Kingdom of the Suebi

2171:, he was then released unharmed, against the will of the men who had accused him. Hydatius' chronicle, whilst purporting to be universal, slowly turns into a local history. Following the barbarian settlements, he relates the conflict among the diverse nations; later, he also narrates the frequent conflict of the Sueves with the local, barely romanized, Galicians; the decline of the Roman powers in Hispania; the expansion of the Suevi into the south and the east; their defeat at the hands of Visigoths and other Roman foederati forces; and the posterior reconstitution of their kingdom under Remismund, together with their conversion to Arianism. While he is considered a great historian, his portraits are usually obscure, without any real reason or direction given to the decisions or movement of the Suevi, by mentioning what the Suevi did, but rarely what they said, or what they pretended. So Hydatius's image of the Suevi is from the outside, as lawless marauders. This description of the Suevi has bled into secondary sources: E.A. Thomson, an expert who has written many pieces on the subject, stated, "they just lash out blindly from year to year at any place that they suspected would supply them with food, valuables or money." 1872:, with the assistance of seventy-two bishops from Hispania, Gaul and Gallaecia. There, eight bishops renounced their Arianism, among them four Suevi: Argiovittus of Porto, Beccila of Lugo, Gardingus of Tui and Sunnila of Viseu. The mass conversion was celebrated by king Reccared: "Not only the conversion of the Goths is found among the favours that we have received, but also the infinite multitude of the Sueves, whom with divine assistance we have subjected to our realm. Although led into heresy by external fault, with our diligence we have brought them to the origins of truth". He was styled as "King of the Visigoths and of the Suevi" in a letter sent to him by Pope 319: 740: 611:, "allotments," which barbarian federates received from the Roman government, which suggests that the Suevi and the other invaders had signed a treaty with Maximus. There is, however, no concrete evidence of any treaties between the Romans and the barbarians: Hydatius never mentions any treaty, and states that the peace in 411 was brought about by the compassion of the Lord, while Orosius asserts that the kings of the Vandals, Alans and Sueves were actively pursuing a pact similar to that of the Visigoths at a later date. The division of the land among the four barbarian groups went as such: the 2956:"Wallia ... to insure the security of Rome he risked his own life by taking over the warfare against the other tribes that had settled in Spain and subduing them for the Romans. However, the other kings, those of the Alans, the Vandals, and the Suebi, had made a bargain with us on the same terms, sending this message to the emperor Honorius: «Do you be at peace with us all and receive hostages of all; we struggle with one another, we perish to our own loss, but we conquer for you, indeed with permanent gain to your state, if we should both perish.»", Orosius, History against the pagans, VII.43 2305: 1420:

Tours and never existed. If, as Gregory relates, Martin of Braga died about the year 580 and had been bishop for about thirty years, then the conversion of Chararic must have occurred around 550 at the latest. Finally, Ferreiro believes the conversion of the Suevi was progressive and stepwise and that Chararic's public conversion was only followed by the lifting of a ban on Orthodox synods in the reign of his successor, which would have been Ariamir; while Theodemar would have been responsible for beginning a persecution of the Arians in his kingdom, to root out their heresy.

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accomplished in one day. Hydatius writes that upon entering Hispania, the barbarian peoples, and even the Roman soldiers, spent 409–410 in a frenzy, plundering food and goods from the cities and countryside, which caused a famine that, according to Hydatius, forced the locals to resort to cannibalism: " by hunger human beings devoured human flesh; mothers too feasted upon the bodies of their own children whom they had killed and cooked with their own hands." In 411 the various barbarian groups brokered a peace and divided the provinces of Hispania among themselves

