Transmission of the Greek Classics

861:) the Just, had introduced many Greek ideas into his kingdom. Aided by this knowledge and juxtaposition of beliefs, the Abbasids considered it valuable to look at Islam with Greek eyes, and to look at the Greeks with Islamic eyes. Abbasid philosophers also pressed the idea that Islam had from the very beginning stressed the gathering of knowledge as important to the religion. These new lines of thought allowed the work of amassing and translating Greek ideas to expand as it never before had. 675:. Fortunately for modern scholars, the old writing can still be retrieved, and many extremely valuable works, which would have otherwise been lost, have been recovered in this way. As the language of Roman aristocrats and scholars, Greek died off along with the Roman Empire in the West, and by 500 CE, almost no one in Western Europe was able to read (or translate) Greek texts, and with the rise of the Islamic Empire, the west was further cut off from the language. After a while, only a few 3242: 31: 930: 800: 3253: 572: 854:. Here he founded a great library, The House of Wisdom, containing Greek Classical texts. Al-Mansur ordered this rich fund of world literature translated into Arabic. Under al-Mansur and by his orders, translations were made from Greek, Syriac, and Persian, the Syriac and Persian books being themselves translations from Greek or Sanskrit. 1175:. He also challenged Al-Ghazali's largely anti-Greek philosophies and offered some of the best reconciliation of Islam and philosophy of the time. Key to his arguments was the idea that although there was only one truth, that truth could be expressed in many ways, including both philosophy and religion. He even used the 1210:

While Muslims were translating and adding their own interpretations to Greek philosophies, the Latin West was still suspicious of pagan ideas. Leaders of the Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire also frowned upon philosophy, and the Empire had just gone through a period of plague, famine, and war.

1271:

contributed very little to the translation efforts, until the Fourth Crusade took most of the Byzantine Empire. Sicily, still largely Greek-speaking was more productive; it had seen rule under Byzantines, Arabs, and Italians, and many were fluent in Greek, Arabic, and Latin. Sicilians, however, were

1179:

to back up his arguments in favor of Greek philosophy and logic, especially the passage: “It is He, who has revealed the Book to you...some of its verses are unambiguous...and the others are ambiguous...only God and those confirmed in knowledge know its interpretation.” Averroes argued that “those

670:

In the Western Provinces (what today is considered Western Europe's heartland), the collapsing Roman empire lost many Greek manuscripts which were not preserved by monasteries. However, due to the expense and dearth of writing materials, monastic scribes could recycle old parchments. The parchments

828:

in the 7th century. At this point they first began to encounter Greek ideas, though from the beginning, many of them were hostile to classical learning. Because of this hostility, the religious Caliphs could not support scientific translations. Translators had to seek out wealthy business patrons

914:

Most scholars agree that during this period rhetoric, poetry, histories, and dramas were not translated into Arabic, since they were viewed as serving political ends which were not to be sought after in the Islamic states. Instead, philosophical and scientific works were almost the entire focus of

980:

of thinking into a more rationalistic mode. Previous to al-Kindi, for example, on the question of how the immaterial God of the Koran could sit on a throne in the same book, one theologist had said, “The sitting is known, its modality is unknown. Belief in it is a necessity, and raising questions

714:

William's contribution to the "recovery" of Aristotle in the 13th century undoubtedly helped in forming a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, and particularly of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied, and which had distorted or obscured the relation

910:

Later the Caliph al-Mamun also sent emissaries to the Byzantines to gather Greek manuscripts for his new university, making it a center for Greek translation work in the Arab world. At first only practical works, such as those on medicine and technology were sought after, but eventually works on

1296:

Although there was a huge amount of work being accomplished in Spain, there was no central school for translating and no real organized effort, as there had been at times among the Muslims. Translators came from many different backgrounds and translated for many different reasons. For example,

1288:

of the 12th century, however, Spain opened even further for Christian scholars, who were now able to work in “friendly” religious territory. As these Europeans encountered Islamic philosophy, their previously held fears turned to admiration, and from Spain came a wealth of Islamic knowledge of

833:

rule in the 8th century, however, there was little work in translation. Most knowledge of Greek during Umayyad rule was gained from those scholars of Greek who remained from the Byzantine period, rather than through widespread translation and dissemination of texts. A few scholars argue that

150:

is often used to refer to the collective knowledge that was obtained from the Arab and Byzantine Empires, regardless of where the knowledge actually originated. However, being once and even twice removed from the original Greek, these Arabic versions were later supplanted by improved, direct

1211:

Further west, several key figures in European history who came after Boethius had strengthened the overwhelming shift away from Hellenistic ideas. For centuries, Greek ideas in Europe were all but non-existent, until the Eastern part of the Roman Empire – Byzantium – was sacked during the

1195:

translated several of Averroes' works within fifty years of his death. However, Averroes' reception in Western Europe contrasted with his ultimate rejection in Spain. Soon after Averroes, Greek ideas in the Arab lands were largely opposed by those who disliked anything not “truly Arab.”

1262:

respectively. These linguistic borderlands proved fertile ground for translators. These areas had been conquered by Arabic, Greek and Latin-speaking peoples over the centuries and contained linguistic abilities from all these cultures. The small and unscholarly population of the

1242:

throughout Europe. These universities gathered what little Greek thought had been preserved over the centuries, including Boethius' commentaries on Aristotle. They also served as places of discussion for new ideas coming from new translations from Arabic throughout Europe.

1272:

less influenced by Arabs and instead are noted more for their translations directly from Greek to Latin. Spain, on the other hand, was an ideal place for translation from Arabic to Latin because of a combination of rich Latin and Islamic cultures living side by side.

1313:, for example, translated a large selection of Arabic works all dealing with astronomy, as well as tracing the history of astronomic thought through history, underscoring the work of the Greeks, Persians, Hellenists, and Arabs in one large preface to his volume. 225:

of the Byzantine empire in the fifteenth century heightened contact between its scholars and those of the west. Translation into Latin of the full range of Greek classics ensued, including the historians, poets, playwrights and non-Aristotelian philosophers.

879:

physicians to the city of Baghdad which he had founded, and he was also a prince who did much to encourage those who set themselves to prepare Arabic translations of Greek, Syriac, and Persian works. Still more important was the patronage given by the Caliph

445:

The rest of Aristotle's books were eventually translated into Latin, but over 600 years later, from about the middle of the 12th century. First, the rest of the logical works were finished, by using the translations of Boethius as the basis. Then came the

907:. After studying at Baghdad under Yahya he visited Alexandria and returned, not only with the training given at what was then the first medical school, but with a good knowledge of Greek which he employed in making translations in Syriac and Arabic. 1324:. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of high knowledge from Italy, and other areas, into their courts, as signs of prestige. Even the Byzantines experienced an Aristotelian revival in the mid-12th century, and gathered men from Italy as well. 981:

regarding it is a heresy.” Few of al-Kindi's writings have survived, making it difficult to judge his work directly, but it is clear from what exists that he carefully worked to present his ideas in a way acceptable to other Muslims.

736:

and was commissioned by him to make some of the translations. But there is no contemporary record of the friendship or the commissions. If they did meet, it is most likely during the three or four years Aquinas was working at

520:

had been Aristotle's teacher, most of Plato's writings were not translated into Latin until over 200 years after Aristotle. In the Middle Ages, the only book of Plato in general circulation was the first part of the dialogue

1085:

still was. Ibn Sina, otherwise known as Avicenna, would later heavily influence European philosophical, theological and scientific thought, becoming known as “the most famous scientist of Islam” to many Western historians.

