266:
561:, the root of the Italian word corte 'court'. As such, these clerics would become part of a king's retinue or court, educating the king and his children, paid for by the pope, whilst facilitating the spread of knowledge into the Middle Ages. The church maintained classic scriptures in scrolls and books in numerous scriptoria across Europe, thus preserving the classic knowledge and allowing access to this important information to the European kings. In return, kings were encouraged to build monasteries that would act as orphanages, hospitals and schools, benefiting societies and eventually smoothing the transition from the Middle Ages.
159:. Yet the renaissance of the twelfth century was far more thoroughgoing than those renaissances that preceded in the Carolingian or in the Ottonian periods. Indeed, the Carolingian Renaissance was really more particular to Charlemagne himself, and was really more of a "veneer on a changing society" than a true renaissance springing up from society, and the same might be said of the Ottonian Renaissance. Therefore, some medieval historians have since argued that connecting the term "renaissance" to the two previous periods is a misleading description, and not useful in describing the social changes of the 9th and 10th centuries.
148:(The Great), King of the Saxons from 936 to 973 and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire from 962. Otto was successful in unifying his kingdom and asserting his right to appoint bishops and archbishops throughout his kingdom. Otto's assumption of this ecclesiastical power brought him into close contact with the best educated and most able class of men in his kingdom. Because of this close contact many new reforms were introduced in the Saxon Kingdom and in the Holy Roman Empire. Thus, Otto's reign has been called the
515:
824:
338:
499:
20:
256:
is considered an influential early patron of Gothic architecture and believed that love of beauty brought people closer to God: "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material". Clark calls this "the intellectual background of all the sublime works of art of the next century and in fact
611:
allowed them to aid materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, the
European university put many of these texts at the centre of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid
556:
This scenario changed during the renaissance of the 12th century. For several centuries, popes had been sending clerics to the various kings of Europe. Kings of Europe were typically illiterate. Literate clerics would be specialists of some subject or other, such as music, medicine or history etc.,
247:
wrote that
Western Europe's first "great age of civilisation" was ready to begin around the year 1000. From 1100, he wrote, monumental abbeys and cathedrals were constructed and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics and works belonging to one of the greatest epochs of art and providing stark
294:
The translation of texts from other cultures, especially ancient Greek works, was an important aspect of both this
Twelfth-Century Renaissance and the later Renaissance of the 15th century. It is inaccurate, however, to say that the relevant difference was that Latin scholars of the earlier period
806:
toward the middle of century threw a heavy weight on the side of dialectic ..." at the expense of the letters, literature, oratory, and poetry of the Latin authors. The nascent universities would become
Aristotelean centers displacing the Latin humanist heritage until its final revival by
1078:. The subject matter varied wildly across epic, lyric, and dramatic. Meter was no longer confined to the classical forms and began to diverge into newer schemes. Additionally, the division between religious and secular poetry became smaller. In particular, the
137:, King of the Franks from 768 to 814 and Holy Roman Emperor from 800 to 814. Charlemagne's inclination towards education, which led to the creation of many new churches and schools where students were required to learn Latin and Greek, has been called the
356:
for the first time in many centuries. Crusaders returning to Europe brought numerous small luxuries and souvenirs with them, stimulating a new appetite for trade. The rising
Italian maritime powers such as
802:, the 12th-century Latin revival would not be permanent. While religious opposition to pagan Roman literature existed, Haskins argues that "it was not religion but logic" in particular "Aristotle's
553:, the study of which remained at minimal levels. Only the Christian church maintained copies of these written works, and they were periodically replaced and distributed to other churches.
104:
During the 12th century, Scholasticism emerged, marked by a systematic and rational approach to theology. The movement was strengthened by new Latin translations of ancient and medieval
329:. These were works of Pythagorean and Platonic spirituality and philosophy of far more importance to later philosophical and religious debate than the translations of the 12th century.
133:
The groundwork for the rebirth of learning was laid by the process of political consolidation and centralization of the monarchies of Europe. This process of centralization began with
1074:
The 12th-century renaissance saw a revival of interest in poetry. Writing mostly in their own native languages, contemporary poets produced significantly more work than those of the
115:
and
Canterbury becoming centers of study. Aristotelian logic later gained prominence in emerging universities, displacing Latin literary traditions until revived by Petrarch in the
650:
1023:
became revered as doctors of the Church through using secular study and logic to uphold and buttress existing orthodoxy. One of the main questions during this period was the
751:
The early 12th century saw a revival of the study of Latin classics, prose, and verse before and independent of the revival of Greek philosophy in Latin translation. The
365:
began to monopolize trade between Europe, Muslims, and
Byzantium via the Mediterranean Sea, having developed advanced commercial and financial techniques; cities such as
775:
in the highest regard in philosophy, language, and the humanities. Latin humanists possessed and read virtually all the Latin authors we have today—Ovid, Virgil,
1779:
97:
preserved and expanded upon ancient Greek works, especially those of
Aristotle and Euclid, which were translated into Latin, significantly revitalizing
265:
615:
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of some ancient Greek scientific works, though not of the
435:" re-invigorated the land-based trade routes between China and West Asia that had fallen dormant in the 9th and 10th centuries. Following the
1696:
1085:
These expansions of poetic form contributed to the rise of vernacular literature, which tended to prefer the newer rhythms and structures.
315:
texts, since some of the most significant Greek translations of the 15th century were those by
Mauricio Ficino, including several works of
1890:
467:. While the accounts of Carpini et al were written in Latin as letters to their sponsors, the account of the later Italian traveller
105:
1661:
549:
was based upon the few Latin translations and commentaries on ancient Greek scientific and philosophical texts that remained in the
868:, recognised as the world's oldest continuously operating university, was Europe's centre of legal scholarship during this period.
493:
890:
or "schoolmen" who emphasized a more systematic and rational approach to divine matters. Initially inspired by reconsideration of
1966:
1873:
972:
1983:
1836:
941:
285:
212:
565:
1934:
1669:
1645:
1620:
1600:
1569:
1497:
1472:
533:
had entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties. Apart from depopulation and other factors, most scientific treatises of
94:
1804:
1789:
2117:
604:. Several translations were made of Euclid but no extensive commentary was written until the middle of the 13th century.
98:
895:
573:
439:, the Pope and some European rulers sent clerics as emissaries and/or missionaries to the Mongol court; these included
289:
835:
1819:
1726:
1295:
1051:
216:
101:. During the High Middle Ages, Europe also saw significant technological advancements which spurred economic growth.
2065:
1814:
1689:
82:
860:
was the first step to the revival of Roman legal jurisprudence and the establishment of Roman law as the basis of
623:. But those texts that were available were studied and elaborated, leading to new insights into the nature of the
2204:
1784:
2140:
1900:
1099:
2135:
2125:
1895:
1851:
1809:
269:
70:
roots. These changes paved the way for later achievements such as the literary and artistic movement of the
1951:
1927:
1841:
1831:
953:
736:
444:
2130:
1682:
1558:
The
History of the Renaissance World: From the Rediscovery of Aristotle to the Conquest of Constantinople
1454:
1004:
1988:
1748:
1352:
Jane E. House (Spring 2013). "Learning How Much Twelfth Century Scientists knew and How They Knew It".
940:, the movement was strengthened by increased access to the works of ancient scholars and thinkers from
487:
1338:
Edward Grant, "Science in the Medieval University", in James M. Kittleson and Pamela J. Transue, ed.,
1561:
478:
and later in other popular languages, making it relatively accessible to larger groups of Europeans.
460:
436:
420:
and middlemen. In this period the Germans started colonizing Eastern Europe beyond the Empire, into
1769:
1582:
1246:
861:
111:
The early 12th century saw a revival of Latin classics and literature, with cathedral schools like
2183:
2166:
2075:
1993:
1629:
1075:
991:—became a center of the transmission of these new texts but several early French figures such as
945:
799:
155:
Therefore, the Renaissance of the 12th century has been identified as the third and final of the
138:
1306:
1136:
2091:
1946:
1922:
1885:
1794:
456:
417:
380:
in 1158–1159. Many northern cities of the Holy Roman Empire became Hanseatic cities, including
665:
in Europe, there was increased innovation in means of production, leading to economic growth.
2161:
2070:
2015:
1939:
1846:
1024:
865:
200:
168:
156:
128:
75:
85:, Europe experienced a decline in scientific knowledge. However, increased contact with the
2209:
2171:
2030:
2020:
2010:
1956:
1863:
1713:
1035:
925:
632:
526:
448:
253:
149:
28:
760:
8:
2096:
2038:
1975:
1912:
1753:
1069:
988:
933:
644:
608:
534:
452:
228:
71:
24:
545:, had become unavailable or lost entirely. Philosophical and scientific teaching of the
464:
248:
contrast to the monotonous and cramped conditions of ordinary living during the period.
2101:
2048:
2043:
2003:
1868:
1741:
1273:
1000:
957:
937:
929:
916:
883:
855:
784:
756:
628:
593:
440:
362:
184:
112:
90:
1634:
2058:
2053:
1998:
1917:
1907:
1880:
1858:
1774:
1641:
1616:
1610:
1596:
1565:
1493:
1468:
1291:
1094:
768:
752:
654:
546:
358:
352:
brought large groups of Europeans into contact with the technologies and luxuries of
325:
277:
171:
was the first historian to write extensively about a renaissance that ushered in the
1590:
1366:
Barbara M. Kreutz, "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass,"
2156:
1731:
662:
589:
413:
373:
342:
236:
224:
172:
39:
612:
far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendant."
1826:
1458:
1308:
1138:
1012:
961:
597:
558:
471:, who followed his father and uncle as far as China, was written first in French
296:
220:
1061:
1020:
965:
538:
530:
514:
409:
192:
59:
295:
focused almost entirely on translating and studying Greek and Arabic works of
2198:
1418:
Somfai, Anna (2002), "The Eleventh-Century Shift in the Reception of Plato's
996:
887:
877:
668:
432:
389:
244:
232:
63:
1007:
or obliged to bowdlerize their treatment of sensitive subjects like Plato's
1283:
1031:
949:
920:—the chief works through which the two philosophers were then known to the
620:
320:
188:
116:
55:
619:, an accurate translation of Euclid, or of the scientific advances of the
337:
1799:
1721:
1705:
1057:
1016:
1008:
673:
The Measure of Reality : Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600
581:
519:
304:
249:
179:
was in many respects an age of fresh and vigorous life. The epoch of the
134:
823:
1277:
1065:
1039:
976:
921:
787:, Cicero. The exceptions were few—Tacitus, Livy, Lucretius. In poetry,
764:
569:
550:
468:
308:
300:
257:
has remained the basis of our belief of the value of art until today".
196:
67:
1577:
Benson, Robert L., Giles Constable, and Carol D. Lanham, eds. (1982).
1736:
1340:
Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: Universities in Transition, 1300-1700
907:
899:
723:
684:
627:. The influence of this revival is evident in the scientific work of
601:
585:
396:. Hanseatic cities outside the Holy Roman Empire were, for instance,
376:
was emerged in the 12th century, after the foundation of the city of
353:
208:
47:
405:
377:
235:, on European systems of law, on architecture and sculpture, on the
992:
984:
980:
891:
808:
713:
680:
624:
577:
507:
503:
498:
366:
349:
204:
180:
51:
771:, secretary at Canterbury, became the bishop of Chartres. He held
231:. The 12th century left its signature on higher education, on the
1079:
903:
803:
776:
716:
688:
425:
421:
393:
385:
381:
312:
19:
1011:. Subsequently, scholastic scholars of the 13th century such as
1492:. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 490.
788:
780:
772:
730:
702:
588:, allowed Western Europeans to seek and translate the works of
401:
397:
145:
43:
1674:
1430:, Vol. 65, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1–21
767:
were centers of Latin literature staffed by notable scholars.
719:
aided navigation, attested in Europe in the late 12th century.
510:
and harmonic principles by which God has created the universe.
911:
706:
698:
694:
675:
and other major historians of technology have also noted it.
649:
542:
316:
86:
1490:
The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933-35)
792:
1615:(3 ed.), New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, Inc.,
1435:
1395:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927. Chapter I-IV
23:
New technological discoveries allowed the development of
1373:
1356:. Graduate Center of the City University of New York: 2.
973:
medieval Islamic and Jewish philosophical considerations
742:
The invention of mechanical clock in the 13th century.
733:
can be found on church carvings dating to around 1180.
16:
Period during the High Middle Ages of European history
729:
The West's oldest known depiction of a stern-mounted
653:
Detail of a portrait of Hugh de Provence, painted by
518:
A miniature showing the copying of a manuscript in a
323:, as well as a highly significant translation of the
1342:, Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984, p. 68
1257:
1082:
were noted for profane parodies of religious texts.
144:
A second "renaissance" occurred during the reign of
1467:, Vol. 4, Oxford: Oxford University Press, Ch. 20,
671:described some of this technological revolution in
1633:
1288:How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization
38:was a period of many changes at the outset of the
1670:A bibliography of the twelfth-century renaissance
1258:Irving Woodworth Raymond, Robert Sabatino Lopez.
369:became major centers of this financial industry.
2196:
971:The same avenues (particularly in Spain) spread
1428:Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes
1030:Prominent non-scholastics of the time included
1579:Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century
1313:Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century
1143:Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century
1690:
1351:
506:: medieval scholars sought to understand the
175:starting about 1070. In 1927, he wrote that:
886:developed during this period, championed by
108:, including Avicenna, Maimonides, Averroes.
1609:Hoyt, Robert S.; Chodorow, Stanley (1976),
280:, from the second half of the 13th century.
76:scientific developments of the 17th century
1697:
1683:
1260:Medieval Trade in the Mediterranean World
701:around 1100, and from there it spread to
307:, while the later Renaissance focused on
1465:A History of Philosophy without Any Gaps
1315:. Harvard University Press. p. 471.
1311:; Carol Carol Dana Lanham, eds. (1991).
1266:
1145:. Harvard University Press. p. 471.
1141:; Carol Carol Dana Lanham, eds. (1991).
648:
513:
497:
494:Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe
336:
264:
122:
89:world brought a resurgence of learning.
18:
1595:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1588:
1539:
1526:
1513:
1481:
1453:
1441:
1405:
1234:
1156:
260:
191:of the West, it saw the culmination of
2197:
1592:The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century
1487:
1417:
1393:The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century
286:Latin translations of the 12th century
1678:
1640:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1636:Medieval Technology and Social Change
1628:
1555:
1379:
1280:is a symbol of God's act of Creation.
1124:
791:was universally admired, followed by
726:returned to Europe via Islamic Spain.
332:
1608:
1370:, Vol. 14, No. 3. (July 1973), p.368
1290:, (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005),
1221:
1208:
1195:
1182:
1169:
818:
739:was invented in 12th century France.
584:, as well as increased contact with
437:Mongol incursion into Europe in 1241
746:
239:, on Latin and vernacular poetry...
13:
1664:Renaissance of the Twelfth Century
290:Transmission of the Greek Classics
14:
2221:
1727:Greek scholars in the Renaissance
1655:
1052:Islamic influences on Western art
679:The earliest written record of a
162:
871:
822:
36:Renaissance of the 12th century
1704:
1589:Haskins, Charles Homer (1927),
1549:
1532:
1519:
1506:
1447:
1411:
1398:
1385:
1360:
1345:
1332:
1319:
1300:
1251:
1240:
564:The increased contact with the
404:and the Polish city of Danzig (
274:Recueil des traités de médecine
106:Islamic and Jewish philosophers
83:Western Roman Empire's collapse
1237:, p. viii – introduction)
1227:
1214:
1201:
1188:
1175:
1162:
1149:
1130:
1117:
1100:Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
463:, and other travelers such as
431:In the mid 13th century, the "
227:; and the origin of the first
1:
1662:A brief analysis of Haskins,
1105:
638:
472:
1928:Platonism in the Renaissance
1832:Early Netherlandish painting
1327:Rise of early modern science
1307:Robert Robert Louis Benson;
1262:. Columbia University Press.
1137:Robert Robert Louis Benson;
1110:
954:Toledo School of Translators
814:
445:Giovanni da Pian del Carpini
74:in the 15th century and the
7:
1088:
341:Main trading routes of the
203:; the revival of the Latin
10:
2228:
1837:Dutch and Flemish painting
1780:Central and Eastern Europe
1749:Outline of the Renaissance
1562:W. W. Norton & Company
1556:Bauer, Susan Wise (2013),
1055:
1049:
1003:were either condemned for
987:. France—particularly the
875:
642:
600:, especially the works of
525:After the collapse of the
491:
488:Science in the Middle Ages
485:
481:
283:
243:The English art historian
126:
2149:
2116:
2084:
2029:
1974:
1965:
1762:
1712:
1612:Europe in the Middle Ages
1025:problem of the universals
722:The ancient Greek origin
631:and the neo-Platonism of
557:otherwise known as Roman
461:Giovanni di Monte Corvino
1583:Harvard University Press
1488:Gilson, Etienne (1991).
1247:Civilisation (TV series)
975:, particularly those of
709:during the 12th century.
372:In Northern Europe, the
207:and of Latin poetry and
54:transformations, and an
1391:Charles Homer Haskins.
1076:Carolingian Renaissance
1045:
946:Constantine the African
864:in Western Europe. The
570:Muslim-dominated Iberia
199:; the emergence of the
139:Carolingian Renaissance
2205:12th century in Europe
1368:Technology and Culture
1127:, p. 1 – preface)
942:new Latin translations
658:
522:
511:
457:Giovanni de Marignolli
345:
281:
241:
201:vernacular literatures
195:and the beginnings of
187:, and of the earliest
167:The Harvard professor
31:
2162:Medieval renaissances
1940:Scientific Revolution
1276:in this 13th-century
1056:Further information:
866:University of Bologna
811:in the 14th century.
697:manufacture began in
652:
609:medieval universities
517:
501:
492:Further information:
340:
268:
233:scholastic philosophy
229:European universities
177:
169:Charles Homer Haskins
157:medieval renaissances
129:Medieval renaissances
123:Medieval renaissances
22:
2031:Northern Renaissance
1630:White, Lynn Townsend
1036:Bernard of Clairvaux
633:Bernardus Silvestris
594:Islamic philosophers
527:Western Roman Empire
449:Andrew of Longjumeau
321:Neoplatonist authors
261:Translation movement
150:Ottonian Renaissance
91:Islamic philosophers
29:Canterbury Cathedral
1984:Bergamo and Brescia
1976:Italian Renaissance
1754:Renaissance studies
1529:, pp. 183–185)
1516:, pp. 153–158)
1460:Medieval Philosophy
1382:, pp. 120–121.
1070:Gothic Architecture
989:University of Paris
934:Bernard of Chartres
800:Carolingian revival
645:Medieval technology
607:The development of
535:classical antiquity
453:Odoric of Pordenone
189:bureaucratic states
72:Italian Renaissance
25:Gothic architecture
2102:Spanish Golden Age
1742:Northern Mannerism
1329:2nd ed. p. 180-181
1001:William of Conches
938:William of Conches
884:Christian theology
834:. You can help by
659:
629:Robert Grosseteste
523:
512:
441:William of Rubruck
346:
333:Trade and commerce
282:
254:Abbey of St. Denis
58:revitalization of
32:
2192:
2191:
2112:
2111:
2085:Iberian peninsula
1852:Italian sculpture
1647:978-01950-0-266-9
1622:978-0-1552-4712-3
1602:978-0-6747-6075-2
1571:978-0-3930-5976-2
1499:978-0-268-01740-8
1474:978-0-19-884240-8
1408:, pp. 98–99)
1159:, pp. 98–99)
1095:Continuity thesis
910:'s commentary on
854:The study of the
852:
851:
798:Like the earlier
769:John of Salisbury
753:cathedral schools
655:Tommaso da Modena
547:Early Middle Ages
326:Corpus Hermeticum
278:Gerard of Cremona
223:, and of much of
2217:
2157:Cloak and dagger
1972:
1971:
1842:Italian painting
1732:High Renaissance
1699:
1692:
1685:
1676:
1675:
1651:
1639:
1625:
1605:
1574:
1543:
1536:
1530:
1523:
1517:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1485:
1479:
1477:
1451:
1445:
1439:
1433:
1431:
1422:and Calcidius's
1415:
1409:
1402:
1396:
1389:
1383:
1377:
1371:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1349:
1343:
1336:
1330:
1323:
1317:
1316:
1304:
1298:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1255:
1249:
1244:
1238:
1231:
1225:
1218:
1212:
1205:
1199:
1192:
1186:
1179:
1173:
1166:
1160:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1134:
1128:
1121:
847:
844:
826:
819:
747:Latin literature
663:High Middle Ages
477:
474:
465:Niccolò da Conti
374:Hanseatic League
343:Hanseatic League
237:liturgical drama
225:Greek philosophy
221:Arabic additions
173:High Middle Ages
99:European science
40:High Middle Ages
27:, shown here at
2227:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2195:
2194:
2193:
2188:
2145:
2108:
2080:
2025:
1961:
1874:Northern Europe
1758:
1708:
1703:
1658:
1648:
1623:
1603:
1572:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1537:
1533:
1524:
1520:
1511:
1507:
1500:
1486:
1482:
1475:
1452:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1416:
1412:
1403:
1399:
1390:
1386:
1378:
1374:
1365:
1361:
1350:
1346:
1337:
1333:
1324:
1320:
1309:Giles Constable
1305:
1301:
1281:
1271:
1267:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1241:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1215:
1206:
1202:
1193:
1189:
1180:
1176:
1167:
1163:
1154:
1150:
1139:Giles Constable
1135:
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830:This section
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537:, written in
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245:Kenneth Clark
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217:Greek science
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185:rise of towns
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30:
26:
21:
2177:12th century
2176:
1770:Architecture
1663:
1635:
1611:
1591:
1578:
1560:, New York:
1557:
1550:Bibliography
1540:Haskins 1927
1534:
1527:Haskins 1927
1521:
1514:Haskins 1927
1508:
1489:
1483:
1464:
1459:
1449:
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1406:Haskins 1927
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1367:
1362:
1353:
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1339:
1334:
1326:
1321:
1312:
1302:
1287:
1284:Thomas Woods
1268:
1259:
1253:
1242:
1235:Haskins 1927
1229:
1216:
1203:
1190:
1177:
1164:
1157:Haskins 1927
1151:
1142:
1132:
1119:
1084:
1073:
1032:Peter Damian
1029:
970:
950:Papal States
915:
896:commentaries
881:
856:
853:
840:
836:adding to it
831:
797:
750:
672:
667:
660:
616:
614:
606:
563:
555:
524:
430:
371:
347:
324:
293:
273:
242:
178:
166:
154:
143:
132:
117:14th century
110:
103:
80:
62:with strong
56:intellectual
35:
33:
2210:Renaissance
2184:Reenactment
2167:Carolingian
1800:Plateresque
1722:Renaissance
1706:Renaissance
1325:Toby Huff,
1058:Ars antiqua
1017:Bonaventure
888:scholastics
737:Dry compass
661:During the
582:Reconquista
520:scriptorium
476: 1300
305:mathematics
250:Abbot Suger
219:, with its
135:Charlemagne
2199:Categories
2141:Structures
1947:Technology
1923:Philosophy
1886:Literature
1805:Portuguese
1424:Commentary
1380:White 1964
1278:manuscript
1125:Bauer 2013
1106:References
1066:Gothic Art
1050:See also:
1040:Victorines
1038:, and the
1009:world soul
977:Maimonides
930:Chartrians
922:Latin West
765:Canterbury
639:Technology
598:scientists
551:Latin West
469:Marco Polo
313:historical
301:philosophy
95:scientists
68:scientific
2136:Humanists
2126:Composers
1967:By region
1847:Sculpture
1795:Palladian
1737:Mannerism
1444:, Ch. 14.
1222:Hoyt 1976
1209:Hoyt 1976
1196:Hoyt 1976
1183:Hoyt 1976
1170:Hoyt 1976
1111:Citations
926:St Anselm
908:Calcidius
900:Aristotle
862:civil law
843:July 2013
815:Roman law
804:New Logic
724:astrolabe
685:Yorkshire
617:Mechanika
602:Aristotle
586:Byzantium
508:geometric
418:factories
354:Byzantium
209:Roman law
183:, of the
48:political
2172:Ottonian
2092:Portugal
2076:Scotland
1994:Lombardy
1989:Florence
1913:Medicine
1864:Humanism
1820:Venetian
1763:By field
1632:(1964).
1457:(2019),
1089:See also
1080:Goliards
993:Roscelin
985:Averroes
981:Avicenna
892:Boethius
809:Petrarch
757:Chartres
714:magnetic
683:is from
681:windmill
625:universe
590:Hellenic
578:Crusades
504:Geometer
502:God the
414:Novgorod
367:Florence
350:Crusades
309:literary
213:recovery
205:classics
181:Crusades
113:Chartres
52:economic
2150:Related
2131:Figures
2049:Germany
2039:England
1957:Warfare
1952:Theatre
1935:Science
1901:Spanish
1815:Spanish
1714:General
1420:Timaeus
1274:compass
958:Castile
948:in the
917:Timaeus
777:Terence
761:Orleans
717:compass
689:England
657:in 1352
482:Science
426:Silesia
422:Prussia
394:Rostock
386:Stettin
382:Hamburg
270:Al-Razi
252:of the
87:Islamic
2071:Poland
2054:Saxony
2044:France
2021:Venice
2016:Urbino
2011:Sicily
2004:Papacy
1896:French
1869:France
1810:Purism
1785:French
1644:
1619:
1599:
1568:
1496:
1471:
1294:
1068:, and
1019:, and
1005:heresy
999:, and
983:, and
952:, the
857:Digest
789:Virgil
785:Seneca
781:Horace
773:Cicero
763:, and
731:rudder
703:France
580:, the
576:, the
410:Bergen
408:). In
406:Gdańsk
402:London
398:Bruges
390:Bremen
378:LĂĽbeck
363:Venice
211:; the
197:Gothic
146:Otto I
44:social
2118:Lists
2097:Spain
2059:Weser
1918:Music
1908:Magic
1891:Dutch
1881:Latin
1859:Dance
1775:Brick
1354:Folio
932:like
912:Plato
707:Italy
699:Spain
695:Paper
543:Latin
539:Greek
359:Genoa
317:Plato
1999:Rome
1642:ISBN
1617:ISBN
1597:ISBN
1566:ISBN
1494:ISBN
1469:ISBN
1292:ISBN
1272:The
1046:Arts
936:and
928:and
924:—by
906:and
793:Ovid
712:The
705:and
596:and
592:and
572:and
424:and
412:and
392:and
361:and
319:and
311:and
303:and
288:and
93:and
66:and
50:and
34:The
1827:Art
1426:",
1027:.
964:in
956:in
944:by
914:'s
902:'s
898:of
894:'s
838:.
755:at
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541:or
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2201::
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979:,
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