475: 284: 2182:, another local historian. He painted a very different picture of the initial settlement of Sueves and Vandals, less catastrophic than that narrated by Hydatius. In his narration, Sueves and Vandals, after a violent entrance into Hispania, resume a pacific life, while many poor locals joined them, fleeing from Roman taxes and impositions. However, as has been pointed out, his narration is also biased by his agenda, as he was trying to exculpate Christianity for the fall and decadence of Rome. 2293: 1445: 2102: 1205: 1787:, marched south with his army, with the intention of breaking through the blockade, but, while camped, he found himself besieged by Liuvigild, and was then forced to sign a treaty of fidelity with the Visigothic king. After exchanging presents, Miro returned to Gallaecia, where he was laid to bed some days later, dying soon after, due to "the bad waters of Spain", according to Gregory of Tours. Hermenegild's rebellion ended in 584, as Liuvigild bribed the Byzantines with 30,000 5008: 4993: 1800: 2087: 1307: 1220:, an ambassador who had travelled between Gallaecia and Gaul on several occasions, became King. Remismund was able to unite the factions of Suevi under his rule, and at the same time restore peace. He was also recognized, perhaps even approved of, by Theodoric, who sent him gifts and weapons along with a wife. Under the leadership of Remismund, the Suevi would again raid the nearby countries, plundering the lands of Lusitania and the 64: 1836:, maybe trying to help the Sueves, at the same time sending ships to Gallaecia which were intercepted by Liuvigild's troops, who took their cargo and killed or enslaved most of their crews. Thus was the kingdom transferred to the Goths as one of their three administrative regions: Gallaecia, Hispania and Gallia Narbonensis. Audeca, captured, was tonsured and forced to take holy orders, then sent into exile in 1856: 579: 2140:. Again, they become important players during the reign of Miro, in the last third of the 6th century, when they allied with other Catholic powers—the Franks and the Eastern Romans—in support of Hermenegild, and against the Visigothic king Liuvigild. Because of their relative isolation and remoteness, sources about the Suevi people are limited, with the number translated into English even fewer. 1128: 2324:. Distinguishing between loanwords from Gothic or Suevic is difficult, but there is a series of words, characteristic of Galicia and northern half of Portugal, which are attributed either to the Suebi or to the Goths, although no major Visigothic immigration into Gallaecia is known before the 8th century. These words are rural in nature, relative to animals, agriculture, and country life: 1621: 1327: 666:, with no evidence suggesting that the Suevi inhabited any other cities in the province prior to 438. The initial relation between Gallaeci and Suevi were not as calamitous as sometimes suggested, as Hydatius mentions no conflict among the locals between 411 and 430. Furthermore, Orosius affirmed that the newcomers "turned their swords into ploughs" once they received their new lands. 259: 931: 2285: 1189:, which was still under the authority of a Roman official. As a response, the Goths sent their army to punish the Suevi who dwelt in the outskirts of the city and nearby regions, but their campaign was revealed by some locals, whom Hydatius considered traitors. From that very moment Lugo became an important centre for the Sueves, and was used as capital by Rechimund. 2163:. He witnessed the 409 settlement of the Suevi peoples in the Iberian Peninsula, and Galicia's transformation from Roman province into an independent barbarian kingdom. Through much of his life he was forced to stay in isolated Roman communities, constantly threatened by the Suevi and Vandals, though we also know that he travelled on several occasions outside of 2189:, who in the 6th century narrated the blockade, the death of Gunderic under unknown circumstances, and the resolution of the conflict in a champions' fight, with the defeated Vandals forced to leave Galicia. A somewhat different history apparently was told among the Vandals, as Procopius wrote that in their traditions king Gunderic was captured and impaled by 2264:. He used Hydatius's accounts, together with the Chronicle of John of Biclaro, to form an abridged history of the Suevi in Hispania. The controversy around Isidore's historiography is centered on his omissions and additions, which many historians and scholars consider too numerous to all be simply mistakes. Throughout Isidore's 1823:, thereby making him ineligible for the throne. Then Audeca married Siseguntia, king Miro's widow, and made himself king. This usurpation and the friendship granted by Eboric gave Liuvigild the opportunity to seize the neighboring kingdom. In 585 Liuvigild went to war against the Sueves, invading Gallecia. In the words of 570:, who had recently been elevated to the title of Augustus, set off to Hispania to deal with the rebellion. Gerontius responded by stirring up the barbarians in Gaul against Constantine, convincing them to mobilize again, and, in the summer of 409, the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi began pushing south towards Hispania. 2231:

he dedicated several chapters to the relations of Sueves, Visigoths and Franks, and to the end of the independence of the Suevi, annexed by the Visigoths in 585. On the other hand, Martin of Braga, a monk who arrived in Galicia circa 550, became a true transformative power: as founder of monasteries

1419:

Dahn equated Chararic with Theodemar, even saying that the latter was the name he took upon baptism. It has also been suggested that Theodemar and Ariamir were the same person and the son of Chararic. In the opinion of some historians, Chararic is nothing more than an error on the part of Gregory of

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Vitus, who, assisted by a large number of Goths, attempted to subdue the Suevi and restore imperial administration in Hispania. Rechila marched to meet the Romans, and after defeating the Goths, Vitus fled in disgrace; no more imperial attempts were made to retake Hispania. In 448, Rechila died as a

602:

documents that the crossing into the Iberian Peninsula by the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi took place on either 28 September or 12 October 409. Some scholars take the two dates as the beginning and the end of the crossing of the formidable Pyrenees by scores of thousands, since this could not have been

1879:

Under the Goths, the administrative apparatus of the Suevi Kingdom was initially maintained —many of the Suevi districts established during the reign of Theodemar are also known as later Visigothic mints— but during the middle years of the seventh century an administrative and ecclesiastical reform

2275:

and relevance of Suevic Galicia was long marginalised and obscured inside Spain, mainly for political reasons. It was left to a German scholar, Wilhem Reinhart, to write the first connected history of the Suebi in Galicia, or more accurately Gallaecia as the official separation between Galicia and

1411:

Most scholars have attempted to meld these stories. It has been alleged that Chararic and Theodemar must have been successors of Ariamir, since Ariamir was the first Suebic monarch to lift the ban on Orthodox synods; Isidore therefore gets the chronology wrong. Reinhart suggested that Chararic was

1046:

he also captured prisoners, who were taken as serfs back to the Sueves' lands in Gallaecia and Lusitania. Rome then sent an ambassador to the Sueves, obtaining some concessions, but in 455 the Sueves plundered lands in Carthaginensis which had been previously returned to Rome. In response, the new