694:

was one of the most prolific and influential translators of Greek philosophical texts in the middle half of the thirteenth century. Very little is known of William's life. He was born probably in 1215 in the village of

896:(d. A.H. 243 = A.D. 857), who was an author both in Syriac and Arabic, and learned also in the use of Greek. His medical treatise on "Fevers" was long in repute and was afterwards translated into Latin and into Hebrew. 1301:

the Archbishop of Toledo, seems to have started an organized movement of support for translations, and many scholars who seem to be associated with him in documents may have translated two-by-two, working together.

1027:. Unlike Al-Kindi or Al-Rhazi, Al-Farabi was hesitant to express his own feelings on issues of religion and philosophy, choosing rather to speak only through the words of the various philosophies he came across. 784:

Western Arabic translations of Greek works (found in Iberia and Sicily) originates in the Greek sources preserved by the Byzantines. These transmissions to the Arab West took place in two main stages.

555:, but those books were in limited circulation. Some other translations of Plato's books disappeared during the Middle Ages. Finally, about 200 years after the rediscovery of Aristotle, in the wider 1297:

non-Christian Jewish scholars participated by translating Arabic works which had already been translated into Hebrew, into Latin and Vulgate languages. Some scholars, however, have suggested that

587:

propagated works of Greek classical learning. Boethius intended to pass on the great Greco-Roman culture to future generations by writing manuals on music and astronomy, geometry, and arithmetic.

996:

or “Rhazes.” Considered one of the most original thinkers among the Persian philosophers, he challenged both Islamic and Greek ideas in a rationalist manner. Also, where Al-Kindi had focused on

513:

ended up becoming a component of the core curriculum of philosophical study in most medieval universities, giving birth to a very rich tradition of commentaries, especially c. 1260–1360.

643:, begins with modular arithmetic, such as even and odd, evenly even, evenly odd, and oddly even. He then turns to unpredicted complexity by categorizing numbers and parts of numbers. 741:, i.e. not before the election of Pope Urban IV in August 1261, who invited Aquinas to serve at the Papal court, and not after 1265, when Aquinas left for Rome. His translation of 341:

Armenia harbored libraries of Greek classical literature. An Armenian codex of Aristotle (†Δ) is one of the main sources in the text-critical apparatus of today's Greek text.

903:(d. 263 A.H. = A.D. 876), the Nestorian physician to whom we have already referred as translating into Syriac the chief medical authorities as well as parts of Aristotle's 696: 436:

had entered into general circulation before the 12th century. All in all, only a few major works of Aristotle were never translated into Arabic. Of these, the fate of

1632:

Sander Wopke de Boer, The Science of the Soul: The Commentary Tradition on Aristotle's De Anima, C. 1260–1360, Leuven : Leuven University Press, 2013, pp. 15–16.

1726:, (1991) p. 85-86 - But note that recycling of parchment did not necessarily prejudice against the genre, as Tischendorf's discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus shows. 1623:

Sander Wopke de Boer, The Science of the Soul: The Commentary Tradition on Aristotle's De Anima, C. 1260–1360, Leuven : Leuven University Press, 2013, p. 16.

1614:

Sander Wopke de Boer, The Science of the Soul: The Commentary Tradition on Aristotle's De Anima, C. 1260–1360, Leuven : Leuven University Press, 2013, p. 15.

612:: whether these concepts are subsistent entities which would exist whether anyone thought of them, or whether they only exist as ideas. This topic concerning the 4431: 4421: 893: 1641:

Cf. Sander Wopke de Boer, The Science of the Soul: The Commentary Tradition on Aristotle's De Anima, C. 1260–1360, Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2013.

99:). Though these works were originally written in Greek, for centuries the language of scholarship in the Mediterranean region, many were translated into 4296: 2775: 1713:

Masi, Michael. "The Liberal Arts and Gerardus Ruffus¢ Commentary on the Boethian De Arithmetica". The Sixteenth Century Journal 10 (Summer 1979): 24.

1478:

L. Minio-Paluello (ed.). Aristoteles Categoriae et liber de interpretatione recognovit brevique adnotatione critica instruxit. Oxford Classical Texts.

2146:

Clagett, Marshall. “William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. (Oct 1982) 126.5 pgs. 356-366.

1320:, an Englishman, traveled to Sicily and the Arab lands, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of 888:

217 (= A.D. 832) founded a school at Baghdad, suggested no doubt by the Nestorians and Zoroastrian schools already existing, and this he called the

1215:

unlocking numerous Ancient Greek texts. Within Western Europe, only a few monasteries had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works.

2170:

Grunebaum, Gustave E. von. “Greek Form Elements in the Arabian Nights.” Journal of the American Oriental Society. (Dec 1942) 62.4 pgs. 277-292 .

1343:(c.1225–1274), at the end of that time period, was able to reconcile the viewpoints of Aristotelianism and Christianity, primarily in his work, 1327:

Because some of Aristotle's newly translated views discounted the notions of a personal God, immortal soul, or creation, various leaders of the

4436: 2528: 1149:(known as “Averroes”) were among the other famous philosophers of Spain who furthered the expansion of Greek ideas in medicine and philosophy. 760: 671:

could be reused after scraping off the ink of the old texts, and writing new books on the previously used parchment, creating what is called a

111:

during the Middle Ages and the original Greek versions were often unknown to the West. With increasing Western presence in the East due to the

1046:

argued that many realms of logic only worked in theory, not in reality. His ideas would later influence Western European religious ideas. The

4461: 475:, for instance, was unavailable in Latin in Christian Europe before the middle of the twelfth century. The first Latin translation is due to 3806: 1650: 1171:

and had mixed Aristotle's ideas with Plato's. Averroes rediscovered the “true” Aristotle by translating key texts reintroducing him to

1316:

By the 13th century, translation had declined in Spain, but it was on the rise in Italy and Sicily, and from there to all of Europe.

1284:

had begun to gather translated texts, and in the latter half of that century began transmitting them to the rest of Europe. After the

4376: 2706: 2280: 960:

beliefs met with much opposition, and at one point he was flogged by those opposed to his ideas. He argued that one could accept the

623:

Besides these advanced philosophical works, Boethius is also reported to have translated important Greek texts for the topics of the

2143:

Brickman, William W. “The Meeting of East and West in Educational History.” Comparative Education Review. (Oct 1961) 5.2 pgs. 82-89.

3650: 1363: 349:

Syriac plays an important role in modern textual criticism even today. The Oxford Classical issue of the Greek text of Aristotle's

3290: 3738: 1358: 1205: 921:

carry clear parallels to Greek literature—evidence that many Muslims were familiar with Greek humanities more than is thought.

2175:

The Aristotle Adventure: a Guide to the Greek, Arabic, and Latin Scholars Who Transmitted Aristotle's Logic to the Renaissance

4316: 1422: 1368: 972:, he would abandon the Greek ideas in favor of the Islamic faith. He is considered to be largely responsible for pulling the 17: 2829: 2235:

Walbridge, John. “Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam.” Journal of the History of Ideas. (Jul 1998) 59.3 pgs. 389-403.

1038:) compiled the ideas of many Muslim philosophers of the previous centuries and established a new school which is known as 1060: 1309:, remains unknown. What is known is that most translations coming out of Spain dealt with either medicine or astronomy. 1293:

became a center for such travelers, since so many of its citizens wrote daily in both Arabic and Latin-based languages.

2218:

Pingree, David. “Classical and Byzantine Astrology in Sassanian Persia.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers. (1989) 43 pgs. 227-239.

