2950:, who succeeded in seizing the throne and then killed Maurice and his family. Khosrau II used the murder of his benefactor as a pretext for war and reconquer the Roman province of Mesopotamia. In the early years of the war the Persians enjoyed overwhelming and unprecedented success. They were aided by Khosrau's use of a pretender claiming to be Maurice's son, and by the revolt against Phocas led by the Roman general Narses. In 603 Khosrau defeated and killed the Roman general Germanus in Mesopotamia and laid siege to Dara. Despite the arrival of Roman reinforcements from Europe, he won another victory in 604, while Dara fell after a nine-month siege. Over the following years the Persians gradually overcame the fortress cities of Mesopotamia by siege, one after another. At the same time they won a string of victories in Armenia and systematically subdued the Roman garrisons in the Caucasus.
10123:
2244:
2868:
1947:
2815:
2367:. The dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa, Batnac and Amida. Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work continued at Dara. This construction project was to become a key component of the Roman defenses, and also a lasting source of controversy with the Persians, who complained that it violated the treaty of 422, by which both empires had agreed not to establish new fortifications in the frontier zone. Anastasius, however, pursued the project, and the walls were completed by 507/508.
3040:
2906:
2284:
7973: : "The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire. The ancient Persian tradition of large-scale hydraulic engineering was thus combined with the unique Roman experience in masonry. The Greco-Roman picture of the Persians as a nation of fierce and indomitable warriors contrasts strangely with another stereotype, the Persians as past masters of the art of refined living, of luxuriose vivere. The Persian influence on Roman religion would be enormous, were people allowed to call Mithraism a Persian religion."
4123:
the Medes and the
Parthians rather than of ourselves, we are always, one might say, fighting the battles of those peoples." In the long series of wars between the two powers, the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant. Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable, although Nisibis, Singara, Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time, and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other. As Frye states:
3896:
2643:
2292:
4206:
2914:
2880:
1388:
2131:
938:
847:
836:
1833:
2623:
10417:
3141:
2382:
2510:
4623:
4558:
4537:
4516:
3977:
3127:
1717:
3169:(newly united by Islam), which, according to Howard-Johnston, "can only be likened to a human tsunami". According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine–Persian conflict opened the way for Islam". The Sasanian Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely conquered. During the Byzantine–Arab wars, the exhausted Roman Empire's recently regained eastern and southern provinces of
2780:
4197:). A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict, when what had begun in 611–612 as a raid was soon transformed into a war of conquest, was the pre-eminence of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory and of the strong religious element in the Roman imperial propaganda; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God, and authors of the 6th and 7th centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia.
1510:
10187:
3162:. The Byzantine Empire was also severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war and the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs. Additionally, Anatolia was devastated by repeated Persian invasions; the Empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt was loosened by many years of Persian occupation.
3967:), and by the 5th century AD they were no longer a mercenary unit, and were slightly superior individually in comparison to the Persian ones, as Procopius claims; however, the Persian horse-archer units as a whole always remained a challenge for the Romans, which suggests the Roman horse-archers were smaller in numbers. By the time of Khosrow I the composite cavalrymen (
2560:, whose population was deported to Persian territory. The successful campaigns of Belisarius in the west encouraged the Persians to return to war, both taking advantage of Roman preoccupation elsewhere and seeking to check the expansion of Roman territory and resources. In 539 the resumption of hostilities was foreshadowed by a Lakhmid raid led by
2772:, a one-year truce in Mesopotamia (eventually extended to five years) was arranged, but in the Caucasus and on the desert frontiers the war continued. In 575, Khosrau I attempted to combine aggression in Armenia with discussion of a permanent peace. He invaded Anatolia and sacked Sebasteia, but to take Theodosiopolis, and after a clash near
4011:. Use of complex torsion equipment was rare, since traditional Persian expertise in archery reduced their apparent benefits. Elephants were employed (e.g. as siege towers) where the terrain was unfavorable for machines. Recent assessments comparing the Sasanians and Parthians have reaffirmed the superiority of Sasanian siegecraft,
2859:, but Bahram pressed on with his revolt regardless and the defeated Khosrau was soon forced to flee for safety to Roman territory, while Bahram took the throne as Bahram VI. With support from Maurice, Khosrau raised a rebellion against Bahram, and in 591 the combined forces of his supporters and the Romans defeated Bahram at the
3019:, to raise the necessary funds to continue the war. In 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor and, after conducting exercises to revive their morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a
1410:, "from the third century BC to the early seventh century AD, the rival players were grand polities with imperial pretensions, which had been able to establish and secure stable territories transcending regional divides". The Romans and Parthians came into contact through their respective conquests of parts of the
3023:. In the Caucasus he inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief and then won a victory over the Persians under Shahrbaraz. Following a lull in 623, while he negotiated a truce with the Avars, Heraclius resumed his campaigns in the East in 624 and routed an army led by Khosrau at
2482:
in 531, which resulted in his dismissal. In the same year the Romans gained some forts in
Armenia, while the Persians had captured two forts in eastern Lazica. Immediately after the Battle of Callinicum, unsuccessful negotiations between Justinian's envoy, Hermogenes, and Kavadh took place. A Persian
3185:
were also lost, reducing the Empire to a territorial rump consisting of
Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy. These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks, marking the transition from classical urban civilization to a more rural, medieval
2614:
to
Khosrau, and the Persians departed after nearly two months. In the wake of the Persian retreat, two Roman envoys, the newly appointed magister militum, Constantinus, and Sergius proceeded to Ctesiphon to arrange a truce with Khosrau. (The war dragged on under other generals and was to some extent
2555:
The
Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" in 540 AD, probably in response to the Roman reconquest of much of the former western empire, which had been facilitated by the cessation of war in the East. Khosrau I invaded and devastated Syria, extorting large sums of money from the cities of
2355:
from the
Caucasus. Negotiations between the two powers took place, but such was their distrust that in 506 the Romans, suspecting treachery, seized the Persian officials. Once released, the Persians preferred to stay in Nisibis. In November 506, a treaty was finally agreed upon, but little is known
4122:
noted their "never-ending cycle of armed confrontations" and observed that "it is shown by the facts themselves that conquest has been a source of constant wars and great expense to us. For it yields very little and uses up vast sums; and now that we have reached out to peoples who are neighbor of
2322:
through the autumn and winter (502–503). The siege of the fortress-city proved to be far more difficult than Kavadh expected; the defenders repelled the
Persian assaults for three months before they were beaten. In 503, the Romans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful siege of the Persian-held Amida
2165:
and taking
Singara, both cities were soon regained by the Romans. Following a lull during the 350s while Shapur fought off nomad attacks on Persia's eastern and then northern frontiers, he launched a new campaign in 359 with the aid of the eastern tribes which he had meanwhile defeated, and after a
4893:
1330:
ensued: towns, fortifications, and provinces were continually sacked, captured, destroyed, and traded. Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching its frontiers too
7905:
Rawlinson (2007), 199: "The
Parthian military system had not the elasticity of the Romans ... However loose and seemingly flexible, it was rigid in its uniformity; it never altered; it remained under the thirtieth Arsaces such as it had been under the first, improved in details perhaps, but
3157:
The devastating impact of this last war, added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, left both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The
Sasanians were
2343:
and Amida. Although no further large-scale conflict took place during Anastasius' reign, tensions continued, especially while work proceeded at Dara. This was because the construction of new fortifications in the border zone by either empire had been prohibited by a treaty concluded some decades
1331:
thin. Both sides did make conquests beyond the border, but in time the balance was almost always restored. Although initially different in military tactics, the armies of both sides gradually adopted from each other and by the second half of the 6th century, they were similar and evenly matched.
7362:
gives an additional reason for the outbreak of the war: " contentiousness increased even further ... when Justin did not deem to pay the Medians the five hundred pounds of gold each year previously agreed to under the peace treaties and let the Roman State remain forever a tributary of the
4192:
underscores that "although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier, yet there was always a religious-ideological element present". From the time of Constantine on, Roman emperors appointed themselves as the protectors of
6345:
Lightfoot (1990), 115: "Trajan succeeded in acquiring territory in these lands with a view to annexation, something which had not seriously been attempted before ... Although Hadrian abandoned all of Trajan's conquests ... the trend was not to be reversed. Further wars of annexation
3876:
From the 4th century AD onwards, the Sasanians grew in strength and adopted the role of aggressor. They considered much of the land added to the Roman Empire in Parthian and early Sasanian times to rightfully belong to the Persian sphere. Everett Wheeler argues that "the Sassanids,
2696:
occupied eastern Lazica. The truce that had been established in 545 was renewed outside Lazica for a further five years on condition that the Romans pay 2,000 lb of gold each year. The Romans failed to completely expel the Sasanians from Lazica, and in 554 AD Mihr-Mihroe launched
2016:
With the Roman Empire debilitated by Germanic invasions and a series of short-term emperors, Shapur I soon resumed his attacks. In the early 250s, Philip was involved in a struggle over the control of Armenia; Shapur conquered Armenia and killed its king, defeated the Romans at the
2572:
in Persia; as he withdrew, he extorted large sums of money from the cities of Syria and Mesopotamia and systematically looted the key cities. In 541 he invaded Lazica in the north. Belisarius was quickly recalled by Justinian to the East to deal with the Persian threat, while the
4265:
narrates the effects of the Roman–Persian Wars in Syria from the reign of Gordian III to the domination of the province by Odaenathus of Palmyra. With the end of Herodian's record, all contemporary chronological narratives of Roman history are lost, until the narratives of
3998:
that destroyed Antony's siege train in 36 BC. The situation changed with the rise of the Sasanians, when Rome encountered an enemy equally capable in siege warfare. The Sasanians mainly used mounds, rams, mines, and to a lesser degree siege towers, artillery, and also
7906:
essentially the same system." According to Michael Whitby (2000), 310, "the eastern armies preserved the Roman military reputation through to the end of the 6th century by capitalizing on available resources and showing a capacity to adapt to a variety of challenges".
1418:. Although subdued for a time by the Seleucids, in the 2nd century BC they broke away, and established an independent state that steadily expanded at the expense of their former rulers, and through the course of the 2nd and early 1st century BC, they had conquered
1334:
The expense of resources during the Roman–Persian Wars ultimately proved catastrophic for both empires. The prolonged and escalating warfare of the 6th and 7th centuries left them exhausted and vulnerable in the face of the sudden emergence and expansion of the
1934:
set out against Ardashir in 232. One column of his army marched into Armenia, while two other columns operated to the south and failed. In 238–240, towards the end of his reign, Ardashir attacked again, taking several cities in Syria and Mesopotamia, including
2195:
made peace, agreeing to major concessions in exchange for safe passage out of Sasanian territory. The Romans surrendered their former possessions east of the Tigris, as well as Nisibis and Singara, and Shapur soon conquered Armenia, abandoned by the Romans.
4137:"How could it be a good thing to hand over one's dearest possessions to a stranger, a barbarian, the ruler of one's bitterest enemy, one whose good faith and sense of justice were untried, and, what is more, one who belonged to an alien and heathen faith?"
3872:
never fell, as the Roman expeditions had always exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia, and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks.
2836:(governor). During the 580s, the war continued inconclusively with victories on both sides. In 582, Maurice won a battle at Constantia over Adarmahan and Tamkhusro, who was killed, but the Roman general did not follow up his victory; he had to hurry to
3031:
in Armenia, and in a surprise attack that winter he stormed Shahrbaraz's headquarters and attacked his troops in their winter billets. Supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, together with the Avars and Slavs, the three unsuccessfully
3959:
units were introduced into the Roman army; as a result, heavily armed cavalry grew in importance in both the Roman and Persian armies after the 3rd century AD and until the end of the wars. The Roman army also gradually incorporated horse-archers
4329:
are primary sources. These were isolated attempts at approaching written historiography however, and by the end of the 4th century AD, even the practice of carving rock reliefs and leaving short inscriptions was abandoned by the Sasanians.
2765:
and invaded Persian Mesopotamia, where they defeated local forces. Marcian's sudden dismissal and the arrival of troops under Khosrau resulted in a ravaging of Syria, the failure of the Roman siege of Nisibis and the fall of Dara. At a cost of
2174:
and Singara, and repelled the counter-attack of Constantius II. But the enormous cost of these victories weakened him, and he was soon deserted by his barbarian allies, leaving him vulnerable to the major offensive in 363 by the Roman Emperor
2103:. The Roman victory was the most decisive for many decades: all the territories that had been lost, all the debatable lands, and control of Armenia lay in Roman hands. Many cities east of the Tigris were given to the Romans including
1760:
to place his son on the vacant Armenian throne triggered a war with Rome in 36 AD, which ended when Artabanus III abandoned claims to a Parthian sphere of influence in Armenia. War erupted in 58 AD, after the Parthian King
2495:(11,000 lb of gold). The Romans recovered the Lazic forts, Iberia remained in Persian hands, and the Iberians who had left their country were given the choice of remaining in Roman territory or returning to their native land.
1683:
to oppose Labienus, who had invaded Anatolia. Soon Labienus was driven back to Syria by Roman forces, and, although reinforced by the Parthians, was defeated, taken prisoner, and killed. After suffering a further defeat near the
4128:
One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World
4187:
cherished by the Roman emperors Caracalla, Alexander Severus, and Julian. Roman sources reveal long-standing prejudices with regard to the Eastern powers' customs, religious structures, languages, and forms of government.
2590:. He soon withdrew in the face of an army under Belisarius, en route sacking the city of Callinicum. Attacks on a number of Roman cities were repulsed and the Persian general Mihr-Mihroe was defeated and captured at
7837:
Howard-Johnston (2006), 9: " victories in the field over the following years and its political repercussions ... saved the main bastion of Christianity in the Near East and gravely weakened its old Zoroastrian
2863:
and restored Khosrau II to power. In exchange for their help, Khosrau not only returned Dara and Martyropolis but also agreed to cede the western half of Iberia and more than half of Persian Armenia to the Romans.
2199:
In 383 or 384 Armenia again became a bone of contention between the Roman and the Sasanian empires, but hostilities did not occur. With both empires preoccupied by barbarian threats from the north, in 384 or 387,
8574:
8555:
5612:
4022:, was annexed to the Sasanian Empire. Frye notes that in the 3rd century AD such client states played an important role in Roman–Sasanian relations, but both empires gradually replaced them by an organized
2585:
in 541. In the same year, Lazica switched its allegiance to Persia and Khosrau led an army to secure the kingdom. In 542 Khosrau launched another offensive in Mesopotamia and unsuccessfully attempted to capture
3864:'s time onwards, and were by the time of Pacorus able to take the offensive against the Parthians. Like the Sasanians in the late 3rd and 4th centuries, the Parthians generally avoided any sustained defense of
6941:
2701:, dislodging a newly arrived Byzantine army from Telephis. In Lazica the war dragged on inconclusively for several years, with neither side able to make any major gains. Khosrau, who now had to deal with the
4193:
Christians of Persia. This attitude created intense suspicions of the loyalties of Christians living in Sasanian Iran and often led to Roman–Persian tensions or even military confrontations (e.g. in
3079:
in the Caucasus. Late in 627, Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent that had accompanied him, he defeated the Persians at the
4018:
By the beginning of Sasanian rule, a number of buffer states existed between the empires. These were absorbed by the central state over time, and by the 7th century the last buffer state, the Arab
3186:
form of society. However, unlike Persia, the Roman Empire ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital in
1812:
on the throne as a client ruler, he withdrew his armies and returned to Syria. Trajan died in 117, before he was able to reorganize and consolidate Roman control over the Parthian provinces.
2064:
launched a successful invasion of Persia, sacking its capital, Ctesiphon; they would probably have extended their conquests if Carus had not died in December of the same year. His successor
2799:
won a victory in Armenia, where Roman actions had alienated local inhabitants. In the spring of 578 the war in Mesopotamia resumed with Persian raids on Roman territory. The Roman general
3935:
quality was inferior to that of the Romans. The combined forces of horse archers and heavy cavalry inflicted several defeats on the Roman foot-soldiers, including those led by Crassus
2658:, having found Persian protection oppressive, asked Justinian to restore the Roman protectorate. The emperor seized the chance, and in 548–549 combined Roman and Lazic forces with the
5107:. In Bayne Fisher, William; Gershevitch, Ilya; Yarshater, Ehsan; Frye, R. N.; Boyle, J. A.; Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence; Avery, Peter; Hambly, Gavin; Melville, Charles (eds.).
1777:. This came to an end in 63 AD after the Romans agreed to allow Tiridates and his descendants to rule Armenia on condition that they receive the kingship from the Roman emperor.
1688:, the Parthians withdrew from Syria. They returned in 38 BC but were decisively defeated by Ventidius, and Pacorus was killed. In Judaea, Antigonus was ousted with Roman help by
1756:
Roman protectorate there. Nonetheless, Roman–Persian rivalry over control and influence in Armenia continued unabated for the next several decades. The decision of the Parthian King
7970:
2965:, to claim the throne in 610. Phocas, an unpopular ruler who is invariably described in Byzantine sources as a "tyrant", was eventually deposed by Heraclius, having sailed from
2564:, which was defeated by the Ghassanids under al-Harith ibn Jabalah. In 540, the Persians broke the "Treaty of Eternal Peace" and Khosrau I invaded Syria, destroying the city of
3892:
was employed by both Byzantines and the Sasanians as an alternative to direct confrontation, particularly through Arab kingdoms in the south and nomadic nations in the north.
9134:
Die Römisch-persischen Kriege des 3. Jahrhunderts. n. Chr. Nach der Inschrift Sāhpuhrs I. an der Ka'be-ye Zartošt (ŠKZ). Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients B 55
9647:
3083:. Continuing south along the Tigris, he sacked Khosrau's great palace at Dastagird and was prevented from attacking Ctesiphon only by the destruction of the bridges on the
1700:
allies deserted. Failing to make progress against Parthian positions, the Romans withdrew with heavy casualties. Antony was again in Armenia in 33 BC to join with the
9953:
2705:, renewed the truce in 557, this time without excluding Lazica; negotiations continued for a definite peace treaty. Finally, in 562, the envoys of Justinian and Khosrau –
975:
9038:""Es war allerdings nicht so, dass sie es im Sinne eines Tributes erhielten, wie viele meinten ..." Anlässe und Funktion der persischen Geldforderungen an die Römer"
2427:
region and upper Mesopotamia by 526–527. The early years of war favored the Persians: by 527, the Iberian revolt had been crushed, a Roman offensive against Nisibis and
3015:
During these years, Heraclius strove to rebuild his army, slashing non-military expenditures, devaluing the currency and melting down Church plate, with the backing of
2183:
before the walls Julian was unable to take the Persian capital or advance any farther and retreated along the Tigris. Harried by the Persians, Julian was killed in the
9156:
8758:
1632:
1496:
1009:
2335:. Although the two powers negotiated, it was not until November 506 that a treaty was agreed to. In 505, Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at
9998:
3831:
2491:
in September 532, which lasted less than eight years. Both powers agreed to return all occupied territories, and the Romans agreed to make a one-time payment of 110
8906:
1326:
Although warfare between the Romans and Persians continued over seven centuries, the frontier, aside from shifts in the north, remained largely stable. A game of
2973:. Having expelled the Persians from Anatolia in 612, Heraclius launched a major counter-offensive in Syria in 613. He was decisively defeated outside Antioch by
1926:'s foundation of the Sasanian Empire. Ardashir (r. 226–241) raided Mesopotamia and Syria in 230 and demanded the cession of all the former territories of the
2969:. Around the same time, the Persians completed their conquest of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 they overran Syria and entered Anatolia, occupying
1624:
5278:
3885:". In general, the Romans regarded the Sasanians as a more serious threat than the Parthians, while the Sasanians regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy
2619:, because of which Khosrau temporarily withdrew from Roman territory) A five-year truce was agreed to in 545, secured by Roman payments to the Persians.
2451:
tried unsuccessfully to protect Roman workers in Thannuris, undertaking the construction of a fort right on the frontier. Damaging raids on Syria by the
8571:
8552:
5622:
10089:
2737:
War broke again shortly after Armenia and Iberia revolted against Sasanian rule in 571 AD, following clashes involving Roman and Persian proxies
1796:
broke out in Roman territory, severely stretching Roman military resources. Parthian forces attacked key Roman positions, and the Roman garrisons at
2415:, and the Romans recruited Huns from the north of the Caucasus to assist them. To start with, the two sides preferred to wage war by proxy, through
1565:, but a dispute soon arose over the Euphrates boundary. Finally, Phraates asserted his control over Mesopotamia, except for the western district of
4395:, contribute to the coherent narrative of Heraclius' war and are regarded by Howard-Johnston as "the most important of extant non-Muslim sources".
