetics 339:Cell biology 319:Biosemiotics 309:Biomechanics 289:Biogeography 284:Biochemistry 279:Bacteriology 274:Astrobiology 186: 174:Reproduction 137: 64: 51: 32: 14476:Environment 14372:Prokaryotes 14160:Atmosphere 14155:Meteorology 13838:Xenobiology 13833:Virophysics 13803:Systematics 13758:Primatology 13703:Ornithology 13643:Ichthyology 13628:Herpetology 13623:Gerontology 13588:Epigenetics 13548:Cryobiology 13438:Agrostology 13428:Aerobiology 13423:Abiogenesis 13079:Ethnobotany 12968:RNA biology 12876:disciplines 12820:WikiProject 12730:Xenobiology 12725:Virophysics 12695:Systematics 12650:Primatology 12595:Ornithology 12535:Ichthyology 12520:Herpetology 12515:Gerontology 12480:Epigenetics 12440:Cryobiology 12330:Agrostology 12320:Aerobiology 12315:Abiogenesis 12152:Laboratory 11999:Homeostasis 11902:Plant form 11725:Epigenetics 11647:Cell theory 11547:Amino acids 11526:Common name 11516:Peer review 11491:Mechanistic 11239:high-impact 11149:‹ The 10623:11059/14777 9764:: 125–134. 9559:28 February 8856:: 463–493. 8723:(3): 4–10. 8332:(1): 1–17. 8190:(1): 9–41. 6561:Antibiotics 6315:. pp. 6056:amino acids 5391:27 November 5341:, chapter 7 5328:, chapter 4 4906:14 February 4857:(8): T131. 4760:(1): 1–10. 4754:Bio Systems 4507:Idiobiology 4476:extinctions 4405:hydrosphere 4397:lithosphere 4345:decomposers 4309:food chains 4301:competition 4281:pollination 4252:Communities 4214:environment 4170:Populations 4156:decomposers 4107:of living ( 4087:environment 4012:inside the 3919:decomposers 3893:green algae 3825:amoebozoans 3801:Precambrian 3723:hot springs 3684:Haloarchaea 3648:translation 3610:two domains 3592:Haloarchaea 3526:micrometers 3519:prokaryotic 3499:Bacteria – 3438:vertebrates 3290:Precambrian 3286:Phanerozoic 3282:Proterozoic 3084:generations 3013:epigenetics 2997:proliferate 2961:Development 2942:changes to 2924:allolactose 2886:translation 2874:development 2856:translation 2786:benzopyrene 2742:prokaryotes 2734:chromosomes 2692:sex linkage 2688:fruit flies 2606:Inheritance 2595:outcrossing 2567:outcrossing 2502:Prokaryotes 2478:, and some 2476:blood cells 2451:cytokinesis 2438:chromosomes 2323:muscle cell 2212:chlorophyll 2171:into sugar. 2131:lactic acid 1870:Plant cells 1720:single cell 1704:prokaryotic 1684:micrometers 1672:Cell theory 1655:nucleotides 1641:molecules, 1582:abiogenesis 1578:early Earth 1547:amino group 1539:hydrocarbon 1518:such as in 1506:such as in 1451:water vapor 1207:chromosomes 1201:pointed to 1097:cell theory 1087:. However, 1074:. In 1838, 1048:spermatozoa 1017:Al-Dīnawarī 1015:(781–869), 985:Mesopotamia 913:prokaryotic 872:, from the 664:Xenobiology 659:Virophysics 629:Systematics 584:Primatology 529:Ornithology 469:Ichthyology 454:Herpetology 449:Gerontology 414:Epigenetics 374:Cryobiology 264:Agrostology 254:Aerobiology 249:Abiogenesis 115:Cell theory 14253:Wilderness 14106:geological 13823:Toxicology 13818:Teratology 13763:Proteomics 13748:Physiology 13688:Neontology 13653:Lipidology 13648:Immunology 13618:Geobiology 13578:Embryology 13558:Dendrology 13488:Biophysics 13468:Biogeology 13021:Lamarckism 12928:Immunology 