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areas—seldom posed a threat to Rome and to Rome's interests; in fact, at times where we have more detailed knowledge of their history through a diversity of sources, that is precisely when they became a challenge, as it was under the reign of Rechila. Throughout their history as an independent

2241:

dedicated to King Miro; a treatise against the superstitions of the country inhabitants; and several other minor treatises. He was also present in the Councils of Braga, with the deliberations of the second one being led by him, as archbishop of the capital, Braga. The acts of these Councils,

1744:, where he expelled some invaders. Finally, in 576, he entered Gallaecia itself, disturbing the boundaries of the kingdom, but Miro sent ambassadors and obtained from Liuvigild a temporary peace. It was probably during this period that the Suevi also sent some ambassadors to the Frankish king 1013:

Christian, succeeded his father in 448, being one of the first Catholic Christian kings among the Germanic peoples, and the first one to mint coins in his own name. Some believe minting the coins was a sign of Suevi autonomy, due to the use of minting in the late empire as a declaration of

1931: 2207:

The ending of the Chronicle of Hydatius, in 469, marks the beginning of a period of obscurity in the history of the Sueves, who don't re-emerge into historical light until the mid-sixth century, when we have plenty of sources. Among these, the most notable are the works of the

2693:

two years before the taking of Rome, the nations that had been stirred up by Stilicho, as I have said, that is, the Alans, Suebi, Vandals as well as many others with them, overwhelmed the Franks, crossed the Rhine, invaded Gaul, and advanced in their onward rush as far as the

533:

crossed the Rhine on the night of 31 December 405. Their entrance into the Roman Empire was at a moment when the Roman West was experiencing a series of invasions and civil wars; between 405 and 406, the Western regions of the empire saw the invasion of Italy by Goths under

1775:, in open opposition to the Arianism of his father. But it was not until 582 that Liuvigild gathered his armies to attack his son: first, he took Mérida; then, in 583, he marched to Seville. Under siege, Hermenegild's rebellion became dependent on the support offered by the 1091:. Theoderic II's Goths, on the right wing, defeated the Suevi. While many Sueves were killed in the battle, and many others were captured, most managed to flee. King Rechiar fled wounded in the direction of the coast, pursued by the Gothic army, which entered and plundered 1547:

Later, on 1 January 569, Ariamir's successor, Theodemar, held a council in Lugo, which dealt with the administrative and ecclesiastical organization of the Kingdom. At his request, the Kingdom of Gallaecia was divided in two provinces or synods, under the obedience of the

521:

west of the Rhine was due to the westward push of the Huns during the late 4th century, which forced the Germanic peoples westward in response to the threat. This theory has created controversy within the academic community, because of the lack of convincing evidence.

442:

in 409, in which the Quadi are listed and the Suevi are not. The argument for this theory, however, is based solely on the disappearance of the Quadi in the text and the emergence of the Suevi, which conflicts with the testimony of other contemporary authors, such as

2204:, which narrates the defeat of the Suevi king Rechiar at the hands of the Roman foederati troops commanded by the Visigoths. It is a vivid, if brief, narration, where Rechiar, a defiant man, has a purpose, a mood, and emotions, as do the rest of the protagonists. 2167:, for learning or as ambassador, and that he maintained correspondence with other bishops. In 460 he was captured by the Suevic warlord Frumarius, accused of treason by other local men. After being held captive for three months, as the Suevi ravaged the region of 1358:. While his Orthodoxy is not in doubt, that he was the first Orthodox monarch of the Suebes since Rechiar has been contested on the grounds that he is not explicitly stated to have been. He was, however, the first to hold an Orthodox synod. On the other hand, the 906:

King Hermeric spent the remainder of his years solidifying Suevic rule over the entire province of Gallaecia. In 430 he broke the old peace maintained with the locals, sacking central Gallaecia, although the barely romanised Gallaeci, who were reoccupying old

2236:

he promoted the conversion of the Sueves, and later as archbishop of Braga and maximum religious authority of the kingdom he participated in the reformation of the Church and of the local administration. Several of his works have been preserved, among them a

4099:"The small proprietors in contrast were men of overwhelmingly Celtic, Roman and Suevic stock, not Visigoths, for in the century since Leovigild's conquest of the Suevic kingdom in 585 there had been no perceptible Visigothic migration to the northwest.", 1899:

The last mention of the Sueves as a separate people dates to a 10th-century gloss in a Spanish codex: "hanc arbor romani pruni vocant, spani nixum, uuandali et goti et suebi et celtiberi ceruleum dicunt" ("This tree is called plum-tree by the Romans;

1867:

openly promoted the mass conversion of Visigoths and Sueves to Catholicism. Reccared's plans were opposed by a group of Arian conspirators; its leader, Segga, was exiled to Gallaecia, after his hands were amputated. The conversion occurred during the

864:, had devastated both the Siling Vandals and Alans, leaving the Hasding Vandals and the Suevi, undisturbed by Wallia's campaign, as the two remaining forces in the Iberian Peninsula. In 419, after the departure of the Visigoths to their new lands in 1896:, in lands which had been annexed to Gallaecia in the fifth century, were returned to the obedience of Mérida. It has been also pointed out that no visible Gothic immigration took place during the 6th and the 7th century into Gallaecia. 1158:

In 456, the same year as the execution of Rechiar, Hydatius stated that "the Sueves set up Maldras as their king." This statement suggests that the Suevi as a people may have had a voice in the selection of a new ruler. The election of

1685:, who led the Sueves to Catholicism and who promoted the cultural and political renaissance of the kingdom. In the acts of the Council, Martin declared the unity and purity of the Catholic faith in Gallaecia and, for the first time, 958:, which briefly became the new capital of their kingdom. Rechila continued with the expansion of the kingdom, and by 440 he fruitfully besieged and forced the surrender of a Roman official, count Censorius, in the strategic city of 1055:

sent a joint embassy, remembering that the peace established with Rome was also granted by the Goths. But Rechiar launched two new campaigns in Tarraconensis, in 455 and 456, returning to Galicia with large numbers of prisoners.

1014:

independence. Hoping to follow the successful careers of his father and his grandfather, Rechiar made a series of bold political moves throughout his reign. The first one was his marriage to the daughter of the Gothic king

677:, entering Germany from the east, and originating on the Baltic. In late classical times, these dialects, by now situated to the south of the Elbe, and stretching across the Danube into the Roman empire, experienced the 1099:

while trying to embark, and was executed in December. Theodoric continued his war on the Suevi for three months, but in April 459 he returned to Gaul, alarmed by the political and military movements of the new emperor,

902:

while retreating; this is the first instance of an armed Suebi action outside the provincial limits of Gallaecia. Then, after the Vandals left for Africa, the Swabians were the only barbarian entity left in Hispania.

538:, as well as a steady stream of usurpers. This allowed the invading barbarians to enter Gaul with little resistance, consequently allowing for the barbarians to cause considerable damage to the northern provinces of 4844: 2609: 1392:, promised to accept the beliefs of the saint if only his son was cured of leprosy. Through the relics and intercession of Saint Martin the son was healed; Chararic and the entire royal household converted to the 2688:

Moreover, other nations irresistible in numbers and might who are now oppressing the provinces of Gaul and Spain (namely, the Alans, Suebi, and Vandals, as well as the Burgundians who were driven on by the same

922:, as ambassador, this being the first evidence for collaboration between Sueves and locals. However, it was not until 438 that an enduring peace, which would last for twenty years, was reached in the province. 1829:

King Liuvigild devastates Gallaecia and deprives Audeca of the totality of the Kingdom; the nation of the Sueves, their treasure and fatherland are conduced to his own power and turned into a province of the

2797:

Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 13, Late Antiquity: The Late Empire, ed. Averil Cameron and others (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001), s.v. "Barbarian Invasions and first Settlements"

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Roman bronze figure representing a Germanic man wearing a typical Suebian knot hairstyle and a characteristic cloak. 2nd half 1st century to 1st half 2nd century AD National Library in Paris, France.

1232:, which was surrendered by its leader, Lusidio. He later became ambassador of the Suevi to the Emperor. The end of the chronicle of Hydatius in 468 doesn't let us know the later fate of Remismund. 946:

as king of the Sueves. Rechila saw an opportunity for expansion and began pushing to other areas of the Iberian Peninsula. In the same year he campaigned in Baetica, defeating in open battle the

3123:

Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, ed. Averil Cameron and others (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2001), s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingtom"

1298:

540, it is known that a certain number of Catholic Orthodox had converted to Arianism, and that some Catholic Orthodox churches had been demolished in the past in unspecified circumstances.

4130:"El Códice Emilianense 31 de la Real Academia de la Historia. Presentación de algunas de las voces de interés para el estudio lingüístico del latín medieval y del iberorromance primitivo" 2684:

Numerous barbarous and savage tribes, that is to say, the Marcomanni, the Quadi, the Vandals, the Sarmatians, the Suebi, in fact the tribes from nearly all of Germany, rose in rebellion

1635:, now in the Austrian National Library. Martin's work was originally addressed to King Miro: "To King Miro, the most glorious and calm, the pious, distinguished for his Catholic faith" 2257:

590. While probably partial, his accounts are precious for the last 15 years of independence of the Sueves, as well as for the first years of the Sueves under Visigothic rule.

2131:, which played an important part in Rome's loss of the western provinces, the Sueves—establishing themselves in Gallaecia and northern Lusitania, which were remote and extra- 377:

about 409, and during the 6th century it became a formally declared kingdom identifying with Gallaecia. It maintained its independence until 585, when it was annexed by the

1196:

succeeded Maldras and his faction, but his death in 464 closed a period of internal dissent among the Sueves, and permanent conflict with the native Gallaecian population.

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In 460 Maldras was killed, after a reign of four years during which he plundered Sueves and Romans alike, in Lusitania and in the south of Gallaecia past the valley of the

887:

ended the conflict by attacking the Vandals and forcing them to move to Baetica, in modern Andalusia, leaving the Suevi in virtually sole possession of the whole province.

860:

In 416, the Visigoths entered the Iberian Peninsula, sent by the emperor of the West to fight off the barbarians arriving in 409. By 418, the Visigoths, led by their king,

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rebelled against the Goths and reclaimed the throne, but he was finally defeated and captured by the generals of Liuvigild, who took him in chains to the Visigothic king.

