534:). Nanotubes grow at the sites of the metal catalyst; the carbon-containing gas is broken apart at the surface of the catalyst particle, and the carbon is transported to the edges of the particle, where it forms the nanotubes. This mechanism is still being studied. The catalyst particles can stay at the tips of the growing nanotube during growth, or remain at the nanotube base, depending on the adhesion between the catalyst particle and the substrate. Thermal catalytic decomposition of hydrocarbon has become an active area of research and can be a promising route for the bulk production of CNTs.
1035:
and/or additive. Additionally, by changing electrolysis conditions such as electrolyte, electrode, temperature, and/or current density, a wide range of carbon nanotubes can be grown through this process including: helical; thin; thick; doped with either nitrogen, boron, sulfur, or phosphorus; bulbous; and more with multiple macrostructures being produced, some quite porous with potential uses as sponge or electrodes. This method can also utilize non-gas source of carbon, such as from calcium carbonate (CaCO
433:) in Varennes, Canada, by Olivier Smiljanic. In this method, the aim is to reproduce the conditions prevailing in the arc discharge and laser ablation approaches, but a carbon-containing gas is used instead of graphite vapors to supply the necessary carbon. Doing so, the growth of SWNT is more efficient (decomposing the gas can be 10 times less energy-consuming than graphite vaporization). The process is also continuous and low-cost. A gaseous mixture of argon, ethylene and
259:
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271:
20:
572:(i.e., perpendicular to the substrate), a morphology that has been of interest to researchers interested in electron emission from nanotubes. Without the plasma, the resulting nanotubes are often randomly oriented. Under certain reaction conditions, even in the absence of a plasma, closely spaced nanotubes will maintain a vertical growth direction resulting in a dense array of tubes resembling a carpet or forest.
480:
469:
44:
402:, who at the time of the discovery of carbon nanotubes, were blasting metals with a laser to produce various metal molecules. When they heard of the existence of nanotubes they replaced the metals with graphite to create multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Later that year the team used a composite of graphite and metal catalyst particles (the best yield was from a
1067:
uniformity necessary to satisfy the many needs of both research and industry. Recent efforts have focused on producing more uniform carbon nanotubes in controlled flame environments. Such methods have promise for large-scale, low-cost nanotube synthesis based on theoretical models, though they must compete with rapidly developing large scale CVD production.
592:, have concentrated on finding methods to produce large, pure amounts of particular types of nanotubes. Their approach grows long fibers from many small seeds cut from a single nanotube; all of the resulting fibers were found to be of the same diameter as the original nanotube and are expected to be of the same type as the original nanotube.
453:. The method is similar to arc discharge in that both use ionized gas to reach the high temperature necessary to vaporize carbon-containing substances and the metal catalysts necessary for the ensuing nanotube growth. The thermal plasma is induced by high-frequency oscillating currents in a coil, and is maintained in flowing
1138:, which separates surfactant-wrapped nanotubes by the minute difference in their density. This density difference often translates into a difference in the nanotube diameter and (semi)conducting properties. Another method of separation uses a sequence of freezing, thawing, and compression of SWNTs embedded in
498:, or a combination. The metal nanoparticles can also be produced by other ways, including reduction of oxides or oxides solid solutions. The diameters of the nanotubes that are to be grown are related to the size of the metal particles. This can be controlled by patterned (or masked) deposition of the metal,
575:
Of the various means for nanotube synthesis, CVD shows the most promise for industrial-scale deposition, because of its price/unit ratio, and because CVD is capable of growing nanotubes directly on a desired substrate, whereas the nanotubes must be collected in the other growth techniques. The growth
1142:
gel. This process results in a solution containing 70% metallic SWNTs and leaves a gel containing 95% semiconducting SWNTs. The diluted solutions separated by this method show various colors. The separated carbon nanotubes using this method have been applied to electrodes, e.g. electric double-layer
370:
The yield for this method is up to 30% by weight and it produces both single- and multi-walled nanotubes with lengths of up to 50 micrometers with few structural defects. Arc-discharge technique uses higher temperatures (above 1,700 °C) for CNT synthesis which typically causes the expansion of
758:
The super-growth method is essentially a variation of CVD. Therefore, it is possible to grow material containing SWNT, DWNTs and MWNTs, and to alter their ratios by tuning the growth conditions. Their ratios change by the thinness of the catalyst. Many MWNTs are included so that the diameter of the
1124:
may be of toxicological concern. While unencapsulated catalyst metals may be readily removable by acid washing, encapsulated ones require oxidative treatment for opening their carbon shell. The effective removal of catalysts, especially of encapsulated ones, while preserving the CNT structure is a
1034:
of carbon dioxide, while the product is high valued CNTs. This discovery was highlighted as a possible technology for carbon dioxide capture and conversion. Later on non-lithium molten carbonate electrolytes were demonstrated or electrolyte consisting of lithium carbonate plus some other carbonate
608:, Japan. In this process, the activity and lifetime of the catalyst are enhanced by the addition of water into the CVD reactor. Dense millimeter-tall vertically aligned nanotube arrays (VANTAs) or "forests", aligned normal to the substrate, were produced. The forests' height could be expressed, as
1111:
into tubular carbon structures but can also form encapsulating carbon overcoats. Together with metal oxide supports they may therefore attach to or become incorporated into the CNT product. The presence of metal impurities can be problematic for many applications. Especially catalyst metals like
750:
method. The time required to make SWNT forests of the height of 2.5 mm by this method was 10 minutes in 2004. Those SWNT forests can be easily separated from the catalyst, yielding clean SWNT material (purity >99.98%) without further purification. For comparison, the as-grown HiPco CNTs
556:
to increase the surface area for higher yield of the catalytic reaction of the carbon feedstock with the metal particles. One issue in this synthesis route is the removal of the catalyst support via an acid treatment, which sometimes could destroy the original structure of the carbon nanotubes.
1133:
Many electronic applications of carbon nanotubes crucially rely on techniques of selectively producing either semiconducting or metallic CNTs, preferably of a certain chirality. Several methods of separating semiconducting and metallic CNTs are known, but most of them are not yet suitable for
1066:
from both indoor and outdoor air. However, these naturally occurring varieties can be highly irregular in size and quality because the environment in which they are produced is often highly uncontrolled. Thus, although they can be used in some applications, they can lack in the high degree of
2405:
Futaba, Don N.; Hata, Kenji; Yamada, Takeo; Hiraoka, Tatsuki; Hayamizu, Yuhei; Kakudate, Yozo; Tanaike, Osamu; Hatori, Hiroaki; et al. (2006). "Shape-engineerable and highly densely packed single-walled carbon nanotubes and their application as super-capacitor electrodes".