4325:
is neither contemporary nor reliable, but it is the chief narrative source for Severus and Carus. The trilingual (Middle Persian, Parthian, Greek)
2439:
were prevented from doing so by Persian attacks. Attempting to remedy the deficiencies revealed by these Persian successes, the new Roman emperor,
1402:
in 200 BC. Soon both the Romans and the Parthians would invade the Seleucid-held territories, and become the strongest states in western Asia.
968:
1671:. For a moment, the whole of the Roman East seemed lost to the Parthians or about to fall into their hands. However, the conclusion of the second
9778:
3844:
When the Roman and Parthian Empires first collided in the 1st century BC, it appeared that Parthia had the potential to push its frontier to the
2855:, having been dismissed and humiliated by Hormizd IV, raised a rebellion. Hormizd was overthrown in a palace coup in 590 and replaced by his son
2411:
king Gourgen to the Romans: in 524/525 the Iberians rose in revolt against Persia, following the example of the neighboring Christian kingdom of
2314:; the emperor refused to provide it and the Persian king tried to take it by force. In 502 AD, he quickly captured the unprepared city of
1339:, whose forces invaded both empires only a few years after the end of the last Roman–Persian war. Benefiting from their weakened condition, the
9755:
9147:
6946:
3986:
On the other hand, the Persians adopted war engines from the Romans. The Romans had achieved and maintained a high degree of sophistication in
7541:
6005:
3856:, was adapted for national defense but ill-suited for conquest. The Romans, on the other hand, were continually modifying and evolving their "
2145:
began a series of offensives against the Romans. Despite a string of victories in battle, culminating in the overthrow of a Roman army led by
6688:
6662:
6615:
3824:
2216:
by Germanic, Alanic, and Hunnic peoples, while Persia's northern borders were threatened first by a number of Hunnic peoples and then by the
1780:
A fresh series of conflicts began in the 2nd century AD, during which the Romans consistently held the upper hand over Parthia. The Emperor
1750:
worked out a compromise in 1 AD. According to the agreement, Parthia undertook to withdraw its forces from Armenia and to recognize a
9334:
2323:
while Kavadh invaded Osroene and laid siege to Edessa with the same results. Finally in 504, the Romans gained control through the renewed
8300:
3852:
by Pacorus and Labienus, and were gradually able to take advantage of the weaknesses of the Parthian military system, which, according to
9245:
8717:
1596:. The Parthians raided Syria the following year, and mounted a major invasion in 51 BC, but their army was caught in an ambush near
961:
8918:
7533:
7500:
7456:
7425:
5753:
10469:
2436:
2428:
1581:
10454:
10111:
9218:
8889:
8503:
4099:
3688:
2933:
2788:
2732:
2287:
Map of the Roman–Persian frontier after the division of Armenia in 384. The frontier remained stable throughout the 5th century.
1255:
1250:
569:
8235:
5589:
3158:
further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the
10464:
10449:
8981:
Bruderzwist. Strukturen und Methoden der Diplomatie zwischen Rom und Iran von der Teilung Armeniens bis zum Fünfzigjährigen Frieden
3817:
2060:
respectively planned to invade Persia, but they were both murdered before they were able to fulfil their plans. In 283 the emperor
1819:, decided that it was in Rome's interest to re-establish the Euphrates as the limit of its direct control. Hadrian returned to the
2351:
of Amida, leading to the hand-over of the city. That year an armistice was agreed to as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the
10314:
10138:
9863:
9590:
9482:
9343:
5299:
3849:
3308:
2776:
the army suffered heavy losses while fleeing across the Euphrates under Roman attack and the Persian royal baggage was captured.
1652:
1557:
to dissuade him from intervening. Although the Parthians remained neutral, Lucullus considered attacking them. In 66–65 BC,
1500:
1474:
conquered the remaining Seleucid territories in Syria, extinguishing their state and advancing the Roman eastern frontier to the
1014:
8099:
7323:, frag. 6.1. According to Greatrex (2005), 489, to many Romans this arrangement "appeared dangerous and indicative of weakness".
2397:, but the negotiations soon broke down. The proposal was initially greeted with enthusiasm by the Roman emperor and his nephew,
9637:
9351:
7961:
According to Reno E. Gabba, the Roman army was reorganized over time after the impact of the Battle of Carrhae (Gabba , 51–73).
3322:
against Parthia. Subsequent campaign in Armenia successful, but followed by withdrawal. Parthians take control of whole region.
3203:
1085:
7949:
6447:
6414:
6389:
6368:
2487:
was interrupted by Kavadh I's death and the new Persian king, Khosrau I, re-opened talks in spring 532 and finally signed the
2220:. With both empires preoccupied by these threats, a largely peaceful period followed, interrupted only by two brief wars, the
9162:
9026:
8988:
8766:
8471:
8342:
8161:
8047:
6776:
6755:
6015:
5958:
5925:
5892:
5681:
5574:
5149:
5014:
4958:
4862:
4194:
3191:
3187:
2327:
of Amida, which led to the fall of the city. That year an armistice was reached as a result of an invasion of Armenia by the
1844:
1733:
1225:
1051:
5840:
4873:
3877:
administratively more centralized than the Parthians, formally organized defense of their territory, although they lacked a
1815:
Trajan's Parthian War initiated a "shift of emphasis in the 'grand strategy of the Roman empire' ", but his successor,
5445:
4118:
The Roman–Persian Wars have been characterized as "futile" and too "depressing and tedious to contemplate". Prophetically,
2598:. An invasion of Armenia in 543 by the Roman forces in the East, numbering 30,000, against the capital of Persian Armenia,
2221:
1808:
were expelled by the local inhabitants. Trajan subdued the rebels in Mesopotamia, but having installed the Parthian prince
1451:
1080:
206:
1784:
invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia during 114 and 115 and annexed them as Roman provinces. He captured the Parthian capital,
9676:
8788:
7355:
3373:
3036:, while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore.
1774:
1725:
1041:
9070:
6221:
6187:
5498:
5456:
5211:
4229:, which assured the corruption of their history once they had been vanquished. The main sources of this period are thus
2723:). Both sides agreed not to build new fortifications near the frontier and to ease restrictions on diplomacy and trade.
2646:
The Eastern Roman–Persian border at the time of Justinian's death in 565, with Lazica in Eastern Roman (Byzantine) hands
10119:
9905:
9748:
9197:
5969:
5861:
5532:
5332:
4993:
4769:
4277:
The principal sources for the early Sasanian period are not contemporary. Among them the most important are the Greeks
3199:
1137:
17:
5882:
5543:
5104:
2303:
The Anastasian War ended the longest period of peace the two powers ever enjoyed. War broke out when the Persian King
10062:
10030:
9883:
9228:
9207:
9186:
9122:
9101:
9080:
9007:
8422:
8395:
8310:
8084:
8012:
5979:
5871:
5850:
5829:
5801:
5742:
5721:
5700:
5645:
5553:
5522:
5508:
5487:
5466:
5420:
5362:
5311:
5288:
5264:
5240:
5221:
5200:
5181:
5116:
5035:
4883:
4835:
4705:
2233:
1230:
6305:
6287:
5004:
4333:
For the period between 353 and 378, there is an eyewitness source to the main events on the eastern frontier in the
2068:
was forced by his own army to retreat, being frightened by the belief that Carus had died of a strike of lightning.
9878:
9723:
9711:
9327:
4157:
Both sides attempted to justify their respective military goals in both active and reactive ways. According to the
2698:
1708:
and the Parthians. Other preoccupations obliged him to withdraw, and the whole region came under Parthian control.
1636:
852:
6157:
4221:
The sources for the history of Parthia and the wars with Rome are scant and scattered. The Parthians followed the
2137:'s unsuccessful campaign in 363 resulted in the loss of the Roman territorial gains under the peace treaty of 299.
10439:
10272:
10143:
8133:
6233:
5711:
4036:. Towards the end of the 1st century AD, Rome organized the protection of its eastern frontiers through the
2296:
2171:
1913:
1504:
1157:
1036:
897:
9920:
9915:
6119:
5410:
5352:
5025:
4908:
10251:
8530:
6807:
6102:
4056:
of the Syrian and Mesopotamian frontiers of the Roman Empire. The Roman and Persian border units were known as
3857:
3182:
3165:
Neither empire was given any chance to recover, as within a few years they were struck by the onslaught of the
2407:, Proculus, opposed the move. Tensions between the two powers were further heightened by the defection of the
1917:
1855:
defeated the Parthians in Armenia and installed a favored candidate on the Armenian throne. The following year
1659:, a former supporter of Brutus and Cassius. They swiftly overran the Roman province of Syria and advanced into
1562:
1463:
1434:, the Parthians fended off several Seleucid attempts to regain their lost territories, and established several
1427:
1368:
1179:
342:
211:
4387:
are useful sources for the last Roman–Persian war. In addition to Byzantine sources, two Armenian historians,
10444:
10304:
10299:
10236:
10104:
10035:
10008:
9858:
9741:
9381:
8743:
4326:
4107:
3775:
3386:
3033:
2954:
2943:
2937:
2823:
2758:
2627:
2408:
2360:
states that peace was agreed for seven years, and it is likely that some payments were made to the Persians.
2344:
earlier. Anastasius pursued the project despite Persian objections, and the walls were completed by 507–508.
1729:
1356:
1046:
892:
5477:
4695:
10459:
10294:
10256:
10023:
10003:
9805:
8642:
5631:
3132:
Byzantine Empire (green) by 626 under Heraclius; striped areas are lands still threatened by the Sasanians.
2953:
Phocas' brutal repression sparked a succession crisis that ensued as the general Heraclius sent his nephew
2689:
1863:
and Seleucia and sacking Ctesiphon in 165. An epidemic which was sweeping Parthia at the time, possibly of
1019:
907:
877:
725:
9091:
9019:
Prokop und die Perser. Untersuchungen zu den Römisch-Sasanidischen Kontakten in der ausgehenden Spätantike
8668:
8362:
6426:
6332:
6251:
5564:
4631:
2807:, and sacking Singara. Khosrau again opened peace negotiations but he died early in 579 and his successor
1323:
and huge territorial losses for the Byzantine Empire, shortly after the end of the last war between them.
10386:
9991:
9706:
9320:
5732:
4176:
4004:
3994:. On the other hand, the Parthians were inept at besieging; their cavalry armies were more suited to the
3453:
3091:, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. Heraclius restored the
3016:
2738:
2484:
1871:
that raged for a generation throughout the Roman Empire. In 195–197, a Roman offensive under the Emperor
1320:
1218:
1127:
9112:
8500:
5322:
3911:
Militarily, the Sasanians continued the Parthians' heavy dependence on cavalry troops: a combination of
10171:
9943:
9783:
4827:
3174:
1443:
1360:
9853:
4179:, which was thought to be the cause of the subsequent Iranian disarray; this is matched by the notion
3672:
begins after Persians break the "Eternal Peace" by invading Syria. Ends with the Roman acquisition of
2212:
dividing Armenia between the two states. Meanwhile, the northern territories of the Roman Empire were
10319:
10309:
10241:
10067:
10018:
9958:
9948:
9938:
9681:
9664:
9406:
9294:
5821:
5455:
Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (2005). "Byzantium and the East in the Sixth Century". In Maas, Michael (ed.).
3566:
3436:
3112:
3048:
2681:
2180:
1837:
1809:
1737:
1534:
1447:
1414:. During the 3rd century BC, the Parthians migrated from the Central Asian steppe into northern
1348:
1194:
1142:
1061:
1056:
657:
642:
8814:
6981:
6914:
6896:
6839:
6041:
4357:
are especially valuable. The single most important source for Justinian's Persian wars up to 553 is
3707:, Hormizd's son, by Roman and Persian forces and restoration of Roman rule in northern Mesopotamia (
2179:, who advanced down the Euphrates to Ctesiphon with a major army. Despite a tactical victory at the
10420:
10391:
10097:
9910:
9838:
9691:
9657:
9610:
9361:
9275:
8151:
4638:
4374:
4210:
4008:
3940:
3319:
3178:
3170:
3072:
2750:
2315:
1757:
1680:
1644:
1530:
1364:
1029:
766:
751:
697:
632:
311:
4151:, 4.26.6, translated by Averil Cameron) about the Persians, a judgment typical of the Roman view.
3146:
Byzantine Empire (orange) by 650. By this point the Sasanian Empire had fallen to the Arab Muslim
1883:
and the third sacking of Ctesiphon. A final war against the Parthians was launched by the Emperor
1851:
defeated the Romans there, captured Edessa and ravaged Syria. In 163 a Roman counter-attack under
10045:
9963:
9696:
9595:
9386:
9366:
8218:
7381:
The great bastion of the Roman frontier was in Persian hands for the first time (Whitby , 92–94).
5659:
5061:
4918:
Cameron, Averil (1979). "Images of Authority: Elites and Icons in Late Sixth-century Byzantium".
3786:
3677:
3444:
3361:
3231:
3116:
3080:
2867:
2710:
2582:
2466:
In 530 a major Persian offensive in Mesopotamia was defeated by Roman forces under Belisarius at
2084:
1896:
1692:
in 37 BC. With Roman control of Syria and Judaea restored, Mark Antony led a huge army into
1668:
1577:
1459:
1352:
1204:
1162:
1147:
1073:
1066:
998:
841:
574:
435:
8281:
5617:
4898:
Diwan. Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean
4052:
that the Persian system was extended, probably in imitation of Diocletian's construction of the
2243:
2091:, sacked the capital Ctesiphon and captured the Persian treasury and royal harem. The resulting
1993:
in 243; Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken by the Romans. Encouraged by this success, the emperor
1619:. However, they maintained relations with Pompey, and after his defeat and death, a force under
10282:
10226:
10050:
10040:
9573:
9472:
5351:
Levi, A. H. T. (1994). "Ctesiphon". In Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; La Boda, Sharon (eds.).
4045:
3947:. The Parthian tactics gradually became the standard method of warfare in the Roman empire and
3748:
3108:
3076:
2610:
in 544 without success and was eventually bought off by the defenders. The Edessenes paid five
2403:
2092:
2088:
2057:
1821:
1766:
1660:
1640:
1538:
1344:
1316:
1172:
1152:
1122:
1112:
1090:
857:
756:
652:
637:
8412:
8385:
8002:
6502:
5950:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600
5917:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIV: Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600
5497:
McDonough, S. J. (2006). "Persecutions in the Sasanian Empire". In Drake, Harold Allen (ed.).
5300:"The Army in the Late Roman East: The Persian Wars and the Defense of the Byzantine Provinces"
4813:
10201:
9795:
9790:
9686:
9600:
9578:
9568:
9465:
9455:
9413:
9391:
8925:
8447:
8302:
East Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies
7530:
7497:
7453:
7422:
6507:
5791:
5760:
5518:
5280:
East Rome, Sasanian Persia And the End of Antiquity: Historiographical And Historical Studies
5274:
5159:
Gabba, Reno E. (1965). "Sulle Influenze Reciproche Degli Ordinamenti de Parti e Dei Romani".
4652:
4458:
4370:
3924:
3658:
3508:
2851:
through treachery in 589, but that year the stalemate was shattered when the Persian general
2631:
2607:
2488:
2460:
2348:
2324:
2018:
1604:
1407:
1189:
1117:
1024:
720:
221:
3712:
3039:
2848:
2112:
10164:
9968:
9558:
9460:
9450:
9376:
9090:
Isaac, Benjamin (1998). "The Eastern Frontier". In Cameron, Averil; Garnsey, Peter (eds.).
5324:
he Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes]: A Historical Encyclopedia
4969:
4611:
4338:
4246:
4230:
4088:
4028:
4012:
3654:
3627:
3605:
2978:
2905:
2814:
2795:. Khosrau sought peace but abandoned this initiative when Persian confidence revived after
2669:
2651:
2479:
2311:
2167:
2162:
1792:. However, uprisings erupted in 115 AD in the occupied Parthian territories, while a major
1372:
1167:
943:
932:
902:
872:
746:
710:
692:
672:
647:
564:
8893:
8438:
5839:
Verbruggen, J. F.; Willard, Sumner; Southern, R. W. (1997). "Historiographical Problems".
4087:, which led to the decline of the former. These deportations also initiated the spread of
1985:, a buffer state which had recently shifted its loyalty but his forces were defeated at a
1946:
8:
8864:
6576:
5673:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume IX: The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 B.C.
5655:
5597:
4346:
4309:
4303:
4094:
The Persians seem to have been reluctant to resort to naval action. There was some minor
4040:
system, which lasted until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century after improvements by
3995:
3991:
3980:
3907:, equipped with both lance and archery equipment. Both rider and horse are fully armored.
3797:
The Persians assassinate Khosrow II and agree to withdraw from all occupied territories.
3768:
2860:
2783:
The Sasanian Empire and its neighbors (including the Eastern Roman Empire) in 600 AD
2706:
2616:
2599:
1184:
919:
687:
677:
9000:
East Roman Foreign Policy. Formation and Conduct from Diocletian to Anastasius (ARCA 30)
8691:
9873:
9848:
9539:
9371:
9253:
9141:
9057:
8276:
5940:
5907:
5881:
Wheeler, Everett (2007). "The Army and the Limes in the East". In Erdkamp, Paul (ed.).
5787:
5409:
Liska, George (1998). "Projection contra Prediction: Alternative Futures and Options".
5397:
5389:
4823:
The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods
4748:
4740:
4494:
4484:
4441:
4379:
4366:
4341:. For the events covering the period between the 4th and the 6th century, the works of
4242:
4084:
4075:
to new cities as a tool of policy, not just the prisoners-of-war (such as those of the
4033:
3708:
3527:
3056:
2985:
2841:
2713:. The Persians agreed to evacuate Lazica and received an annual subsidy of 30,000
2591:
2569:
2364:
2336:
2319:
2256:
2201:
2026:
1958:
1648:
1580:
led an invasion of Mesopotamia in 53 BC with catastrophic results; he and his son
1550:
1518:
1514:
1467:
1336:
730:
501:
8178:
2283:
10360:
10057:
10013:
9890:
9830:
9552:
9544:
9534:
9440:
9224:
9203:
9182:
9118:
9097:
9076:
9061:
9022:
9003:
8984:
8737:
8467:
8418:
8391:
8338:
8306:
8286:
8201:
8157:
8080:
8043:
8008:
7344:
6772:
6751:
6680:
6654:
6607:
6542:
6011:
5975:
5954:
5921:
5888:
5867:
5846:
5825:
5797:
5738:
5717:
5696:
5677:
5641:
5570:
5549:
5528:
5504:
5483:
5462:
5441:
5416:
5401:
5372:
Lightfoot, C. S. (1990). "Trajan's Parthian War and the Fourth-Century Perspective".
5358:
5328:
5307:
5284:
5260:
5236:
5217:
5196:
5177:
5170:
5145:
5112:
5031:
5010:
4989:
4954:
4879:
4858:
4831:
4800:
4765:
4762:
Emulating Alexander: How Alexander the Great's Legacy Fuelled Rome's Wars With Persia
4752:
4732:
4701:
4592:
4392:
4384:
4262:
4222:
4214:
3936:
3732:
3574:
3495:
3483:
3470:
3418:
3295:
2800:
2746:
2308:
2191:. With the Roman army stuck on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, Julian's successor
2184:
2002:
1986:
1931:
1927:
1872:
1597:
1593:
1585:
1492:
1276:
1211:
1199:
1105:
1100:
1004:
715:
579:
483:
468:
372:
367:
337:
296:
281:
261:
8116:
6444:
6411:
6386:
6365:
5583:
1291:
began in 54 BC; wars began under the late Republic, and continued through the
10381:
10350:
10211:
10079:
9895:
9652:
9563:
9487:
9428:
9049:
8193:
7099:
Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 102; see H. Börm, "Der Perserkönig im Imperium Romanum",
6483:
5811:
5667:
5381:
5091:
4923:
4792:
4724:
4674:
4545:
4321:
4159:
4076:
4000:
3944:
3895:
3853:
3744:
3720:
3716:
3570:
3531:
2660:
2603:
2577:
in Italy, who were in touch with the Persian King, launched a counter-attack under
2213:
2192:
2176:
2134:
2038:
2030:
1899:. In exchange for peace, he was obliged to pay for the damage caused by Caracalla.
1672:
1656:
1296:
1132:
923:
830:
701:
554:
545:
541:
522:
492:
439:
362:
271:
251:
216:
177:
8617:
8442:
5778:
Speck, Paul (1984). "Ikonoklasmus und die Anfänge der Makedonischen Renaissance".
