32:
239:, namely the invasion of Julius Caesar's army. Given the cultural, economic and political advantages that came with being a Latin speaker, the Gauls eventually abandoned their language in favor of the language brought to them by the Romans, which evolved in this region, until eventually it took the form of the French language that is known today. The Gaulish speech disappeared in the late Roman era, but remnants of its vocabulary survive in some French words, approximately 200, as well as place-names of Gaulish origin.
616:
123:. Whether the superstratum case (the local language persists and the intrusive language disappears) or the substratum one (the local language disappears and the intrusive language persists) applies will normally only be evident after several generations, during which the intrusive language exists within a
201:
In a typical case of substrate interference, a
Language A occupies a given territory and another Language B arrives in the same territory, brought, for example, with migrations of population. Language B then begins to supplant language A: the speakers of Language A abandon their own language in favor
484:
Although the influence of the prior language when a community speaks, and adopts, a new one may have been informally acknowledged beforehand, the concept was formalized and popularized initially in the late 19th century. As historical phonology emerged as a discipline, the initial dominant viewpoint
362:
suggest that many languages have formerly existed that have since then been replaced under expansive language families, such as Indo-European, Afro-Asiatic, Uralic or Bantu. However, it is not a given that such expansive languages would have acquired substratum influence from the languages they have
526:
was used to counter
Mueller's view. In modern historical linguistics, debate persists on the details of how language contact may induce structural changes. The respective extremes of "all change is contact" and "there are no structural changes ever" have largely been abandoned in favor of a set of
467:
So can their meaning: words referring to the natural landscape, in particular indigenous fauna and flora, have often been found especially likely to derive from substrate languages. None of these conditions, is sufficient by itself to claim any one word as originating from an unknown substratum.
727:
The term adstratum is also used to identify systematic influences or a layer of borrowings in a given language from another language, independently of whether the two languages continue coexisting as separate entities. Many modern languages have an appreciable adstratum from
English, due to the
185:
A substratum (plural: substrata) or substrate is a language that an intrusive language influences, which may or may not ultimately change it to become a new language. The term is also used of substrate interference, i.e. the influence the substratum language exerts on the replacing language.
527:
conventions on how to demonstrate contact induced structural changes. These include adequate knowledge of the two languages in question, a historical explanation, and evidence that the contact-induced phenomenon did not exist in the recipient language before contact, among other guidelines.
202:
of the other language, generally because they believe that it will help them achieve certain goals within government, the workplace, and in social settings. During the language shift, the receding language A still influences language B, for example, through the transfer of
535:
A superstratum (plural: superstrata) or superstrate offers the counterpart to a substratum. When a different language influences a base language to result in a new language, linguists label the influencing language a superstratum and the influenced language a substratum.
456:, which lack a clear etymology. Such words can in principle still be native inheritance, lost everywhere else in the language family, but they might in principle also originate from a substrate. The sound structure of words of unknown origin — their
345:
In the absence of all three lines of evidence mentioned above, linguistic substrata may be difficult to detect. Substantial indirect evidence is needed to infer the former existence of a substrate. The nonexistence of a substrate is
425:, which hypothesize large families of substrate languages across western Europe. Some smaller-scale unattested substrates that remain under debate involve alleged extinct branches of the Indo-European family, such as "
468:
Occasionally words that have been proposed to be of substrate origin will be found out to have cognates in more distantly related languages after all, and therefore likely native: an example is Proto-Indo-European
691:
The phenomenon is less common today in standardized linguistic varieties and more common in colloquial forms of speech since modern nations tend to favour one single linguistic variety, often corresponding to the
2475:
551:
coinages from Greek and Latin roots adopted by
European languages (and subsequently by other languages) to describe scientific topics (sociology, zoology, philosophy, botany, medicine, all "
736:. The Greek and Latin coinages adopted by European languages, including English and now languages worldwide, to describe scientific topics, sociology, medicine, anatomy, biology, all the '-
676:
An adstratum (plural: adstrata) or adstrate is a language that influences another language by virtue of geographic proximity, not by virtue of its relative prestige. For example, early in
264:
with the same semantic construction as modern French) with other Celtic calques possibly including "oui", the word for yes, while syntactic and morphological effects are also posited.
177:
in France, who eventually abandoned their
Germanic dialects in favor of other Indo-European languages of the Romance branch, profoundly influencing the local speech in the process.
213:
In most cases, the ability to identify substrate influence in a language requires knowledge of the structure of the substrate language. This can be acquired in numerous ways:
724:
languages have roughly the same status, and could justifiably be called adstrates to each other having each one provided a large set of lexical specifications to the other.
198:, which refers to the influence a socially dominating language has on another, receding language that might eventually be relegated to the status of a substratum language.
