Shaba I - Knowledge

5114:. "There are several confirmed reports that six persons have been killed from beating or stabbing incidents and that the local detention centers hold at least 100 Africans. There are unconfirmed reports of other deaths and imprisonment. There are also widespread reports of Lunda families being repeatedly threatened if money, food or clothing is not provided to government troops. The campaign is apparently designed in part to discourage the Lunda people from cooperating with Katangan rebels who are also from the Lunda tribe, according to several highly reliable sources in Kolwezi. The constant harassment and threats of bodily harm have further alienated already suspicious local residents to the point that a growing number of blacks and Europeans now openly say they would welcome the Katangans merely to avoid further incidents and increasing tribal friction." 2246: 1461: 202: 362: 353: 342: 142: 116: 2285: 43: 4922:. "The Central Intelligence Agency is covertly supporting efforts now underway to recruit several hundred mercenaries in the United States and Britain to fight on behalf of President Mobutu of Zaire against Katanganese invaders. The CIA has strong links with a Californian who is in charge of the American recruitment, according to intelligence sources, and had backed the operation with funds. It also has passed word quietly to the US Justice Department that it will not cooperate in a pending investigation of the American recruiter's activities." 406: 167: 306: 1961: 189: 319: 215: 2164: 2213:, also criticised the intervention and reaffirmed that Angola, Cuba and the Soviet Union were not involved. The FNLC then announced specific military successes and said that it had defeated Zairian military forces 15 miles from Kolwezi and seized vehicles and weapons. It also claimed to have killed two French soldiers, a claim quickly denied as impossible by France, which said that no French soldiers were present. The group wrote a letter to the 3885:. "In Peking, Chinese Vice Premier Li Hsien-nien, presiding at a dinner in honor of the visiting president of Mauritania, deliberately accused the Soviet Union of engineering 'the grave incident of a massive invasion of Zaire by mercenaries.' The Soviet ambassador to China promptly strode out of the Great Hall of the People, followed naturally by the representatives of East Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Mongolia, and Cuba." 395: 384: 373: 2462:

Kinshasa, as had previously been the case. The Kamanyola division, then considered the army's best unit and referred to as the president's own, was assigned permanently to Shaba. In addition, the army's strength was reduced by 25%, presumably to eliminate disloyal and ineffective elements. Zaire's allies provided a large influx of military equipment, and Belgian, French and American advisers assisted in rebuilding and retraining the force.

240: 417: 281: 129: 1799: 1902: 228: 2078: 293: 2107: 154: 1852: 1611: 429: 260: 1765: 2991: 1720:. After Tshombe disappeared from the political scene, the Katangan contingent mutinied in 1966 and again in 1967. When the uprisings failed, most of the contingent left for Angola under Nathaniel Mbumba's leadership. During the late 1960s, the former gendarmes began to congregate in Angola along Zaire's southern border, and in the late 1960s and the early 1970s, they fought for the 4231:; p. 85. "The club's first success was in the Congo. Faced with a rebellion in mineral-rich Katanga (now Shaba) province in April 1977 and a plea for help from French and Belgian mining interests conveyed through their close ally Mobutu, the club combined French air transport with logistical support from diverse sources to bring Moroccan and Egyptian troops to fight the rebellion." 1893:. The banks hoped that the additional loan would help Zaire develop its economy and pay back the $ 400 million that it already owned. The banks feared that the war would now bankrupt Zaire's government. Citibank announced on behalf of the group that the loan would be suspended until Zaire could resolve its internal problems, which would have jeopardised repayment. 1933:. The capture of Mutshatsha led observers to perceive a serious threat from the invading force. (Despite its economic importance, Kolwezi was not particularly well-defended. A Belgian manager suggested: "No one would dare to touch us. We are essential to whoever governs this area, so we are not worried.") Americans in Kolwezi, mostly workers for 2043:: "In death became an eternal martyr and by installing Mobutu in the Zairian presidency we committed ourselves to the 'other side', the losing side in central and southern Africa. We cast ourselves as the dull-witted Goliath, in a world of eager young Davids." Stockwell expanded on his claims of CIA abuses in a 1978 book titled 5010:. "In another development, four Western European ambassadors met with presidential aides and Foreign Ministry officials in attempts to convince the government to cancel plans to exhibit seven Western journalists arrested in Shaba last month. They have been accused of espionage and violating a ban on journalists in the province." 2338:) had been arrested in April and accused of illegally entering Shaba. A spokesperson for the Zaire military stated: "In the normal way these people should have been treated as mercenaries and shot immediately. It is a miracle they are still alive." The journalists were removed from Zaire after they had imprisoned for two weeks. 4807:. "The towns will provide the operating base from which raids against the battle groups will be launched, if they can be found, more than likely the raids will degenerate into punitive expeditions against the village of Shaba province where that guerrilla battle groups might be suspected of receiving support." 2187:

and of self-determination by the people of Zaire, but not get ourselves in the military conflict." Carter continued to state that there was no evidence of Cuban involvement. He acknowledged that Zaire was not a "defender of human rights" and said that "our military aid for Zaire has been very modest".

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and would be executed after military tribunal in Shaba.) Local people were threatened, imprisoned and killed by the Zairian military in an effort to prevent them from joining the rebels. The European, Australian and Canadian missionaries who surfaced after fleeing to Angola said that locals supported

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Newsmen in Kinshasa, 1,500 miles from the Kolwei battlegrounds, repeatedly refused permission to visit Shaba province, finally received permission to visit the region and after a 10-day visit reported that they had not heard a single shot fired. In Kolwezi's hospital only two slightly wounded Zairian

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The FNLC began to make contact with the press and issued several announcements. A representative of the Katanganese rebels, speaking in Paris, criticised the intervention as economically self-serving: "the stake of French multinationals such as Alsthom and Thomson, and concessions for prospecting the

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The perception of the rebels' power increased as reports suggested they were beginning to provide social assistance to local people in the Shaba province. The FNLC began to establish a regional administration and to distribute identity cards for a nation called "The Democratic Republic of the Congo".

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The actions of Zaire's armed forces, the FAZ, were largely ineffective. The first unit to make contact, the 11th Brigade of the Kaymanyola Division, was newly trained, and it fell apart soon after it had met the FNLC force. However, the popular uprising hoped for by the FNLC also did not materialize.

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The FNLC had earlier asked Cuba directly for assistance but it declined since it was already seeking to withdraw from Angola and was not convinced of the FNLC's sincerity. The extent of the MPLA's support for the invasion is unclear; it did not seem provide much direct assistance but also did not act

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The poor performance of Zaire's military during Shaba I gave evidence of chronic weaknesses. One problem was that some of the Zairian soldiers in the area had not received pay for extended periods. Senior officers often kept the money intended for the soldiers, typifying a generally disreputable and

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Moroccan troops increased the perception that the operation was internal to Africa, with Zaire originally announcing that Morocco and "another African country" were coming to its assistance. The American government also described the intervention as intra-African, with Carter announcing, "We are not

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Ogunbadejo, "Conflict in Africa" (1979), pp. 226, 233. "Citibank rightly felt that a prolonged, or indecisive, end to the conflict could be a continuing drain on Zaire's slender resources. Such a development would affect the country's financial and credit worthiness and, worse, its ability to stay

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The US announced an additional $ 13 million of aid, including a C-130 transport plane, communications equipment, fuel and spare parts. Andrew Young, who advised restraint throughout the conflict, said that the US was trying to "align ourselves with the... concept of territorial integrity in Zaire,

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Reliable information became even more difficult to obtain after the FAZ abandoned Mutshatsha, and Mobutu declared the right to censor all news reports. The journalist Michael Goldsmith was expelled from Zaire on 4 April after reporting that the aforementioned rally in Kinshasa had been lackluster.

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The sympathies of the local people were also in question, with observers unsure of how many residents of Shaba supported the rebels. The image of the FAZ–Moroccan forces deteriorated when three Moroccan troops stabbed a Kolwezi woman to death and beat her babies after she denied them sex. (It was

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The pro-government alliance recaptured Mutshatsha on 25 April. The village was nearly deserted when it was captured, but observers assigned symbolic importance to its recapture. Mobutu held a press conference and parade in Mutshatsha, telling 47 international journalists that he would continue to

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In contrast with published statements of with published statements by President Giscard D'Estaing, French troops are directly involved in the fighting currently taking place in the Shaba province of Zaire. This Friday, 15 April, at 2 p.m., the fighting spread on the outskirts of Kolwezi. A French

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In my judgment, U.S. involvement in Zaire defies justification. It is true that the U.S. has not utilized the full measure of resources available for Zaire, nor responded to Mobutu's requests for arms and ammunition. This restraint by the Administration is commendable, but if Mobutu qualifies for

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Gleijeses, "Truth or Credibility" (2010), pp. 80–81. "Towards the end of the crisis, Mobutu had declared that the Lunda people, from whom most of the rebels hailed, had 'no reason to fear any repression whatsoever from the armed forces of Zaire. But following the rebels' retreat, a well-informed

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The government and supporting forces reported capturing rebel supplies, including counterfeit money and Portuguese- and Soviet-manufactured weapons. Two captured Kantangan soldiers said that there were 1,600 soldiers in Shaba, their leader was Nathaniel Mbumba and they were not being assisted by

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Mobutu condemned the invasion and said on 10 March that Kissenge, Dilolo and Kapanga had been "bombed" by "mercenaries". He accused the Cuban government of involvement and requested assistance from Western powers. The US embassy confirmed that the towns had been captured and announced that eight

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journalist reported that 'the behavior of the Zairean army in Shaba was even more hateful than usual. Tens of thousands of Zaireans sought refuge in Angola, and all their testimonies agree: "the army has looted, robbed, raped. They have burned our villages and perpetrated wholesale massacres."'"