1513:
A sculpted head (broken off from a larger statue) of a Parthian warrior wearing a
10335:
10216:
10127:
10122:
9978:
9930:
9843:
9800:
9669:
9507:
9445:
9433:
9423:
8578:
8559:
8507:
7537:
7504:
7460:
7429:
7359:
6451:
6418:
6393:
6372:
6225:
6191:
5948:
5915:
5815:
5671:
5254:
5139:
5095:
4948:
4821:
4817:
4524:
4420:
4354:
4164:
4048:
opposite the territory of their opponents. According to R. N. Frye, it was under
3869:
3406:
3252:
2890:
2827:
2742:
2642:
2339:. At the same time, the dilapidated fortifications were also upgraded at Edessa,
2260:
2033:. He advanced into Anatolia but was defeated by Roman forces there; attacks from
2006:
1966:
1868:
1867:, spread to the Roman army and forced its withdrawal; this was the origin of the
1856:
1852:
1769:
on the Armenian throne. Roman forces overthrew Tiridates and replaced him with a
1689:
1411:
1399:
1300:
1284:
1280:
911:
627:
619:
607:
505:
382:
347:
186:
166:
146:
126:
64:
9053:
8949:
8839:
8197:
7987:
6580:
6546:
4796:
2291:
1635:
against Parthia, but his assassination averted the war. The Parthians supported
10376:
10340:
10246:
10231:
10221:
10176:
10159:
9900:
9616:
9519:
9492:
5944:
5936:
5911:
5903:
5663:
5637:
5585:
5131:
5127:
4940:
4936:
4846:
4667:
4566:
4238:
4226:
4205:
4189:
4103:
3949:
3646:
3631:
3339:
3084:
3001:
2913:
2837:
2768:
2757:
brought Armenia under his protection, while Roman troops under Justin's cousin
2749:) and the Syrian desert, and after Roman negotiations for an alliance with the
2467:
2444:
2278:
2248:
2146:
1573:
1288:
1235:
536:
231:
117:
61:
8792:
7352:
5476:
Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). "Caesar and the End of Republican Government".
2879:
2692:, demolishing its fortifications. In the same year a Persian offensive led by
1957:'s victories on the Western front, depicting him on horseback with a captured
1387:
10433:
10277:
9868:
9627:
9605:
9502:
9497:
9254:"Sixth Century Alania: between Byzantium, Sasanian Iran and the Turkic World"
8205:
8035:
7333:
7253:
6474:
Overlaet, Bruno (30 June 2009). "A Roman Emperor at Bishapur and Darabgird".
6218:
6184:
5968:
Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerald (1999). "Imperial Wealth and Expenditure".
5431:
5141:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337
5135:
5066:
5046:
4950:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XII: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193-337
4944:
4850:
4804:
4736:
4615:
4315:
4095:
3987:
3920:
3889:
3878:
3694:
3260:
3020:
2852:
2673:
2595:
2561:
2432:
2424:
2153:(348), his campaigns achieved little lasting effect: three Persian sieges of
1982:
1875:
led to Rome's acquisition of northern Mesopotamia as far as the areas around
1628:
1608:
1546:
1526:
1340:
1095:
937:
846:
835:
816:
72:
8815:"Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle composed in Syriac in AD 507 (1882) pp. 1-76"
7234:
7122:
6487:
5435:
1696:, but his siege train and its escort were isolated and wiped out, while his
10206:
9820:
9810:
9770:
9622:
9529:
9524:
9477:
9396:
7857:
6346:
followed under Lucius Verus and Septimius Severus."; Sicker (2000), 167–168
5082:
Foss, Clive (1975). "The Persians in Asia Minor and the End of Antiquity".
5023:
4294:
4023:
3928:
3912:
3904:
3616:
3589:
3277:
3052:
3028:
2886:
and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross (
2677:
2455:
in 529 encouraged Justinian to strengthen his own Arab allies, helping the
2237:
2229:
2217:
2209:
2120:
2104:
1860:
1848:
1789:
1685:
1616:
1554:
1308:
1304:
1292:
801:
771:
463:
407:
157:
137:
7860:
may have lessened local resistance to the Arab expansion (Haldon , 49–50).
4927:
2887:
2470:, while a second Persian thrust in the Caucasus was defeated by Sittas at
2005:
in 244. Gordian either died in the battle or was murdered by his own men;
1832:
10397:
10345:
9585:
9514:
9401:
5971:
The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century
5250:
4855:
The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume XIII: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425
4571:
4550:
4529:
4430:
4254:
4119:
4072:
4026:
run by the central government and based on a line of fortifications (the
3865:
3642:
3487:
2702:
2693:
2665:
2581:. Belisarius took the field and waged an inconclusive campaign against
2556:
Syria and Mesopotamia, and systematically looting other cities including
2514:
2440:
2376:
2158:
2130:
2124:
1994:
1962:
1762:
1676:
1664:
1454:. Meanwhile, the Romans expelled the Seleucids from their territories in
1423:
1240:
662:
603:
488:
448:
57:
5838:
4585:
4274:
at the beginning of the 4th century, both from a Christian perspective.
9815:
9733:
9418:
8153:
Siege Warfare and Counter-Siege Tactics in Late Antiquity (ca. 250–640)
5344:
Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D
4904:
4635:. Translation based on Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb.
4597:
4504:
4267:
4168:
4041:
3976:
3963:
3955:
3916:
3845:
3802:
3704:
3698:
3585:
3466:
3092:
3044:
2997:
2974:
2856:
2808:
2803:
retaliated by raiding Persian Mesopotamia, capturing the stronghold of
2792:
2622:
2574:
2448:
2295:
Relief of a Sasanian delegation in Byzantium, marble, 4th–5th century,
2205:
2072:
2042:
2034:
1923:
1770:
1747:
1693:
1327:
867:
862:
811:
776:
682:
392:
357:
241:
88:
80:
76:
6710:
5393:
4764:(First ed.). Great Britain: Pen and Sword Military. p. 232.
4744:
3027:
in Atropatene. In 625 he defeated the generals Shahrbaraz, Shahin and
9312:
7640:
5213:
The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part II, 363–630 AD)
4577:
4358:
4342:
4286:
4172:
4079:), but also the cities they captured, such as the deportation of the
4058:
4049:
3882:
3806:
3798:
3669:
3491:
3432:
3282:
3147:
3096:
3088:
3064:
2962:
2796:
2754:
2715:
2504:
2456:
2398:
2394:
2381:
2357:
2142:
2100:
1998:
1884:
1793:
1785:
1697:
1620:
1475:
1435:
1312:
1245:
953:
882:
791:
667:
589:
473:
352:
226:
8123:, Vol. 63, No. 1, January/February 2010, (accessed October 3, 2014)
8077:
The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History
7647:
fell to the invaders in 622–623 (Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 193–197).
5430:
Louth, Andrew (2005). "The Eastern Empire in the Sixth Century". In
5027:
The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars (Part I, 226–363 AD)
5024:
Dodgeon, Michael H.; Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002).
4780:
4071:
The Sasanians, and to a lesser extent the Parthians, practiced mass
2363:
In 505 Anastasius ordered the building of a great fortified city at
10355:
9037:
6593:
Dodgeon-Greatrex-Lieu (2002), I, 108–109, 112; Southern (2001), 241
5863:
The Evolution of Middle Eastern Landscapes: An Outline to A.D. 1840
5691:
Sicker, Martin (2000). "The Struggle over the Euphrates Frontier".
5385:
4728:
4662:
4561:
4540:
4519:
4468:
4448:
4410:
4362:
4290:
4278:
4271:
4258:
4250:
4143:
4019:
3973:) appeared, who were skilled in both archery and the use of lance.
3932:
3772:
3756:
3601:
3554:
3523:
3440:
3335:
3331:
3256:
3140:
3060:
3005:
2966:
2762:
2509:
2452:
2390:
2332:
2304:
2252:
2225:
2161:, were repulsed, and while Shapur succeeded in 359 in successfully
2080:
2079:
renewed hostilities with the Romans invading Armenia, and defeated
2065:
2053:
2041:
forced the Persians to withdraw from Roman territory, surrendering
1978:
1954:
1950:
1892:
1864:
1826:
1797:
1752:
1743:
1705:
1631:
Valley by Caesarian forces. With the civil war over, Julius Caesar
1561:
reached agreement with Phraates, and Roman–Parthian troops invaded
1542:
1455:
1439:
796:
781:
761:
531:
478:
417:
412:
332:
236:
6080:
4622:
4557:
4536:
4515:
3075:, who took advantage of the dwindling strength of the Persians to
2688:
and the rest of Lazica under control, and finally subjected Petra
2602:, was defeated by a meticulous ambush by a small Persian force at
2347:
Finally in 504, the Romans gained the upper hand with the renewed
2340:
1922:
Conflict resumed shortly after the overthrow of Parthian rule and
9093:
The Cambridge Ancient History: The Late Empire, A.D. 337–425 XIII
5542:
Potter, David Stone (2004). "The Failure of the Severan Empire".
5253:(1999). "Fighting for Peace: Attitudes to Warfare in Byzantium".
5233:
Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture
4715:
Barnes, T. D (1985). "Constantine and the Christians of Persia".
4626:
4603:
4350:
4282:
4234:
4175:'s invasions, respectively, of Roman territories, were to avenge
4080:
4064:
4015:, and organization, as well as ability to build defensive works.
3969:
3900:
3390:
3009:
2970:
2832:
2804:
2773:
2685:
2565:
2557:
2475:
2423:
in the north. Overt Roman–Persian fighting had broken out in the
2154:
2150:
2046:
2022:
2010:
1990:
1970:
1936:
1880:
1876:
1816:
1801:
1566:
1431:
1395:
806:
615:
513:
397:
327:
301:
291:
286:
266:
84:
7237:" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
7125:" Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2668:
won a series of victories against Persian armies, although they
1977:
The struggle resumed and intensified under Ardashir's successor
1716:
10403:
7644:
5168:
Garnsey, Peter; Saller, Richard P. (1987). "The Roman Empire".
4388:
3861:
3752:
3673:
3650:
3273:
3159:
3126:
3024:
2993:
2947:
2898:
2883:
2779:
2655:
2587:
2578:
2471:
2412:
2228:
persecuted high-ranking Persian officials who had converted to
2188:
2127:, and Arzan. Also, control of Armenia was given to the Romans.
2116:
2096:
2087:
in 296 or 297. However, in 298 Galerius defeated Narseh at the
2076:
1825:, and surrendered the territories of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and
1805:
1781:
1612:
1589:
1558:
1471:
1419:
887:
786:
741:
584:
559:
458:
402:
387:
276:
256:
8106:, November 26, 2009 (online feature), accessed October 3, 2014
7662:
5161:
Atti del Convegno sul Terma: la Persia e il Mondo Greco-Romano
4896:". In Binder, Carsten; Börm, Henning; Luther, Andreas (eds.):
3848:
and the Mediterranean. However, the Romans repulsed the great
1742:
With tensions between the two powers threatening renewed war,
1509:
6926:
6924:
5751:
5412:
Expanding Realism: The Historical Dimension of World Politics
4659:. Books I and V. Translated by Michael and Mary Whitby. (PDF)
4313:, most of whom depended on late Sasanian sources, especially
3542:
3482:
Ardashir's invasion of Mesopotamia and Persian defeat at the
3195:
3166:
3087:. Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son
2989:
2958:
2894:
2635:
2385:
Roman and Persian Empires in 477, as well as their neighbors.
2108:
2061:
1940:
1888:
1701:
1376:
518:
306:
246:
201:
68:
27:
Series of wars between ancient Greco-Roman and Iranian states
8693:
Johannidos: De laudibus Justini Augusti minor libri quattuor
5860:
Wagstaff, John (1985). "Hellenistic West and Persian East".
3630:
refuses to support the Persians financially, triggering the
2984:
Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer
2431:
in that year was unsuccessful, and forces trying to fortify
1655:
Roman territory in 40 BC in conjunction with the Roman
8134:"Buried Soldiers May Be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapon"
8004:
Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565-1204
5842:
The Art of Warfare in Western Europe During the Middle Ages
5256:
Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204
4857:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 411–436.
3469:
raids Mesopotamia and Syria, but is eventually repulsed by
2840:
to pursue his imperial ambitions. Another Roman victory at
2420:
2416:
2328:
1651:
in 42 BC. After the Liberators' defeat, the Parthians
1415:
1391:
453:
377:
10186:
8542:
Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 5; Potter (2004), 232–233
7478:
6921:
6455:* Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 24–28; Frye (1993), 124
5935:
Whitby, Michael (2000). "The Successors of Justinian". In
5209:
4894:
A Threat or a Blessing? The Sasanians and the Roman Empire
2013:
to the Persians in a hastily negotiated peace settlement.
1541:
for a Roman–Parthian alliance (c. 105 BC). When
8387:
Brill's Companion to the Reception of Alexander the Great
6004:
Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (March 24, 2010).
5437:
The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1, c.500–c.700
5167:
3012:, bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction.
2352:
5006:
Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity. Neighbours and rivals
3923:
provided by the aristocracy. They added a contingent of
2141:
The arrangements of 299 lasted until the mid-330s, when
7914:
7912:
7003:* Greatrex (2005), 487; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 81–82
6719:
5002:
3691:
breaks out when Armenians revolt against Sasanian rule.
3421:
leads to the Roman acquisition of northern Mesopotamia.
3389:
against Parthia. Trajan's conquests later abandoned by
1497:
Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire
8464:
Julian (Routledge Revivals): An Intellectual Biography
5967:
5731:
Southern, Pat (2001). "Beyond the Eastern Frontiers".
2818:
The Roman-Persian frontier in the 4th to 7th centuries
2307:
attempted to gain financial support by force from the
1517:, from the Parthian royal residence and necropolis of
9280:
History Articles – Classical Europe and Mediterranean
9161:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Archived from
8667:(sieur), Charles Du Fresne Du Cange (31 March 2018).
7224:* Greatrex (2005), 489; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113
6698:
6042:"Byzantine–Iranian Relations – Encyclopaedia Iranica"
5500:
Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and Practices
3309:
Pompeian–Parthian invasion of the Levant and Anatolia
1283:: the Parthian and the Sasanian. Battles between the
9248:– Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation.
9179:
A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641
8279:, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, “DEPORTATIONS,”
7909:
6086:
5105:"The Political History of Iran under the Sassanians"
5062:"Excavations In Iran Unravel Mystery Of "Red Snake""
4983:
4845:
Blockley, R. C. (1997). "Warfare and Diplomacy". In
4465:. Book IX. Translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson.
1720:
Parthia, its subkingdoms, and neighbors in 1 AD
1647:
and sent a contingent to fight on their side at the
7650:
6810:; Frye (1968), 145; Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 37–51
6035:
6033:
5902:Whitby, Michael (2000). "The Army, c. 420–602". In
4671:. Book III. See original text in the Latin Library.
4501:. Book XLI. See original text in the Latin Library.
4373:is the main source for the reign of Maurice, while
3401:After initial Parthian successes, war over Armenia
3000:, as well as to devastate Anatolia. Meanwhile, the
1275:, were a series of conflicts between states of the
8287:http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/deportations
8219:Excavations In Iran Unravel Mystery Of "Red Snake"
7466:
7090:Evans (2000), 118; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 96–97
6068:
5380:. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 80: 115–116.
5169:
4935:Campbell, Brian (2005). "The Severan Dynasty". In
4814:"The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids"
4723:. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 75: 126–136.
3209:
2626:Hunting scene showing king Khosrau I (7th century
1997:advanced down the Euphrates but was defeated near
1458:in the early 2nd century BC, after defeating
7856:Ambivalence toward Byzantine rule on the part of
4875:Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing
4697:Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire
3071:Meanwhile, Heraclius formed an alliance with the
2787:The Romans exploited Persian disarray as general
1907:
10431:
8100:"Death Underground: Gas Warfare at Dura-Europos"
8062:Campbell–Hook (2005), 57–59; Gabba (1966), 51–73
7390:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 152; Louth (2005), 113
6030:
5193:L'Iconoclasme Byzantin: le Dossier Archéologique
3194:. The Roman Empire also lost its territories in
3150:as well as Byzantine Syria, Palestine and Egypt.
2463:turn a loose coalition into a coherent kingdom.
2095:gave the Romans control of the area between the
1891:in 216. After his assassination, his successor,
9779:Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire
8724:. Archived from the original on October 3, 2003
8298:
7896:Haldon (1997), 61–62; Howard-Johnston (2006), 9
7869:Foss (1975), 746–47; Howard-Johnston (2006), xv
7668:
7507:(PDF); Treadgold (1997), 226; Whitby (2000), 96
7463:(PDF); Treadgold (1997), 225; Whitby (2000), 96
6376:Campbell (2005), 6–7; Rawlinson (2007), 337–338
6123:* Mackay (2004), 149; Sherwin-White (1994), 262
5752:Soward, Warren; Whitby, Michael; Whitby, Mary.
5458:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Justinian
5304:The Near East Under Roman Rule: Selected Papers
5273:
5210:Greatrex, Geoffrey; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002).
4970:"An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military"
3008:took advantage of the situation to overrun the
2844:in 586 likewise failed to break the stalemate.
2791:invaded deep into Persian territory and raided
2170:Amida (359). In the following year he captured
2025:. Between 258 and 260, Shapur captured Emperor
1478:, where it met the territory of the Parthians.
1315:also played a role. The wars were ended by the
8258:Shahîd (1984), 24–25; Wagstaff (1985), 123–125
8117:"Early Chemical Warfare – Dura-Europos, Syria"
7546:* Louth (2005), 115; Treadgold (1997), 231–232
6464:Frye (1993), 124–125; Southern (2001), 234–235
5630:Shahîd, Irfan (1984). "Arab-Roman Relations".
5479:Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History
5172:The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture
1603:The Parthians largely remained neutral during
10105:
9749:
9328:
8186:Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae
7950:An Overview of the Sassanian Persian Military
7363:Persians." See also, Greatrex (2005), 503–504
6003:
5796:(Second ed.). Indiana University Press.
5654:
5610:
4984:De Blois, Lukas; van der Spek, R. J. (2008).
4213:, 1521, pen and black ink on a chalk sketch,
4032:) and the fortified frontier cities, such as
3825:
1486:
969:
9712:Wars of the fall of the Western Roman Empire
8643:"LacusCurtius • Cassius Dio's Roman History"
8461:
6666:* Frye (1993), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243
6039:
5817:A History of the Byzantine State and Society
5734:The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine
5716:. Continuum International Publishing Group.
5658:(1994). "Lucullus, Pompey and the East". In
2811:(r. 578–590) preferred to continue the war.
1592:; this was the worst Roman defeat since the
1371:. Over the following centuries, more of the
9131:
8417:. Cambridge University Press. p. 475.
8079:. Cambridge University Press. p. 326.
7484:
7443:Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95–96
7310:Greatrex (2005), 489; Treadgold (1997), 211
7227:
5584:Rekavandi, Hamrid Omrani; Sauer, Eberhard;
5517:
5354:International Dictionary of Historic Places
4781:"The restoration of the Cross at Jerusalem"
4181:
2917:The Sasanian Empire at its greatest extent
1829:to their previous rulers and client-kings.
1711:
10112:
10098:
9756:
9742:
9335:
9321:
9146:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
8437:
8285:, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at
8245:
8243:
7115:
6693:Frye (1968), 130–131; Southern (2001), 243
6562:Frye (1993), 125; Southern (2001), 235–236
6101:Ball (2000), 12–13; Dignas–Winter (2007),
4475:. Book VI. Translated by Edward C. Echols.
3832:
3818:
3202:in later conflicts, though these too were
2267:
1840:, built to commemorate the Roman victories
1836:Reliefs depicting war with Parthia on the
1600:by the Romans, and they were driven back.
1307:and allied nomadic nations in the form of
976:
962:
8718:"Eutropius: Abridgement of Roman History"
8410:
8140:, March 8, 2011, accessed October 3, 2014
8070:
8068:
7991:* Verbruggen–Willard–Southern (1997), 4–5
7926:
7924:
7187:
7185:
7093:
6634:
5953:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5920:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5810:
5710:Sidnell, Philip (2006). "Imperial Rome".
5562:
5496:
5440:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5371:
5144:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5126:Frye, R. N. (2005). "The Sassanians". In
5003:Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007).
4953:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
4511:. See original text in the Latin Library.
4427:. See original text in the Latin Library.
2996:and several other islands in the eastern
2871:Late Roman silver coin showing the words
2474:. Belisarius was defeated by Persian and
2389:In 524–525 AD, Kavadh proposed that
2021:in 253, then probably took and plundered
9763:
9301:. All Empires – Online History Community
9282:. All Empires – Online History Community
9176:
9068:
8997:
8689:
8564:
8299:Howard-Johnston, J. D. (31 March 2018).
