Sahara - Knowledge

2843: 1261:, Wadi Halfa) where the long-term mean approximates 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in) per year. Rainfall is very unreliable and erratic in the Sahara as it may vary considerably year by year. In full contrast to the negligible annual rainfall amounts, the annual rates of potential evaporation are extraordinarily high, roughly ranging from 2,500 millimetres (100 in) per year to more than 6,000 millimetres (240 in) per year in the whole desert. Nowhere else on Earth has air been found as dry and evaporative as in the Sahara region. However, at least two instances of snowfall have been recorded in Sahara, in February 1979 and December 2016, both in the town of 2673:. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Traders exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactured goods from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans. 283: 1341:(solar heating) caused by long-term changes in Earth's orbit are a controlling factor for the long-term variations in the strength of monsoon patterns across the globe was first suggested by Rudolf Spitaler in the late nineteenth century, The hypothesis was later formally proposed and tested by the meteorologist John Kutzbach in 1981. Kutzbach's ideas about the impacts of insolation on global monsoonal patterns have become widely accepted today as the underlying driver of long-term monsoonal cycles. Kutzbach never formally named his hypothesis and as such it is referred to here as the " 1835: 1089: 1556: 2309:, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and the dead were buried facing due west. Several scholars have argued that the African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE. 2738: 1222:

fact, most of the Sahara receives less than 20 millimetres (0.8 in). Of the 9,000,000 square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi) of desert land in the Sahara, an area of about 2,800,000 square kilometres (1,100,000 sq mi) (about 31% of the total area) receives an annual average rainfall amount of 10 millimetres (0.4 in) or less, while some 1,500,000 square kilometres (580,000 sq mi) (about 17% of the total area) receives an average of 5 millimetres (0.2 in) or less.

1292: 585: 1434: 1349: 218: 2851: 1954: 2479: 270: 577: 231: 153: 49: 1160: 1188:

humidity and are often even lower than a 10 °C (18 °F) difference, while the largest variations are found in inland desert areas where the humidity is the lowest, mainly in the southern Sahara. Still, it is true that winter nights can be cold, as it can drop to the freezing point and even below, especially in high-elevation areas. The frequency of subfreezing winter nights in the Sahara is strongly influenced by the

257: 244: 192: 179: 205: 166: 1330:– usually southward. The cycle is caused by a 41,000-year cycle in which the tilt of the earth changes between 22° and 24.5°. At present, it is in a dry period, but it is expected that the Sahara will become green again in 15,000 years. When the North African monsoon is at its strongest, annual precipitation and subsequent vegetation in the Sahara region increase, resulting in conditions commonly referred to as the " 1192:(NAO), with warmer winter temperatures during negative NAO events and cooler winters with more frosts when the NAO is positive. This is because the weaker clockwise flow around the eastern side of the subtropical anticyclone during negative NAO winters, although too dry to produce more than negligible precipitation, does reduce the flow of dry, cold air from higher latitudes of Eurasia into the Sahara significantly. 2154: 1746: 2129:. The post-Kiffian desiccation lasted until around 4600 BCE, when the earliest artefacts associated with the Tenerians have been dated to. Some 200 skeletons have been discovered at Gobero. The Tenerians were considerably shorter in height and less robust than the earlier Kiffians. Craniometric analysis also indicates that they were osteologically distinct. The Kiffian skulls are akin to those of the 2992: 2239: 2549: 65: 918: 1461:, Even-Sid, Ma'ale-ha-Meyshar, Ktora Cracks, Nagev Tzavoa Cave, and elsewhere, and has allowed tracking of prehistoric rainfall. The Red Sea coastal route was extremely arid before 140 and after 115 kya (thousands of years ago). Slightly wetter conditions appear at 90–87 kya, but it still was just one tenth the rainfall around 125 kya. In the southern 1214:, Morocco, are found in this zone. The southern fringe of the desert along the border with the Sahel receives summer cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of the Intertropical Convergence Zone from the south and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example, Timbuktu, Mali and 1152:, lying in northern Mali. The major part of the desert experiences around three to five months when the average high strictly exceeds 40 °C (104 °F); while in the southern central part of the desert, there are up to six or seven months when the average high temperature strictly exceeds 40 °C (104 °F). Some examples of this are 1504:(DO) event (a sudden warming followed by a slower cooling of the climate). The moister Saharan conditions had begun about 12,500 BCE, with the extension of the ITCZ northward in the northern hemisphere summer, bringing moist wet conditions and a savanna climate to the Sahara, which (apart from a short dry spell associated with the 2085:. Bones of many large savannah animals that were discovered in the same area suggest that they lived on the shores of a lake that was present during the Holocene Wet Phase, a period when the Sahara was verdant and wet. The Kiffian people were tall, standing over six feet in height. Craniometric analysis indicates that this early 639:. It covers 9 million square kilometres (3,500,000 sq mi), 31% of the African continent. If all areas with a mean annual precipitation of less than 250 mm (9.8 in) were included, the Sahara would be 11 million square kilometres (4,200,000 sq mi). It is one of three distinct 2539:

explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic

2219:

in which the results verified that the child possessed a dark skin complexion. One other individual, an adult, was found at Uan Muhuggiag, buried in a crouched position. However, the body showed no evidence of evisceration or any other method of preservation. The body was estimated to date from about

1221:

The vast central hyper-arid core of the desert is virtually never affected by northerly or southerly atmospheric disturbances and permanently remains under the influence of the strongest anticyclonic weather regime, and the annual average rainfall can drop to less than 1 millimetre (0.04 in). In

2149:

and clay pots. The most interesting find is a triple burial, dated to 5300 years ago, of an adult female and two children, estimated through their teeth as being five and eight years old, hugging each other. Pollen residue indicates they were buried on a bed of flowers. The three are assumed to have

1925:

Human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation.

1629:

ecoregion is a narrow band running east and west between the hyper-arid Sahara and the Sahel savannas to the south. Movements of the equatorial Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) bring summer rains during July and August which average 100 to 200 mm (4 to 8 in) but vary greatly from year

1598:

ecoregions of the northern Maghreb and Cyrenaica. Winter rains sustain shrublands and dry woodlands that form a transition between the Mediterranean climate regions to the north and the hyper-arid Sahara proper to the south. It covers 1,675,300 square kilometers (646,840 sq mi) in Algeria,

1107:

and rainfall make the Great Desert the hottest large region in the world, and the hottest place on Earth during summer in some spots. The average high temperature exceeds 38 to 40 °C (100.4 to 104.0 °F) during the hottest month nearly everywhere in the desert except at very high altitudes.

2424:

and Walaldé, and the iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai. The iron materials that were found are evidence of iron metalworking at Dhar Tagant. In the late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of a oval-shaped

2339:

culture (e.g., fields of tumuli, lustrous stone rings, axes) was intricate. By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions. The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated

2312:

By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in Earth's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the

1187:

between days and nights. However, it is a myth that the nights are especially cold after extremely hot days in the Sahara. On average, nighttime temperatures tend to be 13–20 °C (23–36 °F) cooler than in the daytime. The smallest variations are found along the coastal regions due to high

1064:

is extremely high everywhere in the Sahara. Most of the desert has more than 3,600 hours of bright sunshine per year (over 82% of daylight hours), and a wide area in the eastern part has over 4,000 hours of bright sunshine per year (over 91% of daylight hours). The highest values are very close to

1039:

and southern Sahara. Rainfall in this giant desert has to overcome the physical and atmospheric barriers that normally prevent the production of precipitation. The harsh climate of the Sahara is characterized by: extremely low, unreliable, highly erratic rainfall; extremely high sunshine duration

1760:

The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong

3134:

republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was conducted primarily in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by

2300:

in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal

1147:

with an elevation between 200 and 400 metres (660 and 1,310 ft) above sea level get slightly lower summer average highs, around 46 °C (114.8 °F) during the hottest months of the year. Salah, well known in Algeria for its extreme heat, has average high temperatures of 43.8 °C

2282:

by some 2,000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt. Archaeological evidence has attested that

2193:

years old. The child was in a fetal position, then embalmed, then placed in a sack made of antelope skin, which was insulated by a layer of leaves. The boy's organs were removed, as evidenced by incisions in his stomach and thorax, and an organic preservative was inserted to stop his body from

2206:

conducted anthropological, radiological, histological and chemical analyses on the Uan Muhuggiag mummy. The team claimed that the mummy was a 30-month-old child of uncertain sex. They also found a long incision on the specimen's abdominal wall, which indicated that the body had been initially

1011:

The effects of local surface low pressure are extremely limited because upper-level subsidence still continues to block any form of air ascent. Also, to be protected against rain-bearing weather systems by the atmospheric circulation itself, the desert is made even drier by its geographical

1492:, flows back to the equator and brings desert conditions to this region. It is associated with high rates of wind-blown mineral dust, and these dust levels are found as expected in marine cores from the north tropical Atlantic. But around 12,500 BCE the amount of dust in the cores in the 2352:

established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara The Tichitt Tradition of eastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE. Tichitt culture, at Dhar Néma, Dhar Tagant, Dhar Tichitt, and Dhar Walata, included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure,

987:

lying above the Sahara is the continental tropical (cT) air mass, which is hot and dry. Hot, dry air masses primarily form over the North-African desert from the heating of the vast continental land area, and it affects the whole desert during most of the year. Because of this

1385:

is the remnant of a former inland sea, paleolake Mega-Chad, which existed during the African humid period. At its largest extent, sometime before 5000 BCE, Lake Mega-Chad was the largest of four Saharan paleolakes, and is estimated to have covered an area of 350,000 km.

1200:

The average annual rainfall ranges from very low in the northern and southern fringes of the desert to nearly non-existent over the central and the eastern part. The thin northern fringe of the desert receives more winter cloudiness and rainfall due to the arrival of

1148:(110.8 °F), 46.4 °C (115.5 °F), 45.5 °C (113.9 °F) and 41.9 °C (107.4 °F) in June, July, August and September respectively. There are even hotter spots in the Sahara, but they are located in extremely remote areas, especially in the 1156:, Niger and Faya-Largeau, Chad. The annual average daily temperature exceeds 20 °C (68 °F) everywhere and can approach 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest regions year-round. However, most of the desert has a value in excess of 25 °C (77 °F). 4451: 952:

above the desert prevents any convective overturning, thus making rainfall virtually non-existent. As a consequence, the weather tends to be sunny, dry and stable with a minimal chance of rainfall. Subsiding, diverging, dry air masses associated with subtropical

2708:(1893), Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans-Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert. 2519:, who lived sometime in the 5th century BC, claims that he founded settlements along the Atlantic coast of Africa, possibly including the Western Sahara. The identification of the places discussed is controversial, and archeological confirmation is lacking. 1761:

winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture, and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by

1630:

to year. These rains sustain summer pastures of grasses and herbs, with dry woodlands and shrublands along seasonal watercourses. This ecoregion covers 1,101,700 square kilometres (425,400 sq mi) in Algeria, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Sudan.

968:) of this vast region. The descending airflow is the strongest and the most effective over the eastern part of the Great Desert, in the Libyan Desert: this is the sunniest, driest and the most nearly "rainless" place on the planet, rivaling the 6167: 3113:

and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with

1205:

over the Mediterranean Sea along the polar front, although very attenuated by the rain shadow effects of the mountains and the annual average rainfall ranges from 100 millimetres (4 in) to 250 millimetres (10 in). For example,

2150:

died within 24 hours of each other, but as their skeletons hold no apparent trauma (they did not die violently) and they have been buried so elaborately – unlikely if they had died of a plague – the cause of their deaths is a mystery.

1167:

Sand and ground temperatures are even more extreme. During daytime, the sand temperature is extremely high: it can easily reach 80 °C (176 °F) or more. A sand temperature of 83.5 °C (182.3 °F) has been recorded in

1731:, the Sahara has three zones based on the amount of rainfall received – the Northern (Mediterranean), Central and Southern Zones. There are two transitional zones – the Mediterranean-Sahara transition and the Sahel transition zone. 2257:

around 9500 BCE, the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called

2419:

As part of a broader trend of iron metallurgy developed in the West African Sahel amid 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at

3329: 2313:

numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several

4560: 2576:

and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors, and capturing and enslaving many individuals who were forced to work by extending the tunnels. The ancient Greeks and the

4498: 6048: 1637:, several volcanic highlands provide a cooler, moister environment that supports Saharo-Mediterranean woodlands and shrublands. The ecoregion covers 258,100 square kilometres (99,650 sq mi), mostly in the 1401:

grassland and various flora and fauna become more common. Following inter-pluvial arid periods, the Sahara area then reverts to desert conditions and the flora and fauna are forced to retreat northwards to the

1363:, the Sahara was much larger than it is today, extending south beyond its current boundaries. The end of the glacial period brought more rain to the Sahara, from about 8000 BCE to 6000 BCE, perhaps because of 4167:

Yan, Qing; Contoux, Camille; Camille Li; Schuster, Mathieu; Ramstein, Gilles; Zhang, Zhongshi (17 September 2014). "Aridification of the Sahara desert caused by Tethys Sea shrinkage during the Late Miocene".

2144:

groups, whereas the Tenerian crania are more like those of Mediterranean groups. Graves show that the Tenerians observed spiritual traditions, as they were buried with artifacts such as jewelry made of hippo

3135:

interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation," contributing much to preserving the indigenous cultural identities in the region.

945:, a significant belt of semi-permanent subtropical warm-core high pressure where the air from the upper troposphere usually descends, warming and drying the lower troposphere and preventing cloud formation. 2630:

began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries and Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. Trade across the desert intensified, and a significant

1334:". For a relatively weak North African monsoon, the opposite is true, with decreased annual precipitation and less vegetation resulting in a phase of the Sahara climate cycle known as the "desert Sahara". 2287:

era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.

1680:, and several rare and endemic plants. The ecoregion covers 82,200 square kilometres (31,700 sq mi) in the Tibesti of Chad and Libya, and Jebel Uweinat on the border of Egypt, Libya, and Sudan. 4259:

Foley, Jonathan A.; Coe, Michael T.; Scheffer, Marten; Wang, Guiling (1 October 2003). "Regime Shifts in the Sahara and Sahel: Interactions between Ecological and Climatic Systems in Northern Africa".

858:

typical of the Sahel. According to climatic criteria, the southern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the 150 mm (5.9 in) isohyet of annual precipitation (this is a long-term average, since

6901: 1225:

The annual average rainfall is virtually zero over a wide area of some 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 sq mi) in the eastern Sahara comprising deserts of: Libya, Egypt and Sudan (

3772: 2589:

have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes' territory. The Garamantes' civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the

1547:

cycle, led to a rapid drying out of the Saharan and Arabian regions, which quickly became desert. This is linked to a marked decline in the scale of the Nile floods between 2700 and 2100 BCE.

6636: 2493:, who flourished from 1200 to 800 BCE, created a chain of settlements along the coast of North Africa and traded extensively with its inhabitants. This put them in contact with the people of 2211:

features." However, modern genetics has since proven that the final claim is unscientific and not supported by evidence. A more recent publication referenced a laboratory examination of the

2175:

appears to have been inhabited from at least the 6th millennium BCE to about 2700 BCE, although not necessarily continuously. The most noteworthy find at Uan Muhuggiag is the well-preserved

4622: 2262:

were full participants in the "agricultural revolution", living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a

2572:, Libya. The Garamantes built a prosperous empire in the heart of the desert. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap 2301:

objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the

1823:. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as 6219: 1831:) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild in Egypt and Libya. There are approximately 2000 mature individuals left in the wild. 6841: 6932: 4591: 2381:. Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition, and the 3325: 4524: 3150: 6785: 3814: 1908:

is unique in that due to the extreme high temperatures of their habitat, and the threat of predators, the ants are active outside their nest for only about ten minutes per day.

6871: 6314: 4076: 3510: 1008:. The subsidence of the Sahara High nearly reaches the ground during the coolest part of the year, while it is confined to the upper troposphere during the hottest periods. 518: 1926:

In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to

1322:

The climate of the Sahara has undergone enormous variations between wet and dry over the last few hundred thousand years, believed to be caused by long-term changes in the

644: 1375:, which brought rain further north than it does today. By around 4200 BCE, however, the monsoon retreated south to approximately where it is today, leading to the gradual 5481: 1480:(LGM) the Sahara was more extensive than it is now with the extent of the tropical forests being greatly reduced, and the lower temperatures reduced the strength of the 6747: 4115: 3901: 2101:

groups. Traces of the Kiffian culture do not exist after 8,000 years ago, as the Sahara went through a dry period for the next thousand years. After this time, the

1016:

of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia also help to enhance the aridity of the northern part of the desert. These major mountain ranges act as a barrier, causing a strong

6417: 1606:

covers the hyper-arid central portion of the Sahara where rainfall is minimal and sporadic. Vegetation is rare, and this ecoregion consists mostly of sand dunes (

5779: 2198:

determined the age of the mummy to be approximately 5600 years old, which makes it about 1000 years older than the earliest previously recorded mummy in ancient

8930: 2412:

As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma. Farming of crops (e.g.,

1918:

are the domesticated animals most commonly found in the Sahara. Because of its qualities of endurance and speed, the dromedary is the favourite animal used by

983:

The rainfall inhibition and the dissipation of cloud cover are most accentuated over the eastern section of the Sahara rather than the western. The prevailing

2429:

may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE. At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt,

838:

with a summer rainy season that extends across Africa from east to west. The southern limit of the Sahara is indicated botanically by the southern limit of

310: 6893: 5701: 5574: 3733: 1622:), and salt flats. It covers 4,639,900 square kilometres (1,791,500 sq mi) of: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sudan. 2626:

ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia, specifically the Arabian peninsula, the

647:. The Sahara is so large and bright that, in theory, it could be detected from other stars as a surface feature of Earth, with near-current technology. 2862:

allowed Britain to keep troops in Egypt and to maintain the British-Egyptian condominium in the Sudan. British military forces were withdrawn in 1954.