489:
on phonology and grammar should be assumed to be marginal, and an internal explanation should always be favored if possible. As articulated by Max
Mueller in 1870,
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2393:
2716:
2329:
242:
It is posited that some structural changes in French were shaped at least in part by
Gaulish influence including diachronic sound changes and
2366:
410:): while unattested, their existence has been noted in medieval chronicles, and one or more of them have left substantial influence in the
2296:
Etymology and the
European Lexicon: Proceedings of the 14th Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, 17–22 September 2012, Copenhagen
223:
The substrate language itself may be unknown entirely, but it may have surviving close relatives that can be used as a base of comparison.
119:
Both concepts apply to a situation where an intrusive language establishes itself in the territory of another, typically as the result of
850:
169:
case refers to elite invading populations that eventually adopt the language of the native lower classes. An example would be the
858:
728:
cultural influence and economic preponderance of the United States on international markets and previously colonization by the
637:
2733:
2183:
2160:
472:'sea', found widely in the northern and western Indo-European languages, but in more eastern Indo-European languages only in
444:
When a substrate language or its close relatives cannot be directly studied, their investigation is rooted in the study of
2314:
Schrijver, Peter (1997). "Animal, vegetable and mineral: some
Western European substratum words". In Lubotsky, A. (ed.).
548:
374:, purportedly the source of about one quarter of the most ancient Germanic vocabulary. There are similar arguments for a
441:
is an abbreviation of "tenuis, media, media aspirata, tenuis", referencing a sound shift presumed common to the group.
2547:
2500:
2403:
2376:
2201:. Bonn: Papers from the Workshop within the Framework of the XIII International Congress of Celtic Studies. Page 106.
1045:
663:
499:"). In the 1880s, dissent began to crystallize against this viewpoint. Within Romance language linguistics, the 1881
75:
53:
645:
46:
1983:
1944:
227:
One of the first-identified cases of substrate influence is an example of a substrate language of the second type:
2762:
704:, where dozens of languages are widespread, many languages could be said to share an adstratal relationship, but
2693:
Vovin, Alexander (1994). "Long-distance relationships, reconstruction methodology and the origins of
Japanese".
2067:
1991:
1541:
1320:
641:
116:(1829–1907), and became known in the English-speaking world through the work of two different authors in 1932.
771:, which were linked geographically to Yiddish-speaking villages in Eastern Europe for centuries up until the
371:
194:, which involves no language replacement but rather mutual borrowing between languages of equal "value", and
2668:
1863:
854:
598:. In this case, however, the superstratum refers to influence, not language succession. Other views detect
366:
Several examples of this type of substratum have still been claimed. For example, the earliest form of the
351:
2071:
515:
was shaped by the retention by Celts of their "oral dispositions" even after they had switched to Latin.
138:
or immigrate in significant numbers relative to the local population, i.e., the intrusion qualifies as an
1871:
595:
375:
359:
2752:
2524:
418:
559:" might be a better designation (despite the prestige of science and of its language). In the case of
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1675:
1239:
924:
876:
411:
217:
The substrate language, or some later descendant of it, still survives in a part of its former range;
2019:
1940:
1935:
1814:
626:
461:
268:
40:
20:
2418:
Benedict (1990), Lewin (1976), Matsumoto (1975), Miller (1967), Murayama (1976), Shibatani (1990).
1244:
1211:
1199:
972:
630:
512:
159:
2344:
2029:
1987:
1823:
1102:
890:
504:
422:
113:
57:
2197:
Matasović, Ranko. 2007. “Insular Celtic as a Language Area”. In Tristam, Hildegard L.C. 2007,
1953:
1268:
587:
547:
after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when use of the English language carried low prestige. The
387:
354:
must lie on the side of the scholar claiming the influence of a substrate. The principle of
2084:
Substrata Uralica: Studies on Finno-Ugrian substrate influence in Northern Russian dialects
1839:
1436:
1195:
1167:
1130:
1067:
881:
591:
590:
substratum. Some scholars also argue for the existence of Altaic superstrate influences on
319:
539:
A superstrate may also represent an imposed linguistic element akin to what occurred with
337:
have multiple substrata, with the actual influence of such languages being indeterminate.
8:
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1918:
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phenomena due to the retention of Gaulish phonetic patterns after the adoption of Latin,
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1977:
1961:
1625:
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1387:
1370:
1290:
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681:
407:
367:
327:
2626:
Matsumoto, Katsumi (1975). "Kodai nihongoboin soshikikõ: naiteki saiken no kokoromi".
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310:
dialects, often exhibit significant substrata from other regional Semitic (especially
2729:
2588:
2553:
2543:
2506:
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2399:
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2179:
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Vers les sources des langues romanes: Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania
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2014:
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case, the immigrant population will either need to take the position of a political
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Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars
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Language Interrupted: Signs of Non-Native Acquisition in Standard Language Grammars
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in the lexical slot of a transitive verb for "to take", though archaic forms of
2428:
McWhorter, John (2007). "Mandarin Chinese: "Altaicization" or Simplification?".