8179:"Elephants in Warfare in Late Antiquity"
7434:Treadgold (1997), 224; Whitby (2000), 95
7240:
7194:
7015:
6725:
6584:* Frye (1993), 126; Southern (2001), 238
6500:
6473:
5859:
5754:"Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians"
5730:
5527:(2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
5454:
4934:
4844:
4437:. Book LXXX. Translated by Earnest Cary.
4204:
4177:Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia
3975:
3894:
3038:
2912:
2909:Byzantine and Sasanian Empires in 600 AD
2904:
2878:
2866:
2813:
2778:
2641:
2621:
2508:
2380:
2290:
2282:
2242:
2129:
1945:
1859:invaded Mesopotamia, winning battles at
1831:
1715:
1508:
1386:
1382:
9483:Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
8666:
8332:
8240:
8034:
7716:* Cameron (1979), 23; Grabar (1984), 37
7413:
7411:
7235:Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars
7212:
7123:Justinian I – Foreign Policies and Wars
7066:
6991:
6007:The Age of the Parthians – Google Knihy
5880:
5709:
5676:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5049:. Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors
4917:
4759:
4445:. See the original text in Google Books
4209:The Humiliation of Valerian by Shapur (
3553:Roman defeat at Carrhae in 296 or 297.
2726:
2187:, during a difficult retreat along the
912:
620:
608:
506:
14:
10432:
9796:Medo-Persian conflict (Persian Revolt)
9342:
9216:
9195:
9154:
8978:
8865:"Lactantius: de Mortibus Persecutorum"
8335:The No-nonsense Guide to World History
8149:
8065:
8000:
7939:Greatrex (2005), 478; Frye (2005), 472
7921:
7630:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 190–193, 196
7498:Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians
7454:Theophylact Simocatta and the Persians
7182:
6750:University of California Press (1978)
6716:Frye (1993), 130; Southern (2001), 242
6704:
6640:Frye (1968), 130; Southern (2001), 242
6620:Frye (1968), 128; Southern (2001), 241
6551:Frye (1968), 125; Southern (2001), 235
5934:
5901:
5713:Warhorse, Cavalry in the Ancient World
5690:
5629:
5541:
5475:
5341:
5249:
5230:
5190:
4778:
4714:
4369:offer many important details as well.
3731:Khosrow II conquers Mesopotamia after
3634:. Ends with a seven-year peace treaty.
3494:but is repelled near Ctesiphon at the
3378:made with Parthians over its kingship.
2356:of what the terms of the treaty were.
1902:
1481:
983:
10093:
9737:
9316:
9263:. Transoxiana Webfestschrift Series I
9220:The Emperor Maurice and his Historian
9158:The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337
9110:
9089:
8690:Corippus, Flavius Cresconius (1836).
8176:
8074:
8042:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 42.
7603:Haldon (1997), 41; Speck (1984), 178.
7006:
6430:* Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 16
6097:
6095:
5777:
5613:"Historiography – Pre-Islamic Period"
5429:
5408:
5297:
5158:
4967:
4811:
3439:against the Parthians. His successor
2709:and Izedh Gushnap – put together the
2071:After a brief period of peace during
1895:, was defeated by the Parthians near
1675:soon revived Roman strength in Asia.
1537:, who negotiated unsuccessfully with
957:
9591:Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain
9035:
9016:
8520:Haldon (1999), 20; Isaak (1998), 441
8234:Rekavandi–Sauer–Wilkinson–Nokandeh,
7847:Haldon (1997), 43–45, 66, 71, 114–15
7680:
7472:
7437:
7408:
7326:
7295:
7075:
7033:
7024:
6951:A Companion to Procopius of Caesarea
6321:
6312:
5786:
5350:
5125:
5102:
5081:
4986:An Introduction to the Ancient World
4903:
4871:
4693:
4686:
3443:, however, is defeated by them near
2981:, and the Roman position collapsed.
1553:in 69 BC, he corresponded with
1452:Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania
9251:
9199:The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395
8812:
7815:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 217–227
7761:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 202–205
7746:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199–202
7656:
7585:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 185–186
7570:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 183–184
6501:Overlaet, Bruno (3 November 2017).
6074:
5782:. Rudolf Halbelt. pp. 175–210.
5545:The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395
5320:
3320:Mark Antony's unsuccessful campaign
1615:and the traditional faction of the
1607:, fought between forces supporting
1569:, which became a Roman dependency.
1501:Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC
24:
9299:History Articles – Medieval Europe
9202:. London und New York: Routledge.
8971:
8756:
8589:Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I, 7
8267:Frye (1993), 139; Levi (1994), 192
8150:Whitby, Michael (1 January 2013).
8040:Sassanian Elite Cavalry AD 224–642
7824:Haldon (1997), 46; Baynes (1912),
7045:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 83, 86
6385:Herodian, Roman History, IV,
6092:
5176:. University of California Press.
4403:
3743:Persians gradually conquer Syria,
2513:Roman and Sasanian Empires during
2318:and besieged the fortress-city of
2157:, in that age known as the key to
1788:, before sailing downriver to the
25:
10481:
10470:Wars involving the Roman Republic
9239:
8001:Haldon, John F. (31 March 1999).
7800:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 209–212
7621:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 189–190
7612:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 188–189
7594:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 186–187
7516:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 168-169
7141:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 109–110
6953:. Brill, Boston 2022, pp. 310 ff.
6631:Dodgeon–Greatrex–Lieu (2002), 114
5793:The Making of the Georgian Nation
5346:. University of California Press.
5163:. Accademia Nazionale del Lincei.
5070:. February 26, 2008. Science News
5044:
4910:History of the Later Roman Empire
4872:Boyd, Kelly (2004). "Byzantium".
4200:
4044:. Like the Romans, the Sasanians
3868:against the Romans. However, the
3330:Settlement with the Parthians by
3099:with a majestic ceremony in 629.
2946:mutinied under the leadership of
2934:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628
2826:monarchy, and turned Iberia into
2822:In 580, Hormizd IV abolished the
2733:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591
2272:
2009:became emperor, and paid 500,000
1965:, and a kneeling emperor, either
1353:deprived the Eastern Roman Empire
10455:Near East in classical antiquity
10416:
10415:
10185:
10121:
9724:Military history of ancient Rome
8942:
8911:
8900:
8882:
8857:
8832:
8806:
8781:
8750:
8710:
8683:
8660:
8635:
8610:
8601:
8592:
8583:
8551:Frye (2005), 461–463; Shahbazi,
8545:
8536:
8523:
8514:
8489:
8480:
8455:
8431:
8404:
8378:
8369:
8351:
8326:
8292:
8270:
8261:
8252:
8228:
8212:
8170:
8143:
8126:
8109:
8093:
8056:
8028:
7994:
7976:
7964:
7955:
7942:
7933:
7899:
7890:
7881:
7872:
7863:
7850:
7841:
7831:
7818:
7803:
7794:
7779:
7764:
7749:
7734:
7719:
7704:
7695:
7686:
7674:
7633:
7624:
7615:
7606:
7597:
7588:
7573:
7558:
7549:
7519:
7510:
7490:
7233:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110; "
6939:On Procopius, see Henning Börm:
6867:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), I I, 69–71
6087:De Blois & van der Spek 2008
5524:Historical Dictionary of Georgia
4621:
4556:
4535:
4514:
3364:renounces his claims to Armenia.
3139:
3125:
2568:and deporting its population to
2029:after defeating his army at the
1930:. After fruitless negotiations,
1663:, overthrowing the Roman client
936:
853:Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene
845:
834:
10465:Wars involving the Roman Empire
10450:Ancient history of the Caucasus
10273:Military of the Sasanian Empire
9707:Civil wars of the Third Century
9114:Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium
9072:Rome and Persia at War, 502–532
8462:Athanassiadi, Polymnia (2014).
8289:(accessed on 30 December 2012).
8177:Rance, Philip (December 2003).
7731:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 199
7446:
7393:
7384:
7375:
7366:
7338:
7313:
7304:
7286:
7277:
7268:
7259:
7256:; Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 113
7164:
7146:
7128:
7106:
7084:
7072:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 92–96
7057:
7048:
7021:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 81–82
6974:
6956:
6933:
6903:
6885:
6870:
6861:
6846:
6828:
6813:
6800:
6791:
6782:
6761:
6740:
6731:
6669:
6643:
6625:
6596:
6587:
6565:
6556:
6531:
6522:
6494:
6467:
6458:
6433:
6400:
6379:
6358:
6349:
6339:
6294:
6276:
6267:
6258:
6240:
6207:
6198:
6173:
6164:
6146:
6134:* Sherwin-White (1994), 262–263
4491:. Translated by William Wright.
3417:An offensive under the emperor
3210:Strategies and military tactics
2532: Acquisitions by Justinian
2297:Istanbul Archaeological Museums
1765:forcibly installed his brother
1588:by the Parthians under General
9117:. Cambridge University Press.
9096:. Cambridge University Press.
9069:Greatrex, Geoffrey B. (1998).
8703:– via Internet Archive.
6918:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77
6900:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 74
6882:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77
6858:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 63
6843:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62
6825:* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62
6364:Herodian, Roman History, III,
6137:
6126:
6108:
6059:
5997:
5695:. Greenwood Publishing Group.
5611:Shahbazi, A. SH. (1996–2007).
5482:. Cambridge University Press.
5461:. Cambridge University Press.
5111:. Cambridge University Press.
5009:. Cambridge University Press.
4113:
3850:invasion of Syria and Anatolia
3034:besieged Constantinople in 626
2526: Roman (Byzantine) Empire
2370:
1908:Early Roman–Sasanian conflicts
1623:assisted the Pompeian general
13:
1:
9177:Mitchell, Stephen B. (2006).
8607:Howard-Johnston (2006), 42–43
8414:The Cambridge History of Iran
8236:"The Enigma of the Red Snake"
7971:The Cambridge History of Iran
7701:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 196
7643:ceased operating in 613, and
7207:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113
7191:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 113
7177:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 111
7159:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 110
7112:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 102
5884:A Companion to the Roman Army
5780:Varia 1 (Poikila Byzantina 4)
5615:. In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.).
5590:"The Enigma of the Red Snake"
5109:The Cambridge History of Iran
5084:The English Historical Review
4785:The English Historical Review
4398:
4108:Siege of Constantinople (626)
3990:and had developed a range of
3715:) followed by expansion into
3517:
2938:Siege of Constantinople (626)
2918:
2893:over gilt copper, 1160–1170,
1981:; he invaded Mesopotamia and
1847:broke out again in 161, when
1734:Roman–Parthian War of 161–166
1086:Campaign of Severus Alexander
143:27 BC – 224 AD
134:27 BC – 224 AD
9806:Battle of the Persian Border
9021:. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
8983:. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner.
8979:Andres, Hansjoachim (2022).
8390:. BRILL. 2018. p. 214.
7776:* Cameron (1979), 5–6, 20–22
7081:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 93
7063:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 86
7054:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 85
7030:Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 84
7012:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 82
6986:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 74
6969:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77
6930:Greatrex-Lieu (2002), II, 77
6771:Routledge; 2 edition (2001)
5990:
5866:. Rowman & Littlefield.
5415:. Rowman & Littlefield.
5374:The Journal of Roman Studies
4717:The Journal of Roman Studies
3693:In 589, the Persian general
3592:divide Armenia between them.
3557:defeats the Persians in 298.
3102:
2684:who replaced Dagistheus put
2672:to take the key garrison of
2498:
1505:Antony's Atropatene campaign
908:Al-Mundhir IV ibn al-Mundhir
898:Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man
726:Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith
7:
9896:Revolt of Cyrus the Younger
9223:. Oxford University Press.
9132:Kettenhofen, Erich (1982).
9054:10.25162/historia-2008-0019
8998:Blockley, Roger C. (1992).
8305:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
8198:10.1556/aant.43.2003.3-4.10
7334:Justinian (527–565 AD)
7254:Justinian (527–565 AD)
6685:Abridgment of Roman History
6659:Abridgment of Roman History
6612:Abridgment of Roman History
6579:; Sibylline Oracles, XIII,
6545:; Sibylline Oracles, XIII,
6309:* Rawlinson (2007), 286–287
5693:The Pre-Islamic Middle East
5563:Rawlinson, George (2007) .
5503:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
5298:Isaak, Benjamin H. (1998).
4913:. Macmillan & Co., Ltd.
4596:. Book XIII. Translated by
4473:History of the Roman Empire
4463:Abridgment of Roman History
4225:tradition and favored oral
4046:constructed defensive walls
3697:raises a rebellion against
3657:. Ends with the treaty of "
3200:southern Italy to the Arabs
2961:, enabling his younger son
2875:("May God help the Romans")
2251:, depicting the triumph of
1918:Julian's Persian expedition
1914:Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
1726:Roman–Parthian War of 58–63
1525:Parthian enterprise in the
1321:fall of the Sasanian Empire
1180:Julian's Persian expedition
1158:Perso-Roman wars of 337–361
888:Urnayr of Caucasian Albania
10:
10486:
9246:Cataphracts and Siegecraft
8907:DocumentaCatholicaOmnia.eu
8759:"Herodian's Roman History"
8466:. Routledge. p. 192.
8366:* Garnsey–Saller (1987), 8
7692:Howard-Johnston (2006), 85
5759:. Sasanika. Archived from
5096:10.1093/ehr/XC.CCCLVII.721
4828:Cambridge University Press
4779:Baynes, Norman H. (1912).
3600:Roman retaliation against
3405:ended by a Roman victory.
3106:
3047:, in a manuscript of the
2944:campaigning in the Balkans
2931:
2730:
2502:
2374:
2276:
1911:
1730:Trajan's Parthian campaign
1723:
1667:and installing his nephew
1549:and led an attack against
1490:
1487:Roman Republic vs. Parthia
1444:Arsacid dynasty of Armenia
1047:Trajan's Parthian campaign
1015:Pompeian–Parthian invasion
893:Al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man
10413:
10369:
10328:
10320:Muslim conquest of Persia
10300:Hephthalite–Sasanian Wars
10265:
10194:
10183:
10152:
10134:
10076:
9977:
9939:Parni conquest of Parthia
9929:
9829:
9769:
9720:
9665:Roman conquest of Britain
9636:
9350:
9295:"Sassanids vs Byzantines"
9276:"Rome and Parthia at War"
9196:Potter, David S. (2004).
9111:Kaegi, Walter E. (2003).
9002:. Leeds: Francis Cairns.
8742:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
8679:– via Google Books.
8411:Yarshater, Ehsan (1983).
8322:– via Google Books.
8024:– via Google Books.
7283:Treadgold (1997), 204–207
7274:Treadgold (1997), 205–207
7265:Treadgold (1997), 204–205
6769:The Roman World, Volume 1
6215:Historiarum Philippicarum
6181:Historiarum Philippicarum
6143:Sherwin-White (1994), 264
6065:Howard-Johnston (2006), 1
5822:Stanford University Press
5598:current archaeology.co.uk
4797:10.1093/ehr/XXVII.CVI.287
4647:Documenta Catholica Omnia
4610:, Book II. Translated by
4584:, Book II. Translated by
4499:Historiarum Philippicarum
4106:'s action was during the
3813:
3793:
3781:
3763:
3739:
3727:
3684:
3665:
3638:
3623:
3612:
3596:
3581:
3565:After an initial victory
3561:
3549:
3538:
3516:
3502:
3478:
3459:
3452:
3425:
3413:
3397:
3382:
3374:Roman invasion of Armenia
3368:
3356:
3346:
3338:; return of the captured
3326:
3315:
3303:
3289:
3267:
3247:
3237:
3230:
3216:
3113:Muslim conquest of Persia
3049:Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp
2927:
2202:a definitive peace treaty
1838:Arch of Septimius Severus
1738:Parthian war of Caracalla
1470:. Finally, in 64 BC
1448:Arsacid dynasty of Iberia
1357:territories in the Levant
1297:Eastern Roman (Byzantine)
1062:Parthian war of Caracalla
1010:Caesar's planned invasion
995:
658:Parthamaspates of Parthia
643:Antiochus IV of Commagene
426:
107:
37:
32:
10392:Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom
9992:Against Byzantine Empire
9864:Conquest of Indus Valley
9854:Revolts against Darius I
9811:Siege of Pasargadae Hill
9217:Whitby, Michael (1988).
9181:. Blackwell Publishing.
9075:. Rome: Francis Cairns.
8375:Greatrex (2005), 477–478
6573:De Mortibus Persecutorum
6336:* Sicker (2000), 167–168
5887:. Blackwell Publishing.
5845:. Boydell & Brewer.
5820:. Stanford, California:
5357:. Taylor & Francis.
5047:"Justinian (AD 527–565)"
4878:. Taylor & Francis.
4812:Bivar, A. D. H. (1983).
4639:Theophanes the Confessor
4509:De Mortibus Persecutorum
4261:). The 13th book of the
4211:Hans Holbein the Younger
3387:Major campaign of Trajan
3360:Defeated by the Romans,
3077:ravage their territories
3073:Western Turkic Khaganate
2751:Western Turkic Khaganate
2419:allies in the south and
1953:Relief II commemorating
1712:Roman Empire vs. Parthia
1515:Hellenistic-style helmet
863:Monobazus II of Adiabene
698:Jabalah IV ibn al-Harith
633:Artavasdes II of Armenia
312:Western Turkic Khaganate
10387:Roman–Iranian relations
9849:First conquest of Egypt
9362:Roman conquest of Italy
9155:Millar, Fergus (1982).
8954:www.thelatinlibrary.com
8869:www.thelatinlibrary.com
8844:www.thelatinlibrary.com
8622:www.thelatinlibrary.com
8333:Brazier, Chris (2001).
6503:"Šāpur I: Rock Reliefs"
6488:10.2143/IA.44.0.2034386
4892:Börm, Henning (2016). "
4760:Barnett, Glenn (2017).
4645:. See original text in
3776:siege of Constantinople
3678:fifty-year peace treaty
3645:. Romans victorious at
3409:sacks Ctesiphon in 165.
2711:Fifty-Year Peace Treaty
2268:Byzantine–Sasanian wars
2255:over the Roman Emperor
1578:Marcus Licinius Crassus
1460:Antiochus III the Great
1303:Empires. A plethora of
1219:Byzantine–Sasanian wars
1052:Lucius Verus' campaigns
842:Antigonus II Mattathias
575:Tiberius II Constantine
10315:Revolts and civil wars
9839:Conquest of Asia Minor
9036:Börm, Henning (2008).
9017:Börm, Henning (2007).
8529:Dignas–Winter (2007),
8511:* McDonough (2006), 73
8497:Ecclesiastical History
8443:"ARDAŠĪR I i. History"
8156:. Brill. p. 446.
7405:* Whitby (2000), 92–94
7041:Historia Ecclesiastica
6949:, Federico Montinaro:
6942:Procopius and the East
6854:Historia Ecclesiastica
6273:Sicker (2000), 162–163
5519:Mikaberidze, Alexander
5283:. Ashgate Publishing.
5275:Howard-Johnston, James
5191:Grabar, André (1984).
4694:Ball, Warwick (2000).
4679:Historia Ecclesiastica
4608:Ecclesiastical History
4327:inscriptions of Shapur
4285:, the Persian Muslims
4218:
4182:
4163:and the Muslim writer
4132:
4089:Christianity in Persia
3983:
3908:
3160:provincial landholders
3109:Early Muslim conquests
3068:
2942:In 602 the Roman army
2924:
2910:
2902:
2876:
2847:The Persians captured
2819:
2784:
2680:). In 551 AD, general
2647:
2639:
2552:
2546: Sasanian vassals
2386:
2300:
2288:
2264:
2247:A rock-face relief at
2240:raided Roman Armenia.
2166:difficult siege again
2138:
1974:
1841:
1773:prince, triggering an
1721:
1627:, who was besieged at
1611:and forces supporting
1539:Lucius Cornelius Sulla
1522:
1403:
1349:entire Sasanian Empire
1317:early Muslim conquests
1037:Mark Antony's campaign
878:'Amr ibn Imru' al-Qays
868:Meharaspes of Adiabene
858:Tiridates I of Armenia
653:Aristobulus of Chalcis
638:Tigranes VI of Armenia
427:Commanders and leaders
10310:Aksumite–Persian wars
9911:Great Satraps' Revolt
9791:Battle of the Eclipse
9692:Domitian's Dacian War
9611:Liberators' civil war
8813:Stylite, Joshua the.
8705:Corippus. Johannidos.