1066: 900: 1455:

Grabmann; note that many of William's works were redactions rather than original translations, as is commonly supposed

4481: 2864: 1571: 1542: 1255: 171:, so did knowledge of the Greek texts, many of which had remained without a Latin translation. The fragile nature of 128: 683:). Some Irish monks had been taught by Greek and Latin missionaries who probably had brought Greek texts with them. 4311: 3672: 2745: 2391: 366: 4411: 4346: 3391: 2770: 69: 590:

Several of Boethius' writings, which were largely influential during the Middle Ages, drew from the thinking of

361:

translations played a major role for the later reception into Arabic. These translators from Syriac were mostly

3602: 3110: 2360: 1332: 1094:

While Greek ideas gradually permeated the Islamic world, Muslims conquests extended to the European continent.

127:

scholars fled to Western Europe, bringing with them many original Greek manuscripts, and providing impetus for

1605:"Cambridge Histories Online" (Later Medieval Philosophy), John F. Wippel, 1982, Overview, cambridge.org, 2011. 4512: 3755: 3222: 3135: 2386: 2273: 1684: 993: 770: 389:

Classical Greek learning was firmly found in every metropolis of the Roman empire, including in Rome itself.

1590: 1305:

Whether Raimond actually started a truly central, organized effort at translation, later generalized as the

355:

uses the sigla Ρ, Ι, and Γ, which are texts dating from Christian possessions from the 6th to 8th century.

4522: 4507: 4366: 4351: 4246: 3227: 2608: 1504: 1383: 1306: 1129:

As books were gathered, so were many Muslim scholars who had studied Greek ideas in the east. For example,

1095: 915:

translation. This has been disputed by a minority of scholars, however, who argue that stories such as the

487:, new translation) was made from the Arabic translation of the text around 1230, and it was accompanied by 1114:

in particular quickly became the most heavily populated and thriving area in Europe. One of the rulers of

834:

translation was more widespread than is thought during this period, but theirs remains the minority view.

72:

in Western Europe. Interest in Greek texts and their availability was scarce in the Latin West during the

4517: 3772: 3283: 949: 654:

on astronomy, if they were completed, no longer survive. Boethius made Latin translations of Aristotle's

299: 3643: 3366: 2849: 2468: 816:

The first period of transmission during 8th and 9th centuries was preceded by a period of conquest, as

4291: 4251: 3692: 3212: 1464: 1130: 1107: 1042:. After this period, Greek philosophy went into a decline in the Islamic world. Theologians such as 899:

The most important work of the academy however was done by Yahya's pupils and successors, especially

680: 4391: 4119: 3881: 3841: 3831: 3779: 2791: 2266: 1704:

Schrader, Dorothy V. ´De Arithmetica, Book I, of Boethius.¡ Mathematics Teacher 61 (1968):615-28.

794: 766: 1564:

Collected works of Shlomo Pines: Studies in Arabic Versions of Greek texts and in Medieval Science

1535:

Collected works of Shlomo Pines: Studies in Arabic Versions of Greek texts and in Medieval Science

4169: 4077: 3376: 3371: 2672: 2613: 2580: 1227: 773:. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into 454: 1665:

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Anicius Manlius SeverinusBoethius. Internet. Availablefrom

4341: 4331: 3920: 3851: 3836: 3317: 3276: 2765: 2651: 2628: 2555: 2451: 1164: 1099: 605: 591: 398: 222: 218: 187: 1559: 1530: 1412: 1298: 4451: 4426: 4356: 4039: 3767: 3540: 3498: 3468: 2879: 2874: 2854: 2656: 2369: 1690: 1411:

Perry, Marvin; Jacob, Margaret; Jacob, James; Chase, Myrna; Laue, Theodore Von (2008-10-29).

1289:

mathematics and astronomy. Foreigners came to Spain to translate from all over Europe, and

747: 609: 2215:

Palencia, A. Gonzalez. “Islam and the Occident”, Hispania. (October 1935) 18.3 pgs. 245-276.

414:). A little over a century later, most of Aristotle's logical works, except perhaps for the 4446: 4201: 4114: 4092: 4015: 4011: 3940: 3856: 3801: 3796: 3619: 3463: 3352: 2968: 2869: 2859: 2824: 2722: 2701: 2590: 1321: 984:

After Al-Kindi, several philosophers argued more radical views, some of whom even rejected

438: 425: 168: 48: 373:

caliphate. The most important translator of this group was the Syriac-speaking Christian

8: 4471: 4336: 4206: 3996: 3925: 3682: 3655: 3638: 3626: 3448: 3404: 3165: 2938: 2727: 2682: 2646: 2598: 2570: 2189:

Technology and Society in the Medieval Centuries Byzantium, Islam, and the West, 500-1300

1683: 1336: 1331:

were inclined to censor those views for decades, such as lists of forbidden books in the

1234:

death, however, intellectual life again fell into decline. By the 12th century, however,

1082: 1020: 691: 617: 500: 448: 416: 323: 191: 152: 143: 2196:

The Map of Knowledge: A Thousand-Year History of How Classical Ideas Were Lost and Found

1246:

By the 12th century, European fear of Islam as a military threat had lessened somewhat.

4191: 4107: 4097: 3930: 3893: 3823: 3762: 3745: 3699: 3609: 3523: 3337: 3245: 3155: 2982: 2905: 2691: 2636: 2575: 2538: 2439: 2313: 2202: 2163:

Grabmann 1946, "Guglielmo di Moerbeke, O.P., il traduttore delle opere di Aristotele",

1078: 989: 953: 523: 410: 331: 251: 227: 203: 1089: 4321: 4223: 4211: 4196: 4176: 4087: 4034: 4006: 3988: 3791: 3667: 3660: 3473: 3421: 3399: 3327: 3257: 3217: 3145: 3130: 3105: 2928: 2918: 2560: 2503: 2409: 2348: 1567: 1538: 1418: 1264: 1251: 952:

and prominent figure in the House of Wisdom, is unanimously hailed as the "father of

817: 404: 393: 267: 239: 73: 4466: 194:

gained access to the original Greek texts of scientists and philosophers, including

4082: 4072: 3898: 3846: 3750: 3614: 3503: 3453: 3431: 3426: 3357: 3100: 2958: 2801: 2641: 2473: 2434: 2428: 2329: 2252: 1345: 1310: 1192: 1134: 1126:, creating a library which would later become a center for translation into Latin. 977: 715:

between Platonic and Aristotelian systems of philosophy. William's translation of

679:

in the west had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works (mainly the

540: 374: 211: 120: 116: 108: 80: 4456: 4396: 4281: 4129: 4124: 4102: 4022: 3976: 3733: 3687: 3585: 3562: 3545: 3518: 3303: 3170: 3066: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2737: 2696: 2565: 2456: 2289: 2206: 1328: 1317: 1103: 870: 721: 704: 560: 476: 358: 295: 164: 124: 104: 100: 1250:, in Spain, had fallen from the Umayyads in 1085, Sicily and Jerusalem from the 765:

Arabic logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered

4486: 4406: 4361: 4301: 4266: 4058: 3971: 3876: 3784: 3575: 3409: 3332: 3160: 3140: 3095: 3071: 2948: 2603: 2335: 2223:

Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature

1340: 1212: 1188: 917: 842:

The main period of translation was during Abbasid rule. The 2nd Abbasid Caliph

733: 183: 84: 1666: 142:

scholarship in Western Europe was very blurred during the Middle Ages and the

4501: 4441: 4326: 4241: 4186: 4046: 3966: 3861: 3711: 3704: 3597: 3550: 3443: 3299: 3150: 3061: 3053: 2943: 2884: 2523: 2518: 1373: 1290: 1259: 1247: 1235: 1184: 1161: 889: 319: 283: 3268: 1133:

and 'Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Ismail came to Spain and introduced many ideas about

732:

According to a tradition originating in the later Middle Ages, William knew

4476: 4276: 4181: 4027: 4001: 3910: 3592: 3580: 3528: 3488: 3483: 3347: 3342: 3207: 2933: 2478: 2421: 2403: 1239: 1168: 1102:

around 700 AD, even reaching as far as Poitiers in Southern France by 732 (

1016: 885: 881: 492: 466:(13th century), so that all works were translated by the mid-13th century. 362: 92: 4416: 4164: 4159: 4151: 4136: 3961: 3866: 3677: 3513: 3478: 3458: 3438: 3416: 3381: 3083: 2923: 2913: 2618: 2415: 2381: 1414:

Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Comprehensive Edition

1285: 1231: 1219: 1123: 1119: 613: 556: 509: 471: 65: 725:, was not a genuine work of Aristotle, but rather derived from Proclus' 3947: 3935: 3905: 3871: 3811: 3493: 3039: 3005: 2375: 2308: 1172: 1142: 1115: 1111: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1024: 985: 858: 672: 628: 624: 595: 335: 287: 199: 61: 924: 369:, working in the two hundred years following the establishment of the 4381: 4218: 3953: 3915: 3508: 3322: 3200: 3017: 2995: 2953: 2819: 2814: 2809: 2760: 2750: 2513: 2491: 2462: 2354: 2303: 1511:(Spring 2023 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 1281: 1268: 1176: 1081:, Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi were no longer remembered, while Ibn Sina's 1071: 1008: 997: 973: 934: 876: 843: 804: 711:

as a young man. Most of his surviving work was done during 1259–72.

676: 616:

nature of universal ideas was one of the most vocal controversies in

536: 528: 311: 303: 291: 195: 176: 175:

as a writing medium meant that older texts not copied onto expensive

88: 35: 539:, as his account of the origin of the universe. In the 12th century 76:, but as traffic to the East increased, so did Western scholarship. 30: 27:

Key factor in the development of intellectual life in Western Europe

4371: 4067: 3888: 3716: 3631: 3570: 3533: 3012: 3000: 2990: 2963: 2755: 2508: 1157: 1153: 1146: 1090:

Western European reception of Greek ideas via the Islamic tradition

1051: 1031: 941: 929: 847: 584: 576: 488: 459: 421: 327: 315: 307: 275: 271: 259: 255: 247: 112: 2258: 662:

with commentaries. These were widely used during the Middle Ages.

579:, who translated a large portion of the Greek classics into Latin. 396:

translated two of Aristotle's books, about logic, into Latin: the

4286: 4141: 4053: 3088: 3076: 2547: 2365: 1378: 969: 851: 830: 781:, which became important centers for this transmission of ideas. 738: 716: 700: 651: 600: 370: 351: 207: 172: 131:

and further translation efforts of Greek scholarship into Latin.

96: 43: 875:

The Caliph al-Mansur was the patron who did most to attract the

799: 4306: 2445: 1223: 1138: 892:

or "House of Wisdom", and this he placed under the guidance of

825: 778: 708: 647: 551: 279: 263: 243: 1756:

see Grabmann 1946 and the short account by Minio-Paluello 1974

964:

and other sacred texts, and work from that point to determine

563:(1433–99) translated and commented on Plato's complete works. 4271: 4261: 4256: 3728: 3723: 3195: 2497: 2484: 2397: 2342: 1001: 965: 961: 957: 821: 774: 665: 517: 235: 231: 39: 1156:(Ibn Rushid), many philosophers had confused Aristotle with 719:

was also important, demonstrating that the influential book

83:

consisted of various original works ranging from those from

4401: 545: 507:" (new recension), which was the most widely read version. 1858: 1817: 788: 571: 1566:. Vol. 2. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press. p. 156. 1537:. Vol. 2. Jerusalem: The Magnes Press. p. 147. 1238:

thought was beginning to develop, leading to the rise of

491:'s commentary; the translator is generally thought to be 1187:

philosophers and theologians of the Middle Ages such as

686: 4386: 2191:. Washington DC: American Historical Association, 2003. 1437:

Alexander. A. Vasiliev. History of the Byzantine Empire

1110:

was conquered. With the aid of Greek and other ideas,

479:(12th century), and has always been considered as the 52:, were partly lost to Western Europeans for centuries. 754: 483:(ancient translation). The second Latin translation ( 2158:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages

1410: 1226:

and others reintroduced some Greek ideas during the

1122:, made an effort to gather books from all over the 820:

took control of previously Hellenized areas such as

925:

After translation: Arabic commentary on Greek works

2776:On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration 158: 2981: 2904: 2232:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975. 1137:as well as several of the works of Aristotle and 1079:philosophy was again revived in the Islamic world 639:, unfinished) contributed to medieval education. 91:) to those Greco-Roman scholars in the classical 4499: 527:(to 53c), as a translation, with commentary, by 428:). However, only Boethius's translations of the 1734: 1732: 1070:. His works led to the philosophical school of 146:. Sometimes the concept of the transmission of 1218:There was a brief period of revival, when the 1199: 761:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 3298: 3284: 2274: 2184:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978. 1589:, Edward Craig, 1998, p.396, webpage: 1507:, in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), 1191:later called Averroes “The Commentator,” and 3052: 1729: 864: 857:The 6th-century King of Persia, Anushirvan ( 2253:The Rediscovery of the Corpus Aristotelicum 2201: 1864: 1823: 1667:http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boethius/ 1560:"Aristotle's Politics in Arabic Philosophy" 1531:"Aristotle's Politics in Arabic Philosophy" 1180:confirmed in knowledge” were philosophers. 214:, and translated them directly into Latin. 3291: 3277: 2281: 2267: 2177:. Flagstaff Ariz.: Albert Hale Pub., 1995. 2085: 2083: 1842: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1834: 1832: 1685:"Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius" 1681: 1280:As early as the 10th century, scholars in 956:". His synthesis of Greek philosophy with 666:Early Middle Ages in the Western Provinces 155:and others in the 13th century and after. 2240:The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe 2097: 2095: 608:, which highlighted the existence of the 392:In the 4th century, the Roman grammarian 2225:. 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. 2127: 2125: 2073: 2071: 2069: 2067: 2020: 2018: 1954: 1952: 1912: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1904: 1902: 1900: 1764: 1762: 1502: 1364:Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe 928: 798: 570: 29: 2208:Arabic Thought and its Place in History 2080: 2048: 2046: 2044: 2034: 2032: 2030: 1924: 1922: 1829: 1651:General Audience of Pope Benedict XVI, 1509:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1474: 1472: 1431: 1004:, introducing his ideas as a contrast. 789:First period: Greek–Arabic translations 384: 14: 4500: 2092: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1795: 1359:Latin translations of the 12th century 1206:Latin translations of the 12th century 344: 230:(c. 1355–1415) translated portions of 179:would eventually crumble and be lost. 163:As knowledge of Greek declined in the 3272: 3123: 3032: 2262: 2122: 2064: 2015: 1949: 1897: 1759: 1677: 1675: 1601: 1599: 1557: 1528: 1498: 1496: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1484: 1369:Science in the medieval Islamic world 687:Late Middle Ages: William of Moerbeke 633:De institutione arithmetica libri duo 598:. Boethius wrote a commentary on the 464:Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics 2830:On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias 2242:. Edinburgh: University Press, 1972. 2041: 2027: 2006: 1919: 1879: 1870: 1808: 1694:. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1587:Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy 1469: 1406: 1404: 1402: 1400: 1398: 933:A medieval Arabic representation of 637:De institutione musica Libri quinque 543:of Catania made translations of the 503:in 1266–7, and became known as the " 129:Greek-language education in the West 2288: 2228:Rosenthal, Franz (Ed. and trans.). 2221:Reynolds, L. D., and N. G. Wilson. 1792: 1275: 1061:The Incoherence of the Philosophers 270:(1398–1481) translated portions of 24: 3191:Transmission of the Greek Classics 1672: 1659: 1644: 1596: 1481: 1067:The Incoherence of the Incoherence 901:Abu Zayd Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi 829:rather than religious ones. Until 755:Arabic translations and commentary 377:(809-873), known to the Latins as 115:, and the gradual collapse of the 58:transmission of the Greek Classics 25: 4534: 4482:Western European and Others Group 2865:The Situations and Names of Winds 2246: 2165:Miscellanea Historiae Pontificiae 2151:The Early Palaeologan Renaissance 1707: 1682:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). 1395: 442:in particular remains uncertain. 210:, that had been preserved in the 3251: 3241: 3240: 2167:, vol. XI, fasc. 20, Rome, 1946. 212:Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire 70:development of intellectual life 2771:On Length and Shortness of Life 2230:The Classical Heritage in Islam 2198:. New York: Anchor Books, 2020. 2137: 2113: 2104: 2055: 1997: 1988: 1979: 1970: 1961: 1940: 1931: 1888: 1849: 1783: 1771: 1750: 1741: 1716: 1698: 1635: 1626: 1617: 1608: 1580: 159:Direct reception of Greek texts 2361:Correspondence theory of truth 2255:with an annotated bibliography 1780:2001, Macmillan Reference USA 1551: 1522: 1458: 1449: 1440: 751:, probably completed in 1264. 13: 1: 2707:Constitution of the Athenians 1389: 1019:through his knowledge of the 635:) and his textbook on music ( 2609:On Generation and Corruption 2077:Lindberg 62-65; Palencia 270 1994:Transmission of the Classics 1669:; accessed November 7, 2009. 1656:; accessed November 4, 2009. 1384:Toledo School of Translators 1307:Toledo School of Translators 954:Islamic or Arabic philosophy 7: 2180:Lindberg, David C. (ed.). 1465:Johann Müller Regiomontanus 1352: 1200:Arabic: Latin or Vernacular 911:philosophy became popular. 837: 811: 703:, and probably entered the 631:'s treatise on arithmetic ( 627:. His loose translation of 566: 10: 4539: 2850:On Marvellous Things Heard 2469:Potentiality and actuality 2182:Science in the Middle Ages 1778:Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1333:Condemnations of 1210–1277 1230:of the 8th century. After 1203: 1145:(known as "Avempace") and 968:. Whenever he ran into an 868: 792: 758: 4252:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 4232: 4150: 3987: 3822: 3693:Standard Average European 3561: 3390: 3310: 3236: 3213:Commentaries on Aristotle 3183: 2897: 2800: 2784: 2736: 2715: 2681: 2665: 2627: 2589: 2546: 2537: 2322: 2296: 1100:conquered by the Umayyads 1030:Decades after Al-Farabi, 865:Baghdad's House of Wisdom 420:, had been translated by 330:. Important patrons were 190:(1204), scholars such as 4392:Lancaster House Treaties 3882:Christian existentialism 3842:Ancient Roman philosophy 3832:Ancient Greek philosophy 1653:Boethius and Cassiodorus 795:Early Islamic philosophy 68:was a key factor in the 4170:Equality before the law 3377:Romano-Germanic culture 2581:Sophistical Refutations 1722:Reynolds & Wilson, 1503:Marenbon, John (2023), 1228:Carolingian Renaissance 1058:) refuted Al-Ghazali's 846:moved the capital from 803:An Arab's depiction of 306:(1454–1494) translated 286:(1407–1457) translated 254:(1380–1459) translated 242:(1370–1460) translated 4332:Eastern European Group 3921:Continental philosophy 3852:Judeo-Christian ethics 3837:Hellenistic philosophy 3318:Cradle of civilization 2766:On Divination in Sleep 2452:Horror vacui (physics) 1558:Pinès, Shlomo (1986). 1529:Pinès, Shlomo (1986). 1000:, Al-Rhazi focused on 938: 808: 807:teaching his students. 745:is cited by Thomas in 727:Elementatio Theologica 580: 575:The Roman philosopher 188:Sack of Constantinople 53: 4452:Three Seas Initiative 4427:Pacific Islands Forum 4292:British–Irish Council 4040:Greek Orthodox Church 3499:Industrial Revolution 3469:Scientific Revolution 3258:Philosophy portal 2880:Rhetoric to Alexander 2238:Watt, W. Montgomery. 