555:" words, etc.) can also be termed a superstratum, although for this last case, "
2585:, ed. by R. E. Asher et al. Vol. 1, pp. 4396–4398. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
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2009:
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315:
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2294:
Leschber, Corinna (2016). "On the stratification of substratum languages".
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2124:
Munus amicitae. Studia linguistica in honorem Witoldi Manczak septuagenarii
1756:
1515:
1226:
1221:
1120:
950:
434:
430:
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267:
Other examples of substrate languages are the influence of the now extinct
236:
195:
147:
143:
2617:"Japanese and Korean: The Problems and History of a Linguistic Comparison"
1875:
1844:
1778:
1703:
1382:
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235:
lived in the modern French-speaking territory before the arrival of the
2058:"Why Don't the English Speak Welsh?" Hildegard Tristram, chapter 15 in
1867:
1783:
1741:
977:
833:
220:
Written records of the substrate language may exist to various degrees;
207:
2683:
2650:
2616:
429:" substrate in the Germanic languages, and a "Temematic" substrate in
186:
According to some classifications, this is one of three main types of
2684:
The homogeneity of the substrate as a factor in pidgin/creole genesis
2395:
The Study of Language and the Politics of Community in Global Context
2113:, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.
2100:, ed. Rebecca Posner et al. (The Hague: Mouton de Gruyter, 1980), 65.
1607:
1331:
1185:
1181:
1162:
772:
556:
457:
445:
191:
112:. The notion of "strata" was first developed by the Italian linguist
16:
Language that influences, or is influenced by another through contact
2703:
Réponses au Questionnaire du Ve Congrès international des Linguistes
1587:
1229:
who annexed it to the Roman Empire (1st century BC-7th century AD),
615:
2610:
La teorĂa del substrato y los dialectos Hispano-romances y gascones
1574:
1549:
1478:
1408:
1365:
1234:
1110:
1052:
992:
957:
452:. The study of unattested substrata often begins from the study of
203:
139:
124:
105:
19:
This article is about the term in linguistics. For other uses, see
1930:
1926:
1910:
1788:
1768:
1640:
1611:
1510:
1482:
1474:
1316:
1258:
1173:
1138:
1083:
1021:
988:
962:
931:
816:
751:, which contain a heavy Semitic, particularly Arabic, adstratum.
713:
693:
677:
311:
155:
712:. A different example would be the sociolinguistic situation in
684:
served as an adstrate, contributing to the lexical structure of
1849:
1799:
1736:
1665:
1582:
1553:
1537:
1492:
1464:
1431:
1306:
1206:
861:), between the first millennium BC and the first millennium AD
812:
779:
Notable examples of possible substrate or superstrate influence
247:
243:
174:
2473:
The Genesis and Development of Brazilian Vernacular Portuguese
2227:. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Pages 77-82
2365:
Thomason, Sarah Grey; Kaufmann, Terrence (12 February 1992).
2126:, eds., Anna Bochnakowa & Stanislan Widlak, Krakow, 1995.
1882:
1834:
1344:
1251:
897:
886:
808:
705:
701:
564:
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391:
232:
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that influences or is influenced by another language through
97:
2223:
Filppula, Markku, Klemola, Juhani and Paulasto, Heli. 2008.
2122:
Henri Guiter, "Sur le substrat gaulois dans la Romania", in
1660:
Assimilation of East Balts by East Slavs in the Middle Ages
2669:"The influence of African languages on pidgins and creoles"
2595:, eds John McCoy & Timothy Light, 76–97. Leiden: Brill.
1760:
1699:
737:
2651:"The Malayo-Polynesian Component in the Japanese Language"
2495:. Borg, Karl. Valletta, Malta: Klabb Kotba Maltin. 1998.
259:
1298:
during the incorporation of the Canary Islands into the
2368:
Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics
740:' words, etc., are also justifiably called adstrata.
1711:
783:
2442:
Hashimoto (1986), Janhunen (1996), McWhorter (2007).
130:
In order for the intrusive language to persist, the
2345:"Early Sources for South Asian Substrate Languages"
2673:Current Approaches to African Linguistics (vol. 2)
2537:
1487:the Portuguese during the colonial rule in Africa
507:argued that the early phonological development of
2591:(1986). "The Altaicization of Northern Chinese".
2744:
2371:. University of California Press. pp. 1–3.
2364:
2086:(Ph.D.). University of Helsinki. pp. 12–14.
1960:, and later individual Slavic languages such as
464:— can often suggest hints in either direction.