8671:. Impensis Ed. Weberi
8647:penelope.uchicago.edu
8618:"LIBER DE CAESARIBUS"
8448:Encyclopaedia Iranica
8337:. Verso. p. 42.
7984:Epitoma Rei Militaris
7952:; Sidnell (2006), 273
7372:Treadgold (1997), 222
7292:Treadgold (1997), 209
6508:Encyclopaedia Iranica
6255:* Bivar (1993), 58–65
6237:* Bivar (1993), 57–58
6195:* Bivar (1993), 56–57
6046:www.iranicaonline.org
5588:; Nokandeh, Jebrael.
5342:Lenski, Noel (2002).
5321:Kia, Mehrdad (2016).
5259:. London: UCL Press.
5231:Haldon, John (1997).
4668:Epitoma Rei Militaris
4653:Theophylact Simocatta
4371:Theophylact Simocatta
4208:
4125:
4102:, and the only major
3979:
3921:heavy armored cavalry
3898:
3676:and the signing of a
3526:defeats and captures
3509:Battle of Barbalissos
3043:The assassination of
3042:
2916:
2908:
2882:
2870:
2817:
2782:
2731:Further information:
2690:after fierce fighting
2645:
2632:Cabinet des Medailles
2625:
2540: Sasanian Empire
2512:
2485:siege of Martyropolis
2461:Al-Harith ibn Jabalah
2384:
2294:
2286:
2246:
2163:laying siege to Amida
2133:
2019:Battle of Barbalissos
1949:
1835:
1719:
1645:Liberators' civil war
1529:began in the time of
1512:
1408:James Howard-Johnston
1390:
1383:Historical background
1042:Armenian War of 58–63
721:Al-Harith ibn Jabalah
10445:Geopolitical rivalry
10305:Göktürk–Persian wars
10063:Civil war of 628–632
10031:Civil war of 589–591
9916:Abdashtart I' revolt
9816:Battle of Pasargadae
9764:Ancient Iranian wars
9697:Trajan's Dacian Wars
9382:Roman–Hernician wars
8950:"Vegetius Liber III"
8919:"Humanities.uci.edu"
8722:www.forumromanum.org
8669:"Chronicon paschale"
8282:Encyclopædia Iranica
8075:Elton, Hugh (2018).
8007:. Psychology Press.
7887:Haldon (1997), 49–50
7669:Howard-Johnston 2006
7319:Menander Protector,
6980:Joshua the Stylite,
6909:Joshua the Stylite,
6891:Joshua the Stylite,
6834:Joshua the Stylite,
6291:* Sicker (2000), 163
6161:* Mackay (2004), 150
5656:Sherwin-White, A. N.
5618:Encyclopædia Iranica
5103:Frye, R. N. (1993).
5045:Evans, James Allan.
4612:Chester D. Hartranft
4339:Ammianus Marcellinus
4013:military engineering
3689:War for the Caucasus
3619:raids Roman Armenia.
3507:Roman defeat at the
3294:Roman defeat at the
3204:ultimately recovered
2727:War for the Caucasus
2480:Battle of Callinicum
1373:Eastern Roman Empire
1369:rest of North Africa
1271:, also known as the
944:Benjamin of Tiberias
933:Nehemiah ben Hushiel
903:Gubazes II of Lazica
873:Mirian III of Iberia
711:Gubazes II of Lazica
693:Vakhtang I of Iberia
673:Mushegh I Mamikonian
668:Arshak II of Armenia
648:Polemon II of Pontus
10460:Wars involving Iran
10024:Annexation of Yemen
10004:Against Arab tribes
9874:Invasions of Greece
9596:Roman–Parthian Wars
9387:Roman–Volscian wars
9367:Roman–Etruscan Wars
8104:Current Archaeology
7918:Wheeler (2007), 259
7828:; Speck (1984), 178
7301:Farrokh (2007), 236
6677:Liber de Caesaribus
6651:Liber de Caesaribus
6604:Liber de Caesaribus
6539:Liber de Caesaribus
6397:Campbell (2005), 20
5941:Ward-Perkins, Bryan
5908:Ward-Perkins, Bryan
5788:Suny, Ronald Grigor
4928:10.1093/past/84.1.3
4582:History of the Wars
4478:John of Epiphania.
4425:Liber de Caesaribus
4361:. His continuators
3996:hit-and-run tactics
3981:Roman siege engines
3901:Sasanian cavalryman
3490:advances along the
3454:Roman–Sasanian Wars
3232:Roman–Parthian Wars
3117:Arab–Byzantine wars
2873:Deus adiuta Romanis
2861:Battle of Blarathon
2707:Peter the Patrician
2650:Early in 548, King
2617:Plague of Justinian
2181:Battle of Ctesiphon
1903:Roman–Sasanian wars
1643:during the ensuing
1633:prepared a campaign
1625:Q. Caecilius Bassus
1584:were killed at the
1533:and was revived by
1482:Roman–Parthian wars
1319:, which led to the
1279:and two successive
1074:Roman–Sasanian wars
999:Roman–Parthian Wars
920:Stephen I of Iberia
688:Gubazes I of Lazica
678:Pharas the Herulian
10440:Roman–Persian Wars
10290:Roman–Persian Wars
10172:Seven Great Houses
10068:Fall of the Empire
9969:Fall of the Empire
9921:Fall of the Empire
9702:Roman–Persian Wars
9601:Caesar's civil war
9473:Roman–Seleucid war
9372:Roman-Aequian wars
9344:Ancient Roman wars
8819:www.tertullian.org
8789:"AncientSites.com"
8577:2009-01-29 at the
8558:2009-01-29 at the
8506:2011-05-22 at the
8486:Barnes (1985), 126
8441:(11 August 2011).
8439:Wiesehöfer, Joseph
8277:A. Shapur Shahbazi
8132:Stephanie Pappas,
7791:McBride (2005), 56
7536:2011-06-10 at the
7503:2011-06-10 at the
7459:2011-06-10 at the
7428:2011-06-10 at the
7358:2011-06-21 at the
7353:2 AncientSites.com
7039:Zacharias Rhetor,
6852:Zacharias Rhetor,
6748:The Emperor Julian
6450:2015-04-03 at the
6417:2014-11-05 at the
6392:2015-05-04 at the
6371:2014-11-07 at the
6355:Sicker (2000), 169
6318:Sicker (2000), 167
6264:Sicker (2000), 162
6228: ; Plutarch,
6224:2008-05-11 at the
6190:2008-05-11 at the
6040:electricpulp.com.
5633:Rome and the Arabs
4968:Cornuelle, Chris.
4905:Bury, John Bagnall
4900:. Wellem, 615–646.
4830:. pp. 21–99.
4485:Joshua the Stylite
4442:Chronicon Paschale
4380:Chronicon Paschale
4367:Menander Protector
4219:
4183:imitatio Alexandri
4085:Weh Antiok Khosrow
4005:Dura-Europos (256)
3984:
3927:obtained from the
3919:; the latter were
3909:
3785:Persian defeat at
3606:Christian Persians
3604:'s persecution of
3224:Roman–Persian Wars
3069:
2925:
2922: 620 AD
2911:
2903:
2877:
2828:a Persian province
2820:
2785:
2648:
2640:
2570:Weh Antiok Khosrow
2553:
2443:, reorganized the
2387:
2301:
2289:
2265:
2139:
1975:
1842:
1722:
1649:Battle of Philippi
1605:Caesar's Civil War
1523:
1519:Nisa, Turkmenistan
1404:
1337:Rashidun Caliphate
1273:Roman–Iranian Wars
1269:Roman–Persian Wars
987:Roman–Persian Wars
33:Roman–Persian Wars
18:Roman-Persian wars
10427:
10426:
10266:Military and wars
10087:
10086:
10058:Battle of Dhi Qar
9906:Cadusian campaign
9891:Peloponnesian War
9859:Scythian campaign
9831:Achaemenid Empire
9731:
9730:
9687:Jewish–Roman wars
9559:Sulla's civil war
9553:Bellum Octavianum
9441:Illyro-Roman Wars
9414:Roman–Gallic wars
9392:Roman–Sabine wars
9252:Alemani, Agustí.
9028:978-3-515-09052-0
8990:978-3-515-13363-0
8473:978-1-317-69652-0
8344:978-1-8598-4355-0
8163:978-90-04-25258-5
8049:978-1-78200-848-4
7878:Liska (1998), 170
7345:John of Epiphania
7103:36 (2006), 299ff.
6777:978-0-415-26315-3
6756:978-0-520-03731-1
6746:Browning, Robert
6675:Aurelius Victor,
6649:Aurelius Victor,
6602:Aurelius Victor,
6537:Aurelius Victor,
6017:978-18-4511-406-0
5960:978-0-5213-2591-2
5927:978-0-5213-2591-2
5894:978-1-4051-2153-8
5812:Treadgold, Warren
5683:978-0-5212-5603-2
5668:Rawson, Elizabeth
5594:World Archaeology
5576:978-1-60206-136-1
5151:978-0-5213-0199-2
5016:978-3-515-09052-0
4960:978-0-5213-0199-2
4864:978-0-5213-0200-5
4687:Secondary sources
4593:Sibylline Oracles
4385:George of Pisidia
4383:and the poems of
4297:, and the Syriac
4263:Sibylline Oracles
4215:Kunstmuseum Basel
4155:
4154:
4068:s, respectively.
3842:
3841:
3575:Battle of Samarra
3573:is killed at the
3567:outside Ctesiphon
3496:Battle of Misiche
3484:Battle of Resaena
3471:Alexander Severus
3419:Septimius Severus
3296:Battle of Carrhae
3081:Battle of Nineveh
3017:Patriarch Sergius
2824:Caucasian Iberian
2551:
2550:
2309:Byzantine Emperor
2185:Battle of Samarra
2003:Battle of Misiche
1932:Alexander Severus
1928:Achaemenid Empire
1873:Septimius Severus
1594:battle of Arausio
1586:Battle of Carrhae
1493:Battle of Carrhae
1277:Greco-Roman world
1264:
1263:
952:
951:
716:Tzath I of Lazica
484:Alexander Severus
469:Septimius Severus
103:
102:
16:(Redirected from
10477:
10419:
10418:
10351:Banu al-Munajjim
10189:
10139:List of monarchs
10126:
10125:
10114:
10107:
10100:
10091:
10090:
10080:Military history
10009:Hephthalite Wars
9821:Fall of Ecbatana
9758:
9751:
9744:
9735:
9734:
9653:Marcomannic Wars
9564:Mithridatic Wars
9488:Celtiberian Wars
9377:Roman–Latin wars
9337:
9330:
9323:
9314:
9313:
9309:
9307:
9306:
9290:
9288:
9287:
9271:
9269:
9268:
9258:
9234:
9213:
9192:
9173:
9171:
9170:
9151:
9145:
9137:
9128:
9107:
9086:
9065:
9032:
9013:
8994:
8965:
8964:
8962:
8960:
8946:
8940:
8939:
8937:
8936:
8930:
8924:. Archived from
8923:
8915:
8909:
8904:
8898:
8897:
8896:on May 22, 2011.
8892:. Archived from
8886:
8880:
8879:
8877:
8875:
8861:
8855:
8854:
8852:
8850:
8836:
8830:
8829:
8827:
8825:
8810:
8804:
8803:
8801:
8800:
8791:. Archived from
8785:
8779:
8778:
8776:
8774:
8765:. Archived from
8754:
8748:
8747:
8741:
8733:
8731:
8729:
8714:
8708:
8707:
8702:
8700:
8687:
8681:
8680:
8678:
8676:
8664:
8658:
8657:
8655:
8653:
8639:
8633:
8632:
8630:
8628:
8614:
8608:
8605:
8599:
8598:Boyd (1999), 160
8596:
8590:
8587:
8581:
8568:
8562:
8549:
8543:
8540:
8534:
8527:
8521:
8518:
8512:
8493:
8487:
8484:
8478:
8477:
8459:
8453:
8452:
8435:
8429:
8428:
8408:
8402:
8401:
8382:
8376:
8373:
8367:
8355:
8349:
8348:
8330:
8324:
8323:
8321:
8319:
8296:
8290:
8274:
8268:
8265:
8259:
8256:
8250:
8249:Frye (1993), 139
8247:
8238:
8232:
8226:
8225:Levi (1994), 192
8216:
8210:
8209:
8192:(3–4): 369–370.
8183:
8174:
8168:
8167:
8147:
8141:
8130:
8124:
8115:Samir S. Patel,
8113:
8107:
8097:
8091:
8090:
8072:
8063:
8060:
8054:
8053:
8032:
8026:
8025:
8023:
8021:
7998:
7992:
7980:
7974:
7968:
7962:
7959:
7953:
7946:
7940:
7937:
7931:
7930:Frye (2005), 473
7928:
7919:
7916:
7907:
7903:
7897:
7894:
7888:
7885:
7879:
7876:
7870:
7867:
7861:
7854:
7848:
7845:
7839:
7835:
7829:
7822:
7816:
7807:
7801:
7798:
7792:
7783:
7777:
7768:
7762:
7753:
7747:
7738:
7732:
7723:
7717:
7708:
7702:
7699:
7693:
7690:
7684:
7678:
7672:
7666:
7660:
7654:
7648:
7637:
7631:
7628:
7622:
7619:
7613:
7610:
7604:
7601:
7595:
7592:
7586:
7577:
7571:
7562:
7556:
7555:Foss (1975), 722
7553:
7547:
7525:Theophylact, V,
7523:
7517:
7514:
7508:
7494:
7488:
7485:Mikaberidze 2015
7482:
7476:
7470:
7464:
7450:
7444:
7441:
7435:
7415:
7406:
7397:
7391:
7388:
7382:
7379:
7373:
7370:
7364:
7342:
7336:
7330:
7324:
7317:
7311:
7308:
7302:
7299:
7293:
7290:
7284:
7281:
7275:
7272:
7266:
7263:
7257:
7244:
7238:
7231:
7225:
7216:
7210:
7198:
7192:
7189:
7180:
7168:
7162:
7150:
7144:
7132:
7126:
7119:
7113:
7110:
7104:
7097:
7091:
7088:
7082:
7079:
7073:
7070:
7064:
7061:
7055:
7052:
7046:
7037:
7031:
7028:
7022:
7019:
7013:
7010:
7004:
6995:
6989:
6978:
6972:
6960:
6954:
6937:
6931:
6928:
6919:
6907:
6901:
6889:
6883:
6874:
6868:
6865:
6859:
6850:
6844:
6832:
6826:
6817:
6811:
6804:
6798:
6797:Frye (1968), 141
6795:
6789:
6788:Frye (1993), 138
6786:
6780:
6765:
6759:
6744:
6738:
6737:Frye (1993), 137
6735:
6729:
6723:
6717:
6714:
6708:
6702:
6696:
6673:
6667:
6647:
6641:
6638:
6632:
6629:
6623:
6600:
6594:
6591:
6585:
6569:
6563:
6560:
6554:
6535:
6529:
6528:Frye (1968), 125
6526:
6520:
6519:
6517:
6515:
6498:
6492:
6491:
6471:
6465:
6462:
6456:
6437:
6431:
6404:
6398:
6383:
6377:
6362:
6356:
6353:
6347:
6343:
6337:
6325:
6319:
6316:
6310:
6298:
6292:
6280:
6274:
6271:
6265:
6262:
6256:
6244:
6238:
6211:
6205:
6204:Bivar (1993), 57
6202:
6196:
6177:
6171:
6170:Bivar (1993), 56
6168:
6162:
6150:
6144:
6141:
6135:
6132:Bivar (1993), 46
6130:
6124:
6112:
6106:
6099:
6090:
6084:
6078:
6072:
6066:
6063:
6057:
6056:
6054:
6052:
6037:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6024:
6001:
5985:
5964:
5931:
5898:
5877:
5856:
5835:
5807:
5783:
5774:
5772:
5771:
5765:
5758:
5748:
5727:
5706:
5687:
5651:
5626:
5621:. Archived from
5607:
5605:
5604:
5580:
5559:
5538:
5514:
5493:
5472:
5451:
5447:978-1-13905393-8
5426:
5405:
5368:
5347:
5338:
5317:
5294:
5270:
5246:
5227:
5206:
5187:
5175:
5164:
5155:
5122:
5099:
5078:
5076:
5075:
5057:
5055:
5054:
5041:
5020:
4999:
4980:
4978:
4977:
4964:
4931:
4920:Past and Present
4914:
4889:
4868:
4841:
4818:Yarshater, Ehsan
4808:
4791:(106): 287–299.
4775:
4756:
4711:
4675:Zacharias Rhetor
4625:
4570:. Translated by
4560:
4549:. Translated by
4539:
4528:. Translated by
4518:
4322:Augustan History
4247:Greek historians
4185:
4160:Letter of Tansar
4134:
4133:
4077:Battle of Edessa
4001:chemical weapons
3854:George Rawlinson
3834:
3827:
3820:
3735:is assassinated.
3653:but defeated at
3545:sacks Ctesiphon.
3519:
3512:
3404:
3377:
3299:
3280:
3272:Dispute between
3261:southern Armenia
3226:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3143:
3129:
2923:
2920:
2753:against Persia.
2661:magister militum
2615:hindered by the
2545:
2539:
2531:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2222:first in 421–422
2093:peace settlement
2089:Battle of Satala
2085:far from Carrhae
2075:'s early reign,
2031:Battle of Edessa
1845:War over Armenia
1775:inconclusive war
1657:Quintus Labienus
1547:Southern Armenia
1521:, 2nd century BC
1438:branches in the
1430:. Ruled by the
990:
988:
978:
971:
964:
955:
954:
940:
928:
914:
849:
838:
831:Quintus Labienus
706:
622:
610:
550:
527:
508:
497:
444:
393:Media Atropatene
178:Byzantine Empire
48:(681 years)
47:
39:
38:
30:
29:
21:
10485:
10484:
10480:
10479:
10478:
10476:
10475:
10474:
10430:
10429:
10428:
10423:
10409:
10365:
10324:
10261:
10190:
10181:
10148:
10130:
10128:Sasanian Empire
10120:
10118:
10088:
10083:
10072:
10014:Armenian revolt
9979:Sasanian Empire
9973:
9931:Parthian Empire
9925:
9844:Fall of Babylon
9825:
9801:Battle of Hyrba
9784:Fall of Nineveh
9765:
9762:
9732:
9727:
9716:
9682:Civil war of 69
9670:Boudican revolt
9639:
9632:
9508:Cantabrian Wars
9446:Macedonian Wars
9353:
9346:
9341:
9304:
9302:
9293:
9285:
9283:
9274:
9266:
9264:
9256:
9242:
9237:
9231:
9210:
9189:
9168:
9166:
9139:
9138:
9125:
9104:
9083:
9029:
9010:
8991:
8974:
8972:Further reading
8969:
8968:
8958:
8956:
8948:
8947:
8943:
8934:
8932:
8928:
8921:
8917:
8916:
8912:
8905:
8901:
8888:
8887:
8883:
8873:
8871:
8863:
8862:
8858:
8848:
8846:
8838:
8837:
8833:
8823:
8821:
8811:
8807:
8798:
8796:
8787:
8786:
8782:
8772:
8770:
8755:
8751:
8735:
8734:
8727:
8725:
8716:
8715:
8711:
8698:
8696:
8688:
8684:
8674:
8672:
8665:
8661:
8651:
8649:
8641:
8640:
8636:
8626:
8624:
8616:
8615:
8611:
8606:
8602:
8597:
8593:
8588:
8584:
8579:Wayback Machine
8569:
8565:
8560:Wayback Machine
8550:
8546:
8541:
8537:
8528:
8524:
8519:
8515:
8510:
8508:Wayback Machine
8494:
8490:
8485:
8481:
8474:
8460:
8456:
8436:
8432:
8425:
8409:
8405:
8398:
8384:
8383:
8379:
8374:
8370:
8365:
8356:
8352:
8345:
8331:
8327:
8317:
8315:
8313:
8297:
8293:
8275:
8271:
8266:
8262:
8257:
8253:
8248:
8241:
8233:
8229:
8217:
8213:
8181:
8175:
8171:
8164:
8148:
8144:
8131:
8127:
8114:
8110:
8098:
8094:
8087:
8073:
8066:
8061:
8057:
8050:
8033:
8029:
8019:
8017:
8015:
7999:
7995:
7990:
7982:Vegetius, III,
7981:
7977:
7969:
7965:
7960:
7956:
7947:
7943:
7938:
7934:
7929:
7922:
7917:
7910:
7904:
7900:
7895:
7891:
7886:
7882:
7877:
7873:
7868:
7864:
7855:
7851:
7846:
7842:
7836:
7832:
7823:
7819:
7814:
7808:
7804:
7799:
7795:
7790:
7784:
7780:
7775:
7769:
7765:
7760:
7754:
7750:
7745:
7739:
7735:
7730:
7724:
7720:
7715:
7709:
7705:
7700:
7696:
7691:
7687:
7679:
7675:
7667:
7663:
7655:
7651:
7638:
7634:
7629:
7625:
7620:
7616:
7611:
7607:
7602:
7598:
7593:
7589:
7584:
7578:
7574:
7569:
7563:
7559:
7554:
7550:
7545:
7538:Wayback Machine
7524:
7520:
7515:
7511:
7505:Wayback Machine
7495:
7491:
7483:
7479:
7471:
7467:
7461:Wayback Machine
7451:
7447:
7442:
7438:
7433:
7430:Wayback Machine
7416:
7409:
7404:
7398:
7394:
7389:
7385:
7380:
7376:
7371:
7367:
7360:Wayback Machine
7343:
7339:
7331:
7327:
7318:
7314:
7309:
7305:
7300:
7296:
7291:
7287:
7282:
7278:
7273:
7269:
7264:
7260:
7251:
7245:
7241:
7232:
7228:
7223:
7217:
7213:
7199:
7195:
7190:
7183:
7169:
7165:
7151:
7147:
7133:
7129:
7120:
7116:
7111:
7107:
7098:
7094:
7089:
7085:
7080:
7076:
7071:
7067:
7062:
7058:
7053:
7049:
7044:
7038:
7034:
7029:
7025:
7020:
7016:
7011:
7007:
7002:
6996:
6992:
6979:
6975:
6961:
6957:
6938:
6934:
6929:
6922:
6917:
6908:
6904:
6899:
6890:
6886:
6881:
6875:
6871:
6866:
6862:
6857:
6851:
6847:
6842:
6833:
6829:
6824:
6818:
6814:
6805:
6801:
6796:
6792:
6787:
6783:
6766:
6762:
6745:
6741:
6736:
6732:
6724:
6720:
6715:
6711:
6703:
6699:
6674:
6670:
6665:
6648:
6644:
6639:
6635:
6630:
6626:
6601:
6597:
6592:
6588:
6583:
6570:
6566:
6561:
6557:
6536:
6532:
6527:
6523:
6513:
6511:
6499:
6495:
6476:Iranica Antiqua
6472:
6468:
6463:
6459:
6454:
6452:Wayback Machine
6438:
6434:
6429:
6421:; Cassius Dio,
6419:Wayback Machine
6405:
6401:
6396:
6394:Wayback Machine
6384:
6380:
6375:
6373:Wayback Machine
6363:
6359:
6354:
6350:
6344:
6340:
6335:
6326:
6322:
6317:
6313:
6308:
6299:
6295:
6290:
6281:
6277:
6272:
6268:
6263:
6259:
6254:
6245:
6241:
6236:
6226:Wayback Machine
6212:
6208:
6203:
6199:
6194:
6192:Wayback Machine
6178:
6174:
6169:
6165:
6160:
6151:
6147:
6142:
6138:
6133:
6131:
6127:
6122:
6113:
6109:
6100:
6093:
6085:
6081:
6077:, p. liii.