1163:
can be used to isolate individual SWNT chiralities. Thus far, 12 chiralities have been isolated at purities ranging from 70% for (8,3) and (9,5) SWNTs to 90% for (6,5), (7,5) and (10,5) SWNTs. Alternatively, carbon nanotubes have been successfully sorted by chirality using the
2289:
Hiraoka, Tatsuki; Izadi-Najafabadi, Ali; Yamada, Takeo; Futaba, Don N.; Yasuda, Satoshi; Tanaike, Osamu; Hatori, Hiroaki; Yumura, Motoo; et al. (2009). "Compact and light supercapacitors from a surface-only solid by opened carbon nanotubes with 2,200 m/g".
2149:
Smalley, Richard E.; Li, Yubao; Moore, Valerie C.; Price, B. Katherine; Colorado, Ramon; Schmidt, Howard K.; Hauge, Robert H.; Barron, Andrew R.; Tour, James M. (2006). "Single Wall Carbon
Nanotube Amplification: En Route to a Type-Specific Growth Mechanism".
1545:
3841:
Tanaka, Takeshi; Jin, Hehua; Miyata, Yasumitsu; Fujii, Shunjiro; Suga, Hiroshi; Naitoh, Yasuhisa; Minari, Takeo; Miyadera, Tetsuhiko; et al. (2009). "Simple and
Scalable Gel-Based Separation of Metallic and Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes".
437:
is introduced into a microwave plasma torch, where it is atomized by the atmospheric pressure plasma, which has the form of an intense 'flame'. The fumes created by the flame contain SWNT, metallic and carbon nanoparticles and amorphous carbon.
2351:
Yamada, Takeo; Namai, Tatsunori; Hata, Kenji; Futaba, Don N.; Mizuno, Kohei; Fan, Jing; Yudasaka, Masako; Yumura, Motoo; Iijima, Sumio (2006). "Size-selective growth of double-walled carbon nanotube forests from engineered iron catalysts".
1150:
In addition to the separation of semiconducting and metallic SWNTs, it is possible to sort SWNTs by length, diameter, and chirality. The highest resolution length sorting, with length variation of <10%, has thus far been achieved by
457:. Typically, a feedstock of carbon black and metal catalyst particles is fed into the plasma, and then cooled down to form single-walled carbon nanotubes. Different single-wall carbon nanotube diameter distributions can be synthesized.
330:(CVD). Most of these processes take place in a vacuum or with process gases. CVD growth of CNTs can occur in a vacuum or at atmospheric pressure. Large quantities of nanotubes can be synthesized by these methods; advances in
771:
by about 70 times and density is 0.55 g/cm. The packed carbon nanotubes are more than 1 mm long and have a carbon purity of 99.9% or higher; they also retain the desirable alignment properties of the nanotubes forest.
3887:
Yamada, Y.; Tanaka, T.; Machida, K.; Suematsu, S.; Tamamitsu, K.; Kataura, H.; Hatori, H. (2012). "Electrochemical behavior of metallic and semiconducting single-wall carbon nanotubes for electric double-layer capacitor".
766:
between the carbon nanotubes. It aligns the nanotubes into a dense material, which can be formed in various shapes, such as sheets and bars, by applying weak compression during the process. Densification increases the
1879:
Pinilla, JL; Moliner, R; Suelves, I; Lazaro, M; Echegoyen, Y; Palacios, J (2007). "Production of hydrogen and carbon nanofibers by thermal decomposition of methane using metal catalysts in a fluidized bed reactor".
4192:
Li, Han; Gordeev, Georgy; Garrity, Oisin; Reich, Stephanie; Flavel, Benjamin S. (2019-01-28). "Separation of Small-Diameter Single-Walled Carbon
Nanotubes in One to Three Steps with Aqueous Two-Phase Extraction".
3250:
Murr, L. E.; Bang, J.J.; Esquivel, E.V.; Guerrero, P.A.; Lopez, D.A. (2004). "Carbon nanotubes, nanocrystal forms, and complex nanoparticle aggregates in common fuel-gas combustion sources and the ambient air".
705:
4356:
Ding, Lei; Tselev, Alexander; Wang, Jinyong; Yuan, Dongning; Chu, Haibin; McNicholas, Thomas P.; Li, Yan; Liu, Jie (2009). "Selective Growth of Well-Aligned
Semiconducting Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes".
2246:
Futaba, Don; Hata, Kenji; Yamada, Takeo; Mizuno, Kohei; Yumura, Motoo; Iijima, Sumio (2005). "Kinetics of Water-Assisted Single-Walled Carbon
Nanotube Synthesis Revealed by a Time-Evolution Analysis".
367:'s Fundamental Research Laboratory. The method used was the same as in 1991. During this process, the carbon contained in the negative electrode sublimates because of the high-discharge temperatures.
1175:
An alternative to separation is the development of a selective growth of semiconducting or metallic CNTs. This can be achieved by CVD that involves a combination of ethanol and methanol gases on a
784:
discovered a new pathway to synthesize MWCNTs by electrolysis of molten carbonates. The mechanism is similar to CVD. Some metal ions were reduced to a metal form and attached on the cathode as the
875:
762:
The vertically aligned nanotube forests originate from a "zipping effect" when they are immersed in a solvent and dried. The zipping effect is caused by the surface tension of the solvent and the
391:
is led into the chamber. Nanotubes develop on the cooler surfaces of the reactor as the vaporized carbon condenses. A water-cooled surface may be included in the system to collect the nanotubes.
4293:
Zhang, Li; Tu, Xiaomin; Welsher, Kevin; Wang, Xinran; Zheng, Ming; Dai, Hongjie (2009). "Optical characterizations and electronic devices of nearly pure (10,5) single-walled carbon nanotubes".
965:
1563:
Kim, K.S.; Cota-Sanchez, German; Kingston, Chris; Imris, M.; Simard, Benoît; Soucy, Gervais (2007). "Large-scale production of single-wall carbon nanotubes by induction thermal plasma".
1025:
755:
that damages the nanotubes. Super-growth avoids this problem. Patterned highly organized single-walled nanotube structures were successfully fabricated using the super-growth technique.
3472:
Arnold, Michael S.; Green, Alexander A.; Hulvat, James F.; Stupp, Samuel I.; Hersam, Mark C. (2006). "Sorting carbon nanotubes by electronic structure using density differentiation".
487:
The catalytic vapor phase deposition of carbon was reported in 1952 and 1959, but it was not until 1993 that carbon nanotubes were formed by this process. In 2007, researchers at the
2073:
Neupane, Suman; Lastres, Mauricio; Chiarella, M; Li, W.Z.; Su, Q; Du, G.H. (2012). "Synthesis and field emission properties of vertically aligned carbon nanotube arrays on copper".
1155:(SEC) of DNA-dispersed carbon nanotubes (DNA-SWNT). SWNT diameter separation has been achieved by density-gradient ultracentrifugation (DGU) using surfactant-dispersed SWNTs and by
605:
1469:
1979:
Eftekhari, A.; Jafarkhani, P; Moztarzadeh, F (2006). "High-yield synthesis of carbon nanotubes using a water-soluble catalyst support in catalytic chemical vapor deposition".