1691:Catholic Encyclopedia 1505:"Medieval Philosophy" 1204:Further information: 932: 869:Further information: 802: 793:Further information: 748:Summa Contra Gentiles 610:problem of universals 574: 531:(or Chalcidius). The 334:(1403–1472) and Pope 326:translated Ptolemy's 167:with the fall of the 33: 18:Recovery of Aristotle 4513:Renaissance humanism 4447:Special Relationship 3857:Christian philosophy 3802:Western Christianity 3464:Age of Enlightenment 3338:Hellenistic Kingdoms 2969:Andronicus of Rhodes 2870:On Virtues and Vices 2825:On Indivisible Lines 2746:Sense and Sensibilia 2716:Rhetoric and poetics 2529:mathematical realism 1724:Scribes and Scholars 1417:. Cengage Learning. 976:out of a mystic and 646:His translations of 499:was then revised by 458:(12th century), and 426:Corpus Aristotelicum 385:Western Roman Empire 298:(1433–1499) and his 186:(1202–1204) and the 169:Western Roman Empire 62:Latin Western Europe 49:The School of Athens 4523:Classical antiquity 4508:Medieval philosophy 4472:West Nordic Council 4337:Eastern Partnership 3926:Analytic philosophy 3627:Classical tradition 3449:Early modern period 3405:Classical antiquity 3400:European Bronze Age 2939:Strato of Lampsacus 2571:Posterior Analytics 2323:Ideas and interests 2173:Laughlin, Burgess. 1337:University of Paris 1299:Raymond de Sauvetât 1131:Muhammud ibn 'Abdun 1021:Hellenistic culture 988:, most notably the 937:teaching a student. 692:William of Moerbeke 618:medieval philosophy 501:William of Moerbeke 424:, c. 510–512 (see: 417:Posterior Analytics 367:Jacobite Christians 345:Syriac translations 324:George of Trebizond 302:translated Plato. 192:William of Moerbeke 144:Early Modern Period 4518:Islamic Golden Age 3931:Post-structuralism 3894:Christian humanism 3524:Universal suffrage 2983:Islamic Golden Age 2906:Peripatetic school 2692:Nicomachean Ethics 2387:Future contingents 1064:with his treatise 939: 894:Yahya ibn Masawaih 809: 581: 535:describes Plato's 452:, followed by the 411:De Interpretatione 332:Basilios Bessarion 252:Poggio Bracciolini 228:Manuel Chrysoloras 204:Hero of Alexandria 54: 4495: 4494: 4322:Council of Europe 4224:International law 4177:Constitutionalism 4035:Eastern Orthodoxy 3541:Post–Cold War era 3474:Age of Revolution 3328:Greco-Roman world 3266: 3265: 3218:Metabasis paradox 3179: 3178: 3119: 3118: 3106:Pietro Pomponazzi 3048: 3047: 3028: 3027: 2977: 2976: 2929:Eudemus of Rhodes 2919:Clearchus of Soli 2893: 2892: 2561:On Interpretation 2504:Temporal finitism 2392:Genus–differentia 2349:Category of being 2160:, Cambridge 1996. 1894:Grunebaum 277-278 1424:978-0-547-14701-7 1322:Euclid's Elements 1265:Crusader Kingdoms 743:De motu animalium 656:De interpretation 434:On Interpretation 405:On Interpretation 394:Marius Victorinus 268:Francesco Filelfo 240:Guarino da Verona 134:The line between 74:Early Middle Ages 16:(Redirected from 4530: 4367:EU Customs Union 3899:Secular humanism 3847:Christian ethics 3797:East–West Schism 3780:Physical culture 3504:Great Divergence 3454:Age of Discovery 3293: 3286: 3279: 3270: 3269: 3256: 3255: 3254: 3244: 3243: 3121: 3120: 3101:Jacopo Zabarella 3050: 3049: 3030: 3029: 2979: 2978: 2959:Diodorus of Tyre 2902: 2901: 2544: 2543: 2474:Substance theory 2435:Moderate realism 2429:Minima naturalia 2330:Active intellect 2283: 2276: 2269: 2260: 2259: 2212: 2203:O'Leary, De Lacy 2194:Moller, Violet. 2187:Long, Pamela O. 2132: 2129: 2120: 2117: 2111: 2108: 2102: 2099: 2090: 2087: 2078: 2075: 2062: 2059: 2053: 2050: 2039: 2036: 2025: 2022: 2013: 2010: 2004: 2001: 1995: 1992: 1986: 1983: 1977: 1974: 1968: 1965: 1959: 1956: 1947: 1944: 1938: 1935: 1929: 1926: 1917: 1916:Laughlin 114-117 1914: 1895: 1892: 1886: 1883: 1877: 1874: 1868: 1862: 1856: 1853: 1847: 1844: 1827: 1821: 1815: 1812: 1806: 1803: 1790: 1787: 1781: 1775: 1769: 1766: 1757: 1754: 1748: 1745: 1739: 1736: 1727: 1720: 1714: 1711: 1705: 1702: 1696: 1695: 1687: 1679: 1670: 1663: 1657: 1648: 1642: 1639: 1633: 1630: 1624: 1621: 1615: 1612: 1606: 1603: 1594: 1584: 1578: 1577: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1526: 1520: 1518: 1517: 1516: 1500: 1479: 1476: 1467: 1462: 1456: 1453: 1447: 1444: 1438: 1435: 1429: 1428: 1408: 1346:Summa Theologica 1311:Hugo of Santalla 1276:Spain and Sicily 1193:Michael the Scot 1083:compilation work 1007:After Al-Kindi, 990:Persian logician 650:on geometry and 541:Henry Aristippus 497:translatio vetus 481:translatio vetus 375:Hunayn Ibn Ishaq 310:and portions of 300:Platonic Academy 151:translations by 138:scholarship and 121:Late Middle Ages 117:Byzantine Empire 81:Greek philosophy 21: 4538: 4537: 4533: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4528: 4527: 4498: 4497: 4496: 4491: 4457:UKUSA Agreement 4397:Lublin Triangle 4282:Baltic Assembly 4234: 4228: 4146: 3983: 3818: 3688:Eurolinguistics 3557: 3546:Information age 3519:Interwar period 3386: 3306: 3297: 3267: 3262: 3252: 3250: 3232: 3175: 3115: 3111:Cesar Cremonini 3067:Albertus Magnus 3044: 3024: 2973: 2889: 2845:Physiognomonics 2840:On Things Heard 2835:On the Universe 2796: 2780: 2738:Parva Naturalia 2732: 2711: 2697:Eudemian Ethics 2677: 2661: 2623: 2585: 2566:Prior Analytics 2533: 2457:Rational animal 2318: 2292: 2290:Aristotelianism 2287: 2249: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2123: 2118: 2114: 2109: 2105: 2100: 2093: 2088: 2081: 2076: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2051: 2042: 2037: 2028: 2024:Laughlin 147-48 2023: 2016: 2012:Laughlin 143-46 2011: 2007: 2002: 1998: 1993: 1989: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1962: 1957: 1950: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1927: 1920: 1915: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1884: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1863: 1859: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1830: 1822: 1818: 1813: 1809: 1804: 1793: 1788: 1784: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1760: 1755: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1730: 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Nine 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4269: 4267:Arctic Council 4264: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4238: 4236: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4221: 4216: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4179: 4174: 4173: 4172: 4162: 4156: 4154: 4148: 4147: 4145: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4133: 4132: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4112: 4111: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4065: 4064: 4063: 4062: 4061: 4051: 4050: 4049: 4044: 4043: 4042: 4032: 4031: 4030: 4020: 4019: 4018: 3993: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3981: 3980: 3979: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3958: 3957: 3945: 3944: 3943: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3902: 3901: 3896: 3886: 3885: 3884: 3877:Existentialism 3874: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3854: 3849: 3844: 3839: 3834: 3828: 3826: 3820: 3819: 3817: 3816: 3815: 3814: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3789: 3788: 3787: 3777: 3776: 3775: 3770: 3760: 3759: 3758: 3748: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3736: 3731: 3721: 3720: 3719: 3709: 3708: 3707: 3697: 3696: 3695: 3690: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3664: 3663: 3653: 3648: 3647: 3646: 3636: 3635: 3634: 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2993: 2987: 2985: 2975: 2974: 2972: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2951: 