6073:
6069:
6064:
6060:
6050:
6048:
6038:
6031:
6022:
6020:
6018:
6002:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5982:
5961:
5945:Whitby, Michael
5937:Cameron, Averil
5928:
5912:Whitby, Michael
5904:Cameron, Averil
5895:
5874:
5853:
5832:
5804:
5769:
5767:
5763:
5756:
5745:
5724:
5703:
5684:
5664:Lintott, Andrew
5648:
5602:
5600:
5586:Wilkinson, Tony
5577:
5569:. Cosimo, Inc.
5556:
5535:
5511:
5490:
5469:
5448:
5423:
5365:
5335:
5314:
5291:
5267:
5243:
5224:
5203:
5184:
5152:
5132:Cameron, Averil
5128:Bowman, Alan K.
5119:
5073:
5071:
5060:
5052:
5050:
5038:
5017:
4996:
4975:
4973:
4972:. Thomas Harlan
4961:
4941:Cameron, Averil
4937:Bowman, Alan K.
4886:
4865:
4847:Cameron, Averil
4838:
4772:
4708:
4689:
4684:
4618:and Henry Wace.
4598:Milton S. Terry
4421:Aurelius Victor
4406:
4404:Primary sources
4401:
4293:, the Armenian
4203:
4116:
4009:Petra (550–551)
3943:, and Valerian
3887:par excellence.
3870:Iranian plateau
3838:
3703:Restoration of
3702:
3692:
3659:Perpetual Peace
3506:
3474:
3462:
3448:
3428:
3407:Avidius Cassius
3402:
3372:
3340:Roman standards
3293:
3271:
3255:contacts, when
3222:
3221:Timeline of the
3218:
3217:
3212:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3144:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3130:
3119:
3105:
3059:poems are from
2940:
2930:
2921:
2735:
2729:
2608:besieged Edessa
2547:
2543:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2507:
2501:
2489:Perpetual Peace
2401:, but Justin's
2393:adopt his son,
2379:
2373:
2281:
2275:
2270:
2261:Philip the Arab
2052:In 275 and 282
1967:Philip the Arab
1920:
1912:Main articles:
1910:
1905:
1869:Antonine Plague
1857:Avidius Cassius
1853:Statius Priscus
1822:status quo ante
1740:
1724:Main articles:
1714:
1673:Roman civil war
1507:
1491:Main articles:
1489:
1484:
1432:Arsacid dynasty
1412:Seleucid Empire
1400:Seleucid Empire
1385:
1341:Rashidun armies
1305:vassal kingdoms
1285:Parthian Empire
1281:Iranian empires
1265:
1260:
991:
986:
984:
982:
948:
924:
827:
826:
821:
735:
702:
600:
599:
594:
546:
523:
493:
440:
422:
324:
323:
316:
198:
197:
187:Sasanian Empire
185:
176:
167:Sasanian Empire
165:
156:
147:Parthian Empire
145:
136:
127:Parthian Empire
125:
116:
91:
65:Southern Levant
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10483:
10473:
10472:
10467:
10462:
10457:
10452:
10447:
10442:
10425:
10424:
10414:
10411:
10410:
10408:
10407:
10394:
10389:
10384:
10379:
10373:
10371:
10367:
10366:
10364:
10363:
10358:
10353:
10348:
10343:
10338:
10332:
10330:
10326:
10325:
10323:
10322:
10317:
10312:
10307:
10302:
10297:
10292:
10287:
10286:
10285:
10280:
10269:
10267:
10263:
10262:
10260:
10259:
10254:
10249:
10244:
10239:
10234:
10229:
10224:
10219:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10198:
10196:
10192:
10191:
10184:
10182:
10180:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10168:
10167:
10160:House of Sasan
10156:
10154:
10150:
10149:
10147:
10146:
10141:
10135:
10132:
10131:
10117:
10116:
10109:
10102:
10094:
10085:
10084:
10077:
10074:
10073:
10071:
10070:
10065:
10060:
10055:
10054:
10053:
10048:
10043:
10033:
10028:
10027:
10026:
10016:
10011:
10006:
10001:
9996:
9995:
9994:
9983:
9981:
9975:
9974:
9972:
9971:
9966:
9961:
9956:
9951:
9946:
9941:
9935:
9933:
9927:
9926:
9924:
9923:
9918:
9913:
9908:
9903:
9901:Corinthian War
9898:
9893:
9888:
9887:
9886:
9881:
9871:
9866:
9861:
9856:
9851:
9846:
9841:
9835:
9833:
9827:
9826:
9824:
9823:
9818:
9813:
9808:
9803:
9798:
9793:
9788:
9787:
9786:
9775:
9773:
9767:
9766:
9761:
9760:
9753:
9746:
9738:
9729:
9728:
9721:
9718:
9717:
9715:
9714:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9694:
9689:
9684:
9679:
9674:
9673:
9672:
9662:
9661:
9660:
9655:
9644:
9642:
9634:
9633:
9631:
9630:
9625:
9620:
9617:Bellum Siculum
9613:
9608:
9603:
9598:
9593:
9588:
9583:
9582:
9581:
9576:
9571:
9561:
9556:
9549:
9548:
9547:
9542:
9537:
9527:
9522:
9520:Jugurthine War
9517:
9512:
9511:
9510:
9505:
9500:
9495:
9493:Lusitanian War
9490:
9480:
9475:
9470:
9469:
9468:
9463:
9458:
9453:
9443:
9438:
9437:
9436:
9431:
9426:
9416:
9411:
9410:
9409:
9404:
9399:
9394:
9389:
9384:
9379:
9374:
9369:
9358:
9356:
9354:Roman Republic
9348:
9347:
9340:
9339:
9332:
9325:
9317:
9311:
9310:
9291:
9272:
9261:Ēran ud Anērān
9249:
9241:
9240:External links
9238:
9236:
9235:
9229:
9214:
9208:
9193:
9187:
9174:
9152:
9129:
9123:
9108:
9102:
9087:
9081:
9066:
9033:
9027:
9014:
9008:
8995:
8989:
8975:
8973:
8970:
8967:
8966:
8941:
8910:
8899:
8890:"Freewebs.com"
8881:
8856:
8831:
8805:
8780:
8763:www.livius.org
8749:
8709:
8682:
8659:
8634:
8609:
8600:
8591:
8582:
8572:Historiography
8563:
8553:Historiography
8544:
8535:
8522:
8513:
8488:
8479:
8472:
8454:
8430:
8423:
8403:
8396:
8377:
8368:
8350:
8343:
8325:
8311:
8291:
8269:
8260:
8251:
8239:
8227:
8211:
8169:
8162:
8142:
8125:
8108:
8092:
8085:
8064:
8055:
8048:
8036:Farrokh, Kaveh
8027:
8013:
7993:
7975:
7963:
7954:
7941:
7932:
7920:
7908:
7898:
7889:
7880:
7871:
7862:
7849:
7840:
7830:
7817:
7802:
7793:
7778:
7763:
7748:
7733:
7729:, 304.25–306.7
7718:
7714:, 303–304, 307
7703:
7694:
7685:
7673:
7661:
7659:, p. 223.
7649:
7632:
7623:
7614:
7605:
7596:
7587:
7572:
7557:
7548:
7518:
7509:
7489:
7487:, p. 529.
7477:
7465:
7445:
7436:
7407:
7392:
7383:
7374:
7365:
7337:
7325:
7312:
7303:
7294:
7285:
7276:
7267:
7258:
7239:
7226:
7211:
7209:
7208:
7193:
7181:
7179:
7178:
7163:
7161:
7160:
7156:, II.21.30–32
7145:
7143:
7142:
7138:, II.20.17–19
7127:
7114:
7105:
7092:
7083:
7074:
7065:
7056:
7047:
7032:
7023:
7014:
7005:
6990:
6988:
6987:
6973:
6971:
6970:
6955:
6932:
6920:
6902:
6884:
6869:
6860:
6845:
6827:
6812:
6799:
6790:
6781:
6760:
6739:
6730:
6728:, p. 423.
6718:
6709:
6707:, p. 162.
6697:
6695:
6694:
6668:
6642:
6633:
6624:
6622:
6621:
6595:
6586:
6564:
6555:
6553:
6552:
6530:
6521:
6493:
6466:
6457:
6432:
6399:
6378:
6357:
6348:
6338:
6320:
6311:
6293:
6275:
6266:
6257:
6239:
6206:
6197:
6172:
6163:
6145:
6136:
6125:
6107:
6091:
6089:, p. 137.
6079:
6067:
6058:
6029:
6016:
6010:. I.B.Tauris.
5995:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5986:
5980:
5965:
5959:
5932:
5926:
5899:
5893:
5878:
5872:
5857:
5851:
5836:
5830:
5808:
5802:
5784:
5775:
5749:
5743:
5728:
5722:
5707:
5701:
5688:
5682:
5652:
5646:
5638:Dumbarton Oaks
5627:
5625:on 2009-01-29.
5608:
5581:
5575:
5560:
5554:
5539:
5534:978-1442241466
5533:
5515:
5509:
5494:
5488:
5473:
5467:
5452:
5446:
5432:Fouracre, Paul
5427:
5421:
5406:
5386:10.2307/300283
5369:
5363:
5348:
5339:
5334:978-1610693912
5333:
5318:
5312:
5295:
5289:
5271:
5265:
5247:
5241:
5228:
5222:
5207:
5201:
5195:. Flammarion.
5188:
5182:
5165:
5156:
5150:
5136:Garnsey, Peter
5123:
5117:
5100:
5079:
5058:
5042:
5036:
5021:
5015:
5000:
4995:978-1134047925
4994:
4981:
4965:
4959:
4945:Garnsey, Peter
4932:
4915:
4901:
4890:
4884:
4869:
4863:
4851:Garnsey, Peter
4842:
4836:
4809:
4776:
4771:978-1526703002
4770:
4757:
4729:10.2307/300656
4712:
4706:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4672:
4660:
4650:
4636:
4619:
4601:
4589:
4575:
4554:
4533:
4512:
4502:
4492:
4482:
4476:
4466:
4456:
4446:
4438:
4428:
4418:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4239:Marius Maximus
4227:historiography
4202:
4201:Historiography
4199:
4190:John F. Haldon
4153:
4152:
4139:
4138:
4115:
4112:
4104:Byzantine navy
4096:Sasanian naval
4024:defense system
3992:siege machines
3950:cataphractarii
3945:in 260 AD
3939:, Mark Antony
3858:grand strategy
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3829:
3822:
3814:
3811:
3810:
3795:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3779:
3778:
3765:
3761:
3760:
3741:
3737:
3736:
3729:
3725:
3724:
3686:
3682:
3681:
3667:
3663:
3662:
3640:
3636:
3635:
3632:Anastasian War
3625:
3621:
3620:
3614:
3610:
3609:
3598:
3594:
3593:
3583:
3579:
3578:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3551:
3547:
3546:
3540:
3536:
3535:
3521:
3514:
3513:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3480:
3476:
3475:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3415:
3411:
3410:
3399:
3395:
3394:
3384:
3380:
3379:
3376:; arrangements
3370:
3366:
3365:
3358:
3354:
3353:
3350:
3344:
3343:
3328:
3324:
3323:
3317:
3313:
3312:
3305:
3301:
3300:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3269:
3265:
3264:
3249:
3245:
3244:
3241:
3235:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3211:
3208:
3145:
3138:
3137:
3136:
3131:
3124:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3104:
3101:
3085:Nahrawan Canal
3055:c. 1535.
2929:
2926:
2838:Constantinople
2728:
2725:
2549:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2534:
2528:
2522:
2500:
2497:
2478:forces at the
2445:eastern armies
2375:Main article:
2372:
2369:
2316:Theodosiopolis
2279:Anastasian War
2277:Main article:
2274:
2273:Anastasian War
2271:
2269:
2266:
2249:Naqsh-e Rostam
2204:was signed by
2147:Constantius II
1983:captured Hatra
1939:, Nisibis and
1909:
1906:
1904:
1901:
1810:Parthamaspates
1713:
1710:
1535:Mithridates II
1488:
1485:
1483:
1480:
1384:
1381:
1289:Roman Republic
1262:
1261:
1259:
1258:
1256:War of 602–628
1253:
1251:War of 572–591
1248:
1243:
1238:
1236:Anastasian War
1233:
1228:
1226:War of 421–422
1215:
1214:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1138:Caesarea (260)
1135:
1130:
1125:
1120:
1115:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1054:
1049:
1044:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1022:
1020:Cilician Gates
1012:
1007:
996:
993:
992:
981:
980:
973:
966:
958:
950:
949:
947:
946:
941:
930:
917:
905:
900:
895:
890:
885:
880:
875:
870:
865:
860:
855:
850:
839:
825:Clients/allies
824:
823:
822:
820:
819:
814:
809:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
769:
764:
759:
754:
749:
744:
738:
736:
734:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
708:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
640:
635:
630:
625:
613:
598:Clients/allies
597:
596:
595:
593:
592:
587:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
552:
539:
537:Constantius II
534:
529:
516:
511:
499:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
432:
429:
428:
424:
423:
421:
420:
415:
410:
405:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
322:Clients/allies
321:
320:
319:
317:
315:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
196:Clients/allies
195:
194:
193:
190:
189:
180:
170:
169:
160:
150:
149:
140:
130:
129:
120:
118:Roman Republic
110:
109:
105:
104:
101:
100:
97:
93:
92:
56:
54:
50:
49:
46:54 BC – 628 AD
43:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10482:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10453:
10451:
10448:
10446:
10443:
10441:
10438:
10437:
10435:
10422:
10412:
10406:
10405:
10400:
10399:
10395:
10393:
10390:
10388:
10385:
10383:
10380:
10378:
10375:
10374:
10372:
10368:
10362:
10359:
10357:
10354:
10352:
10349:
10347:
10344:
10342:
10339:
10337:
10334:
10333:
10331:
10327:
10321:
10318:
10316:
10313:
10311:
10308:
10306:
10303:
10301:
10298:
10296:
10293:
10291:
10288:
10284:
10283:Defense lines
10281:
10279:
10276:
10275:
10274:
10271:
10270:
10268:
10264:
10258:
10255:
10253:
10250:
10248:
10245:
10243:
10240:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10228:
10225:
10223:
10220:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10208:
10205:
10203:
10200:
10199:
10197:
10193:
10188:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10166:
10163:
10162:
10161:
10158:
10157:
10155:
10151:
10145:
10142:
10140:
10137:
10136:
10133:
10129:
10124:
10115:
10110:
10108:
10103:
10101:
10096:
10095:
10092:
10082:
10081:
10075:
10069:
10066:
10064:
10061:
10059:
10056:
10052:
10049:
10047:
10044:
10042:
10039:
10038:
10037:
10034:
10032:
10029:
10025:
10022:
10021:
10020:
10019:Aksumite Wars
10017:
10015:
10012:
10010:
10007:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9997:
9993:
9990:
9989:
9988:
9985:
9984:
9982:
9980:
9976:
9970:
9967:
9965:
9962:
9960:
9957:
9955:
9954:Scythian Wars
9952:
9950:
9947:
9945:
9944:Seleucid Wars
9942:
9940:
9937:
9936:
9934:
9932:
9928:
9922:
9919:
9917:
9914:
9912:
9909:
9907:
9904:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9885:
9882:
9880:
9877:
9876:
9875:
9872:
9870:
9869:Ionian Revolt
9867:
9865:
9862:
9860:
9857:
9855:
9852:
9850:
9847:
9845:
9842:
9840:
9837:
9836:
9834:
9832:
9828:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9814:
9812:
9809:
9807:
9804:
9802:
9799:
9797:
9794:
9792:
9789:
9785:
9782:
9781:
9780:
9777:
9776:
9774:
9772:
9768:
9759:
9754:
9752:
9747:
9745:
9740:
9739:
9736:
9726:
9725:
9719:
9713:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9698:
9695:
9693:
9690:
9688:
9685:
9683:
9680:
9678:
9675:
9671:
9668:
9667:
9666:
9663:
9659:
9656:
9654:
9651:
9650:
9649:
9648:Germanic wars
9646:
9645:
9643:
9641:
9635:
9629:
9628:War of Actium
9626:
9624:
9621:
9619:
9618:
9614:
9612:
9609:
9607:
9606:War of Mutina
9604:
9602:
9599:
9597:
9594:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9580:
9577:
9575:
9572:
9570:
9567:
9566:
9565:
9562:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9554:
9550:
9546:
9543:
9541:
9538:
9536:
9533:
9532:
9531:
9528:
9526:
9523:
9521:
9518:
9516:
9513:
9509:
9506:
9504:
9503:Sertorian War
9501:
9499:
9498:Numantine War
9496:
9494:
9491:
9489:
9486:
9485:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9474:
9471:
9467:
9464:
9462:
9459:
9457:
9454:
9452:
9449:
9448:
9447:
9444:
9442:
9439:
9435:
9432:
9430:
9427:
9425:
9422:
9421:
9420:
9417:
9415:
9412:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9398:
9395:
9393:
9390:
9388:
9385:
9383:
9380:
9378:
9375:
9373:
9370:
9368:
9365:
9364:
9363:
9360:
9359:
9357:
9355:
9349:
9345:
9338:
9333:
9331:
9326:
9324:
9319:
9318:
9315:
9300:
9296:
9292:
9281:
9277:
9273:
9262:
9255:
9250:
9247:
9244:
9243:
9232:
9230:0-19-822945-3
9226:
9222:
9221:
9215:
9211:
9209:0-415-10058-5
9205:
9201:
9200:
9194:
9190:
9188:1-4051-0857-6
9184:
9180:
9175:
9165:on 2011-06-04
9164:
9160:
9159:
9153:
9149:
9143:
9135:
9130:
9126:
9124:0-521-81459-6
9120:
9116:
9115:
9109:
9105:
9103:0-521-30200-5
9099:
9095:
9094:
9088:
9084:
9082:0-905205-93-6
9078:
9074:
9073:
9067:
9063:
9059:
9055:
9051:
9047:
9044:(in German).