1992: 1371:

to the north. Once the ice sheets were gone, the northern Sahara dried out. In the southern Sahara, the drying trend was initially counteracted by the

3853: 3756: 3702: 2770: 7202: 4340:

Kutzbach, J.E. (2 October 1981). "Monsoon Climate of the Early Holocene: Climate Experiment with the Earth's Orbital Parameters for 9000 Years Ago".

2203: 1996: 6628: 5817: 5314: 5148: 3429: 3278: 5868: 6270: 4614: 6193: 5244: 1512:

climatic phase at 4000 BCE when mid-latitude temperatures seem to have been between 2 and 3 degrees warmer than in the recent past. Analysis of

6833: 2565: 6924: 4583: 4033: 1657: 997: 4430: 2635:

crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.

2053:

increased temperatures and decreased precipitation, which caused an abrupt beginning of North Africa desertification about 5,400 years ago.

5365: 6378: 4407: 2873:

in 1975, and it was partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco. Mauritania withdrew in 1979; Morocco continues to hold the territory (see

2869:: Libya in 1951; Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia in 1956; Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger in 1960; and Algeria in 1962. Spain withdrew from 8244: 6128: 4935: 2789: 2769:, as well as trans-Sahara bus services run by La Compagnie Transsaharienne (est. 1927). A remarkable film shot by famous aviator Captain 1595: 1445:

It is also proposed that humans accelerated the drying-out period from 6000 to 2500 BCE by pastoralists overgrazing available grassland.

957:

are extremely unfavorable for the development of convectional showers. The subtropical ridge is the predominant factor that explains the

7220: 7171: 4974: 4645: 2830:

appointed a delegate Apostolic of the Sahara and the Sudan in 1868; later in the 19th century his jurisdiction was reorganized into the

1567:. With their variations in temperature, rainfall, elevation, and soil, these regions harbor distinct communities of plants and animals. 756:, with sparse vegetation. The northern and southern reaches of the desert, along with the highlands, have areas of sparse grassland and 556:

For several hundred thousand years, the Sahara has alternated between desert and savanna grassland in a 20,000-year cycle caused by the

6777: 6498:"Spatial Organization and Socio-Economic Differentiation at the Dhar Tichitt Center of Dakhlet el Atrouss I (Southeastern Mauritania)" 3798: 1342: 5760: 5399: 1108:

The world's highest officially recorded average daily high temperature was 47 °C (116.6 °F) in a remote desert town in the

800: 1710:

is one of the Sahara's most arid regions, with no vegetation and very little life. A barren, flat gravel plain, it extends south of

6863: 6755: 5004: 4145: 3402: 2331:

In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid the

6298: 4694: 4060: 3520: 2669:

and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present-day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the

1012:

configuration and location. Indeed, the extreme aridity of the Sahara is not only explained by the subtropical high pressure: the

5944: 1687:(salt-adapted) plant communities. The Saharan halophytics cover 54,000 square kilometres (21,000 sq mi) including: the 6602: 1307:

One theory for the formation of the Sahara is that the monsoon in Northern Africa was weakened because of glaciation during the

5902: 9043: 8975: 7029: 5848: 5811: 4968: 4929: 4716:

Stager, J.C.; Johnson, T.C. (2008). "The late Pleistocene desiccation of Lake Victoria and the origin of its endemic biota".

4324: 4109: 4099: 4070: 4019: 3895: 3847: 3808: 3766: 3600: 3363: 3302: 3248: 2504:

The Libyco-Berber alphabet of the ancient Libyans of north Africa seems to have been based on Phoenician, and its descendant

410:. With an area of 9,200,000 square kilometres (3,600,000 sq mi), it is the largest hot desert in the world and the 6811: 5123: 2887:

several times during the 20th century before finally forcing the Malian armed forces to withdraw below the line demarcating

1587:, and shrubs. It covers an area of 39,900 square kilometers (15,400 sq mi) in the south of Morocco and Mauritania. 9058: 6160:"Expansions and Contractions: World-Historical Change And The Western Sudan World-System (1200/1000 B.C. - 1200/1250 A.D.)" 2531:

arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the

1634: 1441:, participating countries and Sahel. In August 2023, it was reported that the GGW had only covered 18% of the planned area. 3881: 8484: 5889: 3515: 6401: 1469:

6), 110–90 (MIS 5.4–5.2), nor after 85 kya nor during most of the interglacial period (MIS 5.1), the glacial period and

9053: 4752:

Burroughs, William J. (2007) "Climate Change in Prehistory: the end of the reign of chaos" (Cambridge University Press)

2884: 1975:. In the Central Sahara, engraved and painted rock art were created perhaps as early as 10,000 years ago, spanning the 1626: 1591: 7780: 5776: 5678: 2653:

of the 17th century. As a result, Arabian culture and language came to dominate, and the Berber tribes underwent some

7250: 7108: 7070: 7050: 6724: 6698: 6411: 6308: 6213: 5658: 5610: 3615:

Grove, A.T.; Nicole (2007) . "The Ancient Erg of Hausaland, and Similar Formations on the South Side of the Sahara".

3550: 5603:

The Great Civilisations of the ancient Sahara: Neolithisation and the earliest evidence of anthropomorphic religions

513:

in the west, where the landscape gradually changes from desert to coastal plains. To the south it is bounded by the

9068: 8020: 6441:"Agricultural diversification in West Africa: an archaeobotanical study of the site of Sadia (Dogon Country, Mali)" 2081:. The site is known as the largest and earliest grave of Stone Age people in the Sahara. The Kiffians were skilled 1664:

highlands. Higher and more regular rainfall and cooler temperatures support woodlands and shrublands of date palm,

949: 8100: 6341:"Diversification, Intensification and Specialization: Changing Land Use in Western Africa from 1800 BC to AD 1500" 5331:

El-Said, Mohammed (29 January 2018). "Near-perfect fossils of Egyptian dinosaur discovered in the Sahara desert".

2969:

which follows the Nile. Each of these highways is partially complete, with significant gaps and unpaved sections.

2207:

mummified by evisceration and later underwent natural desiccation. The team also stated that the mummy possessed "

1311:

period, starting two or three million years ago. Another theory is that the monsoon was weakened when the ancient

962: 8237: 5209: 3093:

are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term

2954: 2927: 2896: 2797: 2627: 1727:

The flora of the Sahara is highly diversified based on the bio-geographical characteristics of this vast desert.

1485: 5983:"Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: a prehistoric perspective on Egypt's place in Africa" 5955: 2065:

is a prehistoric industry, or domain, that existed between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Sahara, during the

1544: 8810: 8504: 6044: 5290: 2842: 1028: 674:

or rare rainfall shape the desert features: sand dunes, dune fields, sand seas, stone plateaus, gravel plains (

17: 6954:

Drake, Nick A.; Blench, Roger M.; Armitage, Simon J.; Bristow, Charlie S.; White, Kevin H. (11 January 2011).

6300:

Early domesticated pearl millet in Dhar Nema (Mauritania): evidence of crop processing waste as ceramic temper

5724: 5566: 3725: 1792:

is a north African gazelle that can also go for a long time without water. Other notable gazelles include the

1085:

is around 2,800 kWh/(m year) in the Great Desert. The Sahara has a huge potential for solar energy production.

764:, where moisture collects. In the central, hyperarid region, there are many subdivisions of the great desert: 8825: 8322: 8201: 5920: 2995:

A 19th-century engraving of an Arab slave-trading caravan transporting black African slaves across the Sahara

2966: 2934: 2859: 2831: 1516:

deposited sediments in the delta also shows this period had a higher proportion of sediments coming from the

1184: 1045: 663: 2456:) of Mali where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE among 2416:) may have been a feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt. 1945:

and also some essential macro and micro nutrient elements suitable for use as fertilizer for growing wheat.

996:

is usually noticed near the surface, and is the strongest and the most developed during the summertime. The

8950: 8407: 3837: 3694: 2597: 1286: 565: 303: 292: 7199: 2749:

The French Colonial Empire was the dominant presence in the Sahara. It established regular air links from

1020:

effect on the leeward side by dropping much of the humidity brought by atmospheric disturbances along the

5801: 3310: 1323: 859: 6075:"Reconsidering the emergence of social complexity in early Saharan pastoral societies, 5000 – 2500 B.C." 5311: 5145: 4644:

Vaks, Anton; Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Ayalon, Avner; Matthews, Alan; Halicz, Ludwik; Frumkin, Amos (2007).

2305:

in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone

1031:, a continuous belt of low-pressure systems near the equator which bring the brief, short and irregular 9048: 8785: 8230: 5981:

Wengrow, David; Dee, Michael; Foster, Sarah; Stevenson, Alice; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk (March 2014).

5864: 3887: 3425: 2773:

in 1933 documents the first crossing by a large truck convoy from Algiers to Tchad, across the Sahara.

1189: 811:

and geographer Robert Capot-Rey, the northern limit of the Sahara corresponds to the northern limit of

6242: 2906:

and communities have developed to use the desert's natural resources. These include large deposits of

2581:

knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with them, and a

9063: 8720: 7592: 5917:"The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological Record" 5241: 3183: 3166: 2632: 2473: 2426: 1828: 1808: 1603: 1438: 6243:"Coping with uncertainty: Neolithic life in the Dhar Tichitt-Walata, Mauritania, (ca. 4000–2300 BP)" 5100: 4281: 3101:

spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the

2754: 2722:

were originally recruited mainly from the Chaamba nomadic tribe. In 1902, the French penetrated the

8211: 7923: 7800: 3171: 1509: 1501: 1282: 1117: 8920: 7291: 5357: 4427: 3160: 2938: 2892: 2874: 2037:, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the 1572: 1500:

phase suddenly plummets and shows a period of much wetter conditions in the Sahara, indicating a

828: 640: 411: 31: 2665:

In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present-day

2540:

Berber people of the desert were of constant concern to those living on the edge of the desert.

807:

characterized by hot summers and cool and rainy winters. According to the botanical criteria of

8437: 8130: 8082: 7883: 7873: 7828: 7810: 7549: 7471: 6340: 5508:"Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change" 5423:"Lakeside Cemeteries in the Sahara: 5000 Years of Holocene Population and Environmental Change" 5054: 4403: 4276: 3131: 2742: 808: 435: 6117: 5748:

Templeton, A. (2016). "Evolution and Notions of Human Race". In Losos, J.; Lenski, R. (eds.).

4919: 2930:

to cities in the populous Libyan northern Mediterranean coast including Tripoli and Benghazi.

2688:

conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from

1497: 1493: 8862: 8820: 8815: 8730: 8593: 8412: 8332: 8327: 8172: 8060: 8005: 7953: 7913: 7374: 7243: 6205: 4958: 4676: 3923:

Visbeck, Martin H.; Hurrell, James W.; Polvani, Lorenzo; Cullen, Heidi M. (6 November 2001).

3127: 2777: 2617: 2314: 2216: 1904:

and is very dangerous; however, a sting from this scorpion rarely kills a healthy adult. The

1878: 1683:

The Saharan halophytics is an area of seasonally flooded saline depressions which is home to

1427: 1327: 1049: 804: 2425:

low shaft furnace; this furnace was one out of 16 iron furnaces located on elevated ground.

1065:

the theoretical maximum value. A value of 4300 hours (98%) of the time would be recorded in

533:. The Sahara can be divided into several regions, including the western Sahara, the central 8516: 8139: 7987: 7958: 7928: 7888: 7324: 6967: 6452: 6254: 5519: 5434: 5391: 5274: 5174: 4660: 4536: 4466: 4349: 4268: 4177: 3999: 3936: 3474: 3216: 3144: 2942: 2919: 2681: 2233: 2066: 1938: 1834: 1477: 1466: 1278: 1088: 1005: 954: 840: 8337: 6037:"The Emergence of Mobile Pastoral Elites during the Middle to Late Holocene in the Sahara" 5757: 5421:

Sereno PC, Garcea EAA, Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, Saliège J-F, Maga A, et al. (2008).

3991: 455: 119: 8: 8935: 8915: 8780: 8452: 8360: 8010: 7978: 7848: 7662: 7582: 7504: 3270: 3123: 2922:

is the world's largest irrigation project. The project uses a pipeline system that pumps

2803: 2613: 2593:

and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.

2516: 2382: 1972: 1847: 1696: 1528:

circulation throughout the sub-tropical regions, affecting India, Arabia and the Sahara.

1521: 1489: 1202: 8164: 7767: 7306: 6971: 6956:"Ancient watercourses and biogeography of the Sahara explain the peopling of the desert" 6456: 6258: 5523: 5506:

Sereno PC, Garcea EA, Jousse H, Stojanowski CM, Saliège JF, Maga A, et al. (2008).

5438: 5278: 5178: 4996: 4664: 4540: 4470: 4353: 4272: 4181: 4137: 4003: 3940: 3478: 3394: 3220: 3126:

administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the

3087:

speakers, around 1500 years ago, who now largely populate the Sahara in the modern era.

1777: 8995: 8900: 8509: 8457: 8184: 8040: 8000: 7938: 7903: 7893: 7878: 7296: 6998: 6955: 6672: 6535: 6473: 6440: 6370: 6090: 6074: 6012: 5702:"Antonio Ascenzi (1915–2000), a Pathologist devoted to Anthropology and Paleopathology" 5647: 5542: 5507: 5457: 5422: 5190: 4735: 4702: 4552: 4490: 4373: 4294: 4209: 4025: 3632: 3492: 3464: 2378: 2229: 2195: 1905: 1874: 1870: 1762: 1750: 1703:

in Algeria, and smaller areas of Algeria, Mauritania, and the southern part of Morocco.

1688: 1638: 1390: 1274: 1258: 958: 713:

Several deeply dissected mountains, many volcanic, rise from the desert, including the

695: 530: 7429: 7214: 5941: 5077: 4447: 3451:

Farr, Ben; Farr, Will M.; Cowan, Nicolas B.; Haggard, Hal M.; Robinson, Tyler (2018).

2639: 2460:

architecture and iron metallurgy (which had developed after 900 BCE). Thereafter, the

8925: 8905: 8857: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8645: 8390: 8385: 8375: 8370: 8110: 8095: 8035: 7868: 7853: 7833: 7753: 7634: 7438: 7394: 7104: 7066: 7046: 7025: 7003: 6985: 6694: 6594: 6539: 6527: 6519: 6478: 6407: 6374: 6304: 6209: 6159: 6095: 6036: 6004: 5844: 5807: 5716: 5654: 5631: 5606: 5547: 5462: 4964: 4925: 4646:"Desert speleothems reveal climatic window for African exodus of early modern humans" 4556: 4523:

Quade, J.; Dente, E.; Armon, M.; Ben Dor, Y.; Morin, E.; Adam, O.; Enzel, Y. (2018).

4482: 4365: 4320: 4213: 4201: 4193: 4105: 4101:

Desert Biology: Special Topics on the Physical and Biological Aspects of Arid Regions

4066: 4015: 3972: 3967: 3954: 3924: 3891: 3843: 3804: 3762: 3676: 3596: 3546: 3359: 2978: 2297: 1984: 1715: 1650: 1364: 1061: 1041: 942: 926: 850: 788: 726: 718: 671: 564:(about 26,000 years) as it rotates around the Sun, which changes the location of the 538: 534: 479: 6016: 5194: 4739: 4377: 4298: 4029: 3496: 1575:

is a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast where fog generated offshore by the cool

9017: 9005: 8990: 8970: 8955: 8830: 8494: 8472: 8206: 7898: 7863: 7657: 7476: 7236: 7179: 6993: 6975: 6566: 6509: 6468: 6460: 6360: 6352: 6262: 6201: 6085: 5994: 5753: 5537: 5527: 5452: 5442: 5336: 5286: 5282: 5210:"Organic Farming By Using Saharan Soil: Could It Be An Alternative To Fertilizers?" 5182: 5095: 5049: 5027: 4727: 4668: 4544: 4494: 4474: 4357: 4286: 4241: 4185: 4007: 3962: 3944: 3624: 3482: 3224: 3098: 3080: 3079:

speaking groups had populated the central and southern Sahara before the influx of

2982: 2815: 2731: 2723: 2623: 2498: 2275: 2130: 2126: 2102: 1980: 1957: 1927: 1896:

scorpion can be 10 cm (3.9 in) long. Its venom contains large amounts of

1882: 1866: 1862: 1555: 1103:

The high position of the Sun, the extremely low relative humidity, and the lack of

1082: 948:

The permanent absence of clouds allows unhindered light and thermal radiation. The

835: 730: 707: 380: 351: 5165:

Wehner, R.; Marsh, A.C.; Wehner, S. (1992). "Desert ants on a thermal tightrope".