1634:
Walker Jr., P. L.; Rakszawski, J. F.; Imperial, G. R. (1959). "Carbon
Formation from Carbon Monoxide-Hydrogen Mixtures over Iron Catalysts. I. Properties of Carbon Formed".
1375:
Eatemadi, Ali; Daraee, Hadis; Karimkhanloo, Hamzeh; Kouhi, Mohammad; Zarghami, Nosratollah; Akbarzadeh, Abolfazl; Abasi, Mozhgan; Hanifehpour, Younes; Woo Joo, Sang (2014).
746:
exceeds 1,000 m/g (capped) or 2,200 m/g (uncapped), surpassing the value of 400–1,000 m/g for HiPco samples. The synthesis efficiency is about 100 times higher than for the
3523:
Yamada T, Namai T, Hata K, Futaba DN, Mizuno K, Fan J, et al. (2006). "Size-selective growth of double-walled carbon nanotube forests from engineered iron catalysts".
3972:
Huang, Xueying; McLean, Robert S.; Zheng, Ming (2005). "High-Resolution Length
Sorting and Purification of DNA-Wrapped Carbon Nanotubes by Size-Exclusion Chromatography".
737:
506:
of a metal layer. The substrate is heated to approximately 700 °C. To initiate the growth of nanotubes, two gases are bled into the reactor: a process gas (such as
1509:
Smiljanic, Olivier; Stansfield, B.L.; Dodelet, J.-P.; Serventi, A.; Désilets, S. (22 April 2002). "Gas-phase synthesis of SWNT by an atmospheric pressure plasma jet".
2185:
Hata, K.; Futaba, DN; Mizuno, K; Namai, T; Yumura, M; Iijima, S (2004). "Water-Assisted Highly
Efficient Synthesis of Impurity-Free Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes".
460:
The induction thermal plasma method can produce up to 2 grams of nanotube material per minute, which is higher than the arc discharge or the laser ablation methods.
3329:
Saveliev, A.V.; Merchan-Merchan, Wilson; Kennedy, Lawrence A. (2003). "Metal catalyzed synthesis of carbon nanostructures in an opposed flow methane oxygen flame".
541:
CVD is the most widely used method for the production of carbon nanotubes. For this purpose, the metal nanoparticles are mixed with a catalyst support such as
4106:
Tu, Xiaomin; Manohar, Suresh; Jagota, Anand; Zheng, Ming (2009). "DNA sequence motifs for structure-specific recognition and separation of carbon nanotubes".
3138:
Singer, J.M. (1959). "Carbon formation in very rich hydrocarbon-air flames. I. Studies of chemical content, temperature, ionization and particulate matter".
413:
The laser ablation method yields around 70% and produces primarily single-walled carbon nanotubes with a controllable diameter determined by the reaction
3442:
Naha, Sayangdev; Sen, Swarnendu; De, Anindya K.; Puri, Ishwar K. (2007). "A detailed model for the Flame synthesis of carbon nanotubes and nanofibers".
3574:
MacKenzie KJ, Dunens OM, Harris AT (2010). "An updated review of synthesis parameters and growth mechanisms for carbon nanotubes in fluidized beds".
1125:
challenge and has been addressed in many studies. A new approach to break carbonaceous catalyst encapsulations is based on rapid thermal annealing.
568:), then the nanotube growth will follow the direction of the electric field. By adjusting the geometry of the reactor it is possible to synthesize
3726:
Xu, Ya-Qiong; Peng, Haiqing; Hauge, Robert H.; Smalley, Richard E. (2005). "Controlled multistep purification of single-walled carbon nanotubes".
1834:
Banerjee, Soumik; Naha, Sayangdev; Puri, Ishwar K. (2008). "Molecular simulation of the carbon nanotube growth mode during catalytic synthesis".
1661:
José-Yacamán, M.; Miki-Yoshida, M.; Rendón, L.; Santiesteban, J. G. (1993). "Catalytic growth of carbon microtubules with fullerene structure".
4157:
Khripin, Constantine Y; Fagan, Jeffrey A.; Zheng, Ming (2013). "Spontaneous
Partition of Carbon Nanotubes in Polymer-Modified Aqueous Phases".
430:
3399:
Sen, S.; Puri, Ishwar K (2004). "Flame synthesis of carbon nanofibers and nanofibers composites containing encapsulated metal particles".
491:(UC) developed a process to grow aligned carbon nanotube arrays of length 18 mm on a FirstNano ET3000 carbon nanotube growth system.
1058:
and carbon nanotubes are not necessarily products of high-tech laboratories; they are commonly formed in such mundane places as ordinary
3364:
Height, M.J.; Howard, Jack B.; Tester, Jefferson W.; Vander Sande, John B. (2004). "Flame synthesis of single-walled carbon nanotubes".
2650:"Carbon nanotube wools made directly from CO2 by molten electrolysis: Value driven pathways to carbon dioxide greenhouse gas mitigation"
2327:
614:
80:
1492:
3188:
Yuan, Liming; Saito, Kozo; Hu, Wenchong; Chen, Zhi (2001). "Ethylene flame synthesis of well-aligned multi-walled carbon nanotubes".
569:
565:
70:
3814:
Janas, Dawid (2018). "Towards monochiral carbon nanotubes: a review of progress in the sorting of single-walled carbon nanotubes".
2881:"Carbon Nanotubes Produced from Ambient Carbon Dioxide for Environmentally Sustainable Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion Battery Anodes"
301:
2603:"CO 2 Utilization by Electrolytic Splitting to Carbon Nanotubes in Non-Lithiated, Cost-Effective, Molten Carbonate Electrolytes"
1159:(IEC) for DNA-SWNT. Purification of individual chiralities has also been demonstrated with IEC of DNA-SWNT: specific short DNA
75:
4236:
Turek, Edyta; Shiraki, Tomohiro; Shiraishi, Tomonari; Shiga, Tamehito; Fujigaya, Tsuyohiko; Janas, Dawid (December 2019).
3779:
Meyer-Plath A, Orts-Gil G, Petrov S, et al. (2012). "Plasma-thermal purification and annealing of carbon nanotubes".
794:
2795:"Exploration of alkali cation variation on the synthesis of carbon nanotubes by electrolysis of CO2 in molten carbonates"
450:
4402:"Fabrication of spintronics device by direct synthesis of single-walled carbon nanotubes from ferromagnetic electrodes"
118:
2938:"Transformation of the greenhouse gas CO2 by molten electrolysis into a wide controlled selection of carbon nanotubes"
1934:
Kumar, M. (2010). "Chemical vapor deposition of carbon nanotubes: a review on growth mechanism and mass production".
1103:
synthesis of CNTs. They allow increasing the growth efficiency of CNTs and may give control over their structure and
890:
4400:
Mohamed, Mohd Ambri; Inami, Nobuhito; Shikoh, Eiji; Yamamoto, Yoshiyuki; Hori, Hidenobu; Fujiwara, Akihiko (2008).