9043:
9039:
9034:
9030:
9024:
9020:
9015:
9011:
9009:0-905205-83-9
9005:
9001:
8996:
8992:
8986:
8982:
8977:
8976:
8955:
8951:
8945:
8931:on 2011-06-10
8927:
8920:
8914:
8908:
8903:
8895:
8891:
8885:
8870:
8866:
8860:
8845:
8841:
8835:
8820:
8816:
8809:
8795:on 2011-06-21
8794:
8790:
8784:
8769:on 4 May 2015
8768:
8764:
8760:
8753:
8745:
8739:
8723:
8719:
8713:
8706:
8695:
8694:
8686:
8670:
8663:
8648:
8644:
8638:
8623:
8619:
8613:
8604:
8595:
8586:
8580:
8576:
8573:
8567:
8561:
8557:
8554:
8548:
8539:
8532:
8526:
8517:
8509:
8505:
8502:
8498:
8492:
8483:
8475:
8469:
8465:
8458:
8450:
8449:
8444:
8440:
8434:
8426:
8424:9780521200929
8420:
8416:
8415:
8407:
8399:
8397:9789004359932
8393:
8389:
8388:
8381:
8372:
8364:
8360:
8359:Roman History
8357:Cassius Dio,
8354:
8346:
8340:
8336:
8329:
8314:
8312:9780860789925
8308:
8304:
8303:
8295:
8288:
8284:
8283:
8278:
8273:
8264:
8255:
8246:
8244:
8237:
8231:
8224:
8223:Science Daily
8220:
8215:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8195:
8191:
8187:
8180:
8173:
8165:
8159:
8155:
8154:
8146:
8139:
8135:
8129:
8122:
8118:
8112:
8105:
8101:
8096:
8088:
8086:9780521899314
8082:
8078:
8071:
8069:
8059:
8051:
8045:
8041:
8037:
8031:
8016:
8014:9781857284959
8010:
8006:
8005:
7997:
7989:
7985:
7979:
7972:
7967:
7958:
7951:
7945:
7936:
7927:
7925:
7915:
7913:
7902:
7893:
7884:
7875:
7866:
7859:
7853:
7844:
7834:
7827:
7821:
7812:
7806:
7797:
7788:
7782:
7773:
7767:
7758:
7752:
7743:
7737:
7728:
7722:
7713:
7707:
7698:
7689:
7683:, p. 725
7682:
7677:
7671:, p. 33.
7670:
7665:
7658:
7653:
7646:
7642:
7636:
7627:
7618:
7609:
7600:
7591:
7582:
7576:
7567:
7561:
7552:
7543:
7539:
7535:
7532:
7528:
7522:
7513:
7506:
7502:
7499:
7493:
7486:
7481:
7475:, p. 25.
7474:
7469:
7462:
7458:
7455:
7449:
7440:
7431:
7427:
7424:
7420:
7417:Theophylact,
7414:
7412:
7402:
7396:
7387:
7378:
7369:
7361:
7357:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7341:
7335:
7329:
7322:
7316:
7307:
7298:
7289:
7280:
7271:
7262:
7255:
7249:
7243:
7236:
7230:
7221:
7215:
7206:
7205:
7203:
7197:
7188:
7186:
7176:
7175:
7173:
7167:
7158:
7157:
7155:
7149:
7140:
7139:
7137:
7131:
7124:
7118:
7109:
7102:
7096:
7087:
7078:
7069:
7060:
7051:
7042:
7036:
7027:
7018:
7009:
7000:
6994:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6977:
6968:
6967:
6965:
6959:
6952:
6948:
6944:
6943:
6936:
6927:
6925:
6916:
6912:
6906:
6898:
6894:
6888:
6879:
6873:
6864:
6855:
6849:
6841:
6837:
6831:
6822:
6816:
6809:
6806:Bury (1923),
6803:
6794:
6785:
6778:
6774:
6770:
6767:Wacher, J.S.
6764:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6743:
6734:
6727:
6726:Blockley 1997
6722:
6713:
6706:
6701:
6692:
6691:
6690:
6686:
6683:; Eutropius,
6682:
6678:
6672:
6664:
6660:
6657:; Eutropius,
6656:
6652:
6646:
6637:
6628:
6619:
6618:
6617:
6613:
6610:; Eutropius,
6609:
6605:
6599:
6590:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6568:
6559:
6550:
6549:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6534:
6525:
6510:
6509:
6504:
6497:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6470:
6461:
6453:
6449:
6446:
6442:
6441:Roman History
6436:
6428:
6424:
6423:Roman History
6420:
6416:
6413:
6409:
6408:Roman History
6403:
6395:
6391:
6388:
6382:
6374:
6370:
6367:
6361:
6352:
6342:
6334:
6330:
6329:Roman History
6327:Cassius Dio,
6324:
6315:
6307:
6303:
6297:
6289:
6285:
6279:
6270:
6261:
6253:
6249:
6248:Roman History
6246:Cassius Dio,
6243:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6220:
6216:
6210:
6201:
6193:
6189:
6186:
6182:
6176:
6167:
6159:
6155:
6149:
6140:
6129:
6121:
6117:
6111:
6104:
6098:
6096:
6088:
6083:
6076:
6071:
6062:
6047:
6043:
6036:
6034:
6019:
6013:
6009:
6008:
6000:
5996:
5983:
5981:0-415-15403-0
5977:
5974:. Routledge.
5973:
5972:
5966:
5962:
5956:
5952:
5951:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5933:
5929:
5923:
5919:
5918:
5913:
5909:
5905:
5900:
5896:
5890:
5886:
5885:
5879:
5875:
5873:0-389-20577-X
5869:
5865:
5864:
5858:
5854:
5852:0-85115-570-7
5848:
5844:
5843:
5837:
5833:
5831:0-8047-2630-2
5827:
5823:
5819:
5818:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5803:0-253-20915-3
5799:
5795:
5794:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5776:
5766:on 2011-06-10
5762:
5755:
5750:
5746:
5744:0-415-23943-5
5740:
5737:. Routledge.
5736:
5735:
5729:
5725:
5723:1-85285-374-3
5719:
5715:
5714:
5708:
5704:
5702:0-275-96890-1
5698:
5694:
5689:
5685:
5679:
5675:
5674:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5657:
5653:
5649:
5647:0-88402-115-7
5643:
5639:
5635:
5634:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5582:
5578:
5572:
5568:
5567:
5561:
5557:
5555:0-415-10057-7
5551:
5548:. Routledge.
5547:
5546:
5540:
5536:
5530:
5526:
5525:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5510:0-7546-5498-2
5506:
5502:
5501:
5495:
5491:
5489:0-521-80918-5
5485:
5481:
5480:
5474:
5470:
5468:0-521-81746-3
5464:
5460:
5459:
5453:
5449:
5443:
5439:
5438:
5433:
5428:
5424:
5422:0-8476-8680-9
5418:
5414:
5413:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5370:
5366:
5364:1-884964-03-6
5360:
5356:
5355:
5349:
5345:
5340:
5336:
5330:
5326:
5325:
5319:
5315:
5313:90-04-10736-3
5309:
5305:
5301:
5296:
5292:
5290:0-86078-992-6
5286:
5282:
5281:
5276:
5272:
5268:
5266:1-85728-495-X
5262:
5258:
5257:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5242:0-521-31917-X
5238:
5235:. Cambridge.
5234:
5229:
5225:
5223:0-415-14687-9
5219:
5216:. Routledge.
5215:
5214:
5208:
5204:
5202:2-08-081634-9
5198:
5194:
5189:
5185:
5183:0-520-06067-9
5179:
5174:
5173:
5166:
5162:
5157:
5153:
5147:
5143:
5142:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5124:
5120:
5118:0-521-20092-X
5114:
5110:
5106:
5101:
5097:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5080:
5069:
5068:
5067:Science Daily
5063:
5059:
5048:
5043:
5039:
5037:0-415-00342-3
5033:
5030:. Routledge.
5029:
5028:
5022:
5018:
5012:
5008:
5007:
5001:
4997:
4991:
4988:. Routledge.
4987:
4982:
4971:
4966:
4962:
4956:
4952:
4951:
4946:
4942:
4938:
4933:
4929:
4925:
4921:
4916:
4912:
4911:
4906:
4902:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4885:1-884964-33-8
4881:
4877:
4876:
4870:
4866:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4848:
4843:
4839:
4837:0-521-20092-X
4833:
4829:
4826:. Cambridge:
4825:
4824:
4819:
4815:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4777:
4773:
4767:
4763:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4734:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4718:
4713:
4709:
4707:0-415-24357-2
4703:
4700:. Routledge.
4699:
4698:
4692:
4691:
4680:
4676:
4673:
4670:
4669:
4664:
4661:
4658:
4654:
4651:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4617:
4616:Philip Schaff
4613:
4609:
4605:
4602:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4590:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4576:
4573:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4552:
4548:
4547:
4542:
4538:
4534:
4531:
4527:
4526:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4510:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4496:
4493:
4490:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4474:
4470:
4467:
4464:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4439:
4436:
4435:Roman History
4432:
4429:
4426:
4422:
4419:
4416:
4412:
4409:
4408:
4396:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4356:
4352:
4348:
4344:
4340:
4336:
4331:
4328:
4324:
4323:
4318:
4317:
4316:Khwaday-Namag
4312:
4311:
4306:
4305:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4284:
4280:
4275:
4273:
4269:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4216:
4212:
4207:
4198:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4184:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4161:
4150:
4146:
4145:
4141:
4140:
4136:
4135:
4131:
4130:
4124:
4121:
4111:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4083:'s people to
4082:
4078:
4074:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4061:
4060:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4021:
4016:
4014:
4010:
4006:
4003:, such as in
4002:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3988:siege warfare
3982:
3978:
3974:
3972:
3971:
3966:
3965:
3958:
3957:
3952:
3951:
3946:
3942:
3941:in 36 BC
3938:
3937:in 53 BC
3934:
3930:
3926:
3925:war elephants
3922:
3918:
3914:
3913:horse-archers
3906:
3902:
3897:
3893:
3891:
3890:Proxy warfare
3888:
3884:
3880:
3879:standing army
3874:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3835:
3830:
3828:
3823:
3821:
3816:
3815:
3812:
3808:
3804:
3801:restores the
3800:
3796:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3777:
3774:
3770:
3767:Unsuccessful
3766:
3762:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3700:
3696:
3695:Bahram Chobin
3690:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3572:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3522:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3472:
3468:
3464:
3458:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3385:
3381:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3279:
3275:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3215:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3161:
3149:
3142:
3128:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3100:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2982:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2939:
2935:
2915:
2907:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2853:Bahram Chobin
2850:
2845:
2843:
2839:
2835:
2834:
2829:
2825:
2816:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2781:
2777:
2775:
2771:
2770:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2741:(between the
2740:
2734:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:(present-day
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2653:
2644:
2637:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2620:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2596:John Troglita
2593:
2589:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2562:al-Mundhir IV
2559:
2535:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2496:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2425:Transcaucasus
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2383:
2378:
2368:
2366:
2361:
2359:
2354:
2350:
2345:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2306:
2298:
2293:
2285:
2280:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2245:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2234:second in 440
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2197:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2050:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2012:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1919:
1915:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1887:, who sacked
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1818:
1813:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1794:Jewish revolt
1791:
1787:
1783:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1758:Artabanus III
1755:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1718:
1709:
1707:
1704:king against
1703:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1609:Julius Caesar
1606:
1601:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1531:Mithridates I
1528:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1442:, namely the
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1409:
1406:According to
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1309:buffer states
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1221:
1220:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1186:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1148:Carrhae (296)
1146:
1144:
1143:3rd Ctesiphon
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1113:Nisibis (252)
1111:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1091:Nisibis (235)
1089:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1057:2nd Ctesiphon
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1038:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
1001:
1000:
994:
989:
979:
974:
972:
967:
965:
960:
959:
956:
945:
942:
939:
934:
931:
929:
927:
921:
918:
915:
909:
906:
904:
901:
899:
896:
894:
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
879:
876:
874:
871:
869:
866:
864:
861:
859:
856:
854:
851:
848:
843:
840:
837:
832:
829:
828:
818:
815:
813:
810:
808:
805:
803:
800:
798:
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
767:Sinatruces II
765:
763:
760:
758:
755:
753:
752:Artabanus III
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
739:
737:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
705:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
623:
617:
614:
611:
605:
602:
601:
591:
588:
586:
583:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
549:
543:
540:
538:
535:
533:
530:
528:
526:
520:
517:
515:
512:
509:
503:
500:
498:
496:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
443:
437:
434:
433:
431:
430:
425:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
389:
386:
384:
381:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
325:
318:
313:
310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
298:
295:
293:
290:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
268:
265:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
199:
192:
191:
188:
184:
181:
179:
175:
172:
171:
168:
164:
161:
159:
155:
152:
151:
148:
144:
141:
139:
135:
132:
131:
128:
124:
121:
119:
115:
112:
111:
106:
98:
95:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
73:Transcaucasus
70:
66:
63:
59:
55:
52:
51:
44:
41:
40:
36:
31:
19:
10402:
10396:
10289:
10237:Inscriptions
10202:Architecture
10078:
10036:Göktürk Wars
9986:
9959:Armenian War
9949:Bactrian War
9771:Median state
9722:
9701:
9677:Armenian War
9640:Roman Empire
9623:Perusine War
9615:
9551:
9530:Servile Wars
9525:Cimbrian War
9478:Galatian War
9397:Samnite Wars
9303:. Retrieved
9298:
9284:. Retrieved
9279:
9265:. Retrieved
9260:
9219:
9198:
9178:
9167:. Retrieved
9163:the original
9157:
9136:. Wiesbaden.
9133:
9113:
9092:
9071:
9045:
9041:
9018:
8999:
8980:
8957:. Retrieved
8953:
8944:
8933:. Retrieved
8926:the original
8913:
8902:
8894:the original
8884:
8872:. Retrieved
8868:
8859:
8847:. Retrieved
8843:
8840:"Justin XLI"
8834:
8822:. Retrieved
8818:
8808:
8797:. Retrieved
8793:the original
8783:
8771:. Retrieved
8767:the original
8762:
8752:
8726:. Retrieved
8721:
8712:
8704:
8697:. Retrieved
8692:
8685:
8673:. Retrieved
8662:
8650:. Retrieved
8646:
8637:
8625:. Retrieved
8621:
8612:
8603:
8594:
8585:
8566:
8547:
8538:
8525:
8516:
8496:
8491:
8482:
8463:
8457:
8446:
8433:
8413:
8406:
8386:
8380:
8371:
8358:
8353:
8334:
8328:
8316:. Retrieved
8301:
8294:
8280:
8272:
8263:
8254:
8230:
8222:
8214:
8189:
8185:
8172:
8152:
8145:
8137:
8128:
8120:
8111:
8103:
8095:
8076:
8058:
8039:
8030:
8018:. Retrieved
8003:
7996:
7983:
7978:
7966:
7957:
7944:
7935:
7901:
7892:
7883:
7874:
7865:
7852:
7843:
7833:
7825:
7820:
7810:
7809:Theophanes,
7805:
7796:
7786:
7785:Theophanes,
7781:
7771:
7770:Theophanes,
7766:
7756:
7755:Theophanes,
7751:
7741:
7740:Theophanes,
7736:
7726:
7725:Theophanes,
7721:
7711:
7710:Theophanes,
7706:
7697:
7688:
7676:
7664:
7652:
7639:The mint of
7635:
7626:
7617:
7608:
7599:
7590:
7580:
7579:Theophanes,
7575:
7565:
7564:Theophanes,
7560:
7551:
7526:
7521:
7512:
7492:
7480:
7468:
7448:
7439:
7418:
7400:
7399:Theophanes,
7395:
7386:
7377:
7368:
7348:
7340:
7328:
7320:
7315:
7306:
7297:
7288:
7279:
7270:
7261:
7247:
7242:
7229:
7219:
7214:
7201:
7196:
7171:
7166:
7153:
7148:
7135:
7130:
7117:
7108:
7100:
7095:
7086:
7077:
7068:
7059:
7050:
7040:
7035:
7026:
7017:
7008:
7001:, I.11.23–30
6998:
6993:
6976:
6963:
6958:
6950:
6947:Mischa Meier
6940:
6935:
6910:
6905:
6892:
6887:
6877:
6872:
6863:
6853:
6848:
6835:
6830:
6820:
6815:
6802:
6793:
6784:
6768:
6763:
6747:
6742:
6733:
6721:
6712:
6700:
6684:
6676:
6671:
6658:
6650:
6645:
6636:
6627:
6611:
6603:
6598:
6589:
6572:
6571:Lactantius,
6567:
6558:
6538:
6533:
6524:
6512:. Retrieved
6506:
6496:
6479:
6475:
6469:
6460:
6440:
6435:
6422:
6407:
6402:
6381:
6360:
6351:
6341:
6328:
6323:
6314:
6301:
6296:
6283:
6278:
6269:
6260:
6247:
6242:
6229:
6214:
6209:
6200:
6180:
6175:
6166:
6153:
6148:
6139:
6128:
6115:
6110:
6082:
6070:
6061:
6049:. Retrieved
6045:
6021:. Retrieved
6006:
5999:
5970:
5949:
5916:
5883:
5862:
5841:
5816:
5792:
5779:
5768:. Retrieved
5761:the original
5733:
5712:
5692:
5672:
5660:Crook, J. A.
5632:
5623:the original
5616:
5601:. Retrieved
5593:
5565:
5544:
5523:
5499:
5478:
5457:
5436:
5411:
5377:
5373:
5353:
5343:
5327:. ABC-CLIO.
5323:
5303:
5279:
5255:
5251:Haldon, John
5232:
5212:
5192:
5171:
5160:
5140:
5108:
5087:
5083:
5072:. Retrieved
5065:
5051:. Retrieved
5026:
5005:
4985:
4974:. Retrieved
4949:
4922:(84): 3–35.
4919:
4909:
4897:
4874:
4854:
4822:
4788:
4784:
4761:
4720:
4716:
4696:
4678:
4666:
4656:
4646:
4642:
4630:
4607:
4591:
4586:H. B. Dewing
4581:
4565:
4544:
4523:
4508:
4498:
4488:
4479:
4472:
4462:
4452:
4440:
4434:
4424:
4414:
4378:
4334:
4332:
4320:
4314:
4308:
4302:
4298:
4295:Agathangelos
4276:
4220:
4180:
4165:Al-Tha'alibi
4158:
4156:
4148:
4142:
4127:
4126:
4117:
4093:
4073:deportations
4070:
4063:
4057:
4053:
4037:
4027:
4017:
3985:
3968:
3961:
3954:
3948:
3931:, but their
3929:Indus Valley
3910:
3905:Taq-e Bostan
3899:Statue of a
3886:
3875:
3843:
3713:Martyropolis
3628:Anastasius I
3617:Yazdegerd II
3590:Theodosius I
3362:Artabanus II
3347:
3311:is defeated.
3278:Phraates III
3251:First Roman-
3238:
3223:
3183:North Africa
3164:
3156:
3070:
3053:Abd al-Samad
3029:Shahraplakan
3014:
2983:
2952:
2941:
2872:
2849:Martyropolis
2846:
2831:
2821:
2786:
2767:
2766:45,000
2736:
2720:
2714:
2699:a new attack
2678:Tsikhisdziri
2659:
2649:
2628:Sasanian art
2611:
2554:
2492:
2465:
2402:
2388:
2362:
2346:
2312:Anastasius I
2302:
2238:Yazdegerd II
2230:Christianity
2218:Hephthalites
2210:Theodosius I
2198:
2140:
2113:Martyropolis
2070:
2051:
2015:
1976:
1921:
1861:Dura-Europos
1849:Vologases IV
1843:
1820:
1814:
1790:Persian Gulf
1779:
1751:
1741:
1686:Syrian Gates
1617:Roman Senate
1602:
1571:
1555:Phraates III
1524:
1405:
1361:the Caucasus
1333:
1325:
1272:
1268:
1266:
1217:
1216:
1190:Maiozamalcha
1128:Dura-Europos
1072:
1071:
997:
985:
925:
802:Yazdegerd II
772:Vologases IV
703:
565:Anastasius I
547:
524:
494:
464:Lucius Verus
441:
182:
173:
162:
158:Roman Empire
153:
142:
138:Roman Empire
133:
122:
113:
108:Belligerents
99:Inconclusive
10346:Baduspanids
10329:Descendants
10295:Arab tribes
10165:Family tree
9638:Wars of the
9586:Gallic Wars
9515:Achaean War
9402:Pyrrhic War
9352:Wars of the
9048:: 327–346.