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and classical sources refer to a Suebian language. In particular, the Suebi are associated with the concept of an "Elbe Germanic" group of early dialects spoken by the

5660: 4040: 3879:, VI.43. Whilst John of Biclaro, and Isidore of Seville after him, narrates a different account, the version of Gregory is usually taken as the most faithful one. Cf. 3627: 3469: 1271:, otherwise unknown. Other less reliable and very posterior chronicles mention the reign of several kings under the names of Hermeneric II, Rechila II and Rechiar II. 4745: 4741: 2976: 2268:

certain details from Hydatius are altered. Many scholars attribute these changes to the fact that Isidore may have had sources other than Hydatius at his disposal.

2977:"DE LOS VÁNDALOS A LOS SUEVOS EN GALICIA: Una visión crítica sobre su instalación y organización territorial en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica en el siglo V" 1863:

After the conquest, king Liuvigild reintroduced the Arian Church among the Sueves, but this was a short-lived institution, because after his death in 586 his son

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took over the leadership of the Sueves. The origins behind Aioulf's ascension are not clear: Hydatius wrote that Aioulf was a Goth deserter, while the historian

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When the Visigoths disposed of Rechiar, the royal bloodline of Hermeric vanished and the conventional mechanism for Suevi leadership died with it. In 456, one

5468: 1880:

led to the disappearance of most of these mints, with the exception of that of the cities of Braga, Lugo and Tui. Also the northern Lusitanian bishoprics of

1228:, in Lusitania, which was sacked and then mostly abandoned after the inhabitants fled or were taken back to the north as slaves. The next year they captured 4057: 1485: 1360: 5610: 1224:, whilst still fighting Gallaeci tribes like the Aunonenses, who refused to submit to Remismund. In 468 they managed to destroy part of the walls of 4824:

Kremer, Dieter (2004). El elemento germánico y su influencia en la historia lingüística peninsular, in Rafael Cano, Historia de la lengua española.

2097:

when the Suevi arrived, was one of the main chroniclers reporting on the rise of the Suevic kingdom. Medieval miniature from the Saint-Epure codex.

914:, managed to force a new peace, which was sealed with the interchange of prisoners. However, new hostilities broke out in 431 and 433. In 433 king 2438:

and Galicia, and made up of several thousand place names derived directly from Germanic personal names, expressed as Germanic or Latin genitives:

1408:

550, this legend has been interpreted as an allegory of the pastoral work of Saint Martin of Braga, and of his devotion to Saint Martin of Tours.

986:. It has been said, however, that the Suevi conquest of Baetica and Carthaginensis was limited to raids, and Suevi presence, if any, was minute. 1811:

was made king, but apparently not before sending tokens of appreciation and friendship to Liuvigild. Not a year later his brother-in-law, named

2419: 1728:, when the Visigoth king Liuvigild was conducting successful military activity in the south: he had recovered for the Visigoths the cities of 1251:, converted them in 466 and established a lasting Arian church which dominated the people until their conversion to Catholicism in the 560s. 698: 739: 5077: 1647:

succeeded Theodemar as king of the Sueves. During his time, the Suevic kingdom was challenged again by the Visigoths who, under their king

842: 517:

Although there is no clearly documented reason behind the migration of 405 , a widely accepted theory is that the migration of the various

1350:

The conversion of the Suebi to Orthodoxy is presented very differently in the primary sources. A contemporary record, the minutes of the

506:, with many smaller groups—among them part of the Quadi and Marcomanni—coming together during the migration from the Danube valley to the 1431:

in 587–589, but, as such, this corresponds to a later time, when the kingdom was undergoing its integration with the Visigothic kingdom.

5214: 4349: 1612:. The election of Lugo as metropolitan of the north was due to its central situation in relation to its dependant sees and that city. 1151:

appointed by Theodoric to govern Gallaecia, and that he was persuaded by the Suevi into this adventure. Either way, he was killed in

1155:

in June 457, but his rebellion, together with the armed actions of Majorian against the Visigoths, eased the pressure on the Suevi.

2555: 2136:

nation, they maintained an important diplomatic activity, most notably with Rome, the Vandals, the Visigoths, and, later, with the

3167:

In words of Hydatius: "Rex Rechila Hispali obtenta Beticam et Carthaginensem prouincias in suam redigit potestatem", Hydatius, 115

3671: 567: 551: 594:

The civil war that erupted in the Iberian Peninsula between the forces of Constantine and Gerontius left the passes through the

5625: 4291: 4233: 3802: 3773: 3047: 5615: 4927: 4898: 4726: 4693: 4637: 4414: 4112: 3418: 598:

either purposely or inadvertently neglected, leaving southern Gaul and the Iberian Peninsula vulnerable to barbarian attack.