4892: 4866: 4840: 4814: 4788: 4762: 3566: 3511:"Journey through a stunning diversity of cultures and sounds in the Sahara Desert" 3299: 3244: 3147: – Holocene climate period during which northern Africa was wetter than today 2796:. After its capture by British troops in 1898, the Sudan became an Anglo-Egyptian 2788:

in 1874. Egypt, including Sudan, became a British protectorate in 1882. Egypt and

2121:

remains. Two distinct prehistoric cultures were discovered at the site: the early

1642: 714: 542: 9038: 9012: 8805: 8740: 8725: 8690: 8660: 8556: 8273: 8015: 7858: 7838: 7823: 7795: 7785: 7775: 7735: 7692: 7564: 7539: 7534: 7446: 7364: 7314: 7286: 7276: 7206: 7140: 7097: 6807: 6629:"Betwixt Tichitt and the IND: the pottery of the Faita Facies, Tichitt Tradition" 5959: 5948: 5783: 5764: 5532: 5447: 5318: 5248: 5152: 5131: 4434: 4411: 3453:"Exocartographer: A Bayesian Framework for Mapping Exoplanets in Reflected Light" 3306: 3155: 3090: 3060: 3024: 2666: 2406: 2394: 2332: 2326: 2254: 2137: 2094: 2082: 2062: 1988: 1976: 1692: 1584: 1473:. This suggests that the southern Negev was arid-to-hyper-arid in these periods. 1403: 1376: 1109: 1013: 938: 483: 467: 446: 426: 110: 8910: 6593:

MacDonald, Kevin C.; Vernet, Robert; Martinon-Torres, Marcos; Fuller, Dorian Q.

4361: 2737: 9000: 8835: 8750: 8745: 8735: 8650: 8623: 8541: 8489: 8462: 8447: 8422: 8365: 8342: 8278: 8265: 8120: 8115: 8090: 8068: 8030: 8025: 7948: 7943: 7745: 7725: 7667: 7639: 7529: 7524: 7514: 7509: 7461: 7456: 7419: 7359: 7349: 7339: 6960:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

6571: 6554: 6514: 6497: 6464: 6356: 6266: 5340: 3487: 3452: 3395:"Sahara | Location, History, Map, Countries, Animals, & Facts | Britannica" 3106: 3048: 3036: 2958: 2870: 2823: 2811: 2807: 2693: 2689: 2670: 2650: 2528: 2485:

salt caravan. The French reported that the 1906 caravan numbered 20,000 camels.

2133: 2090: 1886: 1854: 1789: 1735: 1576: 1540: 1360: 1124: 969: 882: 845: 777: 742: 655: 624: 589: 526: 510: 288: 7414: 6531: 5999: 5982: 4731: 4290: 3996:

The North Atlantic Oscillation: Climatic Significance and Environmental Impact

3990:

Hurrell, James W.; Kushnir, Yochanan; Ottersen, Geir; Visbeck, Martin (2003),

3229: 3204: 3180: – Engineering project to flood parts of the Sahara Desert with sea water 2078: 1742:. About half of these species are common to the flora of the Arabian deserts. 1183:

Due to lack of cloud cover and very low humidity, the desert usually has high

1172:. Ground temperatures of 72 °C (161.6 °F) have been recorded in the 769: 546: 9032: 8800: 8566: 8561: 8551: 8523: 8427: 8050: 8045: 7995: 7933: 7918: 7908: 7843: 7818: 7790: 7730: 7720: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7672: 7617: 7607: 7481: 7384: 7369: 7344: 7334: 7319: 7119: 6989: 6523: 6008: 5086: 5040: 4718: 4197: 3958: 3068: 3040: 3004: 2880: 2819: 2685: 2646: 2509: 2494: 2349: 2172: 2157: 2141: 2098: 1931: 1700: 1661: 1646: 1529: 1505: 1173: 781: 773: 734: 722: 561: 550: 451: 325: 312: 8253: 7184: 6980: 6595:"Dhar Néma: From early agriculture to metallurgy in southeastern Mauritania" 4584:"Progress is slow on Africa's Great Green Wall, but some bright spots bloom" 4478: 2389:, may have served as a second regional center of the Tichitt Tradition. The 1543:(a sudden cooling followed by a slower warming), linked to changes with the 1291: 8960: 8775: 8613: 8533: 8467: 8442: 8380: 8152: 8105: 7629: 7622: 7612: 7496: 7486: 7399: 7389: 7354: 7281: 7007: 6482: 6099: 5720: 5674: 5551: 5466: 4615:"What Really Turned the Sahara Desert From a Green Oasis into a Wasteland?" 4486: 4369: 4205: 3976: 3949: 3102: 3076: 3044: 2962: 2923: 2866: 2827: 2701: 2601: 2578: 2573: 2461: 2457: 2445: 2437: 2402: 2374: 2345: 2033: 1893: 1843: 1839: 1820: 1797: 1793: 1462: 1394: 1331: 1312: 1234: 1032: 906: 757: 475: 407: 6720: 6553:

Vernet, Robert; Gestrich, Nikolas; Coutros, Peter R. (27 September 2023).

5208:

Yücekutlu, Nihal; Terzioğlu, Serpil; Saydam, Cemal; Bildacı, Işık (2011).

3383:(in Arabic) (16th ed.). Beirut: Dār al-'Ilm lil-Malāyīn. p. 689. 2986: 2850: 2719: 2194:

decomposing. An ostrich eggshell necklace was also found around his neck.

1379:

of the Sahara. The Sahara is now as dry as it was about 13,000 years ago.

1116:, at an elevation of 378 metres (1,240 ft) above sea level, and only 8945: 8890: 8852: 8847: 8840: 8795: 8790: 8767: 8638: 8608: 8603: 8352: 8312: 8307: 7968: 7963: 7715: 7682: 7677: 7597: 7587: 7519: 7329: 4232:

White, Kevin; Mattingly, David J. (2006). "Ancient Lakes of the Sahara".

3110: 3056: 3052: 2950: 2911: 2793: 2727: 2697: 2654: 2586: 2564:, arose around 500 BCE in the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the 2398: 2341: 2284: 2271: 2263: 2114: 2113:

Gobero was discovered in 2000 during an archaeological expedition led by

2021: 1901: 1481: 1454: 1411: 1407: 1113: 1066: 1021: 1017: 1001: 993: 902: 870: 584: 522: 6365: 4548: 4452:"Climate-Driven Ecosystem Succession in the Sahara: The Past 6000 Years" 4245: 4189: 2553: 2266:

like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today.

2069:. Human remains from this culture were found in 2000 at a site known as 2045:, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the 1999:. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 1488:(ITCZ) to bring rain to the tropics, while dry descending air, at about 1348: 886: 784:

and others. These extremely arid areas often receive no rain for years.

8895: 8869: 8705: 8695: 8685: 8633: 8618: 8583: 8499: 8317: 8285: 8147: 7649: 7602: 7544: 7409: 3680: 3636: 3177: 3075:). The archaeological evidence from the Holocene period has shown that 2582: 2561: 2453: 2390: 2386: 2362: 2279: 2050: 2000: 1769: 1728: 1707: 1684: 1533: 1513: 1433: 1423: 1415: 1338: 1308: 1246: 1211: 1169: 1104: 1092: 1078: 934: 866: 827:. The northern limit also corresponds to the 100 mm (3.9 in) 765: 738: 616: 557: 415: 223: 4672: 2478: 2011:

survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria.

1953: 8965: 8885: 8755: 8432: 8417: 8395: 8177: 7574: 5186: 3351: 3205:"Detection and Analysis of an Amplified Warming of the Sahara Desert" 3012: 2915: 2907: 2490: 2449: 2436:

After its decline in Mauritania, the Tichitt Tradition spread to the

2421: 2306: 2302: 2250: 2008: 1911: 1824: 1564: 1517: 1382: 1368: 1316: 1262: 989: 812: 792: 753: 667: 54: 8222: 5952: 5262: 4011: 3628: 1827:

and acacias. They are unusually pale. The other cheetah subspecies (

878: 576: 48: 8710: 8700: 8571: 8295: 7451: 7200:

About Sahara subsurface hydrology and planned usage of the aquifers

5775:

American Association of Physical Anthropologists (27 March 2019). "

4428:

Sahara's Abrupt Desertification Started by Changes in Earth's Orbit

3469: 3016: 3008: 2781: 2750: 2705: 2536: 2505: 2370: 2366: 2336: 2267: 2242: 2122: 2118: 2086: 2016: 1897: 1785: 1773: 1739: 1673: 1470: 1296: 1159: 1136: 1132: 1128: 984: 894: 687: 7172:"Drones and Satellites Spot Lost Civilizations in Unlikely Places" 6834:"Al-Qaeda in North Africa appoints new leader to replace Droukdel" 5916: 3998:, vol. 134, American Geophysical Union (AGU), pp. 1–35, 1873:. Other animals exist in the Sahara (birds in particular) such as 8588: 8546: 8477: 8290: 7554: 7085: 6403:

Urbanisation and State Formation in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond

5420: 3119: 3094: 3032: 3000: 2946: 2712: 2711:

The French took advantage of long-standing animosity between the

2643: 2596:

Between the first century BCE and the fourth century CE, several

2590: 2532: 2358: 2354: 2208: 2027: 1804: 1711: 1677: 1525: 1484:. This is a climate cell which causes rising tropical air of the 1458: 1419: 1398: 1372: 1242: 1226: 1144: 1096: 890: 874: 855: 820: 816: 796: 746: 636: 632: 596: 506: 487: 275: 236: 158: 7228: 6592: 2999:

The people of the Sahara are of various origins. Among them the

2441: 2153: 834:

To the south, the Sahara is bounded by the Sahel, a belt of dry

823:

typical of the Mediterranean climate portion of the Maghreb and

8940: 8715: 8598: 8300: 8257: 7559: 7271: 7260: 7115:

Republished with a new preface Columbia University Press, 1990.

5263:"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules" 5207: 5075: 3115: 3084: 3028: 2903: 2888: 2792:

lost control of the Sudan from 1882 to 1898 as a result of the

2785: 2762: 2569: 2482: 2430: 2413: 2161: 2070: 2012: 2004: 1968: 1961: 1745: 1669: 1665: 1580: 1300: 1238: 1215: 1207: 1177: 1149: 1140: 898: 824: 651: 419: 6894:"Libya's Qaddafi taps 'fossil water' to irrigate desert farms" 5752:. Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. pp. 346–361. 4643: 2991: 2283:

population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late

2245:, a holy city surrounded by thick walls in the Algerian Sahara 2238: 395: 8985: 8628: 7466: 7379: 7213: 6778:"Algeria recalls envoy to Morocco in row over Western Sahara" 5750:

How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society

5505: 3989: 3020: 2766: 2600:

were conducted by groups of military and commercial units of

2548: 2259: 2199: 2176: 2074: 2046: 2042: 1919: 1858: 1816: 1781: 1539:

The sudden subsequent movement of the ITCZ southwards with a

1352: 1254: 1250: 1230: 1176:

and a value of 75 °C (167 °F) has been measured in

1153: 1074: 1070: 1036: 973: 922: 628: 620: 608: 604: 514: 499: 495: 262: 249: 197: 184: 7145:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus

5358:"Stone Age Graveyard Reveals Lifestyles of A 'Green Sahara'" 5124:"Endangered in South Africa: Those Doggone Conservationists" 4166: 3593:

Ecophysiology of Economic Plants in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands

3263: 366: 8578: 8400: 4698: 3925:"The North Atlantic Oscillation: Past, present, and future" 3922: 3358:(4th ed.). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 589. 2758: 2212: 2146: 2038: 1942: 1915: 1812: 1788:, can go nearly a year in the desert without drinking. The 1754: 977: 761: 679: 659: 612: 600: 491: 398: 386: 369: 357: 210: 171: 6953: 6739: 6710:

Trans-Saharan Africa in World History, Ch. 6, Ralph Austin

5626:

Hooke, C. (Director), & Mosely, G. (Producer) (2003).

2858:

Egypt became independent of Britain in 1936, although the

2393:

Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale,

1268: 1040:

values; high temperatures year-round; negligible rates of

929:. Oases support some life forms in extremely arid deserts. 917: 5980: 4141: 1768:

Several species of fox live in the Sahara including: the

64: 7022:

Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video

3163: – List of the largest deserts in the world by area 2837: 2810:

after 1874, although Rio del Oro remained largely under

2780:

and his successors, conquered Nubia in 1820–22, founded

7151: 7133:

History of North Africa: From the Arab Conquest to 1830

2865:

Most of the Saharan states achieved independence after

2274:

are overt examples of probably the world's first known

2089:

population was closely related to the Late Pleistocene

1941:

have reported that Saharan soil may have bio-available

8931:

List of countries where Arabic is an official language

6808:"Mali Tuareg rebels declare independence in the north" 5843:. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 5841:

Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara

5803:

Round Heads: The Earliest Rock Paintings in the Sahara

4522: 4437:, Accelerated by Atmospheric and Vegetation Feedbacks. 3356:

A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (Arabic-English)

3023:, a tribe whose name is a remnant of the pre-historic 2405:

of the Sahara, which may have served as the segue for

1024:

which affects the surrounding Mediterranean climates.

509:

in the east and the Mediterranean in the north to the

7130: 6552: 6400:

Sterry, Martin; Mattingly, David J. (26 March 2020).

2585:

has been found in the Garamantes' capital of Garama.

1765:. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover. 1579:

provides sufficient moisture to sustain a variety of

1457:(which requires rainwater) was detected in Hol-Zakh, 1299:(top), between about 12,000 and 7,000 years ago, and 383: 354: 4258: 3450: 2937:

have been proposed across the Sahara, including the

1559:

The major topographic features of the Saharan region

1000:

represents the eastern continental extension of the

803:

eco-regions of northern Africa, all of which have a

440: 7224:. Vol. 23 (11th ed.). pp. 1004–1008. 7094: 5903:

Late Neolithic megalithic structures at Nabta Playa

5567:"In the Sahara, Stone Age graves from greener days" 5235: 4715: 4404:

Fezzan Project — Palaeoclimate and environment

2895:. Islamist rebels in the Sahara calling themselves 1734:The Saharan flora comprises around 2800 species of 1060:The sky is usually clear above the desert, and the 815:cultivation and the southern limit of the range of 392: 389: 363: 360: 7126:. Signal Books (UK), Oxford University Press (US). 7096: 5646: 3792: 3790: 3655:Mythes et réalités d'un désert convoité: le Sahara 3315:Douglas Harper, Historian. Retrieved 25 June 2007. 2202:. In 1958–59, an archaeological expedition led by 1465:speleothems did not grow between 185 and 140 kya ( 1393:describes this cycle. During periods of a wet or " 7154:The History of the Maghrib: An Interpretive Essay 6555:"The Tichitt Culture and the Malian Lakes Region" 5806:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 19–24. 5164: 4917: 4138:"Snow falls in Sahara for first time in 37 years" 3835: 3614: 3541:Strahler, Arthur N. and Strahler, Alan H. (1987) 3378: 2972: 2348:. After migrating from the Central Sahara, proto- 9030: 7212:Heawood, Edward; Cana, Frank Richardson (1911). 6111: 6109: 5788:American Association of Physical Anthropologists 4423: 4421: 4419: 3836:Griffiths, John F.; Driscoll, Dennis M. (1982). 3545:Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 2899:have stepped up their violence in recent years. 2700:to include present-day Algeria, Chad, Mali then 2377:may have also been independently tamed amid the 1027:The primary source of rain in the Sahara is the 6588: 6586: 6584: 6582: 6399: 6296: 6292: 6290: 6288: 5101:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-1.RLTS.T12436A166502262.en 4867:"Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands" 3992:"An Overview of the North Atlantic Oscillation" 3929:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 3787: 3174: – International conservation organization 2745:(blue) was the dominant presence in the Sahara. 2607: 1599:Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. 1536:and dried out almost completely around 15 kya. 1418:of some of the species in areas with different 865:Important cities located in the Sahara include 7118: 5832: 5158: 4581: 4231: 3122:leaders and culture. The legacy of the French 2317:, making trade and contact by boat difficult. 8238: 7244: 7139: 6635:. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa. 6622: 6620: 6495: 6489: 6106: 5638: 5324: 5025: 4924:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 490. 4701:Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Archived from 4416: 4054: 4052: 4050: 3875: 3873: 3871: 3666: 3664: 3648: 3646: 2497:, who were the ancestors of people who speak 1971:thousands of years ago, since the end of the 1658:Tibesti-Jebel Uweinat montane xeric woodlands 94:9,200,000 km (3,600,000 sq mi) 7169: 7160: 7086:Brett, Michael; Prentess, Elizabeth (1996). 6601:. Azania Archaeological Research in Africa. 6579: 6285: 6187: 6185: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5473: 4612: 4310: 4308: 3610: 3608: 3027:. Other major groups of people include the: 2914:in Algeria and Libya, and large deposits of 2761:and over the Hoggar to Timbuktu and West to 2642:and other nomadic Arab tribes dominated the 1524:. This was caused principally by a stronger 461: 7211: 6670: 6496:Linares-Matás, Gonzalo J. (13 April 2022). 6445:Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 6406:. Cambridge University Press. p. 318. 6068: 6066: 5965: 5693: 5482:"Stone Age mass graves reveal green Sahara" 5352: 5350: 4950: 3726:"Interesting Facts About the Sahara Desert" 2373:tradition At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata, 1596:Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub 658:(sand seas – large areas covered with sand 8245: 8231: 7251: 7237: 6922: 6713: 6617: 5971:Predynastic (5,500–3,100 BCE), Tour Egypt. 5699: 5619: 5385: 5383: 5305: 5217:Hacettepe Journal of Biology and Chemistry 5076:Woodroffe, R.; Sillero-Zubiri, C. (2020). 5055:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T221A13035738.en 4535:(2). Cambridge University Press: 253–275. 4047: 3868: 3670: 3661: 3652: 3643: 3237: 2846:A natural rock arch in south western Libya 1594:is along the northern desert, next to the 1052:which are the highest recorded worldwide. 414:overall, smaller only than the deserts of 7183: 6997: 6979: 6570: 6513: 6472: 6364: 6303:. Netherlands: Barkhuis. pp. 71–76. 6191: 6182: 6118:"A New Recording of Mauritanian Rock Art" 6115: 6089: 6030: 6028: 6026: 5998: 5838: 5799: 5589: 5541: 5531: 5456: 5446: 5392:"Graves Found From Sahara's Green Period" 5260: 5254: 5155:", National Geographic News, 18 June 2002 5099: 5053: 4960:Bioclimatology and Biogeography of Africa 4911: 4333: 4305: 4280: 4065:. Springer Science & Business Media. 4062:Bioclimatology and Biogeography of Africa 3966: 3948: 3879: 3803:. Springer Science & Business Media. 3754: 3605: 3561: 3559: 3486: 3468: 3426:"A "pacemaker" for North African climate" 3328:. Online.ectaco.co.uk. 28 December 2006. 3228: 2684:in the Sahara began in the 19th century. 2515:The Periplus of the Phoenician navigator 2125:Kiffian culture, and the middle Holocene 1641:of Algeria, with smaller enclaves in the 1520:, suggesting higher rainfall also in the 801:Mediterranean forest, woodland, and scrub 6438: 6432: 6063: 5644: 5347: 5201: 4637: 4613:Boissoneault, Lorraine (24 March 2017). 4446: 4339: 4314: 4227: 4225: 4223: 3880:Nicholson, Sharon E. (27 October 2011). 3203:Cook, Kerry H.; Vizy, Edward K. (2015). 3202: 2990: 2849: 2841: 2736: 2547: 2477: 2237: 2152: 2097:of the Maghreb, as well as mid-Holocene 1952: 1833: 1744: 1554: 1432: 1347: 1290: 1158: 1087: 916: 670:are over 180 metres (590 ft) high. 583: 575: 5564: 5479: 5389: 5380: 5330: 5121: 5115: 4956: 4058: 2918:in Morocco and Western Sahara. Libya's 2818:captured parts of what was to be named 2715:Arabs and the Tuareg. The newly raised 2676: 2649:tribes of the western Sahara after the 1738:. Approximately a quarter of these are 1532:only recently became the source of the 1269:Desertification and prehistoric climate 791:in Egypt and portions of Libya, but in 14: 9031: 6864:"The Desert Rock That Feeds the World" 6605:from the original on 27 September 2022 6546: 6393: 6334: 6332: 6206:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.285 6153: 6151: 6149: 6023: 5667: 5565:Wilford, John Noble (14 August 2008). 5390:Wilford, John Noble (14 August 2008). 4841:"West Saharan montane xeric woodlands" 4695:"Africa during the last 150,000 years" 4319:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. 4252: 4059:Houérou, Henry N. (10 December 2008). 3796: 3755:Griffiths, Ieuan L.I. (17 June 2013). 3556: 2902:In the post–World War II era, several 2660: 2501:in North Africa and the Sahara today. 2344:found in African settlements, such as 1660:ecoregion consists of the Tibesti and 1563:The Sahara comprises several distinct 1448: 662:) form only a minor part, contrary to 645:African massive physiographic division 478:, excluding the fertile region on the 8976:Portuguese-speaking African countries 8252: 8226: 7232: 7043:Trans-Saharan Africa in World History 6935:from the original on 19 December 2021 6874:from the original on 25 February 2022 6788:from the original on 28 February 2022 6664: 6626: 6439:Champion, Louis; et al. (2021). 6273:from the original on 18 November 2018 6222:from the original on 28 November 2021 6170:from the original on 27 February 2022 6166:. Journal of World-Systems Research. 6072: 6051:from the original on 27 February 2022 5935: 5649:Mummies, Disease and Ancient Cultures 4625:from the original on 28 December 2021 4394:, University Press of Virginia, 2002. 4220: 4148:from the original on 23 December 2016 4097: 3705:from the original on 19 December 2021 3695:"The 10 Largest Deserts In The World" 2838:Breakup of the empires and afterwards 1881:, among others. There are also small 1295:Vegetation and water bodies in early 466: 445: 7063:The Sahara: Past, Present and Future 6904:from the original on 19 January 2022 6844:from the original on 7 November 2021 6814:from the original on 21 January 2022 6745: 6240: 6234: 5800:Soukopova, Jitka (16 January 2013). 5681:from the original on 16 October 2015 5600: 5402:from the original on 23 January 2012 5293:from the original on 7 November 2021 5146:Desert-Adapted Crocs Found in Africa 5069: 4815:"South Saharan steppe and woodlands" 4789:"North Saharan steppe and woodlands" 4036:from the original on 18 January 2022 3432:from the original on 15 January 2022 3350: 3281:from the original on 15 January 2022 2508:is still used today by the (Berber) 2464:developed in the 1st millennium CE. 1635:West Saharan montane xeric woodlands 1345:" as suggested by Ruddiman in 2001. 787:To the north, the Sahara skirts the 737:. The highest peak in the Sahara is 6338: 6329: 6146: 6134:from the original on 31 August 2021 5368:from the original on 16 August 2008 5122:Borrell, Brendan (19 August 2009). 5087:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 5041:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 4697:. Environmental Sciences Division, 4525:"Megalakes in the Sahara? A Review" 3842:. C.E. Merrill Publishing Company. 3516:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 3423: 3251:from the original on 17 August 2007 1869:, in perhaps only 14 countries and 1695:depressions in northern Egypt, the 1319:period around 7 million years ago. 1123:Other hot spots in Algeria such as 588:A satellite image of the Sahara by 462: 430: 114: 24: 6727:from the original on 13 April 2021 6297:MacDonald, K.; Vernet, R. (2007). 6116:Abd-El-Moniem, Hamdi Abbas Ahmed. 5007:from the original on 1 August 2010 3736:from the original on 16 April 2023 3405:from the original on 16 April 2023 3326:"English-Arabic online dictionary" 2822:from the Ottomans. To promote the 2320: 2167: 2049:tree are found to grow. Shifts in 1722: 1627:South Saharan steppe and woodlands 1592:North Saharan steppe and woodlands 933:The Sahara is the world's largest 844:(a drought-tolerant member of the 760:, with trees and taller shrubs in 425:The name "Sahara" is derived from 25: 9080: 7258: 7193: 7045:. Oxford University Press, 2010. 6925:"The Eighth Wonder of the World?" 6420:from the original on 30 July 2023 6317:from the original on 30 July 2023 6034: 5951:(Fayum B, about 6000–5000 BCE?), 5914: 5871:from the original on 21 June 2010 5820:from the original on 30 July 2023 5777:AAPA Statement on Race and Racism 5605:. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. 5577:from the original on 8 March 2021 4997:"Rare cheetah captured on camera" 4977:from the original on 30 July 2023 4938:from the original on 30 July 2023 4692: 4594:from the original on 4 April 2024 4118:from the original on 30 July 2023 4098:Brown, G.W. (17 September 2013). 4079:from the original on 30 July 2023 3904:from the original on 30 July 2023 3856:from the original on 30 July 2023 3817:from the original on 30 July 2023 3800:Encyclopedia of World Climatology 3797:Oliver, John E. (23 April 2008). 3775:from the original on 30 July 2023 3730:www.globaladventurechallenges.com 3332:from the original on 9 March 2009 2598:Roman expeditions into the Sahara 706:). Unusual landforms include the 595:The Sahara covers large parts of 7152:Laroui, Abdallah Laroui (1977). 7055: 7035: 7014: 6947: 6916: 6886: 6856: 6826: 6800: 6770: 6704: 6683: 6651: 6639:from the original on 13 May 2021 6381:from the original on 18 May 2021 5923:from the original on 10 May 2022 5700:V. Giuffra; et al. (2010). 5480:Schultz, Nora (14 August 2008). 4582:Spoorthy Raman (3 August 2023). 4563:from the original on 21 May 2020 4317:Earth's Climate: Past and Future 3424:Chu, Jennifer (2 January 2019). 3019:, whose populations include the 2179:of a young boy of approximately 1967:People lived on the edge of the 1218:, Niger are found in this zone. 1195: 379: 350: 281: 268: 255: 242: 229: 216: 203: 190: 177: 164: 151: 63: 47: 7079: 6194:"Saharan Peoples and Societies" 6157: 5974: 5908: 5895: 5883: 5857: 5793: 5769: 5742: 5628:Black Mummy of the Green Sahara 5558: 5499: 5414: 5138: 5019: 4989: 4918:Mares, Michael A., ed. (1999). 4885: 4859: 4833: 4807: 4781: 4755: 4746: 4709: 4686: 4606: 4575: 4516: 4440: 4397: 4384: 4160: 4130: 4091: 3983: 3916: 3829: 3748: 3723: 3717: 3687: 3585: 3535: 3503: 3444: 3381:al-Mawrid: Qāmūs 'Arabī-Inklīzī 2928:Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System 2897:al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb 2628:Muslim conquest of North Africa 1486:Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone 1048:; and extremely high levels of 27:Desert on the African continent 8811:Guinean Forests of West Africa 7131:Julien, Charles-Andre (1970). 7124:The Sahara: A Cultural History 6045:Journal of African Archaeology 5653:. Cambridge University Press. 5287:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.12.011 4602:– via news.mongabay.com. 3519:. 19 June 2024. Archived from 3417: 3387: 3372: 3344: 3318: 3293: 3196: 3151:Arid Lands Information Network 2973:People, culture, and languages 2941:along the Atlantic coast, the 2891:from southern Mali during the 2467: 1185:diurnal temperature variations 1055: 1029:Intertropical Convergence Zone 406:) is a desert spanning across 69:Geographical map of the Sahara 13: 1: 8826:Guinean forest-savanna mosaic 8323:Cameroonian Highlands forests 6559:African Archaeological Review 6502:African Archaeological Review 6198:Oxford Research Encyclopedias 4315:Ruddiman, William F. (2001). 3271:"Is the World Full or Empty?" 3245:"Largest Desert in the World" 3189: 2860:Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 2832:Vicariate Apostolic of Sahara 2552:Market on the main square of 2543: 1550: 1081:). The annual average direct 1046:diurnal temperature variation 963:Köppen climate classification 869:, the capital of Mauritania; 86:1,800 km (1,100 mi) 78:4,800 km (3,000 mi) 9044:Deserts and xeric shrublands 8951:Middle East and North Africa 8408:East African montane forests 7103:. Harvard University Press. 7095:Bulliet, Richard W. (1975). 7024:. Indiana University Press, 6241:Holl, Augustin F.C. (2009). 5533:10.1371/journal.pone.0002995 5448:10.1371/journal.pone.0002995 5267:Journal of Arid Environments 4406:. Retrieved 15 March 2006. 3758:The Atlas of African Affairs 3379:al-Ba'labakkī, Rūḥī (2002). 2608:Islamic and Arabic expansion 2291: 2108: 1545:El Niño-Southern Oscillation 1326:that alters the path of the 1287:North African climate cycles 1077:) and in the Nubian Desert ( 571: 7: 9059:Geography of the Arab world 7061:Jeremy Keenan, ed. (2013). 6754:(in French). Archived from 6748:"Reconnaissance saharienne" 6679:. Vol. 57, no. 2. 6345:Journal of World Prehistory 4392:The Civilizations of Africa 4362:10.1126/science.214.4516.59 3311:Online Etymology Dictionary 3138: 3109:family. Unlike neighboring 3072: 2955:Tripoli – Cape Town Highway 2560:An urban civilization, the 2395:complexly organized society 2056: 1865:, and small populations of 1718:highlands in northern Mali. 1324:North African climate cycle 950:stability of the atmosphere 650:The Sahara is mainly rocky 456: 441: 120: 10: 9085: 7020:Jane E. Goodman (2010) ). 6810:. BBC News. 6 April 2012. 6572:10.1007/s10437-023-09554-5 6515:10.1007/s10437-022-09479-5 6465:10.1007/s12520-021-01293-5 6357:10.1007/s10963-019-09131-2 6267:10.1016/j.crte.2009.04.005 6192:McDougall, E. Ann (2019). 