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method. There have been successful efforts to integrate these purified nanotubes into electronic devices, such as
3601:
Jakubek, Lorin M.; Marangoudakis, Spiro; Raingo, Jesica; Liu, Xinyuan; Lipscombe, Diane; Hurt, Robert H. (2009).
2648:
Johnson, Marcus; Ren, Jiawen; Lefler, Matthew; Licht, Gad; Vicini, Juan; Liu, Xinye; Licht, Stuart (2017-09-01).
1713:"Synthesis-condition dependence of carbon nanotube growth by alcohol catalytic chemical vapor deposition method"
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Guo, Ting; Nikolaev, Pavel; Rinzler, Andrew G.; Tomanek, David; Colbert, Daniel T.; Smalley, Richard E. (1995).
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192:
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Muradov, N (2001). "Hydrogen via methane decomposition: an application for decarbonization of fossil fuels".
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212:
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Vander Wal, R.L. (2002). "Fe-catalyzed single-walled carbon nanotube synthesis within a flame environment".
3153:
Yuan, Liming; Saito, Kozo; Pan, Chunxu; Williams, F.A; Gordon, A.S (2001). "Nanotubes from methane flames".
3026:"Calcium metaborate induced thin walled carbon nanotube syntheses from CO2 by molten carbonate electrolysis"
557:
However, alternative catalyst supports that are soluble in water have proven effective for nanotube growth.
494:
During CVD, a substrate is prepared with a layer of metal catalyst particles, most commonly nickel, cobalt,
3603:"The inhibition of neuronal calcium ion channels by trace levels of yttrium released from carbon nanotubes"
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Centrifuge tube with a solution of carbon nanotubes, which were sorted by diameter using density-gradient
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Licht, Stuart; Douglas, Anna; Ren, Jiawen; Carter, Rachel; Lefler, Matthew; Pint, Cary L. (2016-03-23).
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is the most widely used reactor for CNT preparation. Scale-up of the reactor is the major challenge.
473:
327:
167:
65:
4055:; et al. (2003). "Structure-Based Carbon Nanotube Sorting by Sequence-Dependent DNA Assembly".
3748:
2979:"Magnetic carbon nanotubes: Carbide nucleated electrochemical growth of ferromagnetic CNTs from CO2"
2207:
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Wang, Xirui; Sharif, Farbod; Liu, Xinye; Licht, Gad; Lefler, Matthew; Licht, Stuart (2020-09-01).
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SEM images & TEM images of carbon nanotubes, aligned carbon nanotube arrays, and nanoparticles
1609:О Структуре Углерода, Образующегося При Термическом Разложении Окиси Углерода На Железном Контакте
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Naha, Sayangdev; Ishwar K. Puri (2008). "A model for catalytic growth of carbon nanotubes".
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4238:"Single-step isolation of carbon nanotubes with narrow-band light emission characteristics"
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Ren, Jiawen; Li, Fang-Fang; Lau, Jason; González-Urbina, Luis; Licht, Stuart (2015-09-09).
2691:"Amplified CO2 reduction of greenhouse gas emissions with C2CNT carbon nanotube composites"
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Ren, Jiawen; Li, Fang-Fang; Lau, Jason; González-Urbina, Luis; Licht, Stuart (2015-08-05).
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3925:"Continuous Separation of Metallic and Semiconducting Carbon Nanotubes Using Agarose Gel"
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Hou, Peng-Xiang; Liu, Chang; Cheng, Hui-Ming (2008). "Purification of carbon nanotubes".
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contain about 5–35% of metal impurities; it is therefore purified through dispersion and
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Super-growth CVD (water-assisted chemical vapor deposition) was developed by Kenji Hata,
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substrate, resulting in horizontally aligned arrays of 95–98% semiconducting nanotubes.
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Another way to produce single-walled carbon nanotubes with a plasma torch is to use the
417:. However, it is more expensive than either arc discharge or chemical vapor deposition.
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Hersam, Mark C (2008). "Progress towards monodisperse single-walled carbon nanotubes".
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1754:"Crystal Plane Dependent Growth of Aligned Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes on Sapphire"
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Ren, Z. F.; Huang, ZP; Xu, JW; Wang, JH; Bush, P; Siegal, MP; Provencio, PN (1998).
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2892:
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2806:
2757:
2702:
2661:
2614:
2548:
2517:
2484:
2425:
2408:
2371:
2301:
2263:
2212:
2159:
2129:
2090:
2035:
1996:
1953:
1916:
1893:
1889:
1859:
1851:
1808:
1765:
1753:
1732:
1678:
1643:
1580:
1526:
1484:
1450:
1406:
1396:
1349:
1313:
1301:
1284:
Ebbesen, T. W.; Ajayan, P. M. (1992). "Large-scale synthesis of carbon nanotubes".
1270:
1258:
768:
577:
576:
sites are controllable by careful deposition of the catalyst. In 2007, a team from
561:
442:
2553:
2536:
2267:
2039:
1062:, produced by burning methane, ethylene, and benzene, and they have been found in
3909:
3800:
3671:
3385:
2762:
2706:
2666:
2489:
2460:
2094:
2000:
1435:
1377:"Carbon nanotubes: properties, synthesis, purification, and medical applications"
880:
The formed lithium oxide can in-situ absorb carbon dioxide (if present) and form
589:
585:
546:
542:
399:
395:
315:
51:
3455:
1607:
4261:
3108:
3083:"Co-production of cement and carbon nanotubes with a carbon negative footprint"
3041:
2994:
2954:
2896:
2857:
2810:
2793:
Wang, Xirui; Liu, Xinye; Licht, Gad; Wang, Baohui; Licht, Stuart (2019-12-01).
1752:
Ishigami, N.; Ago, H; Imamoto, K; Tsuji, M; Iakoubovskii, K; Minami, N (2008).
1737:
1712:
1187:
1147:
method. Yield is 95% in semiconductor type SWNT and 90% in metallic type SWNT.
1031:
752:
747:
580:
demonstrated a high-efficiency CVD technique for growing carbon nanotubes from
503:
319:
263:
177:
4051:
Zheng, M.; Jagota, A; Strano, MS; Santos, AP; Barone, P; Chou, SG; Diner, BA;
1711:
Inami, Nobuhito; Ambri
Mohamed, Mohd; Shikoh, Eiji; Fujiwara, Akihiko (2007).
4456:
4295:
3923:
Tanaka, Takeshi; Urabe, Yasuko; Nishide, Daisuke; Kataura, Hiromichi (2009).