2949:Aristo of Ceos 2946: 2941: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2921: 2916: 2910: 2908: 2899: 2895: 2894: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2887: 2882: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2806: 2804: 2802:Pseudepigrapha 2798: 2797: 2795: 2794: 2788: 2786: 2782: 2781: 2779: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2742: 2740: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2730: 2725: 2719: 2717: 2713: 2712: 2710: 2709: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2688: 2686: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2675: 2669: 2667: 2663: 2662: 2660: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2633: 2631: 2625: 2624: 2622: 2621: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2604:On the Heavens 2601: 2595: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2584: 2583: 2578: 2573: 2568: 2563: 2558: 2552: 2550: 2541: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2494: 2489: 2471: 2466: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2442: 2437: 2432: 2425: 2418: 2413: 2406: 2401: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2372: 2363: 2358: 2351: 2346: 2339: 2336:Antiperistasis 2332: 2326: 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3408: 3407: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3359: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3346: 3344: 3341: 3339: 3336: 3334: 3331: 3330: 3329: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3319: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3300:Western world 3294: 3289: 3287: 3282: 3280: 3275: 3274: 3271: 3259: 3249: 3247: 3239: 3238: 3235: 3229: 3228:Wheel paradox 3226: 3224: 3221: 3219: 3216: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3198: 3197: 3194: 3192: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3182: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3136:Trendelenburg 3134: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3126: 3122: 3112: 3109: 3107: 3104: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3090: 3087: 3086: 3085: 3082: 3078: 3075: 3074: 3073: 3070: 3068: 3065: 3063: 3062:Peter Lombard 3060: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3054:Scholasticism 3051: 3041: 3038: 3037: 3035: 3031: 3019: 3016: 3015: 3014: 3011: 3007: 3004: 3003: 3002: 2999: 2997: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2986: 2984: 2980: 2970: 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2944:Lyco of Troas 2942: 2940: 2937: 2935: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2920: 2917: 2915: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2903: 2900: 2896: 2886: 2885:Magna Moralia 2883: 2881: 2878: 2876: 2873: 2871: 2868: 2866: 2863: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2799: 2793: 2790: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2777: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2735: 2729: 2726: 2724: 2721: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2708: 2705: 2703: 2700: 2698: 2695: 2693: 2690: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2680: 2674: 2671: 2670: 2668: 2664: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2588: 2582: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2572: 2569: 2567: 2564: 2562: 2559: 2557: 2554: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2524:Virtue ethics 2522: 2520: 2519:Unmoved mover 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2505: 2502: 2500: 2499: 2495: 2493: 2490: 2487: 2486: 2481: 2480: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2467: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2447: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2430: 2426: 2424: 2423: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2405: 2402: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2380: 2378: 2377: 2373: 2371: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2357: 2356: 2352: 2350: 2347: 2345: 2344: 2340: 2338: 2337: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2327: 2325: 2321: 2315: 2312: 2310: 2307: 2305: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2272: 2270: 2265: 2264: 2261: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2241: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2217: 2214: 2210: 2209: 2204: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2162: 2159: 2155: 2153:, Brill 2000. 2152: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2128: 2126: 2119:Clagett, 356. 2116: 2107: 2098: 2096: 2086: 2084: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2068: 2058: 2049: 2047: 2045: 2035: 2033: 2031: 2021: 2019: 2009: 2000: 1991: 1982: 1973: 1964: 1955: 1953: 1943: 1937:Lindberg 57-8 1934: 1925: 1923: 1913: 1911: 1909: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1901: 1891: 1882: 1873: 1866: 1861: 1852: 1843: 1841: 1839: 1837: 1835: 1833: 1825: 1820: 1811: 1805:Rosenthal 3-4 1802: 1800: 1798: 1796: 1786: 1779: 1774: 1765: 1763: 1753: 1744: 1735: 1733: 1725: 1719: 1710: 1701: 1693: 1692: 1686: 1678: 1676: 1668: 1662: 1655: 1654: 1647: 1638: 1629: 1620: 1611: 1602: 1600: 1592: 1588: 1583: 1575: 1573:965-223-626-8 1569: 1565: 1561: 1554: 1546: 1544:965-223-626-8 1540: 1536: 1532: 1525: 1510: 1506: 1499: 1497: 1495: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1487: 1485: 1475: 1473: 1466: 1461: 1452: 1443: 1434: 1426: 1420: 1416: 1415: 1407: 1405: 1403: 1401: 1399: 1394: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1374:Scholasticism 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1350: 1349:(1265–1274). 1348: 1347: 1342: 1339:. Meanwhile, 1338: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1303: 1300: 1294: 1292: 1287: 1283: 1273: 1270: 1266: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1232:Charlemagne's 1229: 1225: 1221: 1216: 1214: 1207: 1197: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1087: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1068: 1063: 1062: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1015:) introduced 1014: 1010: 1005: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 982: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 936: 931: 922: 920: 919: 912: 908: 906: 902: 897: 895: 891: 890:Bayt al-Hikma 887: 883: 878: 872: 862: 860: 855: 853: 849: 845: 835: 832: 827: 823: 819: 806: 801: 796: 786: 782: 780: 776: 772: 768: 762: 752: 750: 749: 744: 740: 735: 730: 728: 724: 723: 718: 712: 710: 706: 702: 698: 693: 684: 682: 678: 674: 663: 661: 657: 653: 649: 644: 642: 638: 634: 630: 626: 621: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 602: 597: 593: 588: 586: 578: 573: 564: 562: 558: 554: 553: 548: 547: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 525: 519: 514: 512: 511: 506: 505:recensio nova 502: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 473: 467: 465: 461: 457: 456: 451: 450: 443: 441: 440: 435: 431: 427: 423: 419: 418: 413: 412: 407: 406: 401: 400: 395: 390: 382: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 360: 356: 354: 353: 342: 339: 338:(1397–1455). 