6084:. Sahara (Segrate): 7–22. 5341:10.1038/nmiddleeast.2018.7 4957:Houérou, Henry N. (2008). 3888:Cambridge University Press 3591:Wickens, Gerald E. (1998) 3011:Amaziɣ groups such as the 2976: 2611: 2471: 2324: 2227: 2223: 1948: 1853:Other animals include the 1426:, possibly giving rise to 1343:Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis 1272: 1190:North Atlantic Oscillation 912: 519:semi-arid tropical savanna 474:The desert covers much of 29: 9054:Geography of North Africa 8878: 8766: 8721:Indian Ocean coastal belt 8659: 8532: 8351: 8264: 8197: 8163: 8138: 8129: 8081: 8059: 7986: 7977: 7809: 7766: 7744: 7691: 7648: 7573: 7495: 7437: 7428: 7305: 7267: 6657:Mattingly et al. (2003). 6247:Comptes Rendus Geoscience 6125:University College London 6000:10.1017/S0003598X00050249 5261:Soukopova, Jitka (2017). 4763:"Atlantic coastal desert" 4732:10.1007/s10750-007-9158-2 4291:10.1007/s10021-002-0227-0 3657:(in French). L'Harmattan. 3543:Modern Physical Geography 3230:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00230.1 3184:Trans-Saharan slave trade 3167:List of Saharan explorers 2967:Cairo – Cape Town Highway 2522: 2474:History of Western Sahara 2253:Era, before the onset of 1829:northeast African cheetah 1809:northwest African cheetah 1337:The idea that changes in 831:of annual precipitation. 799:, the Sahara borders the 580:The main biomes in Africa 302: 138: 133: 103: 98: 90: 82: 74: 62: 46: 41: 5890:The History of Astronomy 5763:27 November 2021 at the 5312:National Geographic News 4963:. Springer. p. 82. 3617:The Geographical Journal 3488:10.3847/1538-3881/aad775 3457:The Astronomical Journal 3305:11 February 2009 at the 3172:Sahara Conservation Fund 2949:on the Mediterranean to 2826:religion in the desert, 1510:Holocene thermal maximum 1410:, or eastwards into the 1397:", the Sahara becomes a 1283:Prehistoric North Africa 1118:Death Valley, California 848:), or northern limit of 749:range of northern Chad. 631:, and parts of southern 9069:Physiographic provinces 8921:Guineo-Congolian region 7292:List of deserts by area 7221:Encyclopædia Britannica 7185:10.1126/science.aaa7864 7099:The Camel and the Wheel 7090:. Blackwell Publishers. 6981:10.1073/pnas.1012231108 6339:Kay, Andrea U. (2019). 6078:Sahara (Segrate, Italy) 6073:Brass, Michael (2007). 5947:5 November 2007 at the 5790:. Retrieved 27 Nov 2021 4921:Encyclopedia of Deserts 4479:10.1126/science.1154913 3161:List of deserts by area 2875:Western Sahara conflict 2784:in 1823, and conquered 2512:of the central Sahara. 2335:of the Sahara. Saharan 1714:in Algeria towards the 1649:of Mauritania, and the 1604:Sahara desert ecoregion 1573:Atlantic coastal desert 937:. It is located in the 641:physiographic provinces 32:Sahara (disambiguation) 7874:Gran Desierto de Altar 6752:French Cinema Archives 6721:"Wauthier Bréard 1933" 6673:"Kingdom of the Sands" 5839:Soukopova, J. (2012). 5758:10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26 5573:. The New York Times. 5094:: e.T12436A166502262. 5026:Belbachir, F. (2008). 4897:Terrestrial Ecoregions 4871:Terrestrial Ecoregions 4845:Terrestrial Ecoregions 4819:Terrestrial Ecoregions 4793:Terrestrial Ecoregions 4767:Terrestrial Ecoregions 4450:; et al. (2008). 3950:10.1073/pnas.231391598 3571:Terrestrial Ecoregions 3064: 2996: 2987:Rock art § Sahara 2935:Trans-African highways 2855: 2847: 2746: 2743:French colonial empire 2557: 2486: 2246: 2164: 1964: 1885:in Mauritania and the 1850: 1757: 1560: 1442: 1356: 1304: 1164: 1100: 930: 752:The central Sahara is 592: 581: 505:It stretches from the 8863:West Sudanian savanna 8821:Lower Guinean forests 8816:Upper Guinean forests 8731:Cape Floristic Region 8594:Cataracts of the Nile 8413:Eastern Arc Mountains 8333:Congolian rainforests 8328:East Sudanian savanna 8173:North American Arctic 7914:North American Arctic 7205:5 August 2014 at the 7170:Wade, Lizzie (2015). 7165:. Trailblazer Guides. 7161:Scott, Chris (2005). 6693:. Routledge, 4th ed. 6659:Archaeology of Fazzan 5958:16 April 2010 at the 5901:Wendorf, Fred (1998) 5782:22 March 2020 at the 5645:Cockburn, A. (1980). 4899:. World Wildlife Fund 4893:"Saharan halophytics" 4873:. World Wildlife Fund 4847:. World Wildlife Fund 4821:. World Wildlife Fund 4795:. World Wildlife Fund 4769:. World Wildlife Fund 3839:Survey of Climatology 3573:. World Wildlife Fund 2994: 2977:Further information: 2853: 2845: 2806:captured present-day 2740: 2618:Islamization of Sudan 2551: 2481: 2472:Further information: 2298:predynastic Egyptians 2241: 2228:Further information: 2156: 1956: 1879:black-faced firefinch 1837: 1748: 1558: 1436: 1428:allopatric speciation 1351: 1328:North African Monsoon 1294: 1162: 1091: 1050:potential evaporation 955:high-pressure systems 920: 805:Mediterranean climate 587: 579: 566:North African monsoon 471:), meaning "desert". 126:"The greatest desert" 8517:Zanzibar Archipelago 8485:Indian Ocean islands 6870:. 29 November 2016. 6840:. 22 November 2020. 6671:Keys, David (2004). 5317:22 July 2018 at the 5151:22 July 2018 at the 5003:. 24 February 2009. 4433:7 March 2014 at the 4390:Ehret, Christopher, 4144:. 21 December 2016. 3595:. Springer, Berlin. 3145:African humid period 3097:(which includes the 2943:Trans-Sahara Highway 2920:Great Man-Made River 2814:influence. In 1912, 2682:European colonialism 2677:European colonialism 2234:Neolithic Subpluvial 2105:colonized the area. 2067:Neolithic Subpluvial 1939:Hacettepe University 1811:) lives in Algeria, 1699:of central Tunisia, 1653:of Mali and Algeria. 1508:) peaked during the 1478:Last Glacial Maximum 1367:over the collapsing 1315:dried up during the 1279:African humid period 1203:low pressure systems 1163:Sunset in the Sahara 1006:North Atlantic Ocean 1004:, centered over the 841:Cornulaca monacantha 664:common misconception 412:third-largest desert 53:The Sahara taken by 30:For other uses, see 8936:Mediterranean Basin 8916:Greater Middle East 8453:Ethiopian Highlands 8361:African Great Lakes 8101:Los Médanos de Coro 7849:Channeled scablands 7472:Ramlat al-Sab'atayn 6972:2011PNAS..108..458D 6923:Moutaz Ali (2017). 6691:A History of Africa 6457:2021ArAnS..13...60C 6259:2009CRGeo.341..703H 5730:on 25 November 2016 5524:2008PLoSO...3.2995S 5439:2008PLoSO...3.2995S 5279:2017JArEn.143...10S 5247:6 June 2017 at the 5179:1992Natur.357..586W 5048:: e.T221A13035738. 4665:2007Geo....35..831V 4549:10.1017/qua.2018.46 4541:2018QuRes..90..253Q 4529:Quaternary Research 4471:2008Sci...320..765K 4410:7 June 2009 at the 4354:1981Sci...214...59K 4273:2003Ecosy...6..524F 4246:10.1511/2006.57.983 4190:10.1038/nature13705 4182:2014Natur.513..401Z 4004:2003GMS...134....1H 3941:2001PNAS...9812876V 3935:(23): 12876–12877. 3883:Dryland Climatology 3701:. 13 October 2020. 3671:Walton, K. (2007). 3653:Bisson, J. (2003). 3479:2018AJ....156..146F 3221:2015JCli...28.6560C 2939:Cairo–Dakar Highway 2692:and eastwards from 2661:Ottoman Turkish era 2614:Trans-Saharan trade 2383:Malian Lakes Region 2278:devices, predating 2140:, and mid-Holocene 2093:and early Holocene 1973:last glacial period 1753:, in north-eastern 1697:Tunisian salt lakes 1610:), stone plateaus ( 1522:Ethiopian Highlands 1449:Evidence for cycles 1174:Adrar of Mauritania 322: / 8996:Sub-Saharan Africa 8901:Commonwealth realm 8510:Northern Highlands 8458:Dahlak Archipelago 7894:Jornada del Muerto 7297:Desert exploration 6900:. 23 August 2010. 6689:Fage, J.D. (2001) 5865:"History of Nubia" 5571:The New York Times 5396:The New York Times 5364:. 15 August 2008. 5333:Nature Middle East 4234:American Scientist 3399:www.britannica.com 3209:Journal of Climate 2997: 2856: 2848: 2747: 2558: 2487: 2247: 2230:Sahara pump theory 2196:Radiocarbon dating 2165: 1965: 1906:Saharan silver ant 1875:African silverbill 1871:red-necked ostrich 1851: 1763:evapotranspiration 1758: 1614:), gravel plains ( 1561: 1502:Dansgaard-Oeschger 1443: 1422:, forcing them to 1406:, southwards into 1391:Sahara pump theory 1365:low pressure areas 1357: 1305: 1275:Sahara pump theory 1165: 1101: 959:hot desert climate 931: 862:varies annually). 666:, but many of the 654:(stone plateaus); 593: 582: 531:sub-Saharan Africa 121:aṣ-ṣaḥrā' al-kubrá 9049:Deserts of Africa 9026: 9025: 8926:Islands of Africa 8906:Equatorial Africa 8858:Inner Niger Delta 8646:Tibesti Mountains 8505:Central Highlands 8391:Virunga Mountains 8386:Rift Valley lakes 8376:Great Rift Valley 8371:East African Rift 8338:Ouaddaï highlands 8220: 8219: 8193: 8192: 8077: 8076: 7762: 7761: 7439:Arabian Peninsula 7395:Plaine des Sables 7041:Ralph A. Austen. 7030:978-0-253-21784-4 5867:. Anth.ucsb.edu. 5850:978-1-4438-4007-1 5813:978-1-4438-4579-3 5632:Discovery Channel 5601:Mori, F. (1998). 5242:Discover Magazine 5134:on 30 April 2011. 4970:978-3-540-85192-9 4931:978-0-8061-3146-7 4693:Adams, Jonathan. 4673:10.1130/G23794A.1 4465:(5877): 765–768. 4326:978-0-7167-3741-4 4176:(7518): 401–404. 4111:978-1-4832-1663-8 4072:978-3-540-85192-9 4021:978-1-118-66903-7 3897:978-1-139-50024-1 3849:978-0-675-09994-3 3810:978-1-4020-3264-6 3768:978-1-135-85552-9 3601:978-3-540-52171-6 3365:978-0-87950-003-0 2979:Saharan languages 2965:in Chad, and the 2730:in the battle of 2385:, which includes 2136:, early Holocene 2041:Valley, at a few 1985:Round Head Period 1937:Researchers from 1883:desert crocodiles 1842:oasis lake, with 1716:Adrar des Ifoghas 1608:erg, chech, raoui 1414:. This separates 1180:, northern Chad. 1083:solar irradiation 1062:sunshine duration 1042:relative humidity 943:subtropical ridge 927:Ahaggar Mountains 851:Cenchrus biflorus 789:Mediterranean Sea 727:Tibesti Mountains 719:Ahaggar Mountains 539:Tibesti Mountains 535:Ahaggar Mountains 480:Mediterranean Sea 439: 418:and the northern 342: 341: 16:(Redirected from 9076: 9064:Palearctic realm 9018:Zambezian region 9006:Sudanian savanna 8991:Southeast Africa 8971:Northeast Africa 8956:Miombo woodlands 8831:Guinea Highlands 8495:Lamu Archipelago 8473:Gulf of Tadjoura 8247: 8240: 8233: 8224: 8223: 8136: 8135: 7984: 7983: 7435: 7434: 7253: 7246: 7239: 7230: 7229: 7225: 7217: 7189: 7187: 7166: 7157: 7148: 7136: 7127: 7114: 7102: 7091: 7073: 7059: 7053: 7039: 7033: 7018: 7012: 7011: 7001: 6983: 6951: 6945: 6944: 6942: 6940: 6920: 6914: 6913: 6911: 6909: 6890: 6884: 6883: 6881: 6879: 6860: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6849: 6830: 6824: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6804: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6793: 6784:. 18 July 2021. 6774: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6758:on 12 April 2013 6746:Wauthier, René. 6743: 6737: 6736: 6734: 6732: 6717: 6711: 6708: 6702: 6687: 6681: 6680: 6668: 6662: 6655: 6649: 6648: 6646: 6644: 6627:MacDonald, K.C. 6624: 6615: 6614: 6612: 6610: 6590: 6577: 6576: 6574: 6550: 6544: 6543: 6517: 6493: 6487: 6486: 6476: 6436: 6430: 6429: 6427: 6425: 6397: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6386: 6368: 6336: 6327: 6326: 6324: 6322: 6294: 6283: 6282: 6280: 6278: 6253:(8–9): 703–712. 6238: 6232: 6231: 6229: 6227: 6189: 6180: 6179: 6177: 6175: 6155: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6139: 6133: 6122: 6113: 6104: 6103: 6093: 6070: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6056: 6035:Brass, Michael. 6032: 6021: 6020: 6002: 5978: 5972: 5969: 5963: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5930: 5928: 5915:Gatto, Maria C. 5912: 5906: 5899: 5893: 5887: 5881: 5880: 5878: 5876: 5861: 5855: 5854: 5836: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5825: 5797: 5791: 5773: 5767: 5746: 5740: 5739: 5737: 5735: 5729: 5723:. Archived from 5706: 5697: 5691: 5690: 5688: 5686: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5652: 5642: 5636: 5635: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5598: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5582: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5545: 5535: 5503: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5492: 5477: 5471: 5470: 5460: 5450: 5418: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5407: 5387: 5378: 5377: 5375: 5373: 5354: 5345: 5344: 5328: 5322: 5309: 5303: 5302: 5300: 5298: 5258: 5252: 5239: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5214: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5187:10.1038/357586a0 5173:(6379): 586–87. 5162: 5156: 5142: 5136: 5135: 5130:. Archived from 5119: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5108: 5103: 5073: 5067: 5066: 5064: 5062: 5057: 5030:Acinonyx jubatus 5023: 5017: 5016: 5014: 5012: 4993: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4982: 4954: 4948: 4947: 4945: 4943: 4915: 4909: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4854: 4852: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4828: 4826: 4811: 4805: 4804: 4802: 4800: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4776: 4774: 4759: 4753: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4713: 4707: 4706: 4690: 4684: 4683: 4682:on 21 July 2011. 4681: 4675:. Archived from 4650: 4641: 4635: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4610: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4599: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4520: 4514: 4513: 4511: 4509: 4503: 4497:. Archived from 4456: 4448:Kröpelin, Stefan 4444: 4438: 4425: 4414: 4401: 4395: 4388: 4382: 4381: 4337: 4331: 4330: 4312: 4303: 4302: 4284: 4256: 4250: 4249: 4229: 4218: 4217: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4155: 4153: 4134: 4128: 4127: 4125: 4123: 4095: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4056: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4041: 3987: 3981: 3980: 3970: 3952: 3920: 3914: 3913: 3911: 3909: 3877: 3866: 3865: 3863: 3861: 3833: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3794: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3752: 3746: 3745: 3743: 3741: 3721: 3715: 3714: 3712: 3710: 3691: 3685: 3684: 3668: 3659: 3658: 3650: 3641: 3640: 3612: 3603: 3589: 3583: 3582: 3580: 3578: 3563: 3554: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3490: 3472: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3421: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3410: 3391: 3385: 3384: 3376: 3370: 3369: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3322: 3316: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3258: 3256: 3241: 3235: 3234: 3232: 3200: 3099:Guanche language 2983:Saharan rock art 2953:in Nigeria, the 2854:The Sahara today 2724:Hoggar mountains 2624:Byzantine Empire 2499:Berber languages 2409:in West Africa. 