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David Bufkin's mercenaries were reported ready to fly to Zaire to join the anti-FNLC coalition. The CIA denied a request from the Department of Justice to provide information about its involvement. Bufkin and the CIA denied the claim. The operation was aborted after the Safari Club intervention

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Angola declared the invaders "responsible for the grave consequences that may result from their intervention in the conflict" and warned that "if the objective is to attack Angola, the Popular Republic of Angola warns Africa and the world that it will not tolerate any foreign intervention". The

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also blamed the Soviet Union: "Whatever the details of the current invasion of Zaire, it is clear that the attack took place across a sovereign border from a country in which the government was installed by Soviet arms and the military personnel of a Soviet client state. It could not have taken

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Mobutu merged the military general staff with his own presidential staff and appointed himself chief of staff again, in addition to the positions of minister of defence and supreme commander that he already held. He redeployed his forces throughout the country, instead of keeping them close to

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and a member of the Lunda ethnic group, was accused of treason sentenced to death, reprieved by Mobutu and sentenced to life in prison. (He was later pardoned and reappointed Foreign Minister.) A former Zairian military officer and a former governor were condemned to death in August 1977, also

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Mobutu's Zaire maintained good relations with Western powers. Belgium had the largest investments in the country (worth $ 750 million to $ 1 billion), followed by the United States ($ 200 million) and France ($ 20 million). Franco-Zairian relations were improving, and the Zaire government had

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Journalists reported confusion and difficulty with finding credible information. American news sources reported that Kolwezi had been captured but retracted that claim. Reportedly, even the CIA, which operated a station in Kinshasa, did not collect intelligence directly in the Shaba region.

1821:, in his first year of office, was less enthusiastic about Mobutu than his predecessors had been and decided against sending weapons or troops. He also stated that there was no evidence to substantiate Cuban involvement and maintained that position throughout the conflict. Officials of 2093:

FAZ casualties remained low, with many FAZ forces apparently unwilling to fight. Many of the Zairian soldiers had not recently been paid, and numerous reported desertions and defections occurred. One missionary reported FAZ soldiers intentionally wounding themselves to avoid battle.

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interview and said that he was "bitterly disappointed by America's attitude" and "If you have decided to surrender piecemeal to the Soviet-Cuban grand design in Africa, I think you owe it to us and to your friends to have the frankness to admit it." Former National Security Advisor

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A Belgian engineer in Kolwezi, discussing the apparent unpreparedness of its FAZ forces, told a reporter: "Ah, it's an African war. What can you expect? If the Katangans get really close, many of these soldiers will run anyway. All it takes is a loud bang, and off they go."

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taking a position on such action by one African state at this point in response to requests for aid from another African state. Our position on outside intervention is well known. We are against such intervention. The affairs of Africa should be settled by Africans."

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Shaba I was a major public relations victory for Mobutu by securing his regime and winning continued military and economic assistance from the Western Bloc. The group of private lenders, led by Citibank, was close to delivering the $ 250 million loan in early 1978.

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and sourced 60% of the global supply. The country also exported 7% of world copper and 33% of industrial diamonds. Many of the mines for these resources were in Shaba, and the copper mines in the area provided 65–75% of the country's overall wealth from imports.

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Ogunbadejo, "Conflict in Africa" (1979), p. 225. "All these points show that Angola was never deeply involved in the invasion. Not even the American Central Intelligence Agency was able to prove any serious involvement, and it is unlikely that, given President

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In the reorganisation, Mobutu dismissed a Belgian officer, Van Melle, from his own intelligence services. Van Melle was a key contact for European and American intelligence agencies, and his dismissal made reliable information even harder for them to find.

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Mobutu's patchwork army of reluctant unemployed urban youths, displaced farmers' sons, the restless Moroccans and the Pygmies face an estimated 100 battle groups, each consisting of 30 well trained and well armed men operating deep inside friendly trail

2792:: After the Kantanganese rebellion ended in 1963, France expended considerable aid and effort to improve relations with Zaire. French companies now have important mining interests in the country, producer of copper, cobalt and industrial diamonds." 1951:, which it called the headquarters for the rebel uprising. Along with other residents, 28 missionaries from Britain, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, France, Belgium, Italy and Spain fled from the bombing raids, eventually taking refuge in Angola. 2349:

If there was a war going on nobody seemed to know where the front was. Nevertheless, the general staff of the Zaire army was claiming to have begun a general offensive against the enemy and claimed to have surrounded the town of Mutshatsha.

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said that it would lend Zaire $ 85 million. There was speculation that this may have been done to deter a group of private banks from canceling the existing loan of $ 250 million. At the request of France and the United States, the

3315:. "Officially, the sources say, both Bufkin and the British mercenaries are recruiting on behalf of Mobutu, who is providing the money for the operation. However, the CIA is actually bankrolling the operation, the sources say." 2383:

On 21 May, the government announced that Dilolo had been captured. It said that 100 rebels were killed in simultaneous attacks at Kapanga and Sandoa. The war was declared over. Kapanga was declared captured on 26 May 1977.

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and a symbolic "suicide striking force" of the Ugandan military visited Kolwezi in late April and then flew back to Uganda. Uganda was the third African country to discuss the possibility of sending soldiers to help Zaire.

2788:. "Although France did not officially support the secessionists, their leader, Moise Tshombe, employed French advisers and mercenaries and received support from the neighboring Government of Congo, a former French colony. 2372:

The Moroccan and Zairian troops moved on, bolstered by additional noncombat forces from France, Egypt and Belgium. The coalition retook the area with occasional fighting. It suffered some casualties from an FNLC ambush in

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Mobutu relieved Colonel Salamaya, whom he had placed in charge of defending Shaba six days earlier, and soon relieved Salamaya's replacement. Mobutu blamed the success of the rebel attack on high-ranking traitors in the

2031:, who grew up in Katanga, joined the CIA and eventually became the head of its Angola Task Force, publicly resigned his position, blaming the conflict on unsuccessful CIA interventions. In an open letter to CIA Director 5985: 4076:

Michael T. Kaufman, "Zaire Flying Troops to Battle Area in Bid to Repulse Invaders: Drive to Defend Copper City: Size of Force Moving on Kolwezi, Made Up Mostly of Ex-Militiamen From Katanga, Put at 2,000; accessed

1056: 1739:. The MPLA won control of the country and provided the gendarmes with relative autonomy in their area on the border with Zaire. The group, about 4000 people total of whom 2000 were deemed able to fight, formed the 2000:

place—and it could not continue—without the material support or acquiescence of the Soviet Union—whether or not Cuban troops are present." China concurred, provoking unpleasantness with Soviet ambassadors in

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denied that Cuba was involved in the conflict and called Mobutu "desperate" and the accusation being "a pretext to get military assistance from imperialism so he can continue to oppress the people of Zaire".

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French intervention met with left-wing criticism, domestically and internationally. President Giscard d'Estaing responded that the action was protecting the sovereignty of a friendly state. Foreign Minister

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Bernard Gwertzman, "Vance Says Invaders in Zaire Threaten Vital Copper Mining: Calls Situation 'Dangerous': He Tells House Panel That Conflict Endangers the Commodity That Sustain's Nation's Economy",

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After Western military support had arrived in Kolwezi, Zambia said that Zaire had bombed the village of Shingamjunji Mangango and the Kaleni Hill mission hospital. Angola also reported a naval attack.

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The FLNC calls on the French people, to whom it expresses its trust and friendly feelings, to demand the immediate termination of the aggression deliberately carried out against the Congolese people.

2156:, the head of the French Military Mission in Zaire. Morocco provided 1,300 to 1,500 combat troops, Egypt contributed pilots and technical support and Saudi Arabia backed the operation financially. 1839:

Announcements seeking to hire American mercenaries to fight in Zaire appeared in California. A man, David Bufkin, was identified as doing the recruiting. The announcements were later traced to the

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Carter acknowledged problems with human rights in Zaire but said that "our friendship and aid historically for Zaire has not been predicated on their perfection in dealing with human rights."

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The government held a poorly-attended rally in a Kinshasa stadium. Soldiers prevented the already-small crowd from leaving afterward, and the rally ended when the crowd refused to applaud.

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Belgium sent weapons to the Zaire government but declined Mobutu's request for military assistance. China sent 30 tons of weapons. France sent weapons and ammunition. Sudanese President

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The FLNC strongly protests this French military intervention in Congo's domestic affairs and declined any responsibility for the consequences it may bring upon the French Government.

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According to later reports from missionaries in the area, the rebels, whose primary agenda was freedom from Mobutu, not ethnic or tribal warfare, were welcomed by locals in Katanga.

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were prevented from entering the province, and several were arrested. However, Mobutu won a public relations victory and ensured continuing economic assistance from governments, the

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arrived in Kolwezi, and a combined Zairian and Moroccan force counterattacked. 30 FAZ casualties were reported after a fortnight of quiet. It was joined by a unit of Pygmy archers.

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to go along with rations for FAZ soldiers. Mobutu flew with diplomats and journalists to Kolwezi, where he was met by dancing girls and announced a "total rout" of the insurgents.

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Zaire received more military aid from the United States than any other sub-Saharan nation, the $ 30 million of annual assistance representing half of all military aid to the area.

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The Zairian military claimed to have killed Russian, Portuguese and Cuban soldiers participating in the invasion. Zaire cut diplomatic ties with Cuba and then the Soviet Union.

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The situation was confusing, chaotic and difficult to assess. Observers were unsure of whether the war had ended with a victory for the Zaire government or had devolved into a

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The FNLC withdrew to Angola and possibly to Zambia and began to regroup for another attack. The group gained many new recruits and left behind contacts within Shaba Province.

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agreed. The State Department accused the Angolan government of providing the rebels with "logistic support" but maintained that there was "no hard evidence" of Cuban support.

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The invaders launched a three-pronged attack on 8 March 1977, crossing the Angola–Zaire border on bicycles. No casualties were reported in the first week after their arrival.

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neither arms nor ammunition, then he should not qualify for any form of military assistance, lest the United States be drawn into the hapless conflict in Zaire, inch by inch.

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Richard R. Leger, "The Other War: Conflict Is on Wane, But Zaire Still Fights Poverty, Bankruptcy: Lack of Foreign Exchange Plagues Overseas Firms; Mobutu in Firm Control",

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Zaire had already been overdue on its loan payments, and the conflict increased the uncertainty of international banks of its ability to repay. A group of 98 banks, led by

6340: 1673:, both institutions headed by members of Giscard d'Estaing's family. When Mobutu asked for international assistance, it was France that organised the military response. 6390: 1990:, the US ambassador to the United Nations, urged calm by saying "Americans shouldn't get paranoid about communism" in Africa. Mobutu reproached the United States in a 1832:

questioned the importance of aid and moved to halve Zaire's arms credits from $ 30 million to $ 15 million. Americans were evacuated from the area. Secretary of State

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During the months after the Shaba invasion, Mobutu sought solutions to the military problems that had contributed to the army's dismal performance. Foreign Minister

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On 7 April, plans were announced to support the government of Zaire with Moroccan troops. The operation was co-ordinated by a covert multinational organization, the

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The FAZ terrorized the population of the province during and after the war. Bombing and other acts of violence led 50,000 to 70,000 refugees to flee into Angola and

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On 15 March, the United States sent 35 tons of communications equipment and medical supplies, and other materials, worth a total of $ 2 million, by using chartered

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recently been snubbing Belgium for France by awarding the country a $ 500 million telecommunications contract in 1975. The contract, negotiated by French President

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Andreas Freund, "France airlifting Moroccan soldiers to help out in Zaire: Unexpected Announcement Asserts Paris Made Decision to Aid Fight Against 'Outsiders'",

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The war itself seemed to be in a stalemate, with foreign troops and the FAZ now massed in Kolwezi but little fighting taking place. On 14 April, Moroccan General

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The FNLC progressed into Katanga. In a battle in Kasaji on 18 March, the FAZ killed 15 of the FNLC soldiers and lost 4 of its own. On 25 March, the FAZ abandoned

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The government displayed the two captives in another stadium rally in which Mobutu again condemned Soviet and Cuban involvement and ordered $ 60,000 worth of

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in the region, who shared the ethnicity of the gendarmes, led 50,000–70,000 people to flee Zaire for Angola. In February 1978, the FAZ entered the town of

1083: 3054:'s numerous internal problems (political and economic), his government or even his Cuban allies would have dissipated their forces in an attack on Shaba." 5591: 2016: 1188: 4760:

Michael T. Kaufman, "2 CAPTIVES DISPLAYED BY ZAIRE IN STADIUM: Crowd of 60,000 Calls for Death of Men Seized in South—They Tell of Training by Cubans",

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inept senior leadership in the FAZ. As a result, many soldiers simply deserted, rather than fight. Others stayed with their units but were ineffective.

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said that it was necessary to check Soviet influence. The French government denied claims that "military advisors" had participated in the fighting.

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charged with aiding the FNLC. Subsequent trials in 1978 implicated 68 military officers, dispensing 19 death penalties and numerous imprisonments.

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Michael T. Kaufman, "Zaire Says Its Forces Recapture a Key Rail Center From Katangan Rebels; Little Resistance Reported", 26 April 1977; accessed

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The US asked for Nigeria's help with diplomatic mediation between Zaire and Angola. Nigeria agreed but urged outside powers not to provide arms.

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approved the shipment of supplies to Zaire but refused to send weapons or troops and maintained that there was no evidence of Cuban involvement.

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Zaire launched bombing raids in the area, which it said were targeting the invaders. The Zairian Air Force used Mirage jets from France to bomb

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Soviet Union condemned the Western Bloc and China for interfering in a "strictly internal conflict which need not concern anyone outside ."

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A French liaison was deployed to co-ordinate with the Zairian forces. The French operation (codename "Verveine"), was commanded by Colonel

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The alleged Zairian bombings of Angola and Zambia also became an issue, with Mobutu accusing the Soviet Union of bombing the countries as

6275: 5968: 2153: 1670: 1024: 3693:, "ZAIRE SAYS ITS JETS BOMB REBEL POSITION: Mirage Planes Are Reported Used to Attack City Identified as the Headquarters of Invaders", 2623: 4600:"Foreign Aid To Zaire Spurs Threat From Marxist Angola As Tense Situation Worsens: Mobutu Repeats Charge of Cuban, Russian Influence", 1499:. The FNLC made quick progress through the region because of the sympathizing locals and the disorganization of the Zairian military ( 1948: 1268: 5556:. Research Paper 2004–04. Airpower Research Institute; College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education; Air University. 2004. 1076: 5584: 2129:

from the network of French bases remaining on the African continent. Egypt also provided 50 pilots and technicians, who operated

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David Lamb, "The Fall and Rise of the Zairian Empire: Mobuto's Game Plan Guides Country to Victory on the Back of Showmanship",

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emphasised that claim to Carter, who maintained throughout the conflict that there was no evidence of outside involvement. King

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Although most towns preferred the FNLC forces to the government army, people were generally afraid of violence and stayed home.

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and later calling the FNLC invasion "a new offensive drive in the Soviet Union's political and military aggression in Africa".

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The French announcement that it would provide the airlift, made on 10 April "came as a surprise to all observers." President

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mineral riches" had led France to support "a corrupt regime". Jean Tshombé, son of former Katanganese secessionist leader

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recalled the Katanganese leader Moise Tshombe from exile in 1964, elements of the force had been incorporated into the

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Cuba. One said, "First we were trained by the Portuguese and after that by the Cubans"—but "there are no Cubans now".

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Political Economy of Human Rights: After the Cataclysm: Postwar Indochina and the Reconstruction of Imperial Ideology

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Ogunbadejo, Oye. "Conflict in Africa: A Case Study of the Shaba Crisis, 1977". World Affairs 141(3), Winter 1979.

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that it was involved in the conflict and said that the only assistance that it had delivered had been preplanned.

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emphasised France's independence in conducting the operation and specified that the US had not been consulted.

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In July 1977, Mobutu disclosed that Saudi Arabia had provided an undisclosed form of aid during the conflict.

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created another international crisis involving the United States, the Safari Club, Cuba and the Soviet Union.

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Meanwhile, Carter was also criticised for the support that he gave to Zaire, in contrast with his support for

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fighter jets from the Zairian Air Force. France also assisted the FAZ with additional Mirage planes, Panhard

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Daniel Southerland, "Zaire fighting hands Carter a test in Africa: Hostile borders, Loan payments overdue",

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Roger Glickson, 'The Shaba Crisis: Stumbling to Victory,' Small Wars and Insurgencies, Vol. 5, No. 2, 1994.

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USAF Airlift into the Heart of Darkness, the Congo 1960-1978: Implications for Modern Air Mobility Planners

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Ann Crittenden, "Bank Group Plans New Loan to Zaire: Banking Syndicate Is Planning New Loan to Zaire",

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denied accusations of Cuban involvement in Zaire and called Mobutu "desperate" for Western assistance.

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Jim Browning, "Giscard assures French: no Vietnam in Zaire: France acted independently, he asserts",

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As the FAZ, with France, Morocco, Egypt and Belgium, drove the rebels out of Zaire, the Ethio-Somali

2334:. Journalists continued to face restrictions and intimidation. Seven European journalists (including 1548:

sent assistance to support the Mobutu regime. The most significant intervention, orchestrated by the

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More journalists were arrested, and films taken in Kinshasa were seized by the Zaire government.

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warned Carter about communist intervention in Zaire. Egypt would join with other members of the

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The country was soon plunged into crisis after the assassination of its Pan-Africanist leader,

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David Lamb, "Zaire's War Now in Others' Hands: 4 Nations Filling Main Battle, Support Roles",

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Don Oberdorfer and Lee Lescaze, "Zaire Nearly Broke: U.S. Aids Bankers in Bailout for Zaire",

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of Morocco said he had "absolutely certain" proof that Cuban soldiers were fighting in Shaba.

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Some African states, particularly former colonies of France, supported Zaire diplomatically.

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Michael T. Kaufman, "Amin Arrives in Zaire, Pledges Aid To Mobutu Against Shaba Invaders",

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Katanga Province, renamed by Mobutu in 1972 as Shaba Province because of its copper wealth

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Norman Kempster and Oswald Johnson, "U.S. Flies 35 Tons of Supplies to Zaire Defenders",

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in Kolwezi. The training was assisted by French, Belgian and American military advisors.

2423:, killed between 500 and 3,000 people, hanged fourteen "ringleaders" and burnt villages. 2284: 2259: 2214: 1914: 1563:

troops into the war zone. The intervention turned the tide of the conflict. US President

1506: 1009: 898: 709: 690: 673: 4000:

Michael T. Kaufman, "Information on Fighting in Zaire Sometimes Conflicting and Wrong",

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Jonathan C. Randal, "Mobuto Riding High, But Possibility Raised Of Guerrilla Warfare",

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Dick Clark, "America Has Already Done Too Much for Zaire's Hapless Government",

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sought to justify the aid based on the importance of copper and cobalt mining.

1623: 1537: 1505:, or FAZ). Travelling east from Zaire's border with Angola, the rebels reached 1414: 1335: 1119: 1093: 716: 366: 42: 5208:

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current with repayments on existing commercial debts, much less the new loan."

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the rebels, none of whom being Cuban or Angolan, because they opposed Mobutu.

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later determined that the soldiers raped the woman and killed her babies with

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Robin Wright, "Tribesmen in Troubled Province Become Victims of Zaire Army",

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The FAZ and outside powers clashed again with insurgents in a 1978 conflict,

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https://www.nytimes.com/1977/04/12/archives/sudan-promises-to-send-help.html

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American workers returned to Kolwezi soon after the capture of Mutshatsha.

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Angola reported that Zaire had bombed its towns of Shilumbo and Camafuafa.

1922: 1873: 1855: 1818: 1803: 1693: 1653:. Mobutu changed the name of Katanga Province to Shaba Province, after the 1650: 1564: 1541: 1529: 1521: 1484: 625: 324: 311: 220: 5488:

Tom Herman, "Major Loan to Zaire Up to $ 250 Million Nearing Completion",

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On 9 April, Moroccan troops were airlifted into Kolwezi on eleven French

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After the Portuguese left in 1975, the Katangan gendarmes fought for the

1666: 1575: 1549: 649: 399: 5544: 4697:

John Palmer, "Belgium explains arms for Zaire", 13 April 1977; accessed

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announced an upcoming convention to solicit additional loans for Zaire.

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to prevent the attack. Cuba did not support the FNLC in the invasion.

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John Palmer, "NATO doubts on Cubans' role", 15 April 1977; accessed

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The military reported 219 casualties during the course of the war.

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8 March – 26 May 1977 (2 months, 2 weeks and 4 days)

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Oswald Johnston, "State Dept. says Angola helps Zaire attackers",

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ordered the French military to airlift Moroccan troops into battle

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A former Belgian colony, the Congo gained independence during the

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Robin Wright, "Zaire Rebels Seen Preparing to Open a New Front",

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

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B. K. Josh, "Zaire Again on the Rack: Sordid Franco-U. S. role",

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lasting from 8 March to 26 May 1977. The conflict began when the

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announced in April 1977 that Sudan would provide aid to Zaire.

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PaulWebster and Jonathan Steele, "Giscard denies new Vietnam",

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Shaba II: The French and Belgian Intervention in Zaire in 1978

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Zairian troops with a beret-wearing Moroccan military advisor

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Tendayi Kumbula, "'Bad Boy' Mercenary Tells of Adventures",

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Peacekeeping In Africa : Capabilities And Culpabilities

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was also in contact with Zaire and provided fuel and money.

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On a diplomatic visit to Washington, DC, Egyptian President

1708:

that had supported the secession of Katanga from 1960. When

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David Lamb, "Zaire Expels Seven Journalists Held as POWs",

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George C. Wilson, "Zaire Asks For Planeload Of Coca-Cola",

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Mobutu also reorganised the FAZ and began training for the

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Robin Wright, "Zaire's defenders dozing in tropical sun",

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American missionaries in Kapanga were under house arrest.

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Included in the invading force was a small remnant of the

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Robin Wright, "France to Aid Zaire; Fighting Continues",

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Meanwhile, the FNLC did not seem to have press contacts.

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Mark Frankland, "Why the banks are worrying about war",

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Idi Amin visits Mobutu during the Shaba I conflict, 1977

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The press of Zaire ignored the Shaba conflict entirely.

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Robin Wright, "Katanga Rebels Tighten Grip in Zaire",

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Robin Wright, "S. Africa reportedly will aid Zaire",

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Jonathan Steele, "CIA is blamed for Zaire invasion",

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Ogunbadejo, "Conflict in Africa" (1979), p. 226–227.

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Gleijeses, "Truth or Credibility" (2010), pp. 76–77.

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Gleijeses, "Truth or Credibility" (2010), p. 99–100.

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Belgium denied a claim made by Mobutu and quoted in

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Archived from 2546:A Little Help from His Friends 2410: 792:Torture and killing of Lumumba 1: 5666:Belgian Congo in World War II 5521:10.1080/07075332.1996.9640737 5492:, 24 February 1978; accessed 4198:10.1080/07075332.2020.1739113 3935:, Black Rose Books, 1979; p. 2493: 2320: 1726:Angolan nationalist movements 1600: 6056:2009 Eastern Congo offensive 5144:(UPI), 4 May 1977; accessed 5043:(UPI), 5 May 1977; accessed 4223:; New York: Pantheon, 2004; 4142:Zaire Leader Blames Traitors 2473:conflict began in May 1978. 2387: 2272: 1743:(FNLC) and styled itself as 1699: 1309:M23 offensive (2022–present) 1237:2009 Eastern Congo offensive 909:Assassination of Habyarimana 16:Historical military conflict 7: 6336:Military history of Morocco 6021:Operation North Night Final 5923:Ascension of Laurent Kabila 5353:, 14 August 1977; accessed 5336:, 19 August 1977; accessed 2603:"Nigeria Appeals on Arms", 2476: 2317:proved rapidly successful. 2306:International Monetary Fund 2215:International Press Service 2017:Foreign Relations Committee 1841:Central Intelligence Agency 1759: 1649:(CIA) and support from the 1647:Central Intelligence Agency 1580:International Monetary Fund 1489:Angolan War of Independence 1445:Child soldiers in the Congo 968:Ascension of Laurent Kabila 843:Non-aggression pact of 1979 10: 6407: 5242:"Zaire resistance falls", 5161:, 28 April 1977; accessed 5110:, 21 April 1977; accessed 5093:, 25 April 1977; accessed 4969:, 28 April 1977; accessed 4918:, 18 April 1977; accessed 4884:, 27 April 1977; accessed 4854:, 27 April 1977; accessed 4837:, 26 April 1977; accessed 4781:, 20 April 1977; accessed 4731:, 20 April 1977; accessed 4714:, 13 April 1977, accessed 4684:, 13 April 1977; accessed 4638:, 12 April 1977; accessed 4533:, 14 April 1977; accessed 4449:, 14 April 1977; accessed 4384:, 23 April 1977; accessed 4295:"Zambia Reports Bombing", 4148:, 10 April 1977; accessed 3901:, 16 April 1977; accessed 3838:, 12 April 1977; accessed 3804:, 23 April 1977; accessed 3328:, 17 April 1977; accessed 3294:, 17 March 1977; accessed 3277:, 17 March 1977; accessed 3183:, 16 March 1977; accessed 3148:, 24 March 1977; accessed 3089:, 10 March 1977; accessed 3008:: CS1 maint: postscript ( 2870:, 20 March 1977; accessed 2853:, 20 March 1977; accessed 2720:, 15 April 1977; accessed 2698:, 17 April 1977; accessed 2426: 921:Great Lakes refugee crisis 6244: 6221: 6061:2014 North Kivu offensive 6039: 5994: 5931: 5875: 5832: 5740:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 5686: 5638: 5608: 5550:Van Nederveen, Gilles K. 5383:"Zaire Aide Gets Death", 5297:, 21 July 1977; accessed 5210:Christian Science Monitor 4447:Christian Science Monitor 4367:, 9 April 1977; accessed 4111:, 5 April 1977; accessed 3881:, 8 April 1977; accessed 3864:, 6 April 1977; accessed 3440:Christian Science Monitor 3397:, 8 April 1977; accessed 3253:Christian Science Monitor 2964:Federal Research Division 2402: 1388: 1380: 1247:2014 North Kivu offensive 1206: 1101: 993: 889:War in Uganda (1986–1994) 884:Second Sudanese Civil War 867: 822: 797:Death of Dag Hammarskjöld 633: 543: 483: 479:1,600–3,000 FNLC fighters 462:50 Pilots and Technicians 437: 333: 104: 51: 40: 28: 23: 6209:Western DR Congo clashes 5898:AFD insurgency (1996–99) 5534:Combat Studies Institute 5476:, 24 May 1977; accessed 5263:, 17 May 1977; accessed 5246:, 27 May 1977; accessed 5229:, 24 May 1977; accessed 5212:, 24 May 1977, accessed 5195:, 22 May 1977; accessed 5178:, 22 May 1977; accessed 4989:, 18 May 1977; accessed 4952:, 25 May 1977; accessed 4803:, 21 May 1977; accessed 3966:Why I Am Leaving The CIA 3877:"Timely tips on Zaire", 2415:Military terror against 2346:soldiers had been seen. 2192:Bureau of State Security 2139:Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma 2102:Safari Club intervention 2090:, the Zairian military. 2054:Confusion and censorship 1880: 1806:with Secretary of State 1667:Thomson-CSFInternational 1605: 1477:Shaba (Katanga) Province 1440:Western DR Congo clashes 1420:2011 coup d'etat attempt 455:1,300–1,500 paratroopers 422:Valéry Giscard d'Estaing 94:FNLC expelled from Shaba 6199:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion 6150:M23 offensive (2022–24) 6051:2008 Nord-Kivu campaign 5969:Assassination of Kabila 5698:Force Publique mutinies 5059:, 7 May 1977; accessed 5006:, 6 May 1977; accessed 3918:, 1 May 1977; accessed 3717:, 1 May 1977; accessed 2088:Forces Armées Zaïroises 1687: 1669:with finances from the 1502:Forces Armées Zaïroises 1435:Kamwina Nsapu rebellion 1242:M23 rebellion (2012–13) 1232:2008 Nord-Kivu campaign 637:Force Publique mutinies 6361:Wars involving Morocco 5798:Port Francqui incident 3952:, 11 April 1977, p. 4. 2959:Zaire: a country study 2768:, 2005. Pages 321-322. 2440:Jean Nguza Karl-i-Bond 2368:Final military actions 2356: 2289: 2254: 2232: 2168: 2135:Véhicule Blindé Légers 2115: 2082: 2026: 1973: 1910: 1859: 1810: 1789:International response 1769: 1619: 1465: 1351:Kasindi church bombing 1130:October 2020 offensive 722:Port Francqui incident 334:Commanders and leaders 6356:Wars involving France 6346:Wars involving Angola 6276:during the Congo Wars 6189:2013 Kinshasa attacks 5912:Operation Thunderbolt 5887:Formation of the AFDL 5840:Stanleyville mutinies 2488:Capture of Lubumbashi 2343: 2287: 2248: 2219: 2166: 2109: 2080: 2021: 1963: 1904: 1854: 1801: 1767: 1645:, with help from the 1613: 1463: 1430:2013 Kinshasa attacks 1314:Anti-MONUSCO protests 936:Formation of the AFDL 484:Casualties and losses 6351:Wars involving Egypt 6194:2014 Mutarule attack 6103:2017 Semuliki attack 6066:2017 CNPSC offensive 6027:Plaine Savo massacre 5671:Masisi-Lubutu revolt 5532:. Fort Leavenworth: 4656:The Hartford Courant 4242:The Arabs and Africa 2970:. pp. 292–294. 2112:Hassan II of Morocco 2045:In Search of Enemies 1925:, a major source of 1768:FNLC movements, 1977 1692:The FNLC had mostly 1252:2017 CNPSC offensive 766:Violettes Imperiales 357:Mampa Ngakwe Salamay 6293:tensions since 2022 6283:Belgian colonialism 6222:Perennial conflicts 6204:2018 Yumbi massacre 6107:Nationwide attacks 5995:Post-2003 conflicts 5918:Overthrow of Mobutu 5490:Wall Street Journal 5474:Wall Street Journal 4602:Atlanta Daily World 3625:The Washington Post 2968:Library of Congress 2671:on 22 February 2014 2260:Louis de Guiringaud 2148:Diplomacy and media 1964:Egyptian President 1346:August 2022 attacks 1010:Gbadolite Agreement 963:Overthrow of Mobutu 899:Burundian Civil War 378:Abdelkader Loubaris 6331:Cold War conflicts 6264:Conflict resources 6229:Katanga insurgency 6184:Batwa–Luba clashes 5980:Effacer le tableau 5974:Kisangani massacre 5904:Kichwamba massacre 5892:Massacres of Hutus 5723:Congo-Stanleyville 5678:Léopoldville riots 5651:Batetela rebellion 5437:(1993), pp. 28–29. 4801:Tri–State Defender 3691:Michael T. Kaufman 3200:(1993), pp. 23–24. 3132:(1993), pp. 17–18. 2790:Economic interests 2739:2013-10-04 at the 2734:Katangan Gendarmes 2452:Kamanyola division 2290: 2255: 2190:The South African 2169: 2116: 2083: 2015:, a member of the 1974: 1937:, were evacuated. 1911: 1897:Invasion continues 1860: 1811: 1770: 1716:to help fight the 1706:Katangan gendarmes 1620: 1538:economic interests 1516:Zairian President 1471:was a conflict in 1466: 1425:Batwa–Luba clashes 1398:Katanga insurgency 1366:Kirindera massacre 1145:Nyamamba and Mbogi 1036:Effacer le tableau 1030:Kisangani massacre 1015:Sun City Agreement 941:Massacres of Hutus 781:Other major events 662:Congo-Stanleyville 589:Léopoldville riots 582:1944 Kivu uprising 6326:Conflicts in 1977 6313: 6312: 6217: 6216: 6179:2011 coup attempt 6162: 6161: 6158: 6157: 6131: 6130: 6035: 6034: 6014:Operation Artemis 5986:ICC investigation 5867:1991 Zaire unrest 5860:Battle of Kolwezi 5702:Secession crisis 5600:Conflicts in the 5385:Los Angeles Times 5227:Los Angeles Times 5176:Los Angeles Times 5159:Los Angeles Times 5125:Los Angeles Times 5057:Los Angeles Times 4987:Los Angeles Times 4950:Los Angeles Times 4619:Los Angeles Times 4568:Los Angeles Times 4551:Los Angeles Times 4464:Los Angeles Times 4348:Los Angeles Times 4219:Mahmood Mamdani, 4057:Henry L. Trewhitt 3916:Los Angeles Times 3836:Los Angeles Times 3819:Los Angeles Times 3763:Los Angeles Times 3732:Los Angeles Times 3546:Los Angeles Times 3423:Los Angeles Times 3181:Los Angeles Times 3087:Los Angeles Times 3004:cite encyclopedia 2835:Los Angeles Times 2805:(1993), p. 27–28. 2743:Leigh Ingram-Seal 2696:Los Angeles Times 2528:978-92-9045-133-4 2444:international law 2251:Giscard d'Estaing 2249:French President 2204:Initial reactions 2181:Giscard d'Estaing 2035:published in the 2033:Stansfield Turner 1751:Cuban involvement 1737:Angolan Civil War 1663:Giscard d'Estaing 1657:word for copper. 1493:Angolan Civil War 1457: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1375: 1374: 1319:Kishishe massacre 1222:Makobola massacre 1166: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1115:North Night Final 1057:ICC investigation 976: 975: 904:Rwandan Civil War 894:1991 Zaire unrest 850: 849: 836:Battle of Kolwezi 805: 804: 641:Secession crisis 501: 500: 100: 99: 6398: 6305:Rwandan genocide 6164: 6163: 6133: 6132: 6123:Operation Shujaa 6084: 6083: 6037: 6036: 5999: 5998: 5944:Operation Kitona 5933:Second Congo War 5762:Battle of Kabalo 5618:Congo Free State 5594: 5587: 5580: 5571: 5570: 5526:Odom, Thomas P. 5509:Gleijeses, Piero 5497: 5486: 5480: 5470: 5464: 5457: 5451: 5444: 5438: 5431: 5425: 5414: 5408: 5398: 5392: 5381: 5375: 5364: 5358: 5347: 5341: 5330: 5321: 5318: 5312: 5308: 5302: 5291: 5285: 5274: 5268: 5257: 5251: 5240: 5234: 5223: 5217: 5206: 5200: 5189: 5183: 5172: 5166: 5155: 5149: 5138: 5132: 5121: 5115: 5104: 5098: 5087: 5081: 5074:Hartford Courant 5070: 5064: 5053: 5047: 5037: 5031: 5017: 5011: 5000: 4994: 4983: 4974: 4963: 4957: 4946: 4940: 4929: 4923: 4912: 4906: 4895: 4889: 4882:Hartford Courant 4878: 4872: 4865: 4859: 4848: 4842: 4831: 4825: 4814: 4808: 4797: 4786: 4775: 4769: 4758: 4749: 4742: 4736: 4725: 4719: 4708: 4702: 4695: 4689: 4678: 4672: 4669: 4663: 4652: 4643: 4632: 4626: 4615: 4609: 4598: 4592: 4581: 4575: 4564: 4558: 4547: 4538: 4527: 4521: 4518:Hartford Courant 4514: 4505: 4494: 4488: 4477: 4471: 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3243: 3232: 3226: 3219: 3213: 3210: 3201: 3194: 3188: 3177: 3171: 3164: 3153: 3139: 3133: 3126: 3120: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3094: 3083: 3077: 3066: 3055: 3047: 3041: 3038: 3032: 3029: 3023: 3020: 3014: 3013: 3007: 2999: 2993: 2992: 2953: 2910: 2903: 2892: 2881: 2875: 2864: 2858: 2847: 2838: 2831: 2822: 2815: 2806: 2799: 2793: 2778: 2769: 2762: 2756: 2753: 2744: 2731: 2725: 2714: 2703: 2692: 2681: 2680: 2678: 2676: 2654: 2648: 2642: 2633: 2621: 2612: 2601: 2592: 2581: 2572: 2565: 2554: 2543: 2534: 2532: 2510: 2073:Zairian military 1935:Morrison-Knudsen 1872:Cuban President 1776:Zaire's response 1710:Joseph Kasa-Vubu 1628:State of Katanga 1520:accused Angola, 1518:Mobutu Sese Seko 1408:Operation Shujaa 1383: 1377: 1376: 1361:Mukondi massacre 1356:Makugwe massacre 1341:Otomabere attack 1227:Makombo massacre 1201: 1191: 1184: 1177: 1168: 1167: 1096: 1086: 1079: 1072: 1063: 1062: 1005:Lusaka Ceasefire 999:Operation Kitona 988: 986: 985:Second Congo War 978: 977: 916:Rwandan genocide 862: 860: 852: 851: 817: 815: 807: 806: 686:Battle of Kabalo 628: 618: 611: 604: 595: 594: 560:Congo Free State 538: 527: 520: 513: 504: 503: 433:Nathaniel Mbumba 432: 431: 430: 420: 419: 409: 408: 398: 397: 389:Hamidou Laanigri 387: 386: 376: 375: 365: 364: 356: 355: 347:Mobutu Sese Seko 345: 344: 323: 321: 320: 310: 308: 307: 297: 295: 294: 284: 283: 263: 262: 261: 244: 242: 241: 231: 230: 229: 219: 217: 216: 206: 204: 203: 193: 191: 190: 171: 169: 168: 158: 156: 155: 145: 144: 143: 133: 131: 130: 120: 118: 117: 90:Zairian victory 53: 52: 45: 21: 20: 6406: 6405: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6397: 6396: 6395: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6309: 6271:Sexual violence 6259:Mining industry 6246: 6240: 6213: 6154: 6127: 6090: 6082: 6078:Kipupu massacre 6043: 6031: 6005: 5990: 5957:Bogoro massacre 5935: 5927: 5879: 5877:First Congo War 5871: 5845:Shaba invasions 5828: 5815:Simba rebellion 5810:Kwilu rebellion 5805:Kanyarwanda War 5745:UN intervention 5690: 5682: 5656:Battle of Rejaf 5634: 5604: 5598: 5563: 5561:Further reading 5505: 5500: 5487: 5483: 5471: 5467: 5458: 5454: 5445: 5441: 5432: 5428: 5415: 5411: 5399: 5395: 5382: 5378: 5365: 5361: 5351:Washington Post 5348: 5344: 5331: 5324: 5319: 5315: 5309: 5305: 5295:Washington Post 5292: 5288: 5275: 5271: 5258: 5254: 5241: 5237: 5224: 5220: 5207: 5203: 5190: 5186: 5173: 5169: 5156: 5152: 5139: 5135: 5122: 5118: 5108:Washington Post 5105: 5101: 5088: 5084: 5071: 5067: 5054: 5050: 5038: 5034: 5018: 5014: 5001: 4997: 4984: 4977: 4967:Washington Post 4964: 4960: 4947: 4943: 4930: 4926: 4913: 4909: 4896: 4892: 4879: 4875: 4866: 4862: 4849: 4845: 4832: 4828: 4815: 4811: 4798: 4789: 4779:Washington Post 4776: 4772: 4759: 4752: 4743: 4739: 4729:Chicago Tribune 4726: 4722: 4712:Washington Post 4709: 4705: 4696: 4692: 4679: 4675: 4670: 4666: 4653: 4646: 4633: 4629: 4616: 4612: 4599: 4595: 4582: 4578: 4565: 4561: 4548: 4541: 4528: 4524: 4515: 4508: 4495: 4491: 4481:Washington Post 4478: 4474: 4461: 4457: 4444: 4440: 4427: 4420: 4410: 4408: 4407:. 23 April 1977 4404:Washington Post 4397: 4396: 4392: 4379: 4375: 4362: 4358: 4345: 4341: 4331:Chicago Tribune 4328: 4324: 4311: 4307: 4294: 4290: 4281: 4272: 4264:Van Nederveen, 4263: 4256: 4239: 4235: 4218: 4214: 4177: 4173: 4160: 4156: 4139: 4135: 4126: 4119: 4109:Washington Post 4106: 4102: 4089: 4085: 4075: 4071: 4055: 4051: 4038: 4034: 4024:Washington Post 4021: 4012: 3999: 3990: 3985: 3976: 3970:Washington Post 3960: 3956: 3947: 3943: 3930: 3926: 3913: 3909: 3899:Chicago Tribune 3896: 3889: 3879:Chicago Tribune 3876: 3872: 3859: 3855: 3850: 3846: 3833: 3829: 3816: 3812: 3802:Washington Post 3799: 3790: 3780:Washington Post 3777: 3773: 3760: 3756: 3751: 3742: 3729: 3725: 3712: 3705: 3689: 3685: 3672: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3646: 3635: 3622: 3613: 3603:Chicago Tribune 3600: 3596: 3583: 3576: 3563: 3556: 3540: 3536: 3531: 3527: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3504: 3491: 3487: 3477:Washington Post 3474: 3467: 3454: 3450: 3437: 3433: 3420: 3416: 3409: 3405: 3395:Chicago Tribune 3392: 3388: 3378:Washington Post 3375: 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1603: 1458: 1449: 1384: 1381: 1371: 1370: 1274:Kipupu massacre 1217:Kasika massacre 1212:Lemera massacre 1202: 1197: 1195: 1158: 1135:Boga and Tchabi 1097: 1092: 1090: 1061: 1047:Pretoria Accord 1042:Bogoro massacre 989: 984: 982: 972: 925: 879:Shaba Invasions 863: 859:First Congo War 858: 856: 846: 818: 814:Shaba Invasions 813: 811: 801: 739:Simba rebellion 734:Kwilu rebellion 729:Kanyarwanda War 669:UN intervention 629: 624: 622: 593: 539: 533: 531: 493: 475: 470: 468: 463: 461: 456: 454: 449: 447: 428: 426: 414: 413: 403: 402: 392: 391: 381: 380: 370: 369: 359: 358: 350: 349: 339: 329: 318: 316: 305: 303: 292: 290: 278: 268: 259: 257: 253: 251: 239: 237: 227: 225: 214: 212: 201: 199: 188: 186: 177: 166: 164: 153: 151: 141: 139: 128: 126: 115: 113: 81: 80: 46: 31:Shaba Invasions 17: 12: 11: 5: 6404: 6394: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6373: 6371:1977 in Angola 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6296: 6295: 6285: 6280: 6279: 6278: 6268: 6267: 6266: 6256: 6254:Child soldiers 6250: 6248: 6247:related topics 6242: 6241: 6239: 6238: 6237:(1987–present) 6232: 6231:(1963–present) 6225: 6223: 6219: 6218: 6215: 6214: 6212: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6196: 6191: 6186: 6181: 6176: 6174:Dongo conflict 6170: 6168: 6160: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6152: 6147: 6141: 6139: 6129: 6128: 6126: 6125: 6120: 6119: 6118: 6113: 6105: 6100: 6094: 6092: 6088:AFD insurgency 6081: 6080: 6075: 6074: 6073: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6047: 6045: 6044:(2004–present) 6033: 6032: 6030: 6029: 6024: 6017: 6009: 6007: 6003:Ituri conflict 5996: 5992: 5991: 5989: 5988: 5983: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5961: 5960: 5959: 5951:Ituri conflict 5947: 5939: 5937: 5929: 5928: 5926: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5908: 5907: 5906: 5894: 5889: 5883: 5881: 5873: 5872: 5870: 5869: 5864: 5863: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5842: 5836: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5824: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5801: 5800: 5795: 5793:Kindu atrocity 5790: 5783: 5782: 5781: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5726: 5725: 5720: 5719: 5718: 5708: 5700: 5694: 5692: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5674: 5673: 5663: 5658: 5653: 5648: 5646:Congo Arab war 5642: 5640: 5636: 5635: 5633: 5632: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5615: 5609: 5606: 5605: 5597: 5596: 5589: 5582: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5562: 5559: 5558: 5557: 5548: 5537: 5524: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5498: 5481: 5465: 5463:(1993), p. 30. 5452: 5450:(1993), p. 34. 5439: 5426: 5409: 5402:New York Times 5393: 5376: 5359: 5342: 5334:New York Times 5322: 5313: 5303: 5286: 5269: 5252: 5235: 5218: 5201: 5184: 5167: 5150: 5142:New York Times 5133: 5116: 5099: 5082: 5065: 5048: 5032: 5012: 4995: 4975: 4958: 4941: 4933:New York Times 4924: 4907: 4899:New York Times 4890: 4873: 4860: 4843: 4826: 4818:New York Times 4809: 4787: 4770: 4762:New York Times 4750: 4737: 4720: 4703: 4690: 4673: 4664: 4644: 4627: 4610: 4593: 4576: 4559: 4555:via saProQuest 4539: 4522: 4506: 4489: 4472: 4455: 4438: 4430:New York Times 4418: 4390: 4382:New York Times 4373: 4365:New York Times 4356: 4339: 4322: 4305: 4297:New York Times 4288: 4286:(1993), p. 26. 4270: 4268:(2004), p. 47. 4254: 4233: 4212: 4171: 4154: 4133: 4131:(1993), p. 19. 4117: 4100: 4083: 4069: 4049: 4041:New York Times 4032: 4010: 4002:New York Times 3988: 3974: 3962:John Stockwell 3954: 3941: 3924: 3907: 3887: 3870: 3862:New York Times 3853: 3844: 3827: 3810: 3788: 3771: 3754: 3740: 3723: 3703: 3695:New York Times 3683: 3666: 3657: 3633: 3611: 3594: 3574: 3566:New York Times 3554: 3534: 3525: 3523:(1993), p. 18. 3512: 3502: 3485: 3465: 3457:New York Times 3448: 3431: 3414: 3403: 3386: 3369: 3367:(1993), p. 24. 3356: 3334: 3317: 3300: 3283: 3275:New York Times 3266: 3257: 3244: 3227: 3214: 3202: 3189: 3172: 3170:(1993), p. 28. 3154: 3134: 3121: 3104: 3095: 3078: 3056: 3042: 3033: 3024: 3015: 2976: 2911: 2909:(1993), p. 17. 2893: 2885:New York Times 2876: 2868:New York Times 2859: 2851:New York Times 2839: 2823: 2819:Times of India 2807: 2794: 2782:New York Times 2770: 2757: 2745: 2726: 2704: 2682: 2649: 2634: 2629:New York Times 2613: 2605:New York Times 2593: 2573: 2571:(1993), p. 25. 2555: 2535: 2527: 2497: 2495: 2492: 2491: 2490: 2485: 2478: 2475: 2428: 2425: 2412: 2409: 2404: 2401: 2389: 2386: 2369: 2366: 2327: 2326:More confusion 2324: 2322: 2319: 2274: 2271: 2205: 2202: 2149: 2146: 2103: 2100: 2074: 2071: 2055: 2052: 2029:John Stockwell 1921:, home to the 1898: 1895: 1882: 1879: 1864:Gaafar Nimiery 1848: 1845: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1777: 1774: 1761: 1758: 1752: 1749: 1735:(MPLA) in the 1701: 1698: 1689: 1686: 1624:Year of Africa 1607: 1604: 1602: 1599: 1455: 1454: 1451: 1450: 1448: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1415:Dongo conflict 1412: 1411: 1410: 1400: 1395: 1389: 1386: 1385: 1373: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1348: 1343: 1338: 1336:Masambo attack 1333: 1332: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1260: 1259: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1229: 1224: 1219: 1214: 1208: 1207: 1204: 1203: 1194: 1193: 1186: 1179: 1171: 1164: 1163: 1160: 1159: 1157: 1156: 1151: 1147: 1142: 1137: 1132: 1127: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1094:Ituri conflict 1089: 1088: 1081: 1074: 1066: 1060: 1059: 1054: 1049: 1044: 1039: 1032: 1027: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 994: 991: 990: 974: 973: 971: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 943: 938: 932: 931: 924: 923: 918: 913: 912: 911: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 875: 874: 868: 865: 864: 848: 847: 845: 840: 839: 838: 828: 823: 820: 819: 803: 802: 800: 799: 794: 789: 778: 777: 776: 769: 762: 755: 748: 736: 731: 726: 725: 724: 719: 717:Kindu atrocity 714: 707: 706: 705: 693: 688: 683: 678: 666: 665: 664: 659: 658: 657: 647: 639: 634: 631: 630: 621: 620: 613: 606: 598: 592: 591: 586: 585: 584: 579: 569: 568: 567: 557: 551: 550: 544: 541: 540: 530: 529: 522: 515: 507: 499: 498: 495: 486: 485: 481: 480: 477: 469:20-65 soldiers 440: 439: 435: 434: 424: 367:Anwar El-Sadat 336: 335: 331: 330: 328: 327: 314: 301: 288: 275: 254: 249: 248: 235: 223: 210: 197: 183: 176: 175: 162: 149: 137: 124: 110: 107: 106: 102: 101: 98: 97: 96: 95: 87: 83: 82: 79: 78: 72:Shaba Province 68: 67: 65: 61: 60: 57: 49: 48: 38: 37: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6403: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6376:1977 in Zaire 6374: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6294: 6291: 6290: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6277: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6269: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6251: 6249: 6243: 6236: 6233: 6230: 6227: 6226: 6224: 6220: 6210: 6207: 6205: 6202: 6200: 6197: 6195: 6192: 6190: 6187: 6185: 6182: 6180: 6177: 6175: 6172: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6145:M23 rebellion 6143: 6142: 6140: 6138: 6134: 6124: 6121: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6098:Beni massacre 6096: 6095: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6079: 6076: 6072: 6071:Uvira clashes 6069: 6068: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6042: 6041:Kivu conflict 6038: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6022: 6018: 6016: 6015: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5997: 5993: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5981: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5953: 5952: 5948: 5946: 5945: 5941: 5940: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5900: 5899: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5884: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5868: 5865: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5837: 5835: 5831: 5823: 5822: 5818: 5817: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5777: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5757:Niemba ambush 5755: 5753: 5752: 5748: 5747: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5724: 5721: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5696: 5695: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5676: 5672: 5669: 5668: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5643: 5641: 5637: 5631: 5630:Belgian Congo 5628: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5595: 5590: 5588: 5583: 5581: 5576: 5575: 5572: 5565: 5564: 5555: 5554: 5549: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5536:, April 1993. 5535: 5531: 5530: 5525: 5522: 5518: 5515:18(1), 2010. 5514: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5495: 5491: 5485: 5479: 5478:via ProQuest. 5475: 5469: 5462: 5456: 5449: 5443: 5436: 5430: 5423: 5419: 5413: 5407: 5403: 5397: 5390: 5386: 5380: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5356: 5352: 5346: 5339: 5335: 5329: 5327: 5317: 5307: 5300: 5296: 5290: 5283: 5279: 5273: 5266: 5262: 5261:Baltimore Sun 5256: 5249: 5245: 5244:Baltimore Sun 5239: 5232: 5228: 5222: 5215: 5211: 5205: 5198: 5194: 5193:Baltimore Sun 5188: 5181: 5177: 5171: 5164: 5160: 5154: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5130: 5126: 5120: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5096: 5092: 5086: 5079: 5075: 5069: 5062: 5058: 5052: 5046: 5045:via ProQuest. 5042: 5036: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5016: 5009: 5005: 5004:Baltimore Sun 4999: 4992: 4988: 4982: 4980: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4955: 4951: 4945: 4938: 4934: 4928: 4921: 4917: 4911: 4904: 4903:via ProQuest 4900: 4894: 4887: 4883: 4877: 4870: 4864: 4857: 4853: 4847: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4823: 4819: 4813: 4806: 4802: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4767: 4763: 4757: 4755: 4747: 4741: 4734: 4730: 4724: 4717: 4713: 4707: 4700: 4694: 4687: 4683: 4677: 4668: 4661: 4657: 4651: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4631: 4624: 4620: 4614: 4607: 4603: 4597: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4556: 4552: 4546: 4544: 4536: 4532: 4531:Baltimore Sun 4526: 4519: 4513: 4511: 4503: 4499: 4493: 4486: 4482: 4476: 4469: 4465: 4459: 4452: 4448: 4442: 4435: 4431: 4425: 4423: 4406: 4405: 4400: 4394: 4387: 4383: 4377: 4370: 4366: 4360: 4353: 4349: 4343: 4336: 4332: 4326: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4302: 4298: 4292: 4285: 4279: 4277: 4275: 4267: 4261: 4259: 4251: 4250:9780415623957 4247: 4243: 4237: 4230: 4229:0-375-42285-4 4226: 4222: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4175: 4168: 4164: 4158: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4137: 4130: 4124: 4122: 4114: 4110: 4104: 4097: 4093: 4087: 4080: 4073: 4066: 4062: 4061:Baltimore Sun 4058: 4053: 4046: 4042: 4036: 4029: 4025: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3997: 3995: 3993: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3958: 3951: 3945: 3938: 3934: 3928: 3921: 3917: 3911: 3904: 3900: 3894: 3892: 3884: 3880: 3874: 3867: 3863: 3857: 3848: 3841: 3837: 3831: 3824: 3820: 3814: 3807: 3803: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3785: 3781: 3775: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3749: 3747: 3745: 3737: 3733: 3727: 3720: 3716: 3710: 3708: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3680: 3676: 3670: 3661: 3654: 3650: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3638: 3630: 3626: 3620: 3618: 3616: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3579: 3571: 3567: 3561: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3538: 3529: 3522: 3516: 3506: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3482: 3478: 3472: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3452: 3445: 3441: 3435: 3428: 3424: 3418: 3412: 3407: 3400: 3396: 3390: 3383: 3379: 3373: 3366: 3360: 3353: 3349: 3348:Baltimore Sun 3343: 3341: 3339: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3314: 3310: 3304: 3297: 3293: 3287: 3280: 3276: 3270: 3261: 3254: 3248: 3241: 3237: 3231: 3224: 3218: 3209: 3207: 3199: 3193: 3186: 3182: 3176: 3169: 3163: 3161: 3159: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3138: 3131: 3125: 3118: 3114: 3108: 3099: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3075: 3071: 3070:Baltimore Sun 3065: 3063: 3061: 3053: 3046: 3037: 3028: 3019: 3011: 3005: 2997: 2996:public domain 2987: 2983: 2979: 2977:0-8444-0795-X 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2960: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2934: 2932: 2930: 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2916: 2908: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2880: 2873: 2869: 2863: 2856: 2852: 2846: 2844: 2836: 2830: 2828: 2820: 2814: 2812: 2804: 2798: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2777: 2775: 2767: 2761: 2752: 2750: 2742: 2738: 2735: 2730: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2691: 2689: 2687: 2670: 2666: 2665: 2660: 2653: 2647: 2641: 2639: 2631: 2630: 2625: 2620: 2618: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2598: 2590: 2586: 2580: 2578: 2570: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2540: 2530: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2498: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2480: 2474: 2472: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2453: 2448: 2445: 2441: 2436: 2432: 2424: 2422: 2418: 2408: 2400: 2397: 2395: 2385: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2365: 2362: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2332:guerrilla war 2318: 2314: 2312: 2307: 2301: 2299: 2294: 2286: 2282: 2280: 2270: 2268: 2263: 2261: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2241: 2236: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2218: 2216: 2212: 2211:Moise Tshombé 2201: 2199: 2195: 2193: 2188: 2184: 2182: 2177: 2174: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2155: 2145: 2142: 2141:helicopters. 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2123: 2121: 2113: 2108: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2089: 2079: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2060: 2051: 2048: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2025: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2005: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1958: 1955: 1952: 1950: 1945: 1942: 1938: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1908: 1903: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1878: 1875: 1870: 1867: 1865: 1857: 1853: 1844: 1842: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1809: 1805: 1802:US President 1800: 1794:United States 1786: 1782: 1773: 1766: 1757: 1748: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1729: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1697: 1695: 1685: 1682: 1677: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1643:Joseph Mobutu 1640: 1635: 1633: 1632:Moise Tshombe 1629: 1625: 1617: 1612: 1598: 1596: 1591: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1568: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1555: 1552:, featured a 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1534:anticommunism 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1514: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1503: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1462: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1409: 1406: 1405: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1390: 1387: 1378: 1367: 1364: 1362: 1359: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1330: 1329:2nd Kitshanga 1327: 1325: 1324:1st Kitshanga 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1311: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1304:Kagogo ambush 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1258: 1257:Uvira clashes 1255: 1254: 1253: 1250: 1248: 1245: 1243: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1230: 1228: 1225: 1223: 1220: 1218: 1215: 1213: 1210: 1209: 1205: 1200: 1199:Kivu conflict 1192: 1187: 1185: 1180: 1178: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1148: 1146: 1143: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1133: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1095: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1075: 1073: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1058: 1055: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1045: 1043: 1040: 1038: 1037: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 1000: 996: 995: 992: 987: 979: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 948: 944: 942: 939: 937: 934: 933: 930: 927: 926: 922: 919: 917: 914: 910: 907: 906: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 876: 873: 870: 869: 866: 861: 853: 844: 841: 837: 834: 833: 832: 829: 827: 824: 821: 816: 808: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 784: 783: 782: 775: 774: 770: 768: 767: 763: 761: 760: 756: 754: 753: 749: 747: 746: 742: 741: 740: 737: 735: 732: 730: 727: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 712: 708: 704: 701: 700: 699: 698: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 681:Niemba ambush 679: 677: 676: 672: 671: 670: 667: 663: 660: 656: 653: 652: 651: 648: 646: 643: 642: 640: 638: 635: 632: 627: 619: 614: 612: 607: 605: 600: 599: 596: 590: 587: 583: 580: 578: 575: 574: 573: 572:Belgian Congo 570: 566: 563: 562: 561: 558: 556: 553: 552: 549: 546: 545: 542: 537: 534:Conflicts in 528: 523: 521: 516: 514: 509: 508: 505: 496: 491: 488: 487: 482: 478: 473: 466: 459: 452: 445: 442: 441: 436: 425: 423: 418: 412: 411:Leo Tindemans 407: 401: 396: 390: 385: 379: 374: 368: 363: 354: 348: 343: 338: 337: 332: 326: 315: 313: 302: 300: 289: 287: 282: 277: 276: 274: 273: 272:Supported by: 269: 266: 255: 252: 247: 236: 234: 224: 222: 211: 209: 198: 196: 195:United States 185: 184: 182: 181: 180:Supported by: 174: 163: 161: 150: 148: 138: 136: 125: 123: 112: 111: 109: 108: 103: 93: 92: 91: 88: 85: 84: 77: 73: 70: 69: 66: 63: 62: 58: 55: 54: 50: 44: 39: 36: 32: 27: 22: 19: 6137:M23 conflict 6019: 6012: 5978: 5949: 5942: 5911: 5896: 5849: 5821:Dragon Rouge 5820: 5786: 5779:Camp Massart 5772: 5750: 5688:Congo Crisis 5613:Colonization 5551: 5533: 5527: 5512: 5503:Bibliography 5494:via ProQuest 5489: 5484: 5473: 5468: 5460: 5455: 5447: 5442: 5434: 5429: 5422:via ProQuest 5418:The Guardian 5417: 5412: 5406:via ProQuest 5401: 5396: 5389:via ProQuest 5384: 5379: 5372:via ProQuest 5368:The Guardian 5367: 5362: 5355:via ProQuest 5350: 5345: 5338:via ProQuest 5333: 5316: 5306: 5299:via ProQuest 5294: 5289: 5282:via ProQuest 5278:Boston Globe 5277: 5272: 5265:via ProQuest 5260: 5255: 5248:via ProQuest 5243: 5238: 5231:via ProQuest 5226: 5221: 5214:via ProQuest 5209: 5204: 5197:via ProQuest 5192: 5187: 5180:via ProQuest 5175: 5170: 5163:via ProQuest 5158: 5153: 5146:via ProQuest 5141: 5136: 5129:via ProQuest 5124: 5119: 5112:via ProQuest 5107: 5102: 5095:via ProQuest 5091:The Guardian 5090: 5085: 5078:via ProQuest 5073: 5068: 5061:via ProQuest 5056: 5051: 5041:The Guardian 5040: 5035: 5028:via ProQuest 5024:The Observer 5023: 5015: 5008:via ProQuest 5003: 4998: 4991:via ProQuest 4986: 4971:via ProQuest 4966: 4961: 4954:via ProQuest 4949: 4944: 4937:via ProQuest 4932: 4927: 4920:via ProQuest 4916:The Guardian 4915: 4910: 4898: 4893: 4886:via ProQuest 4881: 4876: 4869:via ProQuest 4863: 4856:via ProQuest 4852:The Guardian 4851: 4846: 4839:via ProQuest 4835:The Guardian 4834: 4829: 4822:via ProQuest 4817: 4812: 4805:via ProQuest 4800: 4783:via ProQuest 4778: 4773: 4766:via ProQuest 4761: 4746:via ProQuest 4740: 4733:via ProQuest 4728: 4723: 4716:via ProQuest 4711: 4706: 4699:via ProQuest 4693: 4686:via ProQuest 4682:The Guardian 4681: 4676: 4667: 4660:via ProQuest 4655: 4640:via ProQuest 4636:The Guardian 4635: 4630: 4623:via ProQuest 4618: 4613: 4606:via ProQuest 4601: 4596: 4589:via ProQuest 4585:The Guardian 4584: 4579: 4572:via ProQuest 4567: 4562: 4550: 4535:via ProQuest 4530: 4525: 4517: 4502:via ProQuest 4498:Boston Globe 4497: 4492: 4485:via ProQuest 4480: 4475: 4468:via ProQuest 4463: 4458: 4451:via ProQuest 4446: 4441: 4434:via ProQuest 4429: 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President 1812: 1804:Jimmy Carter 1783: 1779: 1771: 1754: 1730: 1703: 1694:Lunda people 1691: 1678: 1675: 1659: 1651:Western Bloc 1636: 1621: 1614:Mobutu with 1592: 1569: 1565:Jimmy Carter 1542:Western Bloc 1530:Soviet Union 1522:East Germany 1515: 1500: 1485:Congo Crisis 1468: 1467: 1034: 997: 946: 928: 871: 825: 780: 779: 772: 765: 758: 751: 745:Dragon Rouge 744: 710: 703:Camp Massart 696: 674: 626:Congo Crisis 555:Colonization 547: 497:~100+ killed 489: 471: 464: 457: 450: 443: 325:East Germany 312:Soviet Union 271: 270: 256: 250: 221:Saudi Arabia 179: 178: 105:Belligerents 89: 29:Part of the 18: 6091:(Post-2007) 6006:(Post-2003) 5964:Six-Day War 5936:(1998–2003) 5880:(1996–1997) 5711:South Kasai 5691:(1960–1965) 5020:Colin Smith 4191:: 185–202. 2411:Katanganese 2336:Colin Smith 2279:Ahmed Dlimi 2120:Safari Club 2041:Third World 1978:Anwar Sadat 1970:Safari Club 1966:Anwar Sadat 1834:Cyrus Vance 1808:Cyrus Vance 1576:Journalists 1550:Safari Club 1540:, both the 1140:Plaine Savo 1020:Six-Day War 947:Thunderbolt 759:White Giant 752:Dragon Noir 650:South Kasai 577:during WWII 476:80 soldiers 448:3,000-4,000 400:Ahmed Dlimi 6381:Proxy wars 6320:Categories 6245:Overview / 5767:Jadotville 5623:Atrocities 3542:David Lamb 2675:5 February 2517:. Geneva: 2494:References 2394:Ogaden War 2321:Conclusion 2311:World Bank 2240:false flag 2013:Dick Clark 2011:. Senator 1915:Mutshatsha 1722:Portuguese 1665:, went to 1601:Background 1584:World Bank 1507:Mutshatsha 1491:, and the 958:Kinsangani 953:Lubumbashi 872:Background 691:Jadotville 565:Atrocities 548:Background 5833:1966–1995 5787:Grandslam 5751:Rum Punch 4411:4 January 4252:; p. 305. 4207:0707-5332 2388:Aftermath 2298:Coca-Cola 2273:Execution 2242:attacks. 2154:Yves Gras 1982:Hassan II 1931:Gécamines 1907:malachite 1891:austerity 1745:left-wing 1700:Formation 1630:, led by 711:Grandslam 675:Rum Punch 5855:Shaba II 5716:Invasion 5639:Pre-1960 5545:20671780 5461:Shaba II 5448:Shaba II 5435:Shaba II 4284:Shaba II 4129:Shaba II 3521:Shaba II 3365:Shaba II 3198:Shaba II 3168:Shaba II 3130:Shaba II 2986:30666705 2907:Shaba II 2803:Shaba II 2737:Archived 2646:page 304 2569:Shaba II 2483:Shaba II 2477:See also 2471:Shaba II 2361:bayonets 2267:Newsweek 2173:Idi Amin 1992:Newsweek 1887:Citibank 1760:Invasion 1724:against 1595:Shaba II 1588:Citibank 1561:Moroccan 1528:and the 1279:Kangbayi 1150:Response 831:Shaba II 655:Invasion 536:DR Congo 494:8 killed 438:Strength 64:Location 35:Cold War 33:and the 6300:MONUSCO 6116:2021–24 5850:Shaba I 5706:Katanga 2664:Telquel 2002:Beijing 1949:Kisengi 1919:Kolwezi 1655:Swahili 1557:airlift 1536:and by 1511:Kolwezi 1469:Shaba I 1299:Bulongo 1269:Virunga 1154:UN 1484 1120:Marabho 1110:Artemis 1052:MONUSCO 826:Shaba I 645:Katanga 490:Morocco 472:Belgium 451:Morocco 267:(FNLC) 246:Nigeria 173:Belgium 135:Morocco 24:Shaba I 6167:Others 5773:UNOKAT 5543: 5459:Odom, 5446:Odom, 5433:Odom, 4282:Odom, 4248: 4227: 4205: 4127:Odom, 3519:Odom, 3363:Odom, 3196:Odom, 3166:Odom, 3128:Odom, 2984: 2974: 2905:Odom, 2801:Odom, 2567:Odom, 2525: 2421:Idiofa 2375:Kasaji 2354:areas. 2131:Mirage 1927:copper 1843:(CIA) 1681:cobalt 1626:. 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