3116:
3049:
3002:
2963:
2904:
2865:
2818:
2771:
2714:
2675:
2626:
1199:
1097:
230:
221:
157:
108:
35:
4206:
4076:
2521:
2216:
2060:
1698:"UC Researchers Shatter World Records with Length of Carbon Nanotube Arrays"
4443:
4386:
4334:
4279:
4214:
4178:
4135:
4084:
4037:
4029:
3994:
3873:
3844:
3765:
3636:
3552:
3501:
3067:
2922:
2779:
2689:
Licht, S.; Liu, X.; Licht, G.; Wang, X.; Swesi, A.; Chan, Y. (2019-12-01).
2618:
2562:
2498:
2437:
2383:
2305:
2275:
2224:
2171:
1965:
1777:
1420:
1361:
1183:
601:
426:
380:
133:
3949:
3924:
3544:
3493:
2936:
Ren, Jiawen; Johnson, Marcus; Singhal, Richa; Licht, Stuart (2017-03-01).
2375:
2047:
1957:
1660:
1401:
564:
is generated by the application of a strong electric field during growth (
3974:
1134:
large-scale technological processes. The most efficient method relies on
1050:
414:
360:
147:
4127:
3236:
3223:
Duan, H. M.; McKinnon, J. T. (1994). "Nanoclusters Produced in Flames".
1697:
1647:
1454:
3827:
2110:"Carbon Nanotubes from Camphor: An Environment-Friendly Nanotechnology"
1864:
1191:
785:
356:
4378:
4326:
4170:
3986:
3865:
3757:
3587:
2163:
1855:
1769:
1075:
363:
production of carbon nanotubes was made in 1992 by two researchers at
258:
3711:
3686:
2512:
Armitage, Hanae (2015-08-19). "A carbon capture strategy that pays".
2429:
2016:"Synthesis of Large Arrays of Well-Aligned Carbon Nanotubes on Glass"
1682:
1305:
1262:
1093:
1055:
519:
454:
434:
388:
371:
CNTs with fewer structural defects in comparison with other methods.
348:
331:
94:
3099:
2288:
1470:"Catalytic growth of single-walled nanotubes by laser vaporization"
1220:"The state-of-the-art science and applications of carbon nanotubes"
1160:
523:
515:
511:
384:
235:
4309:
1508:
1241:
Iijima, Sumio (1991). "Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon".
270:
19:
3024:
Wang, Xirui; Liu, Xinye; Licht, Gad; Licht, Stuart (2020-09-15).
1546:"Method and apparatus for producing single-wall carbon nanotubes"
1468:
Guo, Ting; Nikolaev, P; Thess, A; Colbert, D; Smalley, R (1995).
1139:
1121:
700:{\displaystyle H(t)={\beta }{\tau }_{o}({1-e^{-t/{\tau }_{o}}}).}
581:
531:
527:
507:
1710:
334:
and continuous growth are making CNTs more commercially viable.
3685:
Ebbesen, T. W.; Ajayan, P. M.; Hiura, H.; Tanigaki, K. (1994).
2601:
Wang, Xirui; Licht, Gad; Liu, Xinye; Licht, Stuart (May 2022).
1374:
1176:
1117:
1113:
407:
403:
352:
347:
Nanotubes were observed in 1991 in the carbon soot of graphite
3363:
3328:
1978:
1198:
by magnetic field has been demonstrated in such a single-tube
788:
point for the growing of CNTs. The reaction on the cathode is
3600:
1790:
1059:
479:
1633:
1562:
425:
Single-walled carbon nanotubes can also be synthesized by a
3886:
1878:
1751:
1325:
1323:
1063:
495:
468:
43:
4399:
4235:
3684:
1218:
Takeuchi K, Hayashi T, Kim YA, Fujisawa K, Endo M (2014).
1217:
1190:(Fe, Co), which facilitates the production of electronic (
1039:), in which case it produces lime/cement (CaO) free of CO
3922:
3778:
2072:
1433:
1013:
991:
953:
940:
924:
905:
863:
838:
822:
809:
364:
3249:
2840:
Licht, Stuart; Cui, Baochen; Wang, Baohui (2013-09-01).
1320:
4050:
2735:
2458:
2404:
1467:
1194:) devices. In particular, control of current through a
410:
mixture) to synthesize single-walled carbon nanotubes.
318:(CNTs) in sizable quantities, including arc discharge,
3471:
2935:
2245:
1051:
Natural, incidental, and controlled flame environments
4191:
3573:
3522:
2878:
2647:
2350:
2184:
979:
893:
870:{\displaystyle {\ce {Li2CO3 -> Li2O + CNTs + O2}}}
797:
716:
617:
4105:
3840:
3152:
2148:
1330:Collins, P.G. (2000). "Nanotubes for Electronics".
1143:capacitor. Moreover, SWNTs can be separated by the
351:during an arc discharge, by using a current of 100
4355:
4292:
3725:
2976:
2738:"One-Pot Synthesis of Carbon Nanofibers from CO 2"
1019:
959:
869:
731:
699:
463:
4156:
3023:
2688:
2600:
1107:. During synthesis, catalysts can convert carbon
4454:
3971:
2792:
2537:"Conjuring chemical cornucopias out of thin air"
1833:
3576:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
3187:
3140:Seventh Symposium (International) on Combustion
2511:
2461:"One-Pot Synthesis of Carbon Nanofibers from CO
960:{\displaystyle {\ce {Li2O + CO2 -> Li2CO3}}}
445:method, implemented in 2005 by groups from the
4007:
2013:
431:Institut national de la recherche scientifique
387:target in a high-temperature reactor while an
2142:
1283:
1128:
775:
295:
3222:
2842:"STEP carbon capture – The barium advantage"
2839:
1605:
1224:Nanosystems: Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics
3649:
1020:{\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 -> CNTs + O2}}}
3293:
314:Techniques have been developed to produce
302:
288:
4433:
4308:
4269:
3948:
3747:
3710:
3626:
3098:
3057:
2953:
2912:
2761:
2665:
2552:
2488:
2206:
2133:
2107:
1947:
1936:Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology
1863:
1736:
1410:
1400:
1096:are important ingredients for fixed- and
739:is the characteristic catalyst lifetime.
566:plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition
472:Nanotubes being grown by plasma enhanced
4159:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2152:Journal of the American Chemical Society
1909:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1882:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1074:
478:
467:
429:method, first invented in 2000 at INRS (
18:
3467:
3465:
3444:Proceedings of the Combustion Institute
3398:
2534:
1906:
1695:
1329:
1087:
710:where β is the initial growth rate and
518:) and a carbon-containing gas (such as
4455:
3880:
3137:
2108:Kumar, Mukul; Ando, Yoshinori (2007).
1240:
3813:
3080:
2114:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
1933:
1793:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
1565:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
1543:
1436:"Self-Assembly of Tubular Fullerenes"
1030:In other words, the reactant is only
3462:
2575:
1136:density-gradient ultracentrifugation
1599:
595:
570:vertically aligned carbon nanotubes
451:National Research Council of Canada
13:
3619:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.08.009
3273:10.1023/B:NANO.0000034651.91325.40
14:
4479:
2535:Service, Robert F. (2015-09-11).