2276:archaeoastronomy 2215:features of the 2192: 2191: 2187: 2184: 2131:Late Pleistocene 2127:Tenerian culture 2103:Tenerian culture 1993:Caballine Period 1981:Kel Essuf Period 1958:Saharan rock art 1928:soil degradation 1867:African wild dog 1784:, a large white 1651:Adrar des Iforas 1618:), dry valleys ( 1490:20 degrees north 1439:Great Green Wall 1359:During the last 1257:, Luxor, Aswan, 1044:; a significant 836:tropical savanna 731:Adrar des Iforas 708:Richat Structure 549:desert, and the 470: 465: 464: 459: 449: 444: 434: 432: 405: 404: 401: 400: 397: 394: 391: 388: 385: 376: 375: 372: 371: 368: 365: 362: 359: 356: 337: 336: 334: 333: 332: 327: 323: 320: 319: 318: 315: 287: 285: 284: 274: 272: 271: 261: 259: 258: 248: 246: 245: 235: 233: 232: 222: 220: 219: 209: 207: 206: 196: 194: 193: 183: 181: 180: 170: 168: 167: 157: 155: 154: 123: 116: 67: 57:astronauts, 1972 51: 39: 38: 21: 9084: 9083: 9079: 9078: 9077: 9075: 9074: 9073: 9029: 9028: 9027: 9022: 9013:Tropical Africa 8874: 8762: 8741:Kalahari Desert 8726:Albany thickets 8691:Succulent Karoo 8655: 8557:Atlas Mountains 8528: 8347: 8260: 8251: 8221: 8216: 8189: 8159: 8125: 8073: 8055: 8016:Nullarbor Plain 7973: 7884:Great Salt Lake 7829:Baja California 7805: 7776:Bardenas Reales 7758: 7740: 7693:Iranian Plateau 7687: 7644: 7569: 7550:Saryesik-Atyrau 7491: 7424: 7360:Farafra (White) 7301: 7287:List of deserts 7277:Desertification 7263: 7257: 7207:Wayback Machine 7196: 7163:Sahara Overland 7111: 7082: 7077: 7076: 7060: 7056: 7040: 7036: 7019: 7015: 6952: 6948: 6938: 6936: 6921: 6917: 6907: 6905: 6892: 6891: 6887: 6877: 6875: 6862: 6861: 6857: 6847: 6845: 6832: 6831: 6827: 6817: 6815: 6806: 6805: 6801: 6791: 6789: 6776: 6775: 6771: 6761: 6759: 6744: 6740: 6730: 6728: 6719: 6718: 6714: 6709: 6705: 6688: 6684: 6669: 6665: 6656: 6652: 6642: 6640: 6625: 6618: 6608: 6606: 6591: 6580: 6551: 6547: 6494: 6490: 6437: 6433: 6423: 6421: 6414: 6398: 6394: 6384: 6382: 6337: 6330: 6320: 6318: 6311: 6295: 6286: 6276: 6274: 6239: 6235: 6225: 6223: 6216: 6190: 6183: 6173: 6171: 6156: 6147: 6137: 6135: 6131: 6120: 6114: 6107: 6071: 6064: 6054: 6052: 6033: 6024: 5993:(339): 95–111. 5979: 5975: 5970: 5966: 5960:Wayback Machine 5949:Wayback Machine 5942:Fayum, Qarunian 5940: 5936: 5926: 5924: 5913: 5909: 5900: 5896: 5888: 5884: 5874: 5872: 5863: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5837: 5833: 5823: 5821: 5814: 5798: 5794: 5784:Wayback Machine 5774: 5770: 5765:Wayback Machine 5747: 5743: 5733: 5731: 5727: 5704: 5698: 5694: 5684: 5682: 5675:"Wan Muhuggiag" 5673: 5672: 5668: 5661: 5643: 5639: 5625: 5624: 5620: 5613: 5599: 5590: 5580: 5578: 5563: 5559: 5504: 5500: 5490: 5488: 5478: 5474: 5419: 5415: 5405: 5403: 5388: 5381: 5371: 5369: 5356: 5355: 5348: 5329: 5325: 5321:, 17 June 2006. 5319:Wayback Machine 5310: 5306: 5296: 5294: 5259: 5255: 5249:Wayback Machine 5240: 5236: 5226: 5224: 5212: 5206: 5202: 5163: 5159: 5153:Wayback Machine 5143: 5139: 5120: 5116: 5106: 5104: 5074: 5070: 5060: 5058: 5024: 5020: 5010: 5008: 4995: 4994: 4990: 4980: 4978: 4971: 4955: 4951: 4941: 4939: 4932: 4916: 4912: 4902: 4900: 4891: 4890: 4886: 4876: 4874: 4865: 4864: 4860: 4850: 4848: 4839: 4838: 4834: 4824: 4822: 4813: 4812: 4808: 4798: 4796: 4787: 4786: 4782: 4772: 4770: 4761: 4760: 4756: 4751: 4747: 4714: 4710: 4691: 4687: 4679: 4648: 4642: 4638: 4628: 4626: 4611: 4607: 4597: 4595: 4580: 4576: 4566: 4564: 4521: 4517: 4507: 4505: 4504:on 3 March 2016 4501: 4454: 4445: 4441: 4435:Wayback Machine 4426: 4417: 4412:Wayback Machine 4402: 4398: 4389: 4385: 4348:(4516): 59–61. 4338: 4334: 4327: 4313: 4306: 4282:10.1.1.533.5471 4257: 4253: 4230: 4221: 4165: 4161: 4151: 4149: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4121: 4119: 4112: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4073: 4057: 4048: 4039: 4037: 4022: 4012:10.1029/134gm01 3988: 3984: 3921: 3917: 3907: 3905: 3898: 3878: 3869: 3859: 3857: 3850: 3834: 3830: 3820: 3818: 3811: 3795: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3769: 3753: 3749: 3739: 3737: 3722: 3718: 3708: 3706: 3693: 3692: 3688: 3669: 3662: 3651: 3644: 3629:10.2307/1790942 3613: 3606: 3590: 3586: 3576: 3574: 3567:"Sahara desert" 3565: 3564: 3557: 3540: 3536: 3526: 3524: 3523:on 19 June 2024 3509: 3508: 3504: 3449: 3445: 3435: 3433: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3406: 3393: 3392: 3388: 3377: 3373: 3366: 3349: 3345: 3335: 3333: 3324: 3323: 3319: 3307:Wayback Machine 3298: 3294: 3284: 3282: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3254: 3252: 3243: 3242: 3238: 3201: 3197: 3192: 3156:List of deserts 3141: 3091:Arabic dialects 3025:Zenaga language 2989: 2975: 2840: 2696:into the upper 2679: 2663: 2620: 2612:Main articles: 2610: 2546: 2525: 2476: 2470: 2433:was also used. 2427:Iron metallurgy 2407:state formation 2401:, and an early 2333:Pastoral Period 2329: 2327:Tichitt culture 2323: 2321:Tichitt culture 2294: 2255:desertification 2236: 2226: 2204:Antonio Ascenzi 2189: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2170: 2168:Tashwinat Mummy 2160:and village of 2134:Iberomaurusians 2117:, which sought 2111: 2091:Iberomaurusians 2063:Kiffian culture 2059: 1997:Cameline Period 1989:Pastoral Period 1977:Bubaline Period 1951: 1855:monitor lizards 1815:, Niger, Mali, 1751:Guelta d'Archei 1736:vascular plants 1725: 1723:Flora and fauna 1639:Tassili n'Ajjer 1553: 1451: 1404:Atlas Mountains 1377:desertification 1289: 1273:Main articles: 1271: 1210:, Algeria, and 1198: 1110:Algerian Desert 1058: 1014:Atlas Mountains 990:extreme heating 939:horse latitudes 915: 710:in Mauritania. 574: 525:valley and the 484:Atlas Mountains 382: 378: 353: 349: 330: 328: 324: 321: 316: 313: 311: 309: 308: 298: 282: 280: 269: 267: 256: 254: 243: 241: 230: 228: 217: 215: 204: 202: 191: 189: 178: 176: 165: 163: 152: 150: 147: 146: 129: 70: 58: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9082: 9072: 9071: 9066: 9061: 9056: 9051: 9046: 9041: 9024: 9023: 9021: 9020: 9015: 9010: 9009: 9008: 9001:Sudan (region) 8998: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8882: 8880: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8872: 8867: 8866: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8845: 8844: 8843: 8838: 8836:Gulf of Guinea 8833: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8783: 8778: 8772: 8770: 8764: 8763: 8761: 8760: 8759: 8758: 8751:Cape Peninsula 8748: 8746:Okavango Delta 8743: 8738: 8736:Skeleton Coast 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8682: 8681: 8676: 8665: 8663: 8657: 8656: 8654: 8653: 8651:Western Sahara 8648: 8643: 8642: 8641: 8636: 8631: 8626: 8624:Nuba Mountains 8621: 8616: 8611: 8606: 8601: 8596: 8591: 8586: 8576: 8575: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8544: 8542:Eastern Desert 8538: 8536: 8530: 8529: 8527: 8526: 8521: 8520: 8519: 8514: 8513: 8512: 8507: 8497: 8492: 8490:Comoro Islands 8482: 8481: 8480: 8475: 8470: 8465: 8463:Hanish Islands 8460: 8455: 8450: 8448:Danakil Desert 8445: 8440: 8435: 8430: 8423:Horn of Africa 8420: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8404: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8366:Albertine Rift 8357: 8355: 8349: 8348: 8346: 8345: 8343:Ennedi Plateau 8340: 8335: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8304: 8303: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8282: 8281: 8279:Gulf of Guinea 8270: 8268: 8262: 8261: 8250: 8249: 8242: 8235: 8227: 8218: 8217: 8215: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8198: 8195: 8194: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8187: 8185:Russian Arctic 8182: 8181: 8180: 8169: 8167: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8157: 8156: 8155: 8144: 8142: 8133: 8127: 8126: 8124: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8087: 8085: 8079: 8078: 8075: 8074: 8072: 8071: 8065: 8063: 8057: 8056: 8054: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8006:Great Victoria 8003: 7998: 7992: 7990: 7981: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7954:Tule (Arizona) 7951: 7949:Tonopah Desert 7946: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7924:Painted Desert 7921: 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7815: 7813: 7807: 7806: 7804: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7772: 7770: 7764: 7763: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7756: 7750: 7748: 7746:Southeast Asia 7742: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7697: 7695: 7689: 7688: 7686: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7654: 7652: 7646: 7645: 7643: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7626: 7625: 7620: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7579: 7577: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7525:Dasht-e Naomid 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7501: 7499: 7493: 7492: 7490: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7443: 7441: 7432: 7426: 7425: 7423: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7311: 7309: 7303: 7302: 7300: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7268: 7265: 7264: 7256: 7255: 7248: 7241: 7233: 7227: 7226: 7215:"Sahara" 7209: 7195: 7194:External links 7192: 7191: 7190: 7167: 7158: 7149: 7137: 7128: 7120:Gearon, Eamonn 7116: 7109: 7092: 7081: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7054: 7034: 7013: 6966:(2): 458–462. 6946: 6915: 6885: 6855: 6825: 6799: 6769: 6738: 6712: 6703: 6682: 6663: 6650: 6616: 6578: 6565:(4): 761–773. 6545: 6508:(2): 167–188. 6488: 6431: 6412: 6392: 6351:(2): 179–228. 6328: 6309: 6284: 6233: 6214: 6181: 6145: 6105: 6062: 6022: 5973: 5964: 5934: 5907: 5894: 5882: 5856: 5849: 5831: 5812: 5792: 5768: 5741: 5692: 5666: 5659: 5637: 5618: 5611: 5588: 5557: 5498: 5472: 5413: 5379: 5346: 5323: 5304: 5253: 5234: 5200: 5157: 5137: 5114: 5068: 5018: 4988: 4969: 4949: 4930: 4910: 4884: 4858: 4832: 4806: 4780: 4754: 4745: 4708: 4705:on 1 May 2006. 4685: 4636: 4605: 4574: 4515: 4439: 4415: 4396: 4383: 4332: 4325: 4304: 4267:(6): 524–539. 4251: 4219: 4159: 4129: 4110: 4090: 4071: 4046: 4020: 3982: 3915: 3896: 3867: 3848: 3828: 3809: 3786: 3767: 3747: 3716: 3686: 3673:The Arid Zones 3660: 3642: 3623:(4): 528–533. 3604: 3584: 3555: 3534: 3502: 3443: 3416: 3386: 3371: 3364: 3343: 3317: 3292: 3262: 3236: 3194: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3187: 3186: 3181: 3175: 3169: 3164: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3140: 3137: 3107:Hamito-Semitic 3003:including the 2974: 2971: 2893:2012 rebellion 2871:Western Sahara 2839: 2836: 2824:Roman Catholic 2808:Western Sahara 2728:Ahaggar Tuareg 2690:French Algeria 2678: 2675: 2671:Ottoman Empire 2662: 2659: 2651:Char Bouba war 2609: 2606: 2587:Archaeologists 2545: 2542: 2524: 2521: 2489:The people of 2469: 2466: 2440:region (e.g., 2325:Main article: 2322: 2319: 2293: 2290: 2225: 2222: 2169: 2166: 2110: 2107: 2058: 2055: 1950: 1947: 1887:Ennedi Plateau 1790:dorcas gazelle 1749:Camels in the 1724: 1721: 1720: 1719: 1704: 1681: 1654: 1645:of Niger, the 1631: 1623: 1600: 1588: 1577:Canary Current 1552: 1549: 1541:Heinrich event 1453:The growth of 1450: 1447: 1361:glacial period 1355:region of Mali 1270: 1267: 1197: 1194: 1057: 1054: 970:Atacama Desert 914: 911: 905:in Libya; and 883:Hassi Messaoud 846:Chenopodiaceae 778:Eastern Desert 743:shield volcano 625:Western Sahara 590:NASA WorldWind 573: 570: 511:Atlantic Ocean 340: 339: 306: 300: 299: 297: 296: 289:Western Sahara 278: 265: 252: 239: 226: 213: 200: 187: 174: 161: 144: 143: 142: 140: 136: 135: 131: 130: 128: 127: 124: 117: 115:الصحراء الكبرى 107: 105: 101: 100: 96: 95: 92: 88: 87: 84: 80: 79: 76: 72: 71: 68: 60: 59: 52: 44: 43: 26: 18:Saharan Desert 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9081: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9011: 9007: 9004: 9003: 9002: 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8883: 8881: 8879:Macro-regions 8877: 8871: 8868: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8850: 8849: 8846: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8808: 8807: 8806:Guinea region 8804: 8802: 8801:Cape Mesurado 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8773: 8771: 8769: 8765: 8757: 8754: 8753: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8671: 8670: 8667: 8666: 8664: 8662: 8658: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8640: 8637: 8635: 8632: 8630: 8627: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8607: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8581: 8580: 8577: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8567:Gibraltar Arc 8565: 8563: 8562:Barbary Coast 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8552:Ancient Libya 8550: 8549: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8539: 8537: 8535: 8531: 8525: 8524:Swahili coast 8522: 8518: 8515: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8502: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8487: 8486: 8483: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8469: 8466: 8464: 8461: 8459: 8456: 8454: 8451: 8449: 8446: 8444: 8441: 8439: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8429: 8428:Afar Triangle 8426: 8425: 8424: 8421: 8419: 8416: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8406: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8363: 8362: 8359: 8358: 8356: 8354: 8350: 8344: 8341: 8339: 8336: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8302: 8299: 8298: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8280: 8277: 8276: 8275: 8274:Guinea region 8272: 8271: 8269: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8248: 8243: 8241: 8236: 8234: 8229: 8228: 8225: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8199: 8196: 8186: 8183: 8179: 8176: 8175: 8174: 8171: 8170: 8168: 8166: 8162: 8154: 8151: 8150: 8149: 8146: 8145: 8143: 8141: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8131:Polar regions 8128: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8088: 8086: 8084: 8083:South America 8080: 8070: 8067: 8066: 8064: 8062: 8058: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7993: 7991: 7989: 7985: 7982: 7980: 7976: 7970: 7967: 7965: 7962: 7960: 7959:Tule (Nevada) 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7816: 7814: 7812: 7811:North America 7808: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7773: 7771: 7769: 7765: 7755: 7752: 7751: 7749: 7747: 7743: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7694: 7690: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7676: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7655: 7653: 7651: 7647: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7615: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7593:Gurbantünggüt 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7578: 7576: 7572: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7502: 7500: 7498: 7494: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7477:Rub' al Khali 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7444: 7442: 7440: 7436: 7433: 7431: 7427: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7312: 7310: 7308: 7304: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7269: 7266: 7262: 7254: 7249: 7247: 7242: 7240: 7235: 7234: 7231: 7223: 7222: 7216: 7210: 7208: 7204: 7201: 7198: 7197: 7186: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7168: 7164: 7159: 7155: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7141:Kennedy, Hugh 7138: 7134: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7112: 7110:9780674091306 7106: 7101: 7100: 7093: 7089: 7084: 7083: 7072: 7071:1-317-97001-2 7068: 7065:. Routledge, 7064: 7058: 7052: 7051:0-19-979883-4 7048: 7044: 7038: 7031: 7027: 7023: 7017: 7009: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6991: 6987: 6982: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6965: 6961: 6957: 6950: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6919: 6903: 6899: 6898:CSMonitor.com 6895: 6889: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6859: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6829: 6813: 6809: 6803: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6773: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6742: 6726: 6723:(in French). 