8361:, LXXV, 3.
8138:LiveScience
8121:Archaeology
7948:Cornuelle,
7858:miaphysites
7403:, 246.11–27
7246:Procopius,
7218:Procopius,
7200:Procopius,
7152:Procopius,
7134:Procopius,
6997:Procopius,
6962:Procopius,
6876:Procopius,
6819:Procopius,
6705:Lenski 2002
6514:25 February
6482:: 461–530.
6331:, LXVIII,
5090:: 721–747.
4572:John Dryden
4551:John Dryden
4530:John Dryden
4431:Cassius Dio
4255:Cassius Dio
4120:Cassius Dio
4114:Assessments
3917:cataphracts
3866:Mesopotamia
3643:Iberian War
3488:Gordian III
2830:ruled by a
2694:Mihr-Mihroe
2664:of Armenia
2588:Sergiopolis
2441:Justinian I
2377:Iberian War
2371:Iberian War
2159:Mesopotamia
2105:Tigranokert
2101:Greater Zab
1995:Gordian III
1963:Gordian III
1771:Cappadocian
1763:Vologases I
1677:Mark Antony
1665:Hyrcanus II
1464:Thermopylae
1424:Mesopotamia
1375:came under
1241:Iberian War
1173:2nd Singara
1163:1st Singara
1118:Barbalissos
1081:Mesopotamia
1030:Mt Gindarus
1025:Amanus Pass
757:Vologases I
663:Sanatruq II
604:Hyrcanus II
489:Gordian III
449:Mark Antony
58:Mesopotamia
10434:Categories
10252:Punishment
10242:Literature
9999:Kushan War
9987:Roman Wars
9964:Roman Wars
9658:Gothic War
9419:Punic Wars
9407:Social War
9305:2008-05-16
9286:2008-05-16
9267:2008-05-06
9169:2017-09-11
8935:2008-04-27
8799:2008-06-08
8570:Shahbazi,
7204:, 28.7–11
7174:, I.68–98
7172:Johannidos
7170:Corripus,
6915:XCIII–XCIV
6856:, VII, 3–4
6439:Herodian,
6406:Herodian,
6152:Plutarch,
6114:Plutarch,
6023:2019-06-09
5770:2008-04-27
5603:2008-05-27
5074:2008-06-03
5053:2007-05-19
4976:2013-09-23
4632:The Annals
4505:Lactantius
4399:References
4375:Theophanes
4335:Res Gestae
4299:Chronicles
4268:Lactantius
4223:Achaemenid
4169:Ardashir I
4042:Diocletian
3964:Sagittarii
3956:clibanarii
3803:True Cross
3755:and enter
3705:Khosrow II
3699:Hormizd IV
3655:Callinicum
3586:Shapur III
3467:Ardashir I
3107:See also:
3093:True Cross
3045:Khosrau II
2975:Shahrbaraz
2957:to attack
2932:See also:
2857:Khosrau II
2809:Hormizd IV
2793:Atropatene
2747:Himyarites
2703:White Huns
2666:Dagistheus
2612:centenaria
2606:. Khosrau
2575:Ostrogoths
2503:See also:
2493:centenaria
2449:Belisarius
2349:investment
2325:investment
2232:, and the
2206:Shapur III
2073:Diocletian
2043:Cappadocia
2035:Odaenathus
1924:Ardashir I
1748:Phraataces
1694:Atropatene
1450:, and the
1367:, and the
1328:tug of war
1231:War of 440
1185:Pirisabora
812:Khosrow II
777:Ardashir I
683:Odaenathus
358:Daylamites
242:Ghassanids
222:Cappadocia
89:Aegean Sea
81:Asia Minor
77:Atropatene
10361:Qarinvand
10232:Glassware
10227:Education
9142:cite book
9062:252458547
8495:Sozomen,
8206:1588-2543
7813:, 317–327
7811:Chronicle
7789:, 315–316
7787:Chronicle
7772:Chronicle
7759:, 308–312
7757:Chronicle
7744:, 306–308
7742:Chronicle
7727:Chronicle
7712:Chronicle
7681:Foss 1975
7641:Nicomedia
7583:, 292–293
7581:Chronicle
7568:, 290–293
7566:Chronicle
7473:Suny 1994
7401:Chronicle
7252:* Evans,
7250:, 28.7–11
7222:, 28.7–11
6966:, I.9.24
6911:Chronicle
6893:Chronicle
6836:Chronicle
6823:, I.7.1–2
6387:10.1–15.9
6300:Tacitus,
6282:Tacitus,
5991:Citations
5402:162863957
5306:. Brill.
4805:0013-8266
4753:162744718
4737:0013-8266
4643:Chronicle
4578:Procopius
4489:Chronicle
4459:Eutropius
4417:. Book 4.
4415:Histories
4359:Procopius
4343:Sozomenus
4287:al-Tabari
4173:Pacorus I
4149:Histories
4100:in 620–23
4059:limitanei
4050:Shapur II
3883:Khosrau I
3807:Jerusalem
3799:Heraclius
3771:–Persian–
3745:Palestine
3670:Lazic War
3492:Euphrates
3437:a new war
3435:launches
3433:Caracalla
3403:(161–163)
3285:boundary.
3283:Euphrates
3148:Caliphate
3103:Aftermath
3097:Jerusalem
3089:Kavadh II
3065:Shahnameh
2986:Palestine
2963:Heraclius
2888:Champlevé
2797:Tamkhusro
2789:Justinian
2755:Justin II
2716:nomismata
2517:'s reign
2515:Justinian
2505:Lazic War
2499:Lazic War
2457:Ghassanid
2447:. In 528
2433:Thannuris
2399:Justinian
2358:Procopius
2331:from the
2143:Shapur II
1999:Ctesiphon
1961:, a dead
1885:Caracalla
1786:Ctesiphon
1767:Tiridates
1681:Ventidius
1679:had sent
1669:Antigonus
1621:Pacorus I
1598:Antigonea
1476:Euphrates
1436:eponymous
1345:conquered
1246:Lazic War
1212:Bagrevand
1195:Ctesiphon
883:Grumbates
817:Bahram VI
792:Shapur II
747:Orodes II
590:Heraclius
570:Justinian
474:Caracalla
403:Pompeians
353:Commagene
227:Commagene
10421:Category
10356:Mikalids
10336:Dabuyids
10222:Dressing
10144:Timeline
9042:Historia
8959:31 March
8874:31 March
8849:31 March
8824:31 March
8773:31 March
8757:Livius.
8738:cite web
8728:31 March
8699:31 March
8675:31 March
8652:31 March
8627:31 March
8575:Archived
8556:Archived
8504:Archived
8318:31 March
8038:(2012).
8020:31 March
7657:Kia 2016
7534:Archived
7501:Archived
7496:Soward,
7457:Archived
7452:Soward,
7426:Archived
7356:Archived
6880:, I.9.24
6448:Archived
6425:, LXXX,
6415:Archived
6390:Archived
6369:Archived
6250:, XLIX,
6222:Archived
6217:, XLII.
6213:Justin,
6188:Archived
6183:, XLII.
6179:Justin,
6075:Kia 2016
6051:31 March
5947:(eds.).
5914:(eds.).
5814:(1997).
5790:(1994).
5670:(eds.).
5521:(2015).
5277:(2006).
5138:(eds.).
4947:(eds.).
4907:(1923).
4853:(eds.).
4663:Vegetius
4562:Plutarch
4541:Plutarch
4520:Plutarch
4469:Herodian
4453:Johannis
4449:Corippus
4411:Agathias
4363:Agathias
4291:Ferdowsi
4279:Agathias
4272:Eusebius
4259:Plutarch
4251:Herodian
4144:Agathias
4065:marzoban
4020:Lakhmids
3962:Equites
3933:infantry
3757:Anatolia
3555:Galerius
3528:Valerian
3524:Shapur I
3441:Macrinus
3336:Tiberius
3332:Augustus
3307:A great
3259:invades
3257:Lucullus
3253:Parthian
3061:Ferdowsi
3051:made by
3021:holy war
2971:Caesarea
2967:Carthage
2842:Solachon
2774:Melitene
2763:Arzanene
2745:and the
2743:Axumites
2739:in Yemen
2453:Lakhmids
2437:Melabasa
2429:Thebetha
2404:quaestor
2391:Justin I
2333:Caucasus
2305:Kavadh I
2257:Valerian
2253:Shapur I
2226:Bahram V
2168:captured
2117:Balalesa
2099:and the
2081:Galerius
2066:Numerian
2054:Aurelian
2027:Valerian
1979:Shapur I
1959:Valerian
1955:Shapur I
1951:Bishapur
1893:Macrinus
1865:smallpox
1827:Adiabene
1798:Seleucia
1753:de facto
1744:Octavian
1706:Octavian
1698:Armenian
1576:general
1551:Tigranes
1545:invaded
1543:Lucullus
1468:Magnesia
1456:Anatolia
1440:Caucasus
1343:swiftly
1301:Sasanian
1287:and the
797:Bahram V
782:Shapur I
762:Osroes I
532:Galerius
502:Valerian
479:Macrinus
418:Xionites
413:Sclaveni
383:Lakhmids
333:Adiabene
123:54–27 BC
114:54–27 BC
53:Location
10382:Economy
10370:Related
10341:Bavands
10212:Coinage
10195:Culture
10153:Dynasty
7838:rival."
7527:History
7419:History
7349:History
7332:Evans,
7321:History
7043:, IX, 2
6689:24–25.1
6663:24–25.1
6581:155–171
6286:, XII.
6154:Crassus
5566:Parthia
5434:(ed.).
4820:(ed.).
4657:History
4649:. (PDF)
4627:Tacitus
4604:Sozomen
4546:Crassus
4480:History
4455:Book I.
4355:Zonaras
4351:Priscus
4347:Zosimus
4283:Malalas
4235:Tacitus
4195:421–422
4171:'s and
4098:action
4081:Antioch
3970:aswaran
3860:" from
3787:Nineveh
3740:611–623
3733:Maurice
3721:Armenia
3685:572–591
3666:540–561
3639:526–532
3624:502–506
3597:421–422
3550:296–298
3520:258–260
3498:in 244.
3479:238–244
3461:230–232
3447:in 217.
3445:Nisibis
3427:216–217
3414:195–197
3398:161–165
3391:Hadrian
3383:114–117
3192:717–718
3188:674–678
3175:Armenia
3057:Persian
3010:Balkans
2955:Nicetas
2833:marzpan
2805:Aphumon
2801:Maurice
2761:raided
2759:Marcian
2686:Abasgia
2652:Gubazes
2583:Nisibis
2566:Antioch
2558:Antioch
2476:Lakhmid
2459:leader
2409:Iberian
2395:Khosrau
2236:, when
2214:invaded
2172:Bezabde
2155:Nisibis
2151:Singara
2047:Antioch
2039:Palmyra
2023:Antioch
2011:denarii
2001:in the
1991:Resaena
1971:Uranius
1937:Carrhae
1897:Nisibis
1881:Singara
1877:Nisibis
1817:Hadrian
1802:Nisibis
1653:invaded
1641:Cassius
1582:Publius
1567:Osroene
1563:Armenia
1428:Armenia
1396:Parthia
1355:of its
1313:proxies
1295:(later
1205:Samarra
1200:Maranga
1123:Antioch
1106:Misiche
1101:Resaena
1067:Nisibis
1005:Carrhae
926:†
910: (
807:Kavad I
704:†
618: (
616:Phasael
606: (
580:Maurice
548:†
525:†
514:Balista
504: (
495:†
442:†
436:Crassus
398:Osroene
343:Armenia
338:Albania
328:Abasgia
302:Sophene
292:Palmyra
287:Osroene
282:Nabatea
267:Khazars
237:Germans
232:Galatia
212:Armenia
207:Albania
183:395–628
174:395–628
163:224–395
154:224–395
85:Balkans
10404:anērān
10217:Crowns
9574:Second
9540:Second
9466:Fourth
9456:Second
9429:Second
9227:
9206:
9185:
9121:
9100:
9079:
9060:
9025:
9006:
8987:
8499:, II,
8470:
8421:
8394:
8341:
8309:
8204:
8160:
8083:
8046:
8011:
7826:passim
7645:Rhodes
7101:Chiron
6945:. In:
6779:p. 143
6775:
6758:p. 243
6754:
6687:, IX,
6679:, 39.
6661:, IX,
6653:, 39.
6614:, IX,
6606:, 38.
6541:, 27.
6443:, VI,
6410:, VI,
6366:9.1–12
6304:, XV.
6302:Annals
6284:Annals
6230:Antony
6014:
5978:
5957:
5924:
5891:
5870:
5849:
5828:
5800:
5741:
5720:
5699:
5680:
5644:
5573:
5552:
5531:
5507:
5486:
5465:
5444:
5419:
5400:
5394:300283
5392:
5361:
5331:
5310:
5287:
5263:
5239:
5220:
5199:
5180:
5148:
5115:
5034:
5013:
4992:
4957:
4882:
4861:
4834:
4803:
4768:
4751:
4745:300656
4743:
4735:
4704:
4525:Antony
4495:Justin
4393:Movses
4389:Sebeos
4353:, and
4319:. The
4310:Arbela
4304:Edessa
4245:) and
4243:Justin
4241:, and
3881:until
3862:Trajan
3846:Aegean
3753:Rhodes
3717:Iberia
3674:Lazica
3651:Satala
3602:Bahram
3571:Julian
3532:Edessa
3352:
3274:Pompey
3243:
3219:
3115:, and
3025:Ganzak
2998:Aegean
2994:Rhodes
2979:Shahin
2948:Phocas
2928:Climax
2899:Louvre
2891:enamel
2884:Cherub
2769:solidi
2721:solidi
2682:Bessas
2670:failed
2656:Lazica
2604:Anglon
2579:Totila
2544:
2538:
2530:
2524:
2472:Satala
2413:Lazica
2341:Batnae
2224:after
2193:Jovian
2189:Tigris
2177:Julian
2135:Julian
2125:Daudia
2097:Tigris
2077:Narseh
2058:Probus
2007:Philip
1987:battle
1889:Arbela
1806:Edessa
1782:Trajan
1736:, and
1702:Median
1637:Brutus
1629:Apamea
1613:Pompey
1590:Surena
1559:Pompey
1503:, and
1472:Pompey
1446:, the
1426:, and
1420:Persia
1379:rule.
1377:Muslim
1351:, and
1299:) and
1153:Satala
1133:Edessa
935:
922:
844:
833:
787:Narseh
742:Surena
731:Ziebel
700:
585:Phocas
560:Valens
555:Jovian
544:
542:Julian
521:
491:
459:Trajan
438:
408:Sabirs
388:Lazica
373:Iberia
368:Himyar
297:Pontus
277:Lazica
262:Iberia
257:Heruli
96:Result
10377:Roads
10257:Women
10247:Music
10177:Kayus
9579:Third
9569:First
9545:Third
9535:First
9461:Third
9451:First
9434:Third
9424:First
9257:(PDF)
9058:S2CID
8929:(PDF)
8922:(PDF)
8533:(PDF)
8182:(PDF)
7774:, 316
7544:(PDF)
7529:, I,
7432:(PDF)
7421:, I,
6840:XLIII
6808:XIV.1
6681:33–36
6655:33–36
6547:13–20
6445:5.1–6
6427:4.1–2
6412:2.1–6
6306:27–29
6288:50–51
6252:27–33
6234:33–34
6158:23–32
6118:, 5.
6116:Sulla
6105:(PDF)
5764:(PDF)
5757:(PDF)
5398:S2CID
5390:JSTOR
4816:. In
4749:S2CID
4741:JSTOR
4567:Sylla
4231:Roman
4054:limes
4038:limes
4029:limes
3749:Egypt
3543:Carus
3369:58–63
3316:36–33
3304:42–37
3281:over
3268:66–65
3196:Crete
3179:Egypt
3171:Syria
3167:Arabs
3006:Slavs
3002:Avars
2990:Egypt
2959:Egypt
2895:Paris
2674:Petra
2636:Paris
2320:Amida
2121:Moxos
2109:Saird
2062:Carus
1989:near
1941:Hatra
1690:Herod
1661:Judea
1574:Roman
1365:Egypt
1293:Roman
1168:Amida
1096:Hatra
628:Herod
519:Carus
363:Hatra
348:Avars
307:Tzani
272:Kinda
252:Hatra
247:Goths
217:Aksum
202:Alans
69:Egypt
62:Syria
10401:and
10398:ērān
10278:Navy
9225:ISBN
9204:ISBN
9183:ISBN
9148:link
9119:ISBN
9098:ISBN
9077:ISBN
9023:ISBN
9004:ISBN
8985:ISBN
8961:2018
8876:2018
8851:2018
8826:2018
8775:2018
8744:link
8730:2018
8701:2018
8677:2018
8654:2018
8629:2018
8468:ISBN
8419:ISBN
8392:ISBN
8339:ISBN
8320:2018
8307:ISBN
8202:ISSN
8158:ISBN
8081:ISBN
8044:ISBN
8022:2018
8009:ISBN
7542:15.1
7540:and
7531:3.11
7248:Wars
7220:Wars
7202:Wars
7154:Wars
7136:Wars
6999:Wars
6964:Wars
6878:Wars
6821:Wars
6773:ISBN
6752:ISBN
6616:18.1
6516:2020
6053:2018
6012:ISBN
5976:ISBN
5955:ISBN
5922:ISBN
5889:ISBN
5868:ISBN
5847:ISBN
5826:ISBN
5798:ISBN
5739:ISBN
5718:ISBN
5697:ISBN
5678:ISBN
5642:ISBN
5571:ISBN
5550:ISBN
5529:ISBN
5505:ISBN
5484:ISBN
5463:ISBN
5442:ISBN
5417:ISBN
5359:ISBN
5329:ISBN
5308:ISBN
5285:ISBN
5261:ISBN
5237:ISBN
5218:ISBN
5197:ISBN
5178:ISBN
5146:ISBN
5113:ISBN
5032:ISBN
5011:ISBN
4990:ISBN
4955:ISBN
4880:ISBN
4859:ISBN
4832:ISBN
4801:ISSN
4766:ISBN
4733:ISSN
4702:ISBN
4391:and
4365:and
4307:and
4289:and
4281:and
4270:and
4257:and
4129:War.
4062:and
4034:Dara
4007:and
3953:and
3915:and
3773:Slav
3769:Avar
3751:and
3719:and
3709:Dara
3649:and
3647:Dara
3588:and
3334:and
3276:and
3198:and
3190:and
3181:and
3004:and
2977:and
2936:and
2600:Dvin
2592:Dara
2468:Dara
2435:and
2421:Huns
2417:Arab
2365:Dara
2353:Huns
2337:Dara
2329:Huns
2259:and
2208:and
2083:not
2056:and
2045:and
1916:and
1804:and
1746:and
1639:and
1572:The
1527:West
1466:and
1416:Iran
1398:and
1392:Rome
1347:the
1311:and
1267:The
454:Nero
378:Jews
42:Date
10207:Art
10051:3rd
10046:2nd
10041:1st
9884:2nd
9879:1st
9050:doi
8531:1–3
8363:2–3
8194:doi
7423:9.4
6895:,
6608:2–4
6543:7–8
6484:doi
6120:3–6
5382:doi
5092:doi
4924:doi
4793:doi
4725:doi
4337:of
4301:of
3903:in
3805:to
3794:629
3782:627
3764:626
3728:602
3613:440
3582:384
3562:363
3539:283
3530:at
3503:253
3095:to
3063:'s
2654:of
2594:by
2149:at
2037:of
1969:or
1462:at
913:POW
621:POW
609:POW
507:POW
10436::
9297:.
9278:.
9259:.
9144:}}
9140:{{
9056:.
9046:57
9040:.
8952:.
8867:.
8842:.
8817:.
8761:.
8740:}}
8736:{{
8720:.
8645:.
8620:.
8501:15
8445:.
8242:^
8221:,
8200:.
8190:43
8188:.
8184:.
8136:,
8119:,
8102:,
8067:^
7988:26
7986:,
7923:^
7911:^
7410:^
7351:,
7347:,
7184:^
6982:XC
6923:^
6913:,
6897:XC
6838:,
6575:,
6505:.
6480:44
6478:.
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