12746:Glossaries 12715:Toxicology 12710:Teratology 12655:Proteomics 12640:Physiology 12580:Neontology 12545:Lipidology 12540:Immunology 12510:Geobiology 12470:Embryology 12450:Dendrology 12380:Biophysics 12360:Biogeology 12154:techniques 12109:Microbiome 11936:Plant stem 11828:Speciation 11773:Adaptation 11702:Prokaryote 11682:Metabolism 11642:Cell cycle 11473:> 11469:> 11465:> 11463:Population 11461:> 11457:> 11453:> 11449:> 11445:> 11441:> 11437:> 11433:> 11409:Regulation 11393:Adaptation 11028:2015-06-27 10651:2021-05-15 10524:2021-05-15 10491:BioScience 10227:: 419–44. 10116:: e00365. 10057:5 December 10027:5 December 9849:2020-08-24 9539:Zimmer, C. 9143:2021-05-14 9012:2021-05-14 8776:2020-02-21 8742:2015-01-23 8650:2007-10-22 8588:2015-01-22 8554:2015-01-22 8520:2015-01-22 8217:2008-09-02 7419:2021-05-27 7383:mysteries. 7295:2021-05-28 6947:: 138–63. 6922:2013-10-02 6781:2021-05-28 6773:(1): 143. 6747:2021-05-28 6739:(1): 136. 6516:2020-11-24 6185:2013-05-23 6045:2021-05-13 5996:StatPearls 5920:2021-05-13 5561:2006-07-22 5516:2021-05-13 5508:(1): 134. 4959:1808.09460 4570:References 4474:, species 4451:extinction 4447:ecosystems 4401:atmosphere 4341:Omnivorous 4337:carnivores 4333:herbivores 4321:autotrophs 4121:atmosphere 4093:Ecosystems 4022:life forms 3960:have been 3905:stoneworts 3857:protozoans 3837:eukaryotic 3821:rhizarians 3819:, plants, 3809:alveolates 3768:Eukaryotes 3762:syntrophic 3750:microbiota 3735:marshlands 3727:salt lakes 3712:endospores 3688:fix carbon 3672:metal ions 3602:classified 3556:, and the 3462:archosaurs 3420:Ordovician 3397:metabolism 3393:eukaryotes 3381:eukaryotes 3350:Quaternary 3342:Cretaceous 3314:Ordovician 3195:homologous 3179:eukaryotes 3100:Speciation 3094:Speciation 2981:stem cells 2940:epigenetic 2738:eukaryotes 2664:sex-linked 2571:DNA damage 2496:meiosis II 2484:interphase 2459:organelles 2443:interphase 2418:eukaryotes 2410:organelles 2396:Cell cycle 2374:Cell cycle 2366:is called 2298:juxtacrine 2068:acetyl-CoA 2048:glycolysis 1996:regulation 1940:Metabolism 1932:exothermic 1916:Metabolism 1842:organelles 1815:glycocalyx 1744:organelles 1696:eukaryotic 1651:amino acid 1643:antibodies 1604:hemoglobin 1459:pure water 1439:insulating 1356:See also: 1306:phosphorus 1149:naturalist 1064:dissection 1060:entomology 1044:microscope 1029:physiology 921:eukaryotic 906:hypotheses 882:physiology 866:Biologists 826:. It is a 649:Toxicology 644:Teratology 589:Proteomics 574:Physiology 514:Neontology 479:Lipidology 474:Immunology 444:Geobiology 404:Embryology 384:Dendrology 314:Biophysics 294:Biogeology 169:Regulation 149:Adaptation 14331:Eukaryota 14298:Hierarchy 14293:Biosphere 14258:Wildfires 14248:Radiation 14238:Ecosystem 14178:Moonlight 14112:Structure 14067:particles 13738:Phycology 13723:Pathology 13708:Osteology 13698:Nutrition 13658:Mammalogy 13633:Histology 13369:Precocial 13365:Altricial 13323:Physician 13302:In silico 13211:Biologist 13089:Dysgenics 13072:Teleology 13036:RNA world 13031:Protocell 13006:Darwinism 12987:Theories, 12958:Phycology 12630:Phycology 12615:Pathology 12600:Osteology 12590:Nutrition 12550:Mammalogy 12525:Histology 12266:in silico 12142:Research 12119:Resources 12092:Ecosystem 12082:Community 12067:Biosphere 11979:Breathing 11861:Eukaryote 11843:Diversity 11793:Gene flow 11765:Evolution 11672:Eukaryote 11584:Molecules 11475:Biosphere 11471:Ecosystem 11467:Community 11439:Organelle 11334:Evolution 11281:scholarly 11056:223090105 10906:145080076 10641:232001738 10204:1936-6434 9741:: 182–86. 9499:(1): 29. 8716:GSA Today 7957:Evolution 7725:Evolution 7707:29 August 7569:Evolution 7376:9 October 6837:iGenetics 6567:(2): 69. 6488:698085201 6455:176818780 5532:Evolution 5420:. p. 187. 5273:Sapp, Jan 5218:Routledge 4879:119808230 4717:1043-4046 4393:biosphere 4362:Biosphere 4356:Biosphere 4313:food webs 4297:mutualism 4293:symbiosis 4289:evolution 4285:predation 4276:organisms 4230:resources 4202:reproduce 4190:organisms 4145:microbial 4129:ecosystem 4105:community 4099:Ecosystem 4038:ecosystem 4018:organisms 4010:replicate 3974:food webs 3962:described 3948:, during 3864:organisms 3813:excavates 3774:Eukaryote 3660:archaeols 3654:in their 3614:Eukaryota 3570:parasitic 3566:symbiotic 3480:Diversity 3450:synapsids 3434:Ediacaran 3361:evolution 3294:Paleozoic 3125:Phylogeny 3077:heritable 3073:Evolution 3046:Evolution 3040:vertebrae 2944:chromatin 2912:repressor 2908:activator 2840:phenotype 2794:gamma ray 2652:phenotype 2648:recessive 2579:mutations 2535:ribosomes 2492:meiosis I 2455:cytoplasm 2447:telophase 2294:paracrine 2290:autocrine 2274:receptors 2064:pyruvates 2029:nutrients 1988:reactants 1980:catalysts 1964:synthesis 1952:catabolic 1906:β-tubulin 1902:α-tubulin 1866:lysosomes 1811:cell wall 1757:from the 1755:cytoplasm 1639:signaling 1346:molecular 1338:organisms 1326:compounds 1322:magnesium 1276:Chemistry 1231:molecular 1164:Malthus's 1129:In 1842, 1076:Schleiden 1052:infusoria 1001:Aristotle 941:nutrients 933:ecosystem 856:reproduce 844:evolution 832:organisms 689:Biologist 564:Phycology 549:Pathology 534:Osteology 524:Nutrition 484:Mammalogy 459:Histology 130:Phylogeny 125:Evolution 120:Ecosystem 14500:Category 14413:Category 14382:bacteria 14365:protista 14326:Organism 14193:Sunlight 14039:Universe 13968:Category 13852:See also 13828:Virology 13813:Taxonomy 13753:Pomology 13683:Mycology 13613:Genomics 13608:Genetics 13433:Agronomy 13319:Medicine 13295:In utero 13288:In vitro 13142:Category 13084:Eugenics 12989:concepts 12933:Medicine 12918:Genetics 12866:timeline 12800:Category 12720:Virology 12705:Taxonomy 12645:Pomology 12575:Mycology 12505:Genomics 12500:Genetics 12325:Agronomy 12306:Branches 12259:in vitro 11856:Bacteria 11833:Taxonomy 11813:Mutation 11783:Function 11712:Genetics 11614:Proteins 11459:Organism 11435:Molecule 11419:), 11375:Overview 11350:Timeline 11330:Genetics 11207:PLOS ONE 11151:template 11115:36306648 11093:(2005). 11083:55138571 11022:Archived 10997:10081738 10975:(1979). 10965:71890442 10945:(2004). 10935:57639896 10833:18695220 10772:Archived 10752:30713492 10744:15361627 10701:20106856 10645:Archived 10444:18198148 10362:Archived 10360:. 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