6722: 6716: 6707: 6700: 6699:0-415-25248-2 6696: 6692: 6686: 6678: 6674: 6667: 6660: 6654: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6623: 6621: 6604: 6600: 6596: 6589: 6587: 6585: 6583: 6573: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6549: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6507: 6503: 6499: 6492: 6484: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6435: 6419: 6415: 6413:9781108494441 6409: 6405: 6404: 6396: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6335: 6333: 6316: 6312: 6310:9789077922309 6306: 6302: 6301: 6293: 6291: 6289: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6244: 6237: 6221: 6217: 6215:9780190277734 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6188: 6186: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6154: 6152: 6150: 6130: 6126: 6119: 6112: 6110: 6101: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6076: 6069: 6067: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6031: 6029: 6027: 6018: 6014: 6010: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5977: 5968: 5961: 5957: 5954: 5953:Digital Egypt 5950: 5946: 5943: 5938: 5922: 5918: 5911: 5904: 5898: 5892:. PlanetQuest 5891: 5886: 5870: 5866: 5860: 5852: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5819: 5815: 5809: 5805: 5804: 5796: 5789: 5785: 5781: 5778: 5772: 5766: 5762: 5759: 5755: 5751: 5745: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5703: 5696: 5680: 5676: 5670: 5662: 5660:0-521-23020-9 5656: 5651: 5650: 5641: 5633: 5629: 5622: 5614: 5612:88-7062-971-6 5608: 5604: 5597: 5595: 5593: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5553: 5549: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5487: 5486:New Scientist 5483: 5476: 5468: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5440: 5436: 5432: 5428: 5424: 5417: 5401: 5397: 5393: 5386: 5384: 5367: 5363: 5362:Science Daily 5359: 5353: 5351: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5327: 5320: 5316: 5313: 5308: 5292: 5288: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5257: 5250: 5246: 5243: 5238: 5222: 5218: 5211: 5204: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5176: 5172: 5168: 5161: 5154: 5150: 5147: 5141: 5133: 5129: 5125: 5118: 5102: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5088: 5083: 5081: 5080:Lycaon pictus 5072: 5056: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5042: 5037: 5035: 5031: 5022: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4992: 4976: 4972: 4966: 4962: 4961: 4953: 4937: 4933: 4927: 4923: 4922: 4914: 4898: 4894: 4888: 4872: 4868: 4862: 4846: 4842: 4836: 4820: 4816: 4810: 4794: 4790: 4784: 4768: 4764: 4758: 4749: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4720: 4719:Hydrobiologia 4712: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4689: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4647: 4640: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4578: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4519: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4449: 4443: 4436: 4432: 4429: 4424: 4422: 4420: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4400: 4393: 4387: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4336: 4328: 4322: 4318: 4311: 4309: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4278: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4255: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4171: 4163: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4117: 4113: 4107: 4103: 4102: 4094: 4078: 4074: 4068: 4064: 4063: 4055: 4053: 4051: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3997: 3993: 3986: 3978: 3974: 3969: 3964: 3960: 3956: 3951: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3919: 3903: 3899: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3884: 3876: 3874: 3872: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3841: 3840: 3832: 3816: 3812: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3793: 3791: 3774: 3770: 3764: 3761:. Routledge. 3760: 3759: 3751: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3720: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3667: 3665: 3656: 3649: 3647: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3609: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3560: 3552: 3551:0-471-85064-0 3548: 3544: 3538: 3522: 3518: 3517: 3512: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3489: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3390: 3382: 3375: 3367: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3347: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3314: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3301: 3296: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3266: 3250: 3246: 3240: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3199: 3195: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3146: 3143: 3142: 3136: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3117: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2993: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2970: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2931: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2881:Tuareg people 2878: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2861: 2852: 2844: 2835: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2776:Egypt, under 2774: 2772: 2771:René Wauthier 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2753:(HQ of famed 2752: 2744: 2739: 2735: 2733: 2729: 2726:and defeated 2725: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2709: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2674: 2672: 2668: 2658: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2636: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2619: 2615: 2605: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2555: 2550: 2541: 2538: 2537:Carthaginians 2534: 2530: 2520: 2518: 2513: 2511: 2507: 2502: 2500: 2496: 2495:ancient Libya 2492: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2465: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2434: 2432: 2428: 2423: 2417: 2415: 2410: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2369:tombs, and a 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2350:Mande peoples 2347: 2343: 2338: 2334: 2328: 2318: 2316: 2310: 2308: 2304: 2299: 2289: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2256: 2252: 2244: 2240: 2235: 2231: 2221: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2205: 2201: 2197: 2178: 2174: 2173:Uan Muhuggiag 2163: 2159: 2158:Oued Zouzfana 2155: 2151: 2148: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2106: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2079:Ténéré Desert 2076: 2073:, located in 2072: 2068: 2064: 2054: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2035: 2030: 2029: 2024: 2023: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1946: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1933: 1929: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1778:Rüppell's fox 1775: 1771: 1766: 1764: 1756: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1729:Floristically 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1702: 1701:Chott Melghir 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1662:Jebel Uweinat 1659: 1655: 1652: 1648: 1647:Adrar Plateau 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1569: 1568: 1566: 1557: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1537: 1535: 1531: 1530:Lake Victoria 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1506:Younger Dryas 1503: 1499: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1474: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1446: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1384: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1302: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1266: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1223: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1204: 1196:Precipitation 1193: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1161: 1157: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1106: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1063: 1053: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1009: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 986: 981: 979: 975: 971: 967: 964: 960: 956: 951: 946: 944: 940: 936: 928: 924: 919: 910: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 863: 861: 860:precipitation 857: 853: 852: 847: 843: 842: 837: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 790: 785: 783: 782:Nubian Desert 779: 775: 774:Libyan Desert 771: 767: 763: 759: 755: 750: 748: 744: 740: 736: 735:Red Sea Hills 732: 728: 724: 723:Saharan Atlas 720: 716: 715:Aïr Mountains 711: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 648: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 591: 586: 578: 569: 567: 563: 559: 554: 552: 551:Libyan Desert 548: 544: 543:Aïr Mountains 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 512: 508: 503: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 481: 477: 472: 469: 458: 453: 452:broken plural 448: 443: 437: 428: 423: 421: 417: 413: 409: 403: 374: 347: 335: 307: 305: 301: 294: 290: 279: 277: 266: 264: 253: 251: 240: 238: 227: 225: 214: 212: 201: 199: 188: 186: 175: 173: 162: 160: 149: 148: 141: 137: 132: 125: 122: 118: 112: 109: 108: 106: 102: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 66: 61: 56: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 8980: 8961:Mittelafrika 8911:Françafrique 8776:Pepper Coast 8614:Middle Egypt 8468:Gulf of Aden 8443:Danakil Alps 8381:Gregory Rift 8153:Meyer Desert 8011:Little Sandy 7781:Cabo de Gata 7663:Indus Valley 7583:Badain Jaran 7505:Aral Karakum 7497:Central Asia 7487:Wahiba Sands 7404: 7400:Richtersveld 7325:Black Desert 7282:Polar desert 7219: 7175: 7162: 7156:. Princeton. 7153: 7144: 7132: 7123: 7098: 7087: 7080:Bibliography 7062: 7057: 7042: 7037: 7021: 7016: 6963: 6959: 6949: 6937:. Retrieved 6928: 6918: 6906:. Retrieved 6897: 6888: 6876:. Retrieved 6868:The Atlantic 6867: 6858: 6846:. Retrieved 6837: 6828: 6816:. Retrieved 6802: 6790:. Retrieved 6781: 6772: 6760:. Retrieved 6756:the original 6751: 6741: 6729:. Retrieved 6715: 6706: 6690: 6685: 6676: 6666: 6658: 6653: 6641:. Retrieved 6632: 6607:. Retrieved 6599:ResearchGate 6598: 6562: 6558: 6548: 6505: 6501: 6491: 6448: 6444: 6434: 6422:. Retrieved 6402: 6395: 6383:. Retrieved 6366:10261/181848 6348: 6344: 6319:. Retrieved 6299: 6275:. Retrieved 6250: 6246: 6236: 6224:. Retrieved 6197: 6172:. Retrieved 6164:ResearchGate 6163: 6136:. Retrieved 6124: 6081: 6077: 6053:. Retrieved 6041:ResearchGate 6040: 5990: 5986: 5976: 5967: 5937: 5925:. Retrieved 5910: 5897: 5885: 5873:. Retrieved 5859: 5840: 5834: 5822:. Retrieved 5802: 5795: 5787: 5771: 5749: 5744: 5732:. Retrieved 5725:the original 5712: 5708: 5695: 5683:. Retrieved 5669: 5648: 5640: 5627: 5621: 5602: 5579:. Retrieved 5570: 5560: 5518:(8): e2995. 5515: 5511: 5501: 5489:. Retrieved 5485: 5475: 5433:(8): e2995. 5430: 5426: 5416: 5404:. Retrieved 5395: 5370:. Retrieved 5361: 5332: 5326: 5307: 5295:. Retrieved 5270: 5266: 5256: 5237: 5225:. Retrieved 5220: 5216: 5203: 5170: 5166: 5160: 5140: 5132:the original 5127: 5117: 5105:. Retrieved 5091: 5085: 5079: 5071: 5059:. Retrieved 5045: 5039: 5033: 5029: 5021: 5009:. Retrieved 5000: 4991: 4979:. Retrieved 4959: 4952: 4940:. Retrieved 4920: 4913: 4901:. Retrieved 4896: 4887: 4875:. Retrieved 4870: 4861: 4849:. Retrieved 4844: 4835: 4823:. Retrieved 4818: 4809: 4797:. Retrieved 4792: 4783: 4771:. Retrieved 4766: 4757: 4748: 4723: 4717: 4711: 4703:the original 4688: 4677:the original 4656: 4652: 4639: 4627:. Retrieved 4618: 4608: 4596:. Retrieved 4587: 4577: 4565:. Retrieved 4532: 4528: 4518: 4506:. Retrieved 4499:the original 4462: 4458: 4442: 4399: 4391: 4386: 4345: 4341: 4335: 4316: 4264: 4260: 4254: 4240:(1): 58–65. 4237: 4233: 4173: 4169: 4162: 4150:. Retrieved 4132: 4120:. Retrieved 4104:. Elsevier. 4100: 4093: 4081:. Retrieved 4061: 4038:, retrieved 3995: 3985: 3932: 3928: 3918: 3906:. Retrieved 3882: 3858:. Retrieved 3838: 3831: 3819:. Retrieved 3799: 3777:. Retrieved 3757: 3750: 3738:. Retrieved 3729: 3719: 3707:. Retrieved 3698: 3689: 3672: 3654: 3620: 3616: 3592: 3587: 3575:. Retrieved 3570: 3542: 3537: 3525:. Retrieved 3521:the original 3514: 3505: 3460: 3456: 3446: 3434:. Retrieved 3428:. MIT News. 3419: 3407:. Retrieved 3398: 3389: 3380: 3374: 3355: 3346: 3334:. Retrieved 3320: 3309: 3295: 3283:. Retrieved 3274: 3265: 3253:. Retrieved 3239: 3215:(16): 6560. 3212: 3208: 3198: 3124:colonial era 3103:Afro-Asiatic 3089: 3077:Nilo-Saharan 2998: 2961:in Libya to 2933:A number of 2932: 2924:fossil water 2901: 2879: 2867:World War II 2864: 2857: 2828:Pope Pius IX 2802: 2778:Muhammad Ali 2775: 2748: 2716: 2710: 2702:French Sudan 2680: 2664: 2637: 2621: 2595: 2574:fossil water 2566:Wadi al-Ajal 2559: 2527:By 500 BCE, 2526: 2514: 2503: 2488: 2462:Ghana Empire 2458:rammed earth 2438:Middle Niger 2435: 2418: 2411: 2403:civilization 2375:pearl millet 2346:Dhar Tichitt 2330: 2311: 2296:By 6000 BCE 2295: 2248: 2171: 2112: 2060: 2051:Earth's axis 2034:Ouranosaurus 2032: 2026: 2020: 2019:, including 1966: 1936: 1932:salinization 1924: 1910: 1894:deathstalker 1891: 1852: 1846:grasses and 1840:Idehan Ubari 1821:Burkina Faso 1803:The Saharan 1802: 1798:dama gazelle 1794:rhim gazelle 1767: 1759: 1733: 1726: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1562: 1538: 1475: 1463:Negev Desert 1452: 1444: 1395:Green Sahara 1388: 1381: 1358: 1336: 1332:green Sahara 1321: 1306: 1224: 1220: 1199: 1182: 1166: 1122: 1102: 1059: 1033:rainy season 1026: 1010: 982: 965: 947: 932: 907:Faya-Largeau 893:in Algeria; 864: 849: 839: 833: 786: 758:desert shrub 751: 712: 703: 699: 691: 683: 675: 649: 594: 555: 527:Sudan region 517:, a belt of 504: 476:North Africa 473: 424: 408:North Africa 345: 343: 36: 8946:Middle East 8891:Afromontane 8853:Niger Delta 8848:Niger Basin 8841:Dahomey Gap 8796:Cape Palmas 8791:Ivory Coast 8786:Slave Coast 8639:Upper Egypt 8609:Lower Nubia 8604:Lower Egypt 8579:Nile Valley 8313:Congo Basin 8308:Pool Malebo 8061:New Zealand 8041:Sturt Stony 8001:Great Sandy 7939:Smoke Creek 7904:Lechuguilla 7889:Great Sandy 7879:Great Basin 7520:Betpak-Dala 7088:The Berbers 6929:Quantara.de 6762:22 February 6731:22 February 6677:Archaeology 5734:24 November 5709:Pathologica 5685:16 November 5251:, 2006-Oct. 5107:13 November 5061:13 November 4981:15 November 4942:15 November 4903:29 December 4877:29 December 4851:29 December 4825:29 December 4799:29 December 4773:29 December 4619:Smithsonian 4508:22 February 4152:22 December 4122:20 November 4083:20 November 3908:20 November 3821:20 November 3779:20 November 3577:30 December 3255:30 December 3111:West Africa 3057:Fula/Fulani 2912:natural gas 2798:condominium 2794:Mahdist War 2755:Aéropostale 2720:camel corps 2655:Arabization 2640:Beni Ḥassān 2633:slave trade 2468:Phoenicians 2399:West Africa 2365:, numerous 2342:hierarchies 2285:Pleistocene 2272:Nabta Playa 2264:cattle cult 2249:During the 2243:Beni Isguen 2217:child mummy 2115:Paul Sereno 2022:Afrovenator 2001:petroglyphs 1914:camels and 1902:scyllatoxin 1863:sand vipers 1482:Hadley Cell 1476:During the 1455:speleothems 1416:populations 1412:Nile Valley 1408:West Africa 1120:rivals it. 1114:Bou Bernous 1067:Upper Egypt 1056:Temperature 1022:polar front 1018:rain shadow 1002:Azores High 998:Sahara High 994:thermal low 992:process, a 972:, lying in 871:Tamanrasset 809:Frank White 680:dry valleys 560:of Earth's 523:Niger River 521:around the 492:Nile Valley 482:coast, the 447:/sˤaħaːraː/ 329: / 304:Coordinates 104:Native name 9033:Categories 8896:Arab world 8870:Yorubaland 8781:Gold Coast 8706:Maputaland 8696:Nama Karoo 8686:Thembuland 8634:The Sudans 8619:Nile Delta 8584:Nile Delta 8500:Madagascar 8318:Chad Basin 8286:Cape Lopez 8148:Antarctica 8111:Patagonian 8096:La Guajira 8036:Strzelecki 7929:Red Desert 7869:Forty Mile 7854:Chihuahuan 7834:Black Rock 7650:South Asia 7635:Taklamakan 7410:Tanezrouft 7147:. Longman. 7135:. Praeger. 6782:Al-Jazeera 6661:, Volume 1 6532:9530792981 6158:Kea, Ray. 5715:(1): 1–5. 5223:(1): 29–38 4659:(9): 831. 4261:Ecosystems 4040:18 January 3709:18 January 3699:WorldAtlas 3681:B008MR69VM 3675:. Aldine. 3470:1802.06805 3463:(4): 146. 3436:20 January 3352:Wehr, Hans 3285:19 October 3275:Story Maps 3190:References 3178:Sahara Sea 3015:-speaking 3007:, various 2916:phosphates 2704:including 2583:Roman bath 2562:Garamantes 2544:Garamantes 2454:Jenne Jeno 2387:Tondidarou 2363:metallurgy 2307:arrowheads 2280:Stonehenge 2009:crocodiles 1848:date palms 1770:fennec fox 1708:Tanezrouft 1685:halophytic 1585:succulents 1565:ecoregions 1551:Ecoregions 1534:White Nile 1514:Nile River 1369:ice sheets 1339:insolation 1313:Tethys Sea 1309:Quaternary 1259:Abu Simbel 1212:Ouarzazate 1170:Port Sudan 1105:vegetation 1093:Sand dunes 1079:Wadi Halfa 941:under the 935:hot desert 901:in Niger; 867:Nouakchott 766:Tanezrouft 739:Emi Koussi 733:, and the 696:salt flats 668:sand dunes 617:Mauritania 558:precession 490:, and the 468:/sˤaħraːʔ/ 416:Antarctica 224:Mauritania 8966:Negroland 8886:Aethiopia 8756:False Bay 8433:Al-Habash 8418:Serengeti 8396:Kavirondo 8178:Greenland 8140:Antarctic 7988:Australia 7864:Escalante 7801:Deliblato 7658:Cholistan 7575:East Asia 7375:Moçâmedes 7032:pp. 49–68 6990:1091-6490 6838:France 24 6540:248132575 6524:1572-9842 6451:(4): 60. 6375:134223231 6009:0003-598X 5987:Antiquity 5491:15 August 5406:15 August 5372:15 August 4629:15 August 4557:133889170 4277:CiteSeerX 4214:205240355 4198:1476-4687 3959:0027-8424 3860:25 August 3300:"Sahara." 3013:Hassaniya 2963:N'Djamena 2926:from the 2717:Méhariste 2491:Phoenicia 2450:Dia Shoma 2422:Dia Shoma 2379:Neolithic 2315:cataracts 2303:Al Fayyum 2292:Egyptians 2270:found at 2268:Megaliths 2251:Neolithic 2220:7500 BP. 2213:cutaneous 2109:Tenerians 2017:dinosaurs 2003:of river 1912:Dromedary 1889:of Chad. 1825:balanites 1526:monsoonal 1518:Blue Nile 1383:Lake Chad 1317:Tortonian 1263:Ain Sefra 909:in Chad. 897:in Mali; 813:date palm 793:Cyrenaica 754:hyperarid 688:dry lakes 572:Geography 436:romanized 326:23°N 13°E 139:Countries 134:Geography 55:Apollo 17 8711:Highveld 8701:Bushveld 8669:Rhodesia 8572:Ifriqiya 8438:Barbaria 8296:Igboland 8207:Category 7859:Colorado 7839:Carcross 7824:Amargosa 7796:Tabernas 7786:Monegros 7736:Registan 7540:Moiynkum 7535:Kyzylkum 7447:Ad-Dahna 7365:Kalahari 7315:Algerian 7203:Archived 7143:(1996). 7122:(2011). 7008:21187416 6933:Archived 6902:Archived 6872:Archived 6842:Archived 6812:Archived 6786:Archived 6725:Archived 6701:. p. 256 6637:Archived 6603:Archived 6483:33758626 6418:Archived 6379:Archived 6315:Archived 6271:Archived 6220:Archived 6168:Archived 6129:Archived 6100:24089595 6049:Archived 6017:49229774 5956:Archived 5945:Archived 5921:Archived 5869:Archived 5818:Archived 5780:Archived 5761:Archived 5721:20731247 5679:Archived 5575:Archived 5552:18701936 5512:PLOS ONE 5467:18701936 5427:PLOS ONE 5400:Archived 5366:Archived 5315:Archived 5291:Archived 5245:Archived 5227:23 March 5195:11774194 5149:Archived 5005:Archived 5001:BBC News 4975:Archived 4936:Archived 4740:42372016 4726:: 5–16. 4623:Archived 4592:Archived 4588:Mongabay 4561:Archived 4487:18467583 4431:Archived 4408:Archived 4378:10388125 4370:17802573 4299:12698952 4206:25230661 4146:Archived 4116:Archived 4077:Archived 4034:archived 4030:13890714 3977:11687629 3902:Archived 3854:Archived 3815:Archived 3773:Archived 3740:16 April 3734:Archived 3703:Archived 3553:. p. 347 3497:85443933 3430:Archived 3409:16 April 3403:Archived 3354:(1994). 3330:Archived 3303:Archived 3279:Archived 3249:Archived 3139:See also 3017:Sahrawis 3009:Arabized 2885:rebelled 2883:in Mali 2782:Khartoum 2751:Toulouse 2706:Timbuktu 2591:aquifers 2554:Ghardaïa 2506:Tifinagh 2371:rock art 2367:funerary 2337:pastoral 2138:Capsians 2123:Holocene 2119:dinosaur 2095:Capsians 2087:Holocene 2057:Kiffians 2007:such as 1898:agitoxin 1786:antelope 1774:pale fox 1674:oleander 1471:Holocene 1420:climates 1303:(bottom) 1297:Holocene 1137:Ouallene 1133:In Salah 1129:Timimoun 1097:Algerian 985:air mass 895:Timbuktu 887:Ghardaïa 795:and the 498:and the 463:صَحْرَاء 454:form of 431:صَحَارَى 293:disputed 8589:Bashmur 8547:Maghreb 8478:Red Sea 8291:Mayombe 8266:Central 8254:Regions 8212:Commons 8202:Project 8121:Tatacoa 8116:Sechura 8091:Atacama 8069:Rangipo 8031:Simpson 8026:Pedirka 8021:Painted 7979:Oceania 7944:Sonoran 7791:Oleshky 7668:Katpana 7640:Tengger 7565:Ustyurt 7555:Sarykum 7530:Karakum 7515:Barsuki 7510:Aralkum 7462:Judaean 7457:Arabian 7420:Western 7350:Eastern 7340:Danakil 7261:deserts 7176:Science 6999:3021035 6968:Bibcode 6939:19 July 6908:19 July 6878:19 July 6848:19 July 6818:19 July 6792:19 July 6633:Dokumen 6474:7937602 6453:Bibcode 6255:Bibcode 6091:3786551 5927:24 June 5875:12 June 5824:6 April 5581:10 June 5543:2515196 5520:Bibcode 5458:2515196 5435:Bibcode 5275:Bibcode 5175:Bibcode 5011:12 June 4661:Bibcode 4653:Geology 4598:4 April 4567:19 July 4537:Bibcode 4495:9045667 4467:Bibcode 4459:Science 4350:Bibcode 4342:Science 4269:Bibcode 4178:Bibcode 4000:Bibcode 3937:Bibcode 3637:1790942 3527:20 June 3475:Bibcode 3336:12 June 3217:Bibcode 3095:Amazigh 3049:Songhai 3037:Zaghawa 3033:Nubians 3001:Amazigh 2959:Tripoli 2947:Algiers 2812:Sahrawi 2790:Britain 2713:Chaamba 2694:Senegal 2667:Algeria 2644:Sanhaja 2533:Red Sea 2359:cereals 2355:farming 2224:Nubians 2209:Negroid 2188:⁄ 2083:hunters 2077:in the 2028:Jobaria 2013:Fossils 2005:animals 1960:in the 1949:History 1805:cheetah 1740:endemic 1712:Reggane 1689:Qattara 1678:tamarix 1666:acacias 1633:In the 1612:hamadas 1581:lichens 1498:Allerød 1494:Bølling 1459:Ashalim 1399:savanna 1373:monsoon 1243:Farafra 1227:Tazirbu 1145:Reggane 1112:called 1095:in the 1035:to the 925:in the 913:Climate 891:El Oued 875:Ouargla 829:isohyet 817:esparto 797:Maghreb 747:Tibesti 745:in the 694:), and 643:of the 637:Tunisia 633:Morocco 597:Algeria 507:Red Sea 488:Maghreb 486:of the 438:: 338: 276:Tunisia 237:Morocco 159:Algeria 9039:Sahara 8981:Sahara 8941:MENASA 8716:Fynbos 8599:Darfur 8301:Mbaise 8258:Africa 8165:Arctic 8051:Tirari 8046:Tanami 7996:Gibson 7934:Sevier 7919:Owyhee 7909:Mojave 7844:Carson 7819:Alvord 7768:Europe 7754:La Paz 7731:Polond 7726:Naomid 7673:Kharan 7630:Qaidam 7618:Kubuqi 7608:Kumtag 7560:Taukum 7482:Syrian 7415:Ténéré 7405:Sahara 7385:Nubian 7370:Libyan 7345:Djurab 7335:Chalbi 7320:Bayuda 7307:Africa 7272:Desert 7259:World 7107: 7069: 7049: 7028: 7006: 6996: 6988: 6697: 6643:24 May 6609:24 May 6538: 6530: 6522: 6481: 6471: 6424:24 May 6410: 6385:24 May 6373: 6321:24 May 6307: 6277:24 May 6226:24 May 6212: 6174:24 May 6138:24 May 6098: 6088: 6055:24 May 6015: 6007: 5847: 5810: 5719: 5657: 5609: 5550: 5540: 5465: 5455: 5297:24 May 5273:: 10. 5193: 5167:Nature 4967: 4928: 4738: 4555: 4493: 4485: 4376: 4368: 4323: 4297: 4279: 4212: 4204: 4196: 4170:Nature 4108: 4069: 4028: 4018: 3975: 3965: 3957: 3894: 3846: 3807: 3765: 3679: 3635: 3599: 3549: 3495: 3362: 3132:Fourth 3120:Berber 3116:Tuareg 3085:Arabic 3081:Berber 3061:French 3055:, and 3041:Kanuri 3029:Toubou 3005:Tuareg 2985:, and 2889:Azawad 2786:Darfur 2763:Bamako 2757:), to 2686:France 2647:Berber 2602:Romans 2579:Romans 2570:Fezzan 2556:(1971) 2535:. The 2529:Greeks 2523:Greeks 2510:Tuareg 2483:Azalai 2446:Macina 2431:copper 2414:millet 2162:Taghit 2142:Mechta 2099:Mechta 2071:Gobero 1995:, and 1969:desert 1962:Fezzan 1920:nomads 1844:native 1819:, and 1780:. The 1670:myrtle 1301:Eemian 1285:, and 1239:Kharga 1235:Dakhla 1216:Agadez 1208:Biskra 1178:Borkou 1150:Azalai 1141:Aoulef 1099:Sahara 899:Agadez 889:, and 879:Béchar 825:Iberia 780:, the 776:, the 772:, the 770:Ténéré 768:, the 652:hamada 547:Ténéré 545:, the 541:, the 537:, the 457:ṣaḥrā' 442:ṣaḥārā 427:Arabic 420:Arctic 346:Sahara 331:23; 13 286: 273: 260: 247: 234: 221: 208: 195: 182: 169: 156: 111:Arabic 99:Naming 75:Length 42:Sahara 8986:Sahel 8679:South 8674:North 8661:South 8629:Nubia 8534:North 8106:Monte 7721:Margo 7711:Leili 7706:Khash 7701:Kavir 7623:Mu Us 7613:Ordos 7467:Negev 7452:Nefud 7390:Nyiri 7380:Namib 7355:Ferlo 6536:S2CID 6371:S2CID 6132:(PDF) 6121:(PDF) 6013:S2CID 5728:(PDF) 5705:(PDF) 5213:(PDF) 5191:S2CID 5128:Slate 5034:hecki 5032:ssp. 4736:S2CID 4680:(PDF) 4649:(PDF) 4553:S2CID 4502:(PDF) 4491:S2CID 4455:(PDF) 4374:S2CID 4295:S2CID 4210:S2CID 4026:S2CID 3968:60791 3724:WPS. 3633:JSTOR 3493:S2CID 3465:arXiv 3128:Third 3073:Fulɓe 3045:Hausa 3021:Znaga 2957:from 2945:from 2904:mines 2820:Libya 2816:Italy 2804:Spain 2767:Dakar 2698:Niger 2517:Hanno 2391:urban 2260:Nubia 2200:Egypt 2177:mummy 2147:tusks 2075:Niger 2047:olive 2043:oases 1916:goats 1859:hyrax 1817:Benin 1782:addax 1620:wadis 1424:adapt 1353:Sahel 1255:Sohag 1251:Asyut 1231:Kufra 1154:Bilma 1125:Adrar 1075:Luxor 1071:Aswan 1037:Sahel 974:Chile 923:oasis 856:grass 821:grass 762:wadis 704:chott 700:shatt 660:dunes 629:Sudan 621:Niger 609:Libya 605:Egypt 515:Sahel 500:Sudan 496:Egypt 263:Sudan 250:Niger 198:Libya 185:Egypt 83:Width 8768:West 8401:Zanj 8353:East 7969:Yuma 7964:Yuha 7899:Kaʻū 7683:Thar 7678:Thal 7598:Hami 7588:Gobi 7430:Asia 7330:Blue 7105:ISBN 7067:ISBN 7047:ISBN 7026:ISBN 7004:PMID 6986:ISSN 6941:2021 6910:2021 6880:2021 6850:2021 6820:2021 6794:2021 6764:2013 6733:2013 6695:ISBN 6645:2021 6611:2021 6528:OCLC 6520:ISSN 6479:PMID 6426:2021 6408:ISBN 6387:2021 6323:2021 6305:ISBN 6279:2021 6228:2021 6210:ISBN 6176:2021 6140:2021 6096:PMID 6057:2021 6005:ISSN 5929:2022 5877:2010 5845:ISBN 5826:2023 5808:ISBN 5736:2016 5717:PMID 5687:2015 5655:ISBN 5607:ISBN 5583:2016 5548:PMID 5493:2008 5463:PMID 5408:2008 5374:2008 5299:2021 5229:2015 5109:2021 5092:2020 5063:2021 5046:2008 5013:2010 4983:2015 4965:ISBN 4944:2015 4926:ISBN 4905:2007 4879:2007 4853:2007 4827:2007 4801:2007 4775:2007 4699:ORNL 4631:2017 4600:2024 4569:2020 4510:2013 4483:PMID 4366:PMID 4321:ISBN 4202:PMID 4194:ISSN 4154:2016 4124:2020 4106:ISBN 4085:2020 4067:ISBN 4042:2022 4016:ISBN 3973:PMID 3955:ISSN 3910:2020 3892:ISBN 3862:2020 3844:ISBN 3823:2020 3805:ISBN 3781:2020 3763:ISBN 3742:2023 3711:2022 3677:ASIN 3597:ISBN 3579:2007 3547:ISBN 3529:2024 3438:2020 3411:2023 3360:ISBN 3338:2010 3287:2018 3257:2011 3130:and 3118:and 3083:and 3069:Fula 3065:Peul 3053:Beja 2951:Kano 2910:and 2765:and 2759:Oran 2741:The 2638:The 2622:The 2616:and 2442:Méma 2232:and 2061:The 2039:Nile 2031:and 1943:iron 1930:and 1900:and 1892:The 1877:and 1813:Togo 1796:and 1776:and 1755:Chad 1706:The 1693:Siwa 1691:and 1656:The 1625:The 1602:The 1590:The 1571:The 1437:The 1389:The 1247:Siwa 978:Peru 976:and 903:Ghat 854:, a 819:, a 741:, a 692:oued 684:wadi 672:Wind 656:ergs 635:and 627:and 613:Mali 601:Chad 562:axis 450:, a 344:The 317:13°E 314:23°N 211:Mali 172:Chad 145:List 91:Area 8256:of 7716:Lut 7603:Lop 7545:Ryn 7180:doi 6994:PMC 6976:doi 6964:108 6567:doi 6510:doi 6469:PMC 6461:doi 6361:hdl 6353:doi 6263:doi 6251:341 6202:doi 6086:PMC 5995:doi 5786:". 5754:doi 5713:102 5538:PMC 5528:doi 5453:PMC 5443:doi 5337:doi 5283:doi 5271:143 5183:doi 5171:357 5096:doi 5050:doi 4728:doi 4724:596 4669:doi 4545:doi 4475:doi 4463:320 4358:doi 4346:214 4287:doi 4242:doi 4186:doi 4174:513 4142:CNN 4008:doi 3963:PMC 3945:doi 3625:doi 3621:124 3483:doi 3461:156 3225:doi 3105:or 2908:oil 2877:). 2732:Tit 2568:in 2397:in 2357:of 2015:of 1838:An 1643:Aïr 1616:reg 1467:MIS 966:BWh 921:An 702:or 686:), 678:), 676:reg 529:of 494:in 367:ɑːr 9035:: 7218:. 7178:. 7174:. 7002:. 6992:. 6984:. 6974:. 6962:. 6958:. 6931:. 6927:. 6896:. 6866:. 6836:. 6780:. 6750:. 6675:. 6631:. 6619:^ 6597:. 6581:^ 6563:40 6561:. 6557:. 6534:. 6526:. 6518:. 6506:39 6504:. 6500:. 6477:. 6467:. 6459:. 6449:13 6447:. 6443:. 6416:. 6377:. 6369:. 6359:. 6349:32 6347:. 6343:. 6331:^ 6313:. 6287:^ 6269:. 6261:. 6249:. 6245:. 6218:. 6208:. 6200:. 6196:. 6184:^ 6162:. 6148:^ 6127:. 6123:. 6108:^ 6094:. 6082:18 6080:. 6065:^ 6047:. 6043:. 6039:. 6025:^ 6011:. 6003:. 5991:88 5989:. 5985:. 5919:. 5816:. 5711:. 5707:. 5677:. 5634:). 5591:^ 5569:. 5546:. 5536:. 5526:. 5514:. 5510:. 5484:. 5461:. 5451:. 5441:. 5429:. 5425:. 5398:. 5394:. 5382:^ 5360:. 5349:^ 5335:. 5289:. 5281:. 5269:. 5265:. 5221:39 5219:. 5215:. 5189:. 5181:. 5169:. 5126:. 5090:. 5084:. 5044:. 5038:. 4999:. 4973:. 4934:. 4895:. 4869:. 4843:. 4817:. 4791:. 4765:. 4734:. 4722:. 4667:. 4657:35 4655:. 4651:. 4621:. 4617:. 4590:. 4586:. 4559:. 4551:. 4543:. 4533:90 4531:. 4527:. 4489:. 4481:. 4473:. 4461:. 4457:. 4418:^ 4372:. 4364:. 4356:. 4344:. 4307:^ 4293:. 4285:. 4275:. 4263:. 4238:94 4236:. 4222:^ 4208:. 4200:. 4192:. 4184:. 4172:. 4140:. 4114:. 4075:. 4049:^ 4032:, 4024:, 4014:, 4006:, 3994:, 3971:. 3961:. 3953:. 3943:. 3933:98 3931:. 3927:. 3900:. 3890:. 3886:. 3870:^ 3852:. 3813:. 3789:^ 3771:. 3732:. 3728:. 3697:. 3663:^ 3645:^ 3631:. 3619:. 3607:^ 3569:. 3558:^ 3513:. 3491:. 3481:. 3473:. 3459:. 3455:. 3401:. 3397:. 3277:. 3273:. 3247:. 3223:. 3213:28 3211:. 3207:. 3071:: 3067:; 3063:: 3051:, 3047:, 3043:, 3039:, 3035:, 3031:, 2981:, 2834:. 2800:. 2734:. 2657:. 2604:. 2452:, 2448:, 2444:, 2361:, 2025:, 1991:, 1987:, 1983:, 1979:, 1934:. 1922:. 1861:, 1857:, 1800:. 1772:, 1676:, 1672:, 1668:, 1583:, 1430:. 1281:, 1277:, 1265:. 1253:, 1249:, 1245:, 1241:, 1237:, 1233:, 1229:, 1143:, 1139:, 1135:, 1131:, 1127:, 1073:, 980:. 885:, 881:, 877:, 873:, 729:, 725:, 721:, 717:, 623:, 619:, 615:, 611:, 607:, 603:, 599:, 568:. 553:. 502:. 433:, 429:: 422:. 396:ær 377:, 113:: 8246:e 8239:t 8232:v 7252:e 7245:t 7238:v 7188:. 7182:: 7113:. 7010:. 6978:: 6970:: 6943:. 6912:. 6882:. 6852:. 6822:. 6796:. 6766:. 6735:. 6647:. 6613:. 6575:. 6569:: 6542:. 6512:: 6485:. 6463:: 6455:: 6428:. 6389:. 6363:: 6355:: 6325:. 6281:. 6265:: 6257:: 6230:. 6204:: 6178:. 6142:. 6102:. 6059:. 6019:. 5997:: 5962:. 5931:. 5905:. 5879:. 5853:. 5828:. 5756:: 5738:. 5689:. 5663:. 5630:( 5615:. 5585:. 5554:. 5530:: 5522:: 5516:3 5495:. 5469:. 5445:: 5437:: 5431:3 5410:. 5376:. 5343:. 5339:: 5301:. 5285:: 5277:: 5231:. 5197:. 5185:: 5177:: 5144:" 5111:. 5098:: 5082:" 5078:" 5065:. 5052:: 5036:" 5028:" 5015:. 4985:. 4946:. 4907:. 4881:. 4855:. 4829:. 4803:. 4777:. 4742:. 4730:: 4671:: 4663:: 4633:. 4571:. 4547:: 4539:: 4512:. 4477:: 4469:: 4380:. 4360:: 4352:: 4329:. 4301:. 4289:: 4271:: 4265:6 4248:. 4244:: 4216:. 4188:: 4180:: 4156:. 4126:. 4087:. 4010:: 4002:: 3979:. 3947:: 3939:: 3912:. 3864:. 3825:. 3783:. 3744:. 3713:. 3683:. 3639:. 3627:: 3581:. 3531:. 3499:. 3485:: 3477:: 3467:: 3440:. 3413:. 3368:. 3340:. 3313:. 3289:. 3259:. 3233:. 3227:: 3219:: 3059:( 2190:2 2186:1 2183:+ 2181:2 1807:( 1496:/ 1069:( 961:( 698:( 690:( 682:( 460:( 402:/ 399:ə 393:h 390:ˈ 387:ə 384:s 381:/ 373:/ 370:ə 364:h 361:ˈ 358:ə 355:s 352:/ 348:( 295:) 291:( 34:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index