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on the night of 31 December 406 AD and entered the Roman Empire. It is speculated that these Suevi are the same group as the

2143:

The most important source for the history of the Suevi during the 5th century is the chronicle written by the native bishop

5640: 5429: 1496:, likely the monastery of Santa Maria de Bretoña. The bishop representing this diocese at the II Council of Braga bore the 1444: 1018:

in 448, so improving the relationship between the two peoples. He also led a number of successful plundering campaigns to

5630: 4371:""The southwestern border between Galicia and Portugal during the 12th and 13th century 13th centuries: a space for" 2987: 722: 638:

The division of Gallaecia between the Suevi and the Hasding Vandals placed the Suevi in the west of the province, by the

447:, who did indeed cite the Suevi among the peoples traversing the Rhine in 406, and side by side with Quadi, Marcomanni, 63: 4772: 4752: 1816: 1740:. But from 573 on his campaigns got closer to Suevic lands, first occupying Sabaria, later the Aregenses mountains and 5620: 4952: 4829: 4682: 4489: 4446: 4129: 3968: 3915: 3890: 3847: 3755: 3592: 3531: 3393: 2873: 2592: 2565: 1263:, who in the 7th century wrote that many kings reign during this time, all of them Arians. A medieval document named 954:

river, capturing a large treasure. A year later, in 439, the Sueves invaded Lusitania and entered into its capital,

434:. The main reason behind the identification of the Suevi and Quadi as the same group comes from a letter written by 5650: 5645: 5070: 1524:

in the acts. The first Orthodox Council held in the Kingdom, it was almost entirely devoted to the condemnation of

877: 835: 779: 482:, built during this emperor's reign on the occasion of the triumph over, among other peoples, the Suevic tribes of 4072: 3074: 1019: 816: 5670: 5207: 1552:

Braga and Lugo, and thirteen episcopal sees, some of them new, for which new bishops were ordered, others old:

5605: 5055: 17: 4965:

Williams, Megan: Personal Communication, San Francisco State University History Professor. 16 November 2010.

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in July, thereby depriving the Sueves of this province. This field army stayed in Iberia for several years.

689:. Based on some toponymical data, another Germanic group accompanied the Suebi and settled in Portugal, the 554:

halted the masses of Vandals, Alans, and Sueves, confining them to northern Gaul. But in the spring of 409,

1768: 1059:

The emperor Avitus finally responded to Rechiar's defiance in the autumn of 456, sending the Visigoth king

884: 806: 555: 4845:"Relations between Rome and the German 'Kings' on the Middle Danube in the First to Fourth Centuries A.D." 4625: 2610:"Relations between Rome and the German 'Kings' on the Middle Danube in the First to Fourth Centuries A.D." 5675: 5665: 5569: 5063: 990: 828: 678: 498:

Additionally it has been pointed out that the lack of mention of the Suevi could mean that they were not

4721:

DCECH = Coromines, Joan (2012). Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico. Madrid: Gredos.

318: 5579: 5574: 5549: 5534: 5111: 1651:, were reconstituting their kingdom, reduced and mostly ruled by foreigners since their defeat by the 5554: 5539: 5444: 5200: 5011: 4010:"The omission of Saint Martin of Braga in John of Biclaro's Chronica and the third council of Toledo" 2584:

Archaeological and historical aspects of West-European societies: album amicorum André Van Doorselaer

1925: 1464:. Most of what is known about the settlement comes from ecclesiastical sources; records from the 572 812: 479: 125: 4391: 2387:'snowslide' (from PGmc *dreusanan 'to fall'), brétema 'mist' (from PGmc *breþmaz 'breath, vapour'), 5635: 5564: 5223: 4996: 4944: 2494:

in Portugal, all derived from the Germanic word *sal- 'house, hall', and distributed mostly around

2042: 1369: 550:

before the empire saw them as a threat. In response to the barbarian invasion of Gaul, the usurper

4978: 4206:"Vituperation of barbarians as untrustworthy was an ancient commonplace", Gillett (2003) pp. 55-56 2174:

Another important source for the history of the Sueves during the initial settlement phase is the

5584: 5151: 4783: 2750: 2427: 2223:, Gregory narrated, and attributed to a miracle of Saint Martin of Tours, the conversion of king 2030: 1869: 1663: 1465: 1416:

of Saint Martin and that Theodemar was converted later through the preaching of Martin of Braga.

1080: 624: 414:, who are mentioned in early writings as living north of the middle Danube, in what is now lower 5326: 5146: 2697: 1540:, a custom declared pagan. Of the eight assistant bishops only one bore a Germanic name, bishop 1423:

Finally, the Suebic conversion is ascribed not to a Suebe, but to a Visigoth, by the chronicler

5529: 3672:"Lugo en los tiempos oscuroslas menciones literarias de la ciudad entre los siglos V y X (III)" 2806:

Megan Williams, Pers. Comm. San Francisco State University History Professor. 16 November 2010.

2224: 2116: 1517: 1453: 1385: 1354:—which met on 1 May 561—state explicitly that the synod was held at the orders of a king named 1351: 1031: 2582: 1484:("See of the Britons"), while the administrative and ecclesiastical document usually known as 471:

mentions some Suevi side by side with Alamanni, Quadi, Marcomanni and other Germanic peoples.