1354:10.1038/scientificamerican1200-62
588:, until recently led by the late
374:
3253:Journal of Nanoparticle Research
1696:Beckman, Wendy (27 April 2007).
342:
322:, high-pressure carbon monoxide
269:
257:
42:
4393:
4349:
4286:
4229:
4185:
4150:
4099:
4044:
4001:
3965:
3916:
3834:
3807:
3772:
3719:
3678:
3643:
3594:
3567:
3516:
3435:
3392:
3357:
3322:
3287:
3243:
3216:
3181:
3146:
3131:
3074:
3017:
2970:
2929:
2872:
2833:
2786:
2729:
2682:
2641:
2594:
2569:
2528:
2505:
2452:
2398:
2344:
2320:
2282:
2239:
2178:
2101:
2066:
2054:
2007:
1972:
1927:
1900:
1872:
1827:
1784:
1745:
1704:
1689:
1654:
1627:
1556:
1182:Nanotubes are usually grown on
1070:
483:Animated pent-first nucleation.
464:Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
420:
355:, that was intended to produce
30:Part of a series of articles on
2695:Materials Today Sustainability
1894:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2007.08.013
1537:
1502:
1461:
1427:
1368:
1277:
1234:
1211:
994:
927:
825:
691:
650:
627:
621:
394:This process was developed by
1:
3816:Materials Chemistry Frontiers
3351:10.1016/S0010-2180(03)00142-1
3316:10.1016/S0010-2180(02)00360-7
3225:Journal of Physical Chemistry
3210:10.1016/S0009-2614(01)00959-9
3175:10.1016/S0009-2614(01)00435-3
2578:"Carbon fibres made from air"
2576:Webb, Jonathan (2015-08-20).
2554:10.1126/science.349.6253.1160
2293:Advanced Functional Materials
2268:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.056104
2040:10.1126/science.282.5391.1105
1921:10.1016/S0360-3199(01)00073-8
1813:10.1088/0022-3727/41/6/065304
1531:10.1016/S0009-2614(02)00132-X
1205:
1153:size-exclusion chromatography
1047:turns into CNTs and oxygen.
4426:10.1088/1468-6996/9/2/025019
3910:10.1016/j.carbon.2011.09.062
3801:10.1016/j.carbon.2012.04.049
3672:10.1016/j.carbon.2008.09.009
3386:10.1016/j.carbon.2004.05.010
3081:Licht, Stuart (2017-03-01).
2763:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b02427
2707:10.1016/j.mtsust.2019.100023
2667:10.1016/j.mtener.2017.07.003
2607:Advanced Sustainable Systems
2490:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b02427
2095:10.1016/j.carbon.2012.02.024
2001:10.1016/j.carbon.2005.12.006
1606:Radushkevich, L. V. (1952).
1489:10.1016/0009-2614(95)00825-O
1166:aqueous two-phase extraction
884:, as shown in the equation.
782:George Washington University
780:In 2015, researchers in the
7:
3687:"Purification of nanotubes"
3456:10.1016/j.proci.2006.07.224
2328:"Unidym product sheet SWNT"
1700:. University of Cincinnati.
1157:ion-exchange chromatography
732:{\displaystyle {\tau }_{o}}
10:
4484:
4262:10.1038/s41598-018-37675-4
3421:10.1088/0957-4484/15/3/005
3109:10.1016/j.jcou.2017.02.011
3087:Journal of CO2 Utilization
3042:10.1038/s41598-020-71644-0
2995:10.1016/j.jcou.2020.101218
2983:Journal of CO2 Utilization
2955:10.1016/j.jcou.2017.02.005
2942:Journal of CO2 Utilization
2897:10.1021/acscentsci.5b00400
2858:10.1016/j.jcou.2013.03.006
2846:Journal of CO2 Utilization
2811:10.1016/j.jcou.2019.07.007
2799:Journal of CO2 Utilization
2135:10.1088/1742-6596/61/1/129
1738:10.1016/j.stam.2007.02.009
1585:10.1088/0022-3727/40/8/S17
1381:Nanoscale Research Letters
1129:Application-related issues
776:Liquid electrolysis method
23:Powder of carbon nanotubes
970:Thus the net reaction is
474:chemical vapor deposition
328:chemical vapor deposition
4406:Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater
3190:Chemical Physics Letters
3155:Chemical Physics Letters
2022:(Submitted manuscript).
1717:Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater
1608:
1511:Chemical Physics Letters
1170:field-effect transistors
489:University of Cincinnati
447:Université de Sherbrooke
443:induction thermal plasma
337:
246:Nanocrystalline material
222:Nanostructured materials
4207:10.1021/acsnano.8b09579
4077:10.1126/science.1091911
3929:Applied Physics Express
2522:10.1126/science.aad1644
2217:10.1126/science.1104962
1836:Applied Physics Letters
1617:Журнал Физической Химии
1196:field-effect transistor
4030:10.1038/nnano.2008.135
2654:Materials Today Energy
2619:10.1002/adsu.202100481
2306:10.1002/adfm.200901927
1084:
1021:
961:
871:
733:
701:
484:
476:
24:
16:Class of manufacturing
4010:Nature Nanotechnology
3950:10.1143/APEX.2.125002
3545:10.1038/nnano.2006.95
3525:Nature Nanotechnology
3494:10.1038/nnano.2006.52
3474:Nature Nanotechnology
2376:10.1038/nnano.2006.95
2355:Nature Nanotechnology
1958:10.1166/jnn.2010.2939
1402:10.1186/1556-276X-9-1
1145:column chromatography
1078:
1022:
962:
872:
734:
702:
536:Fluidized bed reactor
482:
471:
379:In laser ablation, a
276:Technology portal
71:Mechanical properties
22:
1544:Smiljanic, Olivier.
1088:Removal of catalysts
977:
891:
795:
764:van der Waals forces
714:
615:
359:. However the first
241:Nanoporous materials
104:Buckminsterfullerene
4418:2008STAdM...9b5019A
4371:2009NanoL...9..800D
4319:2009arXiv0902.0010Z
4254:2019NatSR...9..535T
4128:10.1038/nature08116
4120:2009Natur.460..250T
4069:2003Sci...302.1545Z
4063:(5650): 1545–1548.
4022:2008NatNa...3..387H
3941:2009APExp...2l5002T
3902:2012Carbo..50.1422Y
3858:2009NanoL...9.1497T
3793:2012Carbo..50.3934M
3740:2005NanoL...5..163X
3703:1994Natur.367..519E
3664:2008Carbo..46.2003H
3537:2006NatNa...1..131Y
3486:2006NatNa...1...60A
3413:2004Nanot..15..264S
3378:2004Carbo..42.2295H
3343:2003CoFl..135...27S
3308:2002CoFl..130...37V
3265:2004JNR.....6..241M
3237:10.1021/j100100a001
3231:(49): 12815–12818.
3202:2001CPL...346...23Y
3167:2001CPL...340..237Y
2885:ACS Central Science
2754:2015NanoL..15.6142R
2481:2015NanoL..15.6142R
2422:2006NatMa...5..987F
2368:2006NatNa...1..131Y
2260:2005PhRvL..95e6104F
2199:2004Sci...306.1362H
2193:(5700): 1362–1365.
2158:(49): 15824–15829.
2126:2007JPhCS..61..643K
2087:2012Carbo..50.2641N
2032:1998Sci...282.1105R
1993:2006Carbo..44.1343E
1848:2008ApPhL..92w3121B
1805:2008JPhD...41f5304N
1729:2007STAdM...8..292I
1675:1993ApPhL..62..657J
1648:10.1021/j150572a002
1577:2007JPhD...40.2375K
1523:2002CPL...356..189S
1455:10.1021/j100027a002
1449:(27): 10694–10697.
1393:2014NRL.....9....1L
1346:2000SciAm.283f..62C
1333:Scientific American
1298:1992Natur.358..220E
1255:1991Natur.354...56I
1081:ultracentrifugation
1015:
993:
955:
942:
926:
907:
865:
840:
824:
811:
143:Carbon quantum dots
4468:Chemical synthesis
4242:Scientific Reports
3828:10.1039/C7QM00427C
3030:Scientific Reports
1085:
1017:
1003:
981:
957:
943:
930:
914:
895:
867:
853:
828:
812:
799:
729:
697:
604:and co-workers at
485:
477:
398:and co-workers at
324:disproportionation
264:Science portal
76:Optical properties
25:
4379:10.1021/nl803496s
4327:10.1021/ja8096674
4171:10.1021/ja402762e
4165:(18): 6822–6825.
4114:(7252): 250–253.
3987:10.1021/ac0508954
3981:(19): 6225–6228.
3866:10.1021/nl8034866
3787:(10): 3934–3942.
3758:10.1021/nl048300s
3658:(15): 2003–2025.
3613:(31): 6351–6357.
3588:10.1021/ie9019787
3372:(11): 2295–2307.
2164:10.1021/ja065767r
1915:(11): 1165–1175.
1888:(18): 4821–4829.
1856:10.1063/1.2945798
1770:10.1021/ja8024752
1764:(30): 9918–9924.
1292:(6383): 220–222.
1006:
999:
984:
946:
933:
917:
910:
898:
882:lithium carbonate
856:
849:
843:
831:
815:
802:
584:. Researchers at
312:
311:
124:Carbon allotropes
4475:
4463:Carbon nanotubes
4448:
4447:
4437:
4397:
4391:
4390:
4353:
4347:
4346:
4312:
4303:(7): 2454–2455.
4290:
4284:
4283:
4273:
4233:
4227:
4226:
4201:(2): 2567–2578.
4189:
4183:
4182:
4154:
4148:
4147:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4048:
4042:
4041:
4005:
3999:
3998:
3969:
3963:
3962:
3952:
3920:
3914:
3913:
3896:(3): 1422–1424.
3884:
3878:
3877:
3852:(4): 1497–1500.
3838:
3832:
3831:
3811:
3805:
3804:
3776:
3770:
3769:
3751:
3723:
3717:
3716:
3714:
3712:10.1038/367519a0
3682:
3676:
3675:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3630:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3469:
3460:
3459:
3439:
3433:
3432:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3361:
3355:
3354:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3259:(2/3): 241–251.
3247:
3241:
3240:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3161:(3–4): 237–241.
3150:
3144:
3143:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3102:
3078:
3072:
3071:
3061:
3021:
3015:
3014:
2974:
2968:
2967:
2957:
2933:
2927:
2926:
2916:
2876:
2870:
2869:
2837:
2831:
2830:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2765:
2748:(9): 6142–6148.
2733:
2727:
2726:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2669:
2645:
2639:
2638:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2588:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2556:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2509:
2503:
2502:
2492:
2475:(9): 6142–6148.
2456:
2450:
2449:
2430:10.1038/nmat1782
2409:Nature Materials
2402:
2396:
2395:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2333:. Archived from
2332:
2324:
2318:
2317:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2243:
2237:
2236:
2210:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2026:(5391): 1105–7.
2011:
2005:
2004:
1987:(7): 1343–1345.
1976:
1970:
1969:
1951:
1942:(6): 3739–3758.
1931:
1925:
1924:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1867:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1788:
1782:
1781:
1758:J. Am. Chem. Soc
1749:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1683:10.1063/1.108857
1663:Appl. Phys. Lett
1658:
1652:
1651:
1631:
1625:
1624:
1614:
1603:
1597:
1596:
1571:(8): 2375–2387.
1560:
1554:
1553:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1517:(3–4): 189–193.
1506:
1500:
1499:
1498:on 24 July 2011.
1497:
1491:. Archived from
1477:Chem. Phys. Lett
1474:
1465:
1459:
1458:
1440:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1414:
1404:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1327:
1318:
1317:
1306:10.1038/358220a0
1281:
1275:
1274:
1263:10.1038/354056a0
1238:
1232:
1231:
1215:
1092:Nanoscale metal
1026:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1004:
997:
992:
989:
982:
966:
964:
963:
958:
956:
954:
951:
944:
941:
938:
931:
925:
922:
915:
908:
906:
903:
896:
876:
874:
873:
868:
866:
864:
861:
854:
847:
841:
839:
836:
829:
823:
820:
813:
810:
807:
800:
769:Vickers hardness
744:specific surface
738:
736:
735:
730:
728:
727:
722:
706:
704:
703:
698:
690:
689:
688:
687:
686:
681:
675:
649:
648:
643:
637:
596:Super-growth CVD
578:Meijo University
316:carbon nanotubes
304:
297:
290:
274:
273:
262:
261:
213:Titanium dioxide
52:Carbon nanotubes
46:
27:
26:
4483:
4482:
4478:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4473:
4472:
4453:
4452:
4451:
4398:
4394:
4354:
4350:
4291:
4287:
4234:
4230:
4190:
4186:
4155:
4151:
4104:
4100:
4053:Dresselhaus, MS
4049:
4045:
4006:
4002:
3970:
3966:
3921:
3917:
3885:
3881:
3839:
3835:
3812:
3808:
3777:
3773:
3749:10.1.1.739.1034
3724:
3720:
3683:
3679:
3648:
3644:
3599:
3595:
3582:(11): 5323–38.
3572:
3568:
3521:
3517:
3470:
3463:
3440:
3436:
3397:
3393:
3362:
3358:
3327:
3323:
3292:
3288:
3248:
3244:
3221:
3217:
3186:
3182:
3151:
3147:
3136:
3132:
3079:
3075:
3022:
3018:
2975:
2971:
2934:
2930:
2877:
2873:
2838:
2834:
2791:
2787:
2734:
2730:
2687:
2683:
2646:
2642:
2599:
2595:
2586:
2584:
2574:
2570:
2533:
2529:
2510:
2506:
2464:
2457:
2453:
2416:(12): 987–994.
2403:
2399:
2349:
2345:
2337:
2330:
2326:
2325:
2321:
2287:
2283:
2248:Phys. Rev. Lett
2244:
2240:
2208:10.1.1.467.9078
2183:
2179:
2147:
2143:
2106:
2102:
2071:
2067:
2063:. Nano-lab.com.
2059:
2055:
2012:
2008:
1977:
1973:
1949:10.1.1.459.5003
1932:
1928:
1905:
1901:
1877:
1873:
1832:
1828:
1789:
1785:
1750:
1746:
1709:
1705:
1694:
1690:
1659:
1655:
1632:
1628:
1612:
1610:
1604:
1600:
1561:
1557:
1542:
1538:
1507:
1503:
1495:
1472:
1466:
1462:
1438:
1432:
1428:
1373:
1369:
1328:
1321:
1282:
1278:
1249:(6348): 56–58.
1239:
1235:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1131:
1090:
1073:
1053:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1012:
1007:
990:
985:
980:
978:
975:
974:
952:
947:
939:
934:
923:
918:
904:
899:
894:
892:
889:
888:
862:
857:
837:
832:
821:
816:
808:
803:
798:
796:
793:
792:
778:
723:
718:
717:
715:
712:
711:
682:
677:
676:
671:
664:
660:
653:
644:
639:
638:
633:
616:
613:
612:
598:
590:Richard Smalley
586:Rice University
554:
550:
466:
423:
400:Rice University
396:Richard Smalley
377:
345:
340:
308:
268:
256:
153:Aluminium oxide
17:
12:
11:
5:
4481:
4471:
4470:
4465:
4450:
4449:
4392:
4348:
4285:
4228:
4184:
4149:
4098:
4043:
4016:(7): 387–394.
4000:
3964:
3935:(12): 125002.
3915:
3879:
3833:
3806:
3771:
3734:(1): 163–168.
3718:
3677:
3642:
3593:
3566:
3531:(2): 131–136.
3515:
3461:
3450:(2): 1821–29.
3434:
3407:(3): 264–268.
3401:Nanotechnology
3391:
3356:
3337:(1–2): 27–33.
3331:Combust. Flame
3321:
3302:(1–2): 37–47.
3296:Combust. Flame
3286:
3242:
3215:
3196:(1–2): 23–28.
3180:
3145:
3130:
3073:
3016:
2969:
2928:
2891:(3): 162–168.
2871:
2832:
2785:
2728:
2681:
2640:
2593:
2568:
2547:(6253): 1160.
2527:
2504:
2462:
2451:
2397:
2362:(2): 131–136.
2343:
2340:on 2011-07-17.
2319:
2300:(3): 422–428.
2281:
2238:
2177:
2141:
2120:(1): 643–646.
2100:
2081:(7): 2641–50.
2065:
2053:
2006:
1971:
1926:
1899:
1871:
1842:(23): 233121.
1826:
1783:
1744:
1723:(4): 292–295.
1703:
1688:
1653:
1642:(2): 133–140.
1626:
1619:(in Russian).
1598:
1555:
1536:
1501:
1483:(1–2): 49–54.
1460:
1426:
1367:
1319:
1276:
1233:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1188:magnetic metal
1130:
1127:
1089:
1086:
1072:
1069:
1052:
1049:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:greenhouse gas
1028:
1027:
1010:
1002:
996:
988:
968:
967:
950:
937:
929:
921:
913:
902:
878:
877:
860:
852:
846:
835:
827:
819:
806:
777:
774:
759:tube is wide.
753:centrifugation
748:laser ablation
726:
721:
708:
707:
696:
693:
685:
680:
674:
670:
667:
663:
659:
656:
652:
647:
642:
636:
632:
629:
626:
623:
620:
597:
594:
552:
548:
504:plasma etching
465:
462:
427:thermal plasma
422:
419:
376:
375:Laser ablation
373:
344:
341:
339:
336:
320:laser ablation
310:
309:
307:
306:
299:
292:
284:
281:
280:
279:
278:
266:
251:
250:
249:
248:
243:
238:
233:
225:
224:
218:
217:
216:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
137:
136:
129:
128:
127:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
98:
97:
91:
90:
89:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
55:
54:
48:
47:
39:
38:
32:
31:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4480:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4460:
4458:
4445:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4412:(2): 025019.
4411:
4407:
4403:
4396:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4352:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4302:
4298:
4297:
4296:J Am Chem Soc
4289:
4281:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4243:
4239:
4232:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4188:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4168:
4164:
4160:
4153:
4145:
4141:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4102:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4047:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4004:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3977:
3976:
3968:
3960:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3942:
3938:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3919:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3883:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3846:
3837:
3829:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3810:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3775:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3722:
3713:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3697:(6463): 519.
3696:
3692:
3688:
3681:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3646:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3597:
3589:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3570:
3562:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3475:
3468:
3466:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3438:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3395:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3317:
3313:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3297:
3290:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3246:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3149:
3141:
3134:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3077:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2965:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2932:
2924:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2764:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2644:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2583:
2579:
2572:
2564:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2531:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2500:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2455:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2401:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2356:
2347:
2336:
2329:
2323:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2294:
2285:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2254:(5): 056104.
2253:
2249:
2242:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2181:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2145:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2069:
2062:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1930:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1875:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1799:(6): 065304.
1798:
1794:
1787:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1699:
1692:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1636:J. Phys. Chem
1630:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1602:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1551:
1547:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1505:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1471:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1443:J. Phys. Chem
1437:
1430:
1422:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1326:
1324:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1280:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1210:
1203:
1201:
1200:nanostructure
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1184:nanoparticles
1180:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1148:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1126:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1098:fluidized-bed
1095:
1082:
1077:
1068:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1048:
1033:
1008:
1000:
986:
973:
972:
971:
948:
935:
919:
911:
900:
887:
886:
885:
883:
858:
850:
844:
833:
817:
804:
791:
790:
789:
787:
783:
773:
770:
765:
760:
756:
754:
749:
745:
740:
724:
719:
694:
683:
678:
672:
668:
665:
661:
657:
654:
645:
640:
634:
630:
624:
618:
611:
610:
609:
607:
603:
593:
591:
587:
583:
579:
573:
571:
567:
563:
558:
555:
544:
539:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
492:
490:
481:
475:
470:
461:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
439:
436:
432:
428:
418:
416:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
386:
382:
372:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
343:Arc discharge
335:
333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
305:
300:
298:
293:
291:
286:
285:
283:
282:
277:
272:
267:
265:
260:
255:
254:
253:
252:
247:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
231:Nanocomposite
229:
228:
227:
226:
223:
220:
219:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
194:
193:Iron–platinum
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
140:
139:
138:
135:
134:nanoparticles
131:
130:
125:
122:
120:
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