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 320:Regiomontanus 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 284:Lorenzo Valla 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 224: 220: 215: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 180: 178: 174: 170: 166: 156: 154: 149: 145: 141: 137: 132: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 82: 77: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 51: 50: 45: 41: 37: 34:The ideas of 32: 19: 4477:Western Bloc 4277:AUSCANNZUKUS 4233:Contemporary 4182:Human rights 4028:Latin Church 4002:Christianity 3952: 3911:Conservatism 3756:contemporary 3593:Architecture 3529:World War II 3489:Emancipation 3484:Abolitionism 3372:Romanization 3367:Roman legacy 3348:Roman Empire 3208:Neoplatonism 3190: 2934:Theophrastus 2792:Protrepticus 2685:and politics 2496: 2483: 2479:hypokeimenon 2477: 2461: 2444: 2427: 2420: 2408: 2404:Hylomorphism 2396: 2374: 2353: 2341: 2334: 2239: 2229: 2222: 2207: 2195: 2188: 2181: 2174: 2164: 2157: 2150: 2138:Bibliography 2115: 2106: 2057: 2008: 2003:Laughlin 141 1999: 1990: 1985:Laughlin 104 1981: 1976:Laughlin 124 1972: 1967:Laughlin 122 1963: 1958:Laughlin 121 1946:Laughlin 120 1942: 1933: 1928:Laughlin 119 1890: 1881: 1872: 1865:O'Leary 1922 1860: 1851: 1824:O'Leary 1922 1819: 1810: 1785: 1777: 1773: 1752: 1747:Laughlin 140 1743: 1738:Laughlin 139 1723: 1718: 1709: 1700: 1689: 1661: 1652: 1646: 1637: 1628: 1619: 1610: 1586: 1582: 1563: 1553: 1534: 1524: 1513:, retrieved 1508: 1460: 1451: 1442: 1433: 1413: 1344: 1326: 1315: 1304: 1295: 1279: 1245: 1240:universities 1217: 1209: 1182: 1169:Neoplatonism 1167:who founded 1151: 1128: 1093: 1076: 1065: 1059: 1055: 1050:philosopher 1035: 1029: 1017:Neoplatonism 1012: 1006: 983: 948:), a famous 945: 940: 916: 913: 909: 904: 898: 874: 856: 841: 815: 783: 764: 746: 742: 731: 726: 720: 713: 690: 669: 659: 655: 645: 640: 636: 632: 622: 599: 589: 582: 550: 544: 532: 522: 515: 508: 504: 496: 493:Michael Scot 484: 480: 470: 469:A text like 468: 463: 453: 447: 444: 437: 433: 429: 415: 409: 403: 397: 391: 388: 378: 357: 350: 348: 340: 216: 181: 162: 147: 139: 135: 133: 93:Roman Empire 78: 57: 55: 47: 4417:Open Balkan 4235:integration 4165:Rule of law 4160:Natural law 4137:Agnosticism 4115:Hellenistic 4093:Anglo-Saxon 4023:Catholicism 3962:Atlanticism 3867:Rationalism 3673:Immigration 3656:Esotericism 3514:World War I 3479:Romanticism 3459:Reformation 3439:Renaissance 3417:Middle Ages 3382:Christendom 3311:Foundations 3084:Duns Scotus 2924:Dicaearchus 2914:Aristoxenus 2673:Metaphysics 2666:Metaphysics 2652:Progression 2619:On the Soul 2614:Meteorology 2416:Magnanimity 2382:Four causes 2149:Fryde, E., 2101:Lindberg 67 2089:Brickman 86 1876:Lindberg 56 1855:Rosenthal 5 1814:Lindberg 55 1789:Rosenthal 2 1446:Lindberg 52 1286:Reconquista 1220:Anglo-Saxon 1124:Middle East 1120:Al-Hakam II 1013:Alpharabius 677:monasteries 614:ontological 557:Renaissance 510:On the Soul 472:On the Soul 455:Metaphysics 119:during the 66:Middle Ages 64:during the 42:, shown in 4502:Categories 4437:Rio Treaty 3948:Relativism 3906:Liberalism 3872:Empiricism 3824:Philosophy 3812:Secularism 3763:Philosophy 3700:Literature 3494:Capitalism 3166:Hursthouse 3040:Maimonides 3006:Avicennism 2657:Generation 2629:On Animals 2556:Categories 2376:Eudaimonia 2156:Grant, E. 2038:Watt 59-60 1591:BooksG-GhV 1515:2023-11-15 1390:References 1236:scholastic 1185:Scholastic 1173:Al-Andalus 1162:Hellenized 1143:Ibn Bajjah 1116:Al-Andalus 1106:). By 902 1048:Andalusian 1044:Al-Ghazali 1040:Avicennism 1025:Alexandria 986:revelation 859:Chosroes I 759:See also: 707:priory in 673:palimpsest 660:Categories 629:Nicomachus 625:quadrivium 596:Iamblichus 495:. James's 430:Categories 399:Categories 379:Joannitius 336:Nicholas V 288:Thucydides 217:The final 200:Archimedes 182:After the 79:Classical 4382:Five Eyes 4377:EU–UK TCA 4219:Democracy 4108:Old Norse 3997:Abrahamic 3954:Peritrope 3936:Tolerance 3916:Socialism 3746:Mythology 3734:Classical 3683:Languages 3661:Astrology 3509:Modernism 3323:Old World 3201:Platonism 3156:MacIntyre 3018:Averroism 2996:Al-Farabi 2954:Critolaus 2898:Followers 2875:Economics 2855:Mechanics 2820:On Plants 2815:On Colors 2810:On Breath 2761:On Dreams 2751:On Memory 2514:Haecceity 2492:Syllogism 2463:Phronesis 2355:Catharsis 2304:Aristotle 1282:Andalusia 1269:Holy Land 1152:Prior to 1147:Ibn Rushd 1072:Averroism 1052:Ibn Rushd 1009:Al-Farabi 998:Aristotle 974:Near East 935:Aristotle 884:, who in 882:al-Ma'mun 877:Nestorian 844:al-Mansur 805:Sophocles 705:Dominican 699:, now in 583:In Rome, 537:cosmology 529:Calcidius 516:Although 363:Nestorian 312:Epictetus 304:Poliziano 292:Herodotus 196:Aristotle 177:parchment 89:Aristotle 36:Aristotle 4442:Schengen 4372:Eurozone 4212:Property 4207:Religion 4098:Frankish 4088:Germanic 4068:Paganism 3989:Religion 3977:European 3889:Humanism 3792:Religion 3751:Painting 3717:Internet 3668:Folklore 3639:Clothing 3610:Calendar 3586:Cyrillic 3571:Alphabet 3534:Cold War 3246:Category 3171:Nussbaum 3141:Brentano 3013:Averroes 3001:Avicenna 2991:Al-Kindi 2964:Erymneus 2860:Problems 2756:On Sleep 2723:Rhetoric 2702:Politics 2647:Movement 2509:Quiddity 2370:accident 2297:Overview 2205:(1922). 1353:See also 1252:Fatimids 1165:Egyptian 1158:Plotinus 1154:Averroes 1135:medicine 1056:Averroes 1036:Avicenna 1032:Ibn Sina 950:logician 946:Alkindus 942:Al-Kindi 848:Damascus 838:Abbasids 824:and the 818:Arabians 812:Umayyads 769:and the 697:Moerbeke 606:Porphyry 592:Porphyry 585:Boethius 577:Boethius 567:Boethius 549:and the 489:Averroes 460:Averroes 439:Politics 422:Boethius 328:Almagest 316:Plutarch 308:Herodian 276:Xenophon 272:Plutarch 260:Diodorus 256:Xenophon 248:Plutarch 223:collapse 153:Moerbeke 113:Crusades 4287:Benelux 4192:Thought 4142:Atheism 4083:Finnish 4059:Culture 4054:Judaism 4016:Eastern 4012:Western 4007:Culture 3941:Paradox 3807:Decline 3768:Science 3644:History 3632:Studies 3615:Cuisine 3603:Periods 3563:Culture 3392:History 3358:Eastern 3353:Western 3304:culture 3089:Scotism 3077:Thomism 2728:Poetics 2637:History 2599:Physics 2591:Physics 2548:Organon 2476: ( 2422:Mimesis 2366:Essence 1885:Long 96 1379:Thomism 1335:at the 1267:in the 994:Al-Razi 970:impasse 958:Islamic 905:Organon 852:Baghdad 831:Abbasid 739:Orvieto 717:Proclus 701:Belgium 652:Ptolemy 601:Isagoge 533:Timaeus 524:Timaeus 449:Physics 371:Abbasid 352:Organon 219:decline 208:Proclus 173:papyrus 123:, many 109:Persian 97:Ptolemy 44:Raphael 4307:CANZUK 4197:Speech 4125:Slavic 4103:Gothic 4078:Celtic 4073:Baltic 3972:Values 3773:Values 3333:Greece 3131:Newman 3124:Modern 3033:Jewish 2683:Ethics 2576:Topics 2446:Philia 2440:Mythos 2314:Lyceum 1570: 1541: 1421: 1291:Toledo 1248:Toledo 1224:Alcuin 1177:Qur'an 1139:Euclid 1108:Sicily 826:Levant 779:Sicily 771:Levant 709:Leuven 648:Euclid 552:Phaedo 359:Syriac 280:Lysias 264:Lucian 262:, and 244:Strabo 107:, and 105:Arabic 101:Syriac 95:(e.g. 87:(e.g. 4462:USMCA 4317:CEFTA 4272:AUKUS 4262:ANZUS 4257:ANZUK 4202:Press 4120:Roman 3785:Sport 3729:Chant 3724:Music 3712:Media 3705:Canon 3651:Dance 3581:Latin 3576:Greek 3422:early 3196:Plato 3161:Smith 3146:Adler 2642:Parts 2539:Works 2498:Telos 2485:ousia 2410:Lexis 2398:Hexis 2343:Arete 2309:Logic 1768:Fryde 1222:monk 1112:Spain 1096:Spain 1002:Plato 966:truth 962:Koran 822:Egypt 775:Spain 767:Egypt 681:Irish 518:Plato 236:Plato 232:Homer 136:Greek 40:Plato 4422:OSCE 4402:NATO 4347:EFTA 4312:CBSS 4297:BSEC 4187:Life 3739:Folk 3620:Diet 3432:late 3427:high 3343:Rome 3302:and 3151:Foot 2785:Lost 1568:ISBN 1539:ISBN 1419:ISBN 1260:1099 1258:and 1256:1091 1183:The 1160:, a 1098:was 886:A.H. 777:and 658:and 594:and 546:Meno 432:and 402:and 365:and 322:and 314:and 290:and 278:and 246:and 234:and 221:and 206:and 165:West 140:Arab 56:The 38:and 4412:OAS 4357:ESA 4352:EPC 4342:EEA 4247:AER 4152:Law 4130:Neo 3678:Law 3598:Art 1254:in 1023:of 850:to 604:by 294:. 282:. 266:. 250:. 238:. 60:to 46:'s 4504:: 4387:G7 4362:EU 2482:, 2124:^ 2094:^ 2082:^ 2066:^ 2043:^ 2029:^ 2017:^ 1951:^ 1921:^ 1899:^ 1831:^ 1794:^ 1761:^ 1731:^ 1688:. 1674:^ 1598:^ 1562:. 1533:. 1483:^ 1471:^ 1397:^ 1141:. 1118:, 1074:. 992:, 729:. 620:. 559:, 462:' 381:. 318:. 274:, 258:, 202:, 198:, 103:, 4014:/ 3292:e 3285:t 3278:v 2488:) 2368:– 2282:e 2275:t 2268:v 2211:. 1593:. 1576:. 1547:. 1519:. 1427:. 1054:( 1034:( 1011:( 944:( 408:( 20:)

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