5473: 4378: 2304: 1670: 1397: 1372:

who brought about the conversion of his people from Arianism with the help of the missionary

690: 682: 468: 403: 5321: 4261: 1287: 1111:—a half-Sueve, maybe a kinsman of Rechiar—while his allies and the rest of the Goths sacked 4355: 3704: 2455: 2159:, straddling the southern borders of modern-day Galicia and Portugal, on the valley of the 1678: 1278:, recording the foundation of a church by a Benedictine nun, in 535, under the rule of one 264: 258: 5344: 2246:, are the most precious sources on the inner political and religious life of the kingdom. 1656: 1185:, who plundered Gallaecia in 459 and 460. This same year they captured the walled city of 1034:(then the northeastern quarter of the peninsula, stretching from the Mediterranean to the 8: 5519: 5500: 5449: 5440: 5394: 5356: 5332: 5156: 5136: 4009: 3096: 2478:. Another group of toponyms which point to old Germanic settlements are the places named 2321: 2109: 2048: 1549: 1497: 1400:

and the conversion of Chararic are made to coincide in the narration with the arrival of

890:

In 429, as the Vandals were preparing their departure to Africa, a Swabian warlord named

749: 563: 514:

and other historians as residing by the Danube regions during the 5th and 6th centuries.

5024: 4784:"The fluidity of barbarian identity: the ethnogenesis of Alemanni and Suebi, AD 200–500" 2965:"Calliciam Vandali occupant et Suaevi sitam in extremitate Oceani maris occidua", Hyd.41 2751:"The fluidity of barbarian identity: the ethnogenesis of Alemanni and Suebi, AD 200–500" 938:

In 438 Hermeric became ill. Having annexed the entirety of the former Roman province of

5544: 5495: 5458: 5453: 5415: 5403: 5362: 5278: 5254: 5181: 5086: 4875: 4867: 4806: 4478: 2773: 2640: 2632: 2261: 2105: 1815:, accompanied by the army, seized power. He took Eburic into a monastery forced him to 1772: 1674: 1644: 1624: 1365: 1311: 1260: 1167:, who died just a year later. Both factions then sought peace with the local Gallaeci. 794: 774: 731: 670: 382: 277: 222: 5398: 5035: 4716:

Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors A.D. 425–600

1767:, had converted to Catholicism under the influence of his wife, the Frankish princess 1673:

as archbishop of the Suevi kingdom’s capital. Martin was a cultivated man, praised by

474: 5486: 5463: 5408: 5350: 5338: 5316: 5283: 5237: 5166: 4948: 4923: 4894: 4879: 4825: 4810: 4768: 4722: 4678: 4633: 4485: 4442: 4410: 4297: 4239: 4108: 3964: 3911: 3886: 3843: 3808: 3779: 3751: 3588: 3527: 3414: 3389: 3053: 2869: 2777: 2644: 2588: 2561: 2317: 2132: 1240: 587: 539: 507: 111: 3436:"VEREMUNDU R(EG)E: REVISITING AN INSCRIPTION FROM SAN SALVADOR DE VAIRÃO (PORTUGAL)" 3413:. Vicerreitoría de Extensión Universitaria, Universidade de Vigo. pp. 105–106. 5482: 5436: 5419: 5090: 4859: 4798: 2765: 2624: 2431: 2423: 2216: 2186: 2168: 1904:

by the Spaniards; the Vandals, the Sueves, the Goths, and the Celtiberians call it

1776: 1682: 1504:. The see continued to be represented at several councils through the 7th century. 1424: 1381: 1171: 616: 518: 423: 358: 355: 5027:

is the main source for the history of the suevi in Galicia and Portugal up to 468.

3944: 3722: 2815:

Cambridge Ancient History, vol.13 s.v. "Barbarian Invasions and first Settlements"

955: 5524: 5490: 5121: 5030: 4916: 3653: 2514: 2463: 2250: 2212: 1837: 1824: 1640: 1628: 1401: 1389: 1373: 1339: 1315: 1010: 989:

In 446, the Romans dispatched to the provinces of Baetica and Carthaginensis the

702: 431: 4709:

Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 13, Late Antiquity: The Late Empire A.D. 337–425

694: 5559: 5176: 5141: 4760: 3264: 2090: 1893: 1873: 1763:, rebelled against his father, proclaiming himself king. He, while residing in 1733: 1729: 1714: 1597: 1561: 1525: 1112: 1088: 1035: 983: 655: 639: 547: 543: 331: 47: 5085: 5044: 586:, founder and first ruler of the Kingdom of the Suebi in the northwest of the 5599: 4435:"El elemento germánico y su influencia en la historia lingüística peninsular" 4102: 2503: 2434:. From these names is derived also a rich toponymy, found mainly in northern 1689:

was discredited. Notably, of the twelve assistant bishops, five were Sueves (

1477: 1291: 1163:

would lead to a schism among the Suevi, as some followed another king, named

1038:, which was still under Roman rule) sometimes acting in coalition with local 764: 4802: 2769: 2101: 1225: 1204: 974:, who had ruled his people for more than thirty years. With the conquest of 894:

moved to Lusitania to plunder it, but was confronted by the new Vandal king

607:, "by lot". Many scholars believe that the reference to "lot" may be to the 5192: 2415: 2313: 2148: 1945: 1706: 1569: 1537: 1532:, and only once reproving clerics for adorning his clothes and for wearing 1452:

Sometime late in the 5th century or early in the sixth century, a group of

1393: 1259:

Little is known of the period between 470 and 550, beyond the testimony of

1244: 1060: 891: 784: 686: 503: 362: 4765:

Envoys and political communication in the late antique West : 411–533

4734:

Isidore of Seville’s History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi

4278:

Isidore of Seville's History of the Kings of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi

1799: 1779:, which controlled much of the southern coastal regions of Hispania since 5382: 4893:

Orel, Vladimir (2003). A Handbook of Germanic Etymology. Leiden: Brill.