231:, from the ancient Celtic people the Gauls. The
2266:"The Linguistic Diversity of Aboriginal Europe"
372:been influenced by a non-Indo-European language
2309:
2307:
2305:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2111:Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics
2109:Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in
2098:Romance Comparative and Historical Linguistics
2096:Giovanni Battista Pellegrini, "Substrata", in
1540:in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who
2289:
2287:
2062:, N. J. Higham (ed.), The Boydell Press 2007
1635:Italian immigration to Uruguay and Argentina
767:, mostly in the sphere of religion, and with
700:and other important regions, over others. In
254:("blind", literally without eyes, from Latin
2583:The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
2249:(2014). "Substratum words in Balto-Slavic".
490:
417:By contrast, more contentious cases are the
350:, and to avoid digressing into speculation,
190:: substratum interference differs from both
2726:Languages in contact: findings and problems
2391:
2302:
2230:
2193:
2191:
1866:, and the Arabic and Mozarabic speakers in
644:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2715:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2628:Bulletin of the Faculty of Law and Letters
2542:. Malta: Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipendenza.
2328:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2284:
2723:
2581:Cravens, Thomas D. (1994). "Substratum".
2427:
2313:
2245:
2081:
1330:
1324:
1066:
976:
971:
885:
880:
664:Learn how and when to remove this message
258:, which was a calque on the Gaulish word
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
2700:
2293:
2214:. Paris: La Différence. Pages 26, 294-5.
2188:
1874:and other Christian kingdoms during the
39:This article includes a list of general
2646:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2392:Hoyt, David L.; Ostlund, Karen (2006).
340:
210:, or grammatical patterns from A to B.
2745:
2342:
2318:. Amsterdam/Atlanta. pp. 293–316.
859:Southward expansion of the Han dynasty
2593:Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies
2263:
851:Qin's campaign against the Yue tribes
1602:Union with Danish crown, 1380–1814.
708:is certainly a dominant adstrate in
642:adding citations to reliable sources
609:
386:. Relatively clear examples are the
25:
1921:on the islands in the 16th century
549:international scientific vocabulary
522:'s related but distinct concept of
13:
2568:
2139:(Leuven, Belgium: Acco, 2006), 83.
2060:The Britons in Anglo-Saxon England
1712:Superstrate influence on substrate
784:Substrate influence on superstrate
479:
314:), Iranian, and Berber languages.
45:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
2774:
2605:. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society.
1151:of transported enslaved Africans
1046:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
382:, and a substrate underlying the
2630:(Kanazawa University) 22.83–152.
2398:. Lexington Books. p. 103.
1984:Slavic migrations to the Balkans
1156:British colonial rule in Jamaica
614:
30:
2728:. New York: Mouton Publishers.
2639:. USA: Oxford University Press.
2608:Jungemann, Frédéric H. (1955).
2531:
2485:
2466:
2445:
2436:
2421:
2412:
2385:
2358:
2336:
2257:
2217:
2204:
2199:The Celtic Languages in Contact
586:superstratum projected onto an
530:
2682:Singler, John Victor (1988). "
2165:
2155:(Paris: Errance, 1994), 46-7.
2142:
2129:
2116:
2103:
2090:
2075:
2052:
1917:control, establishment of the
1321:indigenous languages of Mexico
358:and results from the study of
1:
2701:Wartburg, Walter von (1939).
2667:Singler, John Victor (1983).
2660:Shibatani, Masayoshi (1990).
2540:Il-Malti, elf sena ta' storja
2298:. Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag.
2225:English and Celtic in Contact
2212:Dictionnaire Français-Gaulois
2178:(Paris: Errance, 1994), 158.
2045:
180:
2603:Manchuria: An Ethnic History
1522:and languages spoken by Jews
1172:Southern Chinese varieties:
855:Han campaigns against Minyue
743:Another example is found in
732:which made English a global
605:
574:Some linguists contend that
7:
2655:Journal of Japanese Studies
2649:Murayama, Shichiro (1976).
2642:Miller, Roy Andrew (1967).
2621:Journal of Japanese Studies
2538:Brincat, Joseph M. (2000).
2210:Savignac, Jean-Paul. 2004.
2003:
1542:modernized and reintroduced
755:is a linguistic variety of
582:in general) consists of an
10:
2779:
2724:Weinreich, Uriel (1979) .
2664:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
2574:Benedict, Paul K. (1990).
2432:. Oxford University Press.
1826:and during the subsequent
1731:Superstrate introduced by
1456:the Portuguese during the
968:Central Cushitic languages
803:Superstrate introduced by
492:Es gibt keine Mischsprache
419:Vasconic substratum theory
298:dialects, most especially
154:outside Italy, displacing
146:. An example would be the
18:
2264:Ringe, Don (2009-01-06).
2082:Saarikivi, Janne (2006).
1449:
1243:
1238:
1225:
1220:
1044:
485:was that influences from
412:Northern Russian dialects
104:is a historical layer of
2633:McWhorter, John (2007).
2343:Witzel, Michael (1999).
2020:Trans-cultural diffusion
1525:Hebrew constructed from
1015:North Cushitic languages
21:Stratum (disambiguation)
1870:who were absorbed into
1544:Hebrew as a vernacular
1245:Paleohispanic languages
1200:Speak Mandarin Campaign
973:South Semitic languages
567:is the superstrate and
513:Gallo-Romance languages
260:
188:linguistic interference
160:Indo-European languages
60:more precise citations.
2763:Historical linguistics
2662:The languages of Japan
2523:: CS1 maint: others (
2030:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
1824:Fall of Constantinople
1103:Plantations of Ireland
505:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
491:
423:Old European hydronymy
114:Graziadio Isaia Ascoli
2644:The Japanese language
2615:Lewin, Bruno (1976).
2589:Hashimoto, Mantaro J.
2316:Sound Law and Analogy
501:Lettere glottologiche
388:Finno-Ugric languages
286:islands. In the Arab
2578:. Ann Arbor: Karoma.
2493:Lıngwa u lıngwıstıka
2463:survived in England.
1864:conquest of Hispania
1840:Early Modern Spanish
1828:occupation of Greece
1577:in the 15th century
1518:dialects, and other
1437:Brazilian Portuguese
1339:of the 15th century
1328:of the 15th century
1196:Singapore Government
1168:Singaporean Mandarin
1133:in the 16th century
1131:Scottish Reformation
1105:in the 16th century
1068:Early Modern English
1041:Ingvaeonic languages
882:Pre-classical Arabic
638:improve this section
592:varieties of Chinese
341:Unattested substrata
320:Modern South Arabian
2679:, 65–77. Dordrecht.
2576:Japanese/Austro-Tai
2172:Pierre-Yves Lambert
2149:Pierre-Yves Lambert
2025:Pre-Greek substrate
1958:Old Church Slavonic
1919:Knights of St. John
1722:Resultant language
1617:Rioplatense Spanish
1453:of the 15th century
1154:the English during
1129:the English during
920:Mesopotamian Arabic
794:Resultant language
759:with adstrata from
450:linguistic typology
2478:2017-10-10 at the
2176:La Langue gauloise
2153:La Langue gauloise
1470:Angolan Portuguese
1371:Paraguayan Spanish
1291:Andalusian Spanish
376:Sanskrit substrate
368:Germanic languages
2753:Linguistic strata
2735:978-90-279-2689-0
2675:, ed. by J. Kaye
2455:replaced earlier
2184:978-2-87772-224-7
2161:978-2-87772-224-7
2135:Eugeen Roegiest,
2015:Language transfer
2001:
2000:
1992:Polish-Lithuanian
1906:Romance languages
1709:
1708:
1626:Italian Languages
1538:Jewish immigrants
1359:Aymaran languages
1191:Standard Mandarin
1149:African languages
840:Old Yue languages
674:
673:
666:
580:Japonic languages
356:uniformitarianism
348:difficult to show
324:Old South Arabian
152:Romance languages
86:
85:
78:
2770:
2758:Language contact
2739:
2720:
2714:
2706:
2562:
2561:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2522:
2514:
2489:
2483:
2470:
2464:
2449:
2443:
2440:
2434:
2433:
2425:
2419:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2362:
2356:
2355:
2349:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2327:
2319:
2311:
2300:
2299:
2291:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2247:Matasović, Ranko
2243:
2228:
2221:
2215:
2208:
2202:
2195:
2186:
2169:
2163:
2146:
2140:
2133:
2127:
2120:
2114:
2107:
2101:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2079:
2073:
2056:
1950:Slavic languages
1716:
1715:
1651:Baltic languages
1520:Jewish languages
1336:Spanish Conquest
1300:Crown of Castile
1281:Canarian Spanish
1116:Scottish English
1032:Common Brittonic
1011:Central Cushitic
943:Berber languages
891:Muslim conquests
872:Levantine Arabic
788:
787:
769:Slavic languages
669:
662:
658:
655:
649:
618:
610:
602:strate effects.
524:creole languages
494:
487:language contact
335:Creole languages
278:dialects of the
263:
100:for "layer") or
81:
74:
70:
67:
61:
56:this article by
47:inline citations
34:
33:
26:
2778:
2777:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2743:
2742:
2736:
2708:
2707:
2571:
2569:Further reading
2566:
2565:
2550:
2536:
2532:
2516:
2515:
2503:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2480:Wayback Machine
2471:
2467:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2390:
2386:
2379:
2363:
2359:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2321:
2320:
2312:
2303:
2292:
2285:
2276:
2274:
2262:
2258:
2244:
2231:
2222:
2218:
2209:
2205:
2196:
2189:
2170:
2166:
2147:
2143:
2134:
2130:
2121:
2117:
2108:
2104:
2095:
2091:
2080:
2076:
2070:, pp. 192–214.
2057:
2053:
2048:
2035:Creole language
2006:
1996:Russian Empires
1941:Common Romanian
1936:Modern Romanian
1815:Ottoman Turkish
1793:Norman conquest
1759:' dominance of
1714:
1656:Old East Slavic
1573:Acquisition by
1514:
1458:colonial period
1446:Bantu languages
1338:
1312:Mexican Spanish
1264:Common Romanian
1144:Jamaican Patois
1125:Scottish Gaelic
1058:Cornish English
938:Maghrebi Arabic
925:Eastern Aramaic
903:Egyptian Arabic
877:Western Aramaic
786:
781:
670:
659:
653:
650:
635:
619:
608:
571:the substrate.
563:, for example,
533:
520:Hugo Schuchardt
497:mixed languages
495:("there are no
482:
480:Concept history
454:substrate words
352:burden of proof
343:
183:
158:and many other
150:giving rise to
82:
71:
65:
62:
52:Please help to
51:
35:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2776:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2741:
2740:
2734:
2721:
2698:
2691:
2680:
2665:
2658:
2647:
2640:
2631:
2624:
2613:
2606:
2599:Janhunen, Juha
2596:
2586:
2579:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2548:
2530:
2501:
2484:
2465:
2444:
2435:
2420:
2411:
2404:
2384:
2377:
2357:
2335:
2301:
2283:
2256:
2229:
2216:
2203:
2187:
2164:
2141:
2128:
2115:
2102:
2089:
2074:
2050:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2043:
2042:
2040:Relexification
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2010:Language shift
2005:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1986:, rule by the
1981:
1947:
1938:
1933:
1923:
1922:
1908:
1895:
1890:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1857:
1847:
1842:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1822:following the
1817:
1812:
1810:Medieval Greek
1807:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1774:Middle English
1771:
1765:
1764:
1754:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1726:
1723:
1720:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1693:
1688:
1678:
1673:
1662:
1661:
1658:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1637:
1636:
1633:
1628:
1619:
1614:
1604:
1603:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1566:
1561:
1556:
1546:
1545:
1534:
1523:
1500:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1472:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1439:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1390:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1352:
1350:Andean Spanish
1347:
1341:
1340:
1329:
1323:
1314:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1276:Canary Islands
1272:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1248:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1231:
1230:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1209:
1203:
1202:
1193:
1188:
1170:
1165:
1159:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1127:
1118:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1080:
1079:
1077:Cornish people
1070:
1065:
1060:
1055:
1049:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1029:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1008:
995:
985:
984:
975:
970:
965:
960:
954:
953:
940:
935:
934:(North Africa)
928:
927:
922:
917:
911:
910:
905:
900:
894:
893:
884:
879:
874:
869:
863:
862:
849:Sinicisation (
847:
842:
836:
819:
805:
804:
801:
798:
795:
792:
785:
782:
780:
777:
730:British Empire
672:
671:
622:
620:
613:
607:
604:
596:Northern China
532:
529:
481:
478:
433:, proposed by
384:Sami languages
360:human genetics
342:
339:
269:North Germanic
225:
224:
221:
218:
182:
179:
84:
83:
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2775:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2737:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2704:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2663:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2638:
2637:
2632:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2573:
2572:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2549:99909-41-68-8
2545:
2541:
2534:
2526:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2502:99909-75-42-6
2498:
2494:
2488:
2482:Page 246, etc
2481:
2477:
2474:
2469:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2451:For example,
2448:
2439:
2431:
2424:
2415:
2407:
2405:9780739109557
2401:
2397:
2396:
2388:
2380:
2378:9780520912793
2374:
2370:
2369:
2361:
2353:
2352:Mother Tongue
2346:
2339:
2331:
2325:
2317:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2297:
2290:
2288:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2260:
2253:(60): 75–102.
2252:
2248:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2226:
2220:
2213:
2207:
2200:
2194:
2192:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2138:
2132:
2125:
2119:
2112:
2106:
2099:
2093:
2085:
2078:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2055:
2051:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2007:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1893:Siculo-Arabic
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:Ottoman Turks
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1805:Demotic Greek
1803:
1801:
1798:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1747:Gallo-Romance
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1696:Russification
1694:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1676:North Russian
1674:
1671:
1670:Russian North
1667:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1593:Old Norwegian
1591:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1559:Insular Scots
1557:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1498:Modern Hebrew
1496:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1440:
1438:
1435:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1391:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1360:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1345:Central Andes
1343:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1322:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1270:
1269:Daco-Thracian
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1249:
1246:
1241:
1240:Ibero-Romance
1236:
1233:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1215:
1213:
1212:Gallo-Romance
1210:
1208:
1205:
1204:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1157:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1090:
1089:Irish English
1087:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1078:
1074:
1073:Anglicisation
1071:
1069:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1036:British Latin
1033:
1030:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1016:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
996:
994:
990:
987:
986:
982:
979:
974:
969:
966:
964:
961:
959:
956:
955:
952:
948:
944:
941:
939:
936:
933:
930:
929:
926:
923:
921:
918:
916:
913:
912:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
895:
892:
888:
883:
878:
875:
873:
870:
868:
865:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
846:
843:
841:
837:
835:
831:
827:
823:
820:
818:
814:
810:
807:
806:
802:
799:
796:
793:
790:
789:
776:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
741:
739:
735:
734:lingua franca
731:
725:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
689:
687:
683:
679:
668:
665:
657:
647:
643:
639:
633:
632:
628:
623:This section
621:
617:
612:
611:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
577:
572:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
537:
528:
525:
521:
516:
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
493:
488:
477:
475:
471:
465:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
442:
440:
436:
432:
428:
427:Nordwestblock
424:
420:
415:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
364:
361:
357:
353:
349:
338:
336:
331:
329:
325:
321:
317:
316:Yemeni Arabic
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
294:, colloquial
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
272:Norn language
270:
265:
262:
257:
253:
249:
245:
240:
238:
234:
230:
222:
219:
216:
215:
214:
211:
209:
205:
199:
197:
193:
189:
178:
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
128:
126:
122:
117:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
80:
77:
69:
59:
55:
49:
48:
42:
37:
28:
27:
22:
2725:
2702:
2697:11:1.95–114.
2694:
2687:
2676:
2672:
2661:
2654:
2643:
2635:
2627:
2620:
2609:
2602:
2592:
2582:
2575:
2539:
2533:
2492:
2487:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2438:
2429:
2423:
2414:
2394:
2387:
2367:
2360:
2351:
2338:
2315:
2295:
2275:. Retrieved
2271:Language Log
2269:
2259:
2250:
2224:
2219:
2211:
2206:
2198:
2175:
2167:
2152:
2144:
2136:
2131:
2123:
2118:
2110:
2105:
2097:
2092:
2083:
2077:
2059:
2054:
1954:Proto-Slavic
1945:Old Romanian
1757:Merovingians
1728:Superstrate
1516:Judeo-Arabic
1222:Vulgar Latin
1121:Middle Scots
951:Vulgar Latin
815:), Northern
800:Superstrate
742:
726:
716:, where the
690:
680:'s history,
675:
660:
651:
636:Please help
624:
599:
588:Austronesian
573:
538:
534:
531:Superstratum
517:
500:
483:
469:
466:
453:
443:
438:
437:. The name
435:Georg Holzer
431:Balto-Slavic
416:
365:
344:
332:
292:North Africa
266:
255:
251:
241:
226:
212:
200:
196:superstratum
184:
167:superstratum
166:
164:
148:Roman Empire
144:colonisation
131:
129:
118:
101:
93:
87:
72:
63:
44:
2695:Diachronica
2657:2:2.413–436
2623:2:2.389–412
1876:Reconquista
1862:during the
1852:(by way of
1845:Old Spanish
1791:during the
1779:Old English
1763:around 500
1704:Volga Finns
1383:Philippines
1334:during the
1296:Andalusians
1198:during the
1101:during the
1099:the English
1027:Old English
915:Mesopotamia
889:during the
845:Old Chinese
757:High German
710:North India
686:Old English
396:Volga Finns
333:Typically,
330:substrata.
288:Middle East
208:place names
181:Substratum
171:Burgundians
90:linguistics
66:August 2009
58:introducing
2747:Categories
2277:2017-09-30
2251:Filologija
2068:1843833123
2046:References
1904:and other
1868:al-Andalus
1784:Old Norman
1742:Old French
1725:Substrate
1687:languages
1646:Belarusian
1624:, various
1622:Neapolitan
1451:Portuguese
1401:Hiligaynon
1319:and other
983:expansion
978:Bronze Age
797:Substrate
749:Portuguese
594:spoken in
511:and other
462:morphology
408:Meshcheran
363:replaced.
328:Himyaritic
132:substratum
41:references
2711:cite book
2705:. Bruges.
2690:64.27–51.
2612:. Madrid.
2558:223378429
2519:cite book
2324:cite book
1988:Bulgarian
1978:Bulgarian
1962:Ukrainian
1915:Aragonese
1854:Mozarabic
1608:Argentina
1536:European
1388:Chavacano
1332:Spaniards
1186:Hainanese
1182:Cantonese
1163:Singapore
773:Holocaust
682:Old Norse
654:July 2019
625:does not
606:Adstratum
557:adstratum
518:In 1884,
458:phonology
446:etymology
439:Temematic
394:and the "
380:Greek one
370:may have
300:Levantine
256:ab oculis
204:loanwords
192:adstratum
127:culture.
121:migration
2688:Language
2601:(1996).
2511:82586980
2476:Archived
2004:See also
1900:, later
1898:Sicilian
1872:Castille
1860:Umayyads
1752:Frankish
1575:Scotland
1550:Shetland
1531:mishnaic
1527:Biblical
1479:Kimbundu
1409:Bangingi
1366:Paraguay
1235:Portugal
1111:Scotland
1053:Cornwall
998:Tigrinya
993:Ethiopia
958:Ethiopia
838:Various
824:(Viet),
576:Japanese
404:Muromian
304:Egyptian
280:Shetland
250:such as
140:invasion
125:diaspora
106:language
1974:Serbian
1970:Russian
1956:, then
1952:(first
1931:Moldova
1927:Romania
1902:Italian
1888:Maltese
1789:Normans
1769:England
1698:of the
1691:Russian
1685:Volgaic
1641:Belarus
1631:Spanish
1612:Uruguay
1511:Yiddish
1507:Russian
1483:Kikongo
1475:Umbundu
1405:Cebuano
1397:Ilokano
1393:Tagalog
1376:GuaranĂ
1355:Quechua
1326:Spanish
1317:Nahuatl
1286:Guanche
1259:Romania
1217:Gaulish
1178:Teochew
1174:Min Nan
1139:Jamaica
1084:Ireland
1063:Cornish
1022:England
989:Eritrea
981:Semitic
963:Amharic
932:Maghreb
817:Vietnam
765:Aramaic
753:Yiddish
745:Spanish
714:Belgium
698:capital
696:of the
694:dialect
678:England
646:removed
631:sources
569:Gaulish
541:English
474:Ossetic
390:of the
312:Aramaic
308:Maghreb
274:on the
252:aveugle
248:calques
229:Gaulish
156:Gaulish
110:contact
94:stratum
54:improve
2732:
2677:et al.
2556:
2546:
2509:
2499:
2461:to nim
2402:
2375:
2182:
2159:
2066:
1994:, and
1976:, and
1966:Polish
1911:Norman
1850:Arabic
1800:Greece
1737:France
1700:Chudes
1681:Finnic
1666:Russia
1598:Danish
1588:BokmĂĄl
1583:Norway
1554:Orkney
1533:Hebrew
1503:German
1493:Israel
1481:, and
1465:Angola
1432:Brazil
1423:, and
1417:Tausug
1307:Mexico
1227:Romans
1207:France
949:, and
908:Coptic
867:Levant
857:, and
813:Baiyue
761:Hebrew
718:French
584:Altaic
561:French
545:Norman
509:French
406:, and
306:, and
296:Arabic
284:Orkney
261:exsops
244:sandhi
237:Romans
175:Franks
102:strate
43:, but
2457:niman
2348:(PDF)
1883:Malta
1835:Spain
1719:Area
1569:Scots
1425:Malay
1421:Yakan
1252:Spain
1094:Irish
1006:Ge'ez
1002:Tigré
947:Punic
898:Egypt
887:Arabs
809:China
791:Area
722:Dutch
706:Hindi
702:India
578:(and
565:Latin
553:-logy
470:*mori
400:Merya
392:Chude
276:Scots
233:Gauls
136:elite
98:Latin
2730:ISBN
2717:link
2554:OCLC
2544:ISBN
2525:link
2507:OCLC
2497:ISBN
2453:take
2400:ISBN
2373:ISBN
2330:link
2180:ISBN
2157:ISBN
2064:ISBN
1913:and
1761:Gaul
1702:and
1683:and
1564:Norn
1552:and
1529:and
1442:Tupi
1413:Sama
1123:and
1034:and
1013:and
1004:and
763:and
747:and
738:logy
720:and
629:any
627:cite
543:and
460:and
448:and
421:and
378:, a
326:and
318:has
290:and
282:and
173:and
165:The
92:, a
2686:".
1075:of
826:Min
822:Yue
640:by
600:sub
503:of
414:.
398:" (
162:.
142:or
88:In
2749::
2713:}}
2709:{{
2671:.
2653:.
2619:.
2552:.
2521:}}
2517:{{
2505:.
2350:.
2326:}}
2322:{{
2304:^
2286:^
2268:.
2232:^
2190:^
2174:,
2151:,
1990:,
1980:)
1972:,
1968:,
1964:,
1943:,
1929:,
1672:)
1509:,
1505:,
1477:,
1444:,
1419:,
1415:,
1411:,
1407:,
1403:,
1399:,
1395:,
1357:,
1184:,
1180:,
1176:,
1000:,
945:,
853:,
834:Wu
832:,
830:Au
828:,
775:.
688:.
476:.
402:,
322:,
302:,
206:,
2738:.
2719:)
2560:.
2527:)
2513:.
2408:.
2381:.
2354:.
2332:)
2280:.
1856:)
1668:(
1610:/
1513:,
991:/
811:(
667:)
661:(
656:)
652:(
648:.
634:.
96:(
79:)
73:(
68:)
64:(
50:.
23:.
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