2292: 2215:, sometimes called the apostle of the Sueves, as well as the accounts of 2086: 1780: 1760: 1749: 1553: 1072: 1015: 789: 663: 2407:'origin, generation' (from PGmc *salaz 'hall, dwelling'), among others. 1536:, a Germanic word implying either pigtails, long beard, moustache, or a 1306: 942:, he made peace with the local population, and retired, leaving his son 5303: 3268: 2160: 2124: 2022: 2010: 1864: 1833: 1428: 1427:. He put their conversion alongside that of the Goths, occurring under 1268: 1209: 1132: 919: 647: 535: 483: 452: 435: 427: 4871: 3668:"ad ipsum locum Lucensem grandis erat semper conventio Suevorum", cf. 2636: 2439: 959: 91: 5249: 5106: 5101: 3736:

Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 14., s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingdom"

3655:Études historiques sur la Galice et le Portugal du VIe au XIIe siècle 3189:

Cambridge Ancient History, col. 14., s.v. "Spain: The Suevic Kingdom"

2333: 2123:

Unlike some other barbarian peoples, such as the Vandals, Visigoths,

2094: 2074: 2064: 1999: 1987: 1970: 1949: 1859:

Suebic Gallaecia, Visigothic Hispania and Byzantine Spania, c. 560 AD

1741: 1648: 1248: 1217: 1182: 1083:. The Suevi mobilized and both armies met on 5 October, by the river 1068: 1052: 1023: 939: 911: 865: 759: 674: 632: 620: 456: 378: 370: 366: 302: 218: 205: 4370: 1737: 1736:, and had led a successful assault on the region around the city of 1604:. Each see was then further divided into smaller territories, named 1170:

In 458 the Goths again sent an army into Hispania, which arrived in

1084: 578: 5161: 4863: 4058:"Minting and administrative organization in late antique Gallaecia" 2628: 2471: 2447: 2435: 2411: 2209: 2197: 2164: 2144: 2113: 2016: 1939: 1753: 1725: 1690: 1667: 1557: 1529: 1461: 1343: 1319: 1279: 1275: 1236: 1144: 1116: 1101: 1064: 1039: 971: 915: 908: 899: 895: 873: 869: 769: 754: 628: 599: 595: 583: 559: 511: 460: 455:

in another passage. Sixth century authors identified the Sueves of

419: 310: 201: 164: 138: 118: 3095:, Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro, 2006. (in 1460:

Kingdom of Gallæcia in lands which subsequently acquired the name

5116: 3526:. A Coruña: Fundación Pedro Barrie de la Maza. pp. 198–202. 2297: 2272: 2179: 2070: 2036: 1975: 1960: 1954: 1930: 1889: 1844: 1764: 1745: 1698: 1620: 1593: 1565: 1513: 1469: 1355: 1338:

Lucrecio, Andrew, and Martin, during the first Council of Braga.

1331: 1326: 1160: 1108: 1076: 1006: 979: 975: 967: 963: 943: 654:

would become their capital, and their domain later expanded into

612: 526: 448: 444: 415: 176: 1181:

river. Meanwhile, the Sueves in the north chose another leader,

5273: 5126: 2518: 2316:

language, few traces were left of their Germanic tongue in the

2201: 2156: 2137: 2060: 2054: 1993: 1981: 1966: 1881: 1820: 1812: 1808: 1788: 1718: 1652: 1589: 1501: 1413: 1377: 1335: 1229: 1193: 1164: 1148: 1140: 1048: 1043: 1027: 861: 525:

Whether displaced by the Huns or not, the Suevi along with the

3023: 3021: 2828:(Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004), 156–157 1756:, and imprisoned for a year, as recorded by Gregory of Tours. 5261: 4694:"Identity and Interaction: The Suevi and the Hispano-Romans." 3114:, Terras de Bouro, Câmara Municipal de Terras de Bouro, 2006. 2974: 2499: 2495: 1885: 1855: 1710: 1702: 1686: 1601: 1585: 1581: 1457: 1286:, although this inscription has also been attributed to king 1178: 1152: 1127: 1096: 1092: 995: 951: 651: 643: 530: 487: 411: 407: 399: 374: 306: 98: 81: 3750:(2a. ed.). Madrid: Alianza Editorial. pp. 76–109. 5131: 3018: 2507: 2233: 2128: 1832:" During the campaign, the Franks of king Guntram attacked 1694: 1577: 1573: 1186: 659: 502:

an older distinct ethnic group, but the result of a recent

491: 439: 145: 4718:. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 2001. 4711:. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 2001. 2430:

names in general were most common among locals during the

930: 582:

Suebic migrations across Europe ultimately spearheaded by

4293: