Rationalism - Knowledge

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vast majority of its activities consist of unconscious appraisals and emotions. The significance of emotions in decision-making has generally been ignored by rationalism, according to these critics. Moreover, emotional choice theorists contend that the rationalist paradigm has difficulty incorporating emotions into its models, because it cannot account for the social nature of emotions. Even though emotions are felt by individuals, psychologists and sociologists have shown that emotions cannot be isolated from the social environment in which they arise. Emotions are inextricably intertwined with people's social norms and identities, which are typically outside the scope of standard rationalist accounts. Emotional choice theory seeks to capture not only the social but also the physiological and dynamic character of emotions. It represents a unitary action model to organize, explain, and predict the ways in which emotions shape decision-making.

82: 1050:. The two theses go their separate ways when describing how that knowledge is gained. As the name, and the rationale, suggests, the Innate Knowledge thesis claims knowledge is simply part of our rational nature. Experiences can trigger a process that allows this knowledge to come into our consciousness, but the experiences do not provide us with the knowledge itself. The knowledge has been with us since the beginning and the experience simply brought into focus, in the same way a photographer can bring the background of a picture into focus by changing the aperture of the lens. The background was always there, just not in focus. 2255:, free will, and the immortality of the human soul. Kant referred to these objects as "The Thing in Itself" and goes on to argue that their status as objects beyond all possible experience by definition means we cannot know them. To the empiricist, he argued that while it is correct that experience is fundamentally necessary for human knowledge, reason is necessary for processing that experience into coherent thought. He therefore concludes that both reason and experience are necessary for human knowledge. In the same way, Kant also argued that it was wrong to regard thought as mere analysis. "In Kant's views, 1173:

which marked out the figure of Hercules rather than other figures, this stone would be more determined thereto, and Hercules would be as it were in some manner innate in it, although labour would be needed to uncover the veins, and to clear them by polishing, and by cutting away what prevents them from appearing. It is in this way that ideas and truths are innate in us, like natural inclinations and dispositions, natural habits or potentialities, and not like activities, although these potentialities are always accompanied by some activities which correspond to them, though they are often imperceptible."

54: 1193:, argue that the two theses are distinct from one another. As with the other theses covered under the umbrella of rationalism, the more types and greater number of concepts a philosopher claims to be innate, the more controversial and radical their position; "the more a concept seems removed from experience and the mental operations we can perform on experience the more plausibly it may be claimed to be innate. Since we do not experience perfect triangles but do experience pains, our concept of the former is a more promising candidate for being innate than our concept of the latter. 1207: 1941: 1063:. Here, Plato asks about inquiry; how do we gain knowledge of a theorem in geometry? We inquire into the matter. Yet, knowledge by inquiry seems impossible. In other words, "If we already have the knowledge, there is no place for inquiry. If we lack the knowledge, we don't know what we are seeking and cannot recognize it when we find it. Either way we cannot gain knowledge of the theorem by inquiry. Yet, we do know some theorems." The Innate Knowledge thesis offers a solution to this 982:

are not sufficient to establish the universal necessity of this same truth, for it does not follow that what happened before will happen in the same way again. … From which it appears that necessary truths, such as we find in pure mathematics, and particularly in arithmetic and geometry, must have principles whose proof does not depend on instances, nor consequently on the testimony of the senses, although without the senses it would never have occurred to us to think of them…

9258: 5163: 9264: 7906: 9270: 9927: 3561:"Spinoza, "God-Intoxicated Man"; Three Books Which Mark the Three Hundredth Anniversary of the Philosopher's Birth 'Blessed Spinoza. A Biography'. By Lewis Browne. 319 pp. New York: Macmillan. 'Spinoza. Liberator of God and Man'. By Benjamin De Casseres, 145 pp. New York: E. Wickham Sweetland. 'Spinoza'. By Frederick Kettner. Introduction by Nicholas Roerich, New Era Library. 255 pp. New York: Roerich Museum Press. 'Spinoza'" 1281: 9939: 7893: 5151: 2216: 68: 1262:, which bears his name, and for discovering the mathematical relationship between the length of strings on lute and the pitches of the notes. Pythagoras "believed these harmonies reflected the ultimate nature of reality. He summed up the implied metaphysical rationalism in the words 'All is number'. It is probable that he had caught the rationalist's vision, later seen by 2238:, and set the terms by which all subsequent thinkers have had to grapple. He argued that human perception structures natural laws, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to hold a major influence in contemporary thought, especially in fields such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, and aesthetics. 1723:, these dreams cannot provide persons with knowledge. Also, since conscious sense experience can be the cause of illusions, then sense experience itself can be doubtable. As a result, Descartes deduced that a rational pursuit of truth should doubt every belief about sensory reality. He elaborated these beliefs in such works as 1904:, because the rejection of their visions forced him to arrive at his own solution. Monads are the fundamental unit of reality, according to Leibniz, constituting both inanimate and animate objects. These units of reality represent the universe, though they are not subject to the laws of causality or space (which he called " 3649: 1889:; he is also considered to be one of the last "universal geniuses". He did not develop his system, however, independently of these advances. Leibniz rejected Cartesian dualism and denied the existence of a material world. In Leibniz's view there are infinitely many simple substances, which he called " 1710:

Descartes thought that only knowledge of eternal truths – including the truths of mathematics, and the epistemological and metaphysical foundations of the sciences – could be attained by reason alone; other knowledge, the knowledge of physics, required experience of the

2251:. In it he argued that there were fundamental problems with both rationalist and empiricist dogma. To the rationalists he argued, broadly, that pure reason is flawed when it goes beyond its limits and claims to know those things that are necessarily beyond the realm of every possible experience: the 767:

In the past, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, the term 'rationalist' was often used to refer to free thinkers of an anti-clerical and anti-religious outlook, and for a time the word acquired a distinctly pejorative force (thus in 1670 Sanderson spoke disparagingly of 'a mere rationalist,

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Even then, the distinction between rationalists and empiricists was drawn at a later period and would not have been recognized by the philosophers involved. Also, the distinction between the two philosophies is not as clear-cut as is sometimes suggested; for example, Descartes and Locke have similar

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Modern English textbooks and translations prefer "Theory of Forms" to "Theory of Ideas," but the latter has a long and respected tradition starting with Cicero and continuing in German philosophy until present, and some English philosophers prefer this in English too. See W. D. Ross, Plato's Theory

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i.e., prior to any kind of experience on the matter. The simple meaning is that doubting one's existence, in and of itself, proves that an "I" exists to do the thinking. In other words, doubting one's own doubting is absurd. This was, for Descartes, an irrefutable principle upon which to ground all

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Although the three great Greek philosophers disagreed with one another on specific points, they all agreed that rational thought could bring to light knowledge that was self-evident – information that humans otherwise could not know without the use of reason. After Aristotle's death,

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The senses, although they are necessary for all our actual knowledge, are not sufficient to give us the whole of it, since the senses never give anything but instances, that is to say particular or individual truths. Now all the instances which confirm a general truth, however numerous they may be,

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is a conscious and reflective process based on thoughts and beliefs. It presumes that people decide on the basis of calculation and deliberation. However, cumulative research in neuroscience suggests that only a small part of the brain's activities operate at the level of conscious reflection. The

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in the language of the philosophers. For if the soul were like those blank tablets, truths would be in us in the same way as the figure of Hercules is in a block of marble, when the marble is completely indifferent whether it receives this or some other figure. But if there were veins in the stone

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is knowable in this thesis. Naturally, the more subjects the rationalists claim to be knowable by the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the more certain they are of their warranted beliefs, and the more strictly they adhere to the infallibility of intuition, the more controversial their truths or claims

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At its core, rationalism consists of three basic claims. For people to consider themselves rationalists, they must adopt at least one of these three claims: the intuition/deduction thesis, the innate knowledge thesis, or the innate concept thesis. In addition, a rationalist can choose to adopt the

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While for Spinoza all is God and all is Nature, the active/passive dualism enables us to restore, if we wish, something more like the traditional terms. Natura Naturans is the most God-like side of God, eternal, unchanging, and invisible, while Natura Naturata is the most Nature-like side of God,

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that are so fundamentally true that denying them causes one to fall into contradiction. The rationalists had such a high confidence in reason that empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain certain truths – in other words, "there are significant

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when he says, "Among my ideas, some appear to be innate, some to be adventitious, and others to have been invented by me. My understanding of what a thing is, what truth is, and what thought is, seems to derive simply from my own nature. But my hearing a noise, as I do now, or seeing the sun, or

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In addition to different subjects, rationalists sometimes vary the strength of their claims by adjusting their understanding of the warrant. Some rationalists understand warranted beliefs to be beyond even the slightest doubt; others are more conservative and understand the warrant to be belief

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Rationalists also have different understanding and claims involving the connection between intuition and truth. Some rationalists claim that intuition is infallible and that anything we intuit to be true is as such. More contemporary rationalists accept that intuition is not always a source of

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logic and its use in argument. Aristotle defines syllogism as "a discourse in which certain (specific) things having been supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so." Despite this very general definition, Aristotle limits himself to

1745:) can be classified as knowledge. These truths are gained "without any sensory experience," according to Descartes. Truths that are attained by reason are broken down into elements that intuition can grasp, which, through a purely deductive process, will result in clear truths about reality. 3451:

Spinoza, a Dutch Jewish thinker of the 17th century, not only preached a philosophy of tolerance and benevolence but actually succeeded in living it. He was reviled in his own day and long afterward for his supposed atheism, yet even his enemies were forced to admit that he lived a saintly

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knowledge or experiential belief characterized by its immediacy; a form of rational insight. We simply "see" something in such a way as to give us a warranted belief. Beyond that, the nature of intuition is hotly debated. In the same way, generally speaking, deduction is the process of

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For example, when we combine both concepts, we can intuit that the number three is prime and that it is greater than two. We then deduce from this knowledge that there is a prime number greater than two. Thus, it can be said that intuition and deduction combined to provide us with

795:, that is to say, through experience; either through the external senses or through such inner sensations as pain and gratification. The empiricist essentially believes that knowledge is based on or derived directly from experience. The rationalist believes we come to knowledge 594:

Different degrees of emphasis on this method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to the more extreme position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge". Given a

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Forms (usually given a capital F) were properties or essences of things, treated as non-material abstract, but substantial, entities. They were eternal, changeless, supremely real, and independent of ordinary objects that had their being and properties by 'participating' in

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s next move would normally be to provide justification for the claim. The precise method one uses to provide justification is where the lines are drawn between rationalism and empiricism (among other philosophical views). Much of the debate in these fields are focused on

1803:. Spinoza's philosophy is a system of ideas constructed upon basic building blocks with an internal consistency with which he tried to answer life's major questions and in which he proposed that "God exists only philosophically." He was heavily influenced by Descartes, 574:; on the other hand, the empiricists emphasized that knowledge is not primarily innate and is best gained by careful observation of the physical world outside the mind, namely through sensory experiences. Rationalists asserted that certain principles exist in 1231:

Although rationalism in its modern form post-dates antiquity, philosophers from this time laid down the foundations of rationalism. In particular, the understanding that we may be aware of knowledge available only through the use of rational thought.

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Adventitious ideas are those concepts that we gain through sense experiences, ideas such as the sensation of heat, because they originate from outside sources; transmitting their own likeness rather than something else and something you simply cannot

3680:"Tribute to Spinoza Paid by Educators; Dr. Robinson Extols Character of Philosopher, 'True to the Eternal Light Within Him.' Hailed as 'Great Rebel'; De Casseres Stresses Individualism of Man Whose Tercentenary Is Celebrated at Meeting" 3517:

Spinoza's Ethics is a recent addition to Cambridge's Introductions to Key Philosophical Texts, a series developed for the purpose of helping readers with no specific background knowledge to begin the study of important works of Western

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certain knowledge – thus allowing for the possibility of a deceiver who might cause the rationalist to intuit a false proposition in the same way a third party could cause the rationalist to have perceptions of

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that is to say in plain English an atheist of the late edition...'). The use of the label 'rationalist' to characterize a world outlook which has no place for the supernatural is becoming less popular today; terms like '

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have been willing to accept this thesis for describing the relationships among our own concepts. In this sense, empiricists argue that we are allowed to intuit and deduce truths from knowledge that has been obtained

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once wrote, "you can see that it is true just lying on your couch. You don't have to get up off your couch and go outside and examine the way things are in the physical world. You don't have to do any science."

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Between both philosophies, the issue at hand is the fundamental source of human knowledge and the proper techniques for verifying what we think we know. Whereas both philosophies are under the umbrella of

3531:"Einstein Believes in "Spinoza's God"; Scientist Defines His Faith in Reply, to Cablegram From Rabbi Here. Sees a Divine Order But Says Its Ruler Is Not Concerned "Wit Fates and Actions of Human Beings."" 685:, whose attempts to grapple with the epistemological and metaphysical problems raised by Descartes led to a development of the fundamental approach of rationalism. Both Spinoza and Leibniz asserted that, 914:. When you claim some truths are innately known to us, one must reject skepticism in relation to those truths. Especially for rationalists who adopt the Intuition/Deduction thesis, the idea of epistemic 842:. Of these four terms, the term that has been most widely used and discussed by the early 21st century is "warrant". Loosely speaking, justification is the reason that someone (probably) holds a belief. 3590:"Spinoza's First Biography Is Recovered; The Oldest Biography of Spinoza Edited with Translations, Introduction, Annotations, &c., by A. Wolf. 196 pp. New York: Lincoln Macveagh. The Dial Press" 905:

by intuition and deduction or have innately is superior to any knowledge gained by sense experience". In other words, this thesis claims reason is superior to experience as a source for knowledge.

3620:"The Unique and Powerful Vision of Baruch Spinoza; Professor Wolfson's Long-Awaited Book Is a Work of Illuminating Scholarship. (Book review) 'The Philosophy of Spinoza. By Henry Austryn Wolfson" 789:. Taken very broadly, these views are not mutually exclusive, since a philosopher can be both rationalist and empiricist. Taken to extremes, the empiricist view holds that all ideas come to us 1411:

viewed Rationalists as a threat, labeling them as those who "while admitting revelation, reject from the word of God whatever, in their private judgment, is inconsistent with human reason."

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for being out of touch with reality. James also criticized rationalism for representing the universe as a closed system, which contrasts with his view that the universe is an open system.

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Descartes therefore argued, as a result of his method, that reason alone determined knowledge, and that this could be done independently of the senses. For instance, his famous dictum,

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as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification", often in contrast to other possible sources of knowledge such as

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tends to crop up. This is the view that we know some truths without basing our belief in them on any others and that we then use this foundational knowledge to know more truths.

570:. On the one hand, the rationalists emphasized that knowledge is primarily innate and the intellect, the inner faculty of the human mind, can therefore directly grasp or derive 1156:

defends the idea of innate concepts by suggesting the mind plays a role in determining the nature of concepts, to explain this, he likens the mind to a block of marble in the

1266:(1564–1642), of a world governed throughout by mathematically formulable laws". It has been said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher, or lover of wisdom. 631:

domains of knowledge such as mathematics, combined with the emphasis of obtaining knowledge through the use of rational faculties (commonly rejecting, for example, direct

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that are innate to us, could not have been gained by us through sense experience." In short, this thesis claims that experience cannot provide what we gain from reason.

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The name of this aspect of Plato's thought is not modern and has not been extracted from certain dialogues by modern scholars. The term was used at least as early as

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was later softened by the adoption of pluralistic reasoning methods practicable regardless of religious or irreligious ideology. In this regard, the philosopher

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Rationalists often adopt similar stances on other aspects of philosophy. Most rationalists reject skepticism for the areas of knowledge they claim are knowable

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This is why I have taken as an illustration a block of veined marble, rather than a wholly uniform block or blank tablets, that is to say what is called

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Similar to the Innate Knowledge thesis, the Innate Concept thesis suggests that some concepts are simply part of our rational nature. These concepts are

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in nature and sense experience is irrelevant to determining the nature of these concepts (though, sense experience can help bring the concepts to our

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Rationalism – as an appeal to human reason as a way of obtaining knowledge – has a philosophical history dating from

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Rationalism has become a rarer label of philosophers today; rather many different kinds of specialised rationalisms are identified. For example,

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claim of Indispensability of Reason and or the claim of Superiority of Reason, although one can be a rationalist without adopting either thesis.

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Since the Enlightenment, rationalism is usually associated with the introduction of mathematical methods into philosophy as seen in the works of

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Dutch Cartesianism and the Birth of Philosophy of Science: A Reappraisal of the Function of Philosophy from Regius to 's Gravesande, 1640–1750

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By injecting different subjects into the Intuition/Deduction thesis, we are able to generate different arguments. Most rationalists agree

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Heidegger (2002) p. 76 "Descartes... that which he himself founded... modern (and that means, at the same time, Western) metaphysics."

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concepts do exist, but if they are to lead to the amplification of knowledge, they must be brought into relation with empirical data".

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Audi, Robert, The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999, p. 771.

2572: 2009: 1312:(or the Theory of Ideas) which asserts that the highest and most fundamental kind of reality is not the material world of change 9763: 3802: 2651: 8391: 5199: 1981: 801: – through the use of logic – and is thus independent of sensory experience. In other words, as 7605: 1150:, are those ideas we have as a result of mental processes that are beyond what experience can directly or indirectly provide. 8969: 5814: 4780: 3221: 2271:

has appropriated the terms "rationalist expressivism" and "rationalist pragmatism" as labels for aspects of his programme in

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Descartes was the first of the modern rationalists and has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy.' Much subsequent

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tradition. Many of Spinoza's ideas continue to vex thinkers today and many of his principles, particularly regarding the

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sect also incorporated rationalism into their movement. One notable event in the Western timeline was the philosophy of

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Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the axioms of

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See, for example, David D. Franks (2014), "Emotions and Neurosociology," in Jan E. Stets and Jonathan H. Turner, eds.,

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Leibniz was the last major figure of seventeenth-century rationalism who contributed heavily to other fields such as

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Pythagoras was one of the first Western philosophers to stress rationalist insight. He is often revered as a great

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Western rationalistic thought was generally characterized by its application to theology, such as in the works of

1189:), argue that the Innate Knowledge thesis and the Innate Concept thesis are the same. Other philosophers, such as 9703: 9522: 9064: 8999: 8044: 7818: 5840: 4973: 3863:

The Rationalist's Guide to the Galaxy: Superintelligent AI and the Geeks Who Are Trying to Save Humanity's Future

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The Innate Knowledge thesis is similar to the Intuition/Deduction thesis in the regard that both theses claim

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who attempted to merge Greek rationalism and Christian revelation in the thirteenth-century. Generally, the

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into the category of things knowable by intuition and deduction. Furthermore, some rationalists also claim

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have described themselves as "rationalists." The term has also been used in this way by critics such as

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feeling the fire, comes from things which are located outside me, or so I have hitherto judged. Lastly,

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derive the rest of all possible knowledge. Notable philosophers who held this view most clearly were

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First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.

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First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.

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First published August 19, 2004; substantive revision March 31, 2013 cited on May 20, 2013.

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Outside of academic philosophy, some participants in the internet communities surrounding

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From Descartes to Hume: Continental Metaphysics and the Development of Modern Philosophy

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ways in which our concepts and knowledge are gained independently of sense experience".

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58. Burkert attempted to discredit this ancient tradition, but it has been defended by

2451: 2381: 1777:"). This crucial distinction would be left unresolved and lead to what is known as the 1720: 1704: 1670: 1656: 1501: 1381: 1210:

Detail of Pythagoras with a tablet of ratios, numbers sacred to the Pythagoreans, from

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knowledge – we gained this knowledge independently of sense experience.

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History of Rationalism Embracing a Survey of the Present State of Protestant Theology

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Plato held rational insight to a very high standard, as is seen in his works such as

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This thesis targets a problem with the nature of inquiry originally postulated by

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is knowable by applying the intuition and deduction. Some go further to include

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Meditations on First Philosophy With Selections from the Objections and Replies

2411: 2268: 2198: 2175: 2050: 1799:

is a systematic, logical, rational philosophy developed in seventeenth-century

1796: 1646: 1484: 1404: 1221: 802: 732: 678: 409: 73: 6905: 6680: 9958: 9808: 9663: 9607: 9562: 9442: 9384: 9298: 9247: 9232: 9094: 8979: 8894: 8839: 8699: 8619: 8514: 8364: 8357: 8250: 8203: 8096: 7952: 7519: 7431: 7361: 7103: 6893: 6827: 6784: 6653: 6278: 6064: 6046: 5549: 5489: 5454: 5389: 5364: 5359: 5319: 5289: 5086: 5021: 4993: 4921: 4650: 4565: 4251: 4110: 4102: 4022: 3836: 3708: 2966: 2376: 2371: 2303: 2229: 2079: 2032: 1932: 1882: 1808: 1247: 1097: 1068: 571: 429: 414: 193: 178: 148: 7921: 4242: 3471:"God Exists, Philosophically (review of "Spinoza: A Life" by Steven Nadler)" 3121: 9881: 9723: 9668: 9341: 9129: 8929: 8834: 8680: 8654: 8563: 8245: 8233: 8181: 8141: 8136: 8000: 7995: 7550: 7540: 7499: 7479: 7251: 7214: 7173: 7059: 7009: 6670: 6648: 6626: 6573: 6541: 6413: 6273: 6184: 5980: 5633: 5564: 5409: 5279: 5264: 5208: 5131: 5111: 5066: 5041: 5031: 5003: 4933: 4891: 4765: 4719: 4690: 4670: 4212:

Descartes and the Dutch: Early Reactions to Cartesian Philosophy, 1637–1650

2318: 2291: 1866: 1551: 1459: 1225: 874: 831: 823: 819: 811: 524: 104: 3900:"The Wide Angle: Understanding TESCREAL — Silicon Valley's Rightward Turn" 3728: 2878:"rationalism | Definition, Types, History, Examples, & Descartes" 2313:

criticize rationalism by drawing on new findings from emotion research in

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Leibniz developed his theory of monads in response to both Descartes and

1874: 1862: 1833: 1564: 1400: 1357: 1168: 1009: 1001: 839: 835: 776:' seem largely to have taken its place. But the old usage still survives. 773: 752: 694: 587: 579: 540: 314: 289: 163: 143: 38: 4302: 3505: 865:

the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as

9906: 9728: 9379: 9207: 8600: 8588: 8558: 8524: 8464: 8146: 7391: 7219: 7168: 7158: 7029: 6933: 6878: 6685: 6665: 6531: 6298: 6212: 6041: 5988: 5952: 5856: 5723: 5703: 5554: 5529: 5494: 5349: 5314: 5299: 5274: 5244: 5008: 4737: 4728: 4715: 4459: 4422: 4246: 4015: 2959: 2568: 2431: 2386: 2314: 2235: 2160: 2046: 1890: 1824: 1812: 1811:, as well as theologians in the Jewish philosophical tradition such as 1496: 1396: 1241: 1186: 1178: 1147: 1143: 1123: 987: 786: 744: 740: 736: 728: 699: 659: 632: 608: 600: 596: 567: 516: 424: 284: 208: 198: 183: 158: 9150: 5162: 3400: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2500: 1707:

is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day.

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The Secret Societies of All Ages & Countries (Two Volumes in One)

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nature of much of philosophical enquiry, the awareness of apparently

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This article is about the philosophical concept. For other uses, see

6631: 4181:

The Rationalists: Critical Essays on Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz

4148:. (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005) 3966:

Emotional Choices: How the Logic of Affect Shapes Coercive Diplomacy

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Plato uses many different words for what is traditionally called

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Fraenkel, Carlos; Perinetti, Dario; Smith, Justin E. H. (eds.):

9850: 9457: 8959: 7128: 7049: 6779: 6438: 6428: 6126: 6028: 5628: 5177: 4560: 3499: 3346:. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. 2941: 1804: 1800: 1742: 1181:(who is considered one of the most influential thinkers of the 1139: 1005: 870: 827: 723:, historically emphasized a "politics of reason" centered upon 583: 544: 528: 329: 319: 264: 2748: 2746: 2705: 1201: 9678: 8924: 8914: 8909: 8381: 8376: 6944: 6606: 5892: 5825: 5728: 5374: 3067: 3012: 1870: 1716: 1317: 1284: 1275: 1054: 866: 575: 548: 324: 4085:, Oxford, 1994. Paperback edition with new Chronology, 1996. 2780: 2778: 2582: 2580: 1765:, distinguishing between the substances of the human body (" 1341:'s main contribution to rationalist thinking was the use of 9054: 4439: 3281: 2743: 1770: 1761:

forms of other knowledge. Descartes posited a metaphysical

1301: 1114: 1059: 279: 822:, this theory attempts to understand the justification of 6789: 3701: 3041:

in German and Latin translations (Cicero). These include

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Bourke, Vernon J., "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962).

1815:. But his work was in many respects a departure from the 4214:. (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1992) 2245:", and he first laid out these views in his famous work 1067:. By claiming that knowledge is already with us, either 9039: 4096:

Spinoza and Dutch Cartesianism: Philosophy and Theology

3203: 1754:

or "I think, therefore I am", is a conclusion reached

3953:

The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling

3729:"Immanuel Kant (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" 3502:"Spinoza's Ethics: An Introduction, by Steven Nadler" 3369:

Lisa Montanarelli (book reviewer) (January 8, 2006).

958:

to reach a logically certain conclusion. Using valid

635:) have made rationalist themes very prevalent in the 599:

understanding of reason, rationalism is identical to

4169:. (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1981) 4055: 3122:"Plato FAQ: "Let no one ignorant of geometry enter"" 2302:

Rationalism was criticized by American psychologist

1908:"). Leibniz, therefore, introduced his principle of 4091:(1962), "Rationalism," p. 263 in Runes (1962). 3955:, 3rd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1831:admitted that he found this concept confusing. His 1134:away. Ideas invented by us, such as those found in 4139:The Rationalists: Between Tradition and Innovation 2806: 697:. On the other hand, Leibniz admitted in his book 693:for human beings except in specific areas such as 4060:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 3677: 9956: 4188:The Rationalists: Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz 3468: 3433: 2813:(revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. 1912:to account for apparent causality in the world. 1850: 4134:. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012) 4200:, Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ. 4183:. (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999) 4151:Huenemann, Charles; Gennaro, Rocco J. (eds.): 3500:Michael LeBuffe (book reviewer) (2006-11-05). 3495: 3493: 3491: 3429: 3427: 3425: 3398: 2622:Oakeshott, Michael,"Rationalism in Politics," 1346:categorical syllogisms which consist of three 9166: 7951: 7937: 5841: 5193: 4318: 4127:Förster, Eckart; Melamed, Yitzhak Y. (eds.): 3011:, who called it (Plato's) "Theory of Forms:" 2975:Pythagoras: His Life, Teaching, And Influence 2234:Kant is one of the central figures of modern 1823:, have implications for modern approaches to 1784: 1678: 1419: 1316:, but rather the abstract, non-material (but 921: 539:. More formally, rationalism is defined as a 496: 2555: 2553: 1915: 4155:. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) 4056:Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). 3617: 3488: 3422: 3392: 2539: 2537: 2262: 1235: 1202:Rationalist philosophy in Western antiquity 562:, rationalism (sometimes here equated with 558:In a major philosophical debate during the 9173: 9159: 7944: 7930: 5848: 5834: 5200: 5186: 4325: 4311: 3917: 3504:. University of Notre Dame. Archived from 3328: 3276: 3209: 2804: 2649:, May 2006, vol. 43 (no. 5–6), pp. 863–878 2608: 2606: 1939: 1685: 1671: 1327: 1028: 901:: '"The knowledge we gain in subject area 887:: "The knowledge we gain in subject area, 503: 489: 4981: 4944:Relationship between religion and science 4332: 4098:. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015) 3558: 3464: 3462: 3460: 2645:Boyd, Richard, "The Value of Civility?," 2550: 2003:Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason 1113:postulates three classifications for our 3647: 2534: 1975: Question: What Is Enlightenment? 1414: 1395:, and Jewish philosopher and theologian 1367: 1279: 1205: 1078: 1013:and the more radical their rationalism. 977:, a prominent German philosopher, says, 962:, we can deduce from intuited premises. 9180: 4101: 3678:Social News Books (November 25, 1932). 3671: 3641: 3611: 3582: 3552: 3523: 3362: 2838:René Descartes AT VII 37–38; CSM II 26. 2603: 2573:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 666:views about the nature of human ideas. 27:Epistemological view centered on reason 14: 9957: 4046:The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy 3559:Hutchison, Percy (November 20, 1932). 3457: 3334: 2241:Kant named his brand of epistemology " 1982:Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals 1269: 780: 743: – the latter aspect's 9154: 7925: 7587: 6329: 5867: 5829: 5181: 4306: 4275: 4052:, Cambridge, 1995. 2nd edition, 1999. 3951:See Arlie Russell Hochschild (2012), 3942:, vol. 2. New York: Springer, p. 267. 3940:Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions 3923: 3707:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 3403:. History of Philosophy As I See It. 3196:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 3174:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: 2784:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2752:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2716:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2024:On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from 885:The indispensability of reason thesis 785:Rationalism is often contrasted with 9975:Philosophical schools and traditions 3822: 3247: 3241: 3079:"in itself." See Christian Schäfer: 3014:Πλάτων ἐν τῇ περὶ τῶν ἰδεῶν ὑπολήψει 2973:(1966), pp. 97–102, and C. Riedweg, 2562: 1126:and the like are my own invention." 551:is not sensory but intellectual and 4287:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4268:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4256:Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project 4235:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4079:The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy 3731:. Plato.stanford.edu. 20 May 2010. 3648:Cummings, M E (September 8, 1929). 3473:. The New York Times – Books. 3250:Andalucía : a cultural history 3119: 3071:. He also uses expressions such as 2971:Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism 2587:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 1584:Rules for the Direction of the Mind 24: 4190:. (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2006) 3968:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 3795:"Rationalist Movement – LessWrong" 3434:Anthony Gottlieb (July 18, 1999). 3101:Plato's theory of forms (or ideas) 3023:. Vol. Book III Paragraph 15. 1893:" (which he derived directly from 973:To argue in favor of this thesis, 710: 707:in three fourths of our actions." 25: 9991: 9135:Western European and Others Group 4964:Sociology of scientific knowledge 4959:Sociology of scientific ignorance 4912:History and philosophy of science 4276:Lennon, Thomas M.; Dea, Shannon. 4260: 4224: 4218: 3926:The Present Dilemma in Philosophy 3784:, 2000. Harvard University Press. 3417:transient, changing, and visible. 2849:New Essays on Human Understanding 2847:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1704, 2738:New Essays on Human Understanding 2736:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1704, 1847:and much intellectual attention. 1159:New Essays on Human Understanding 943:Generally speaking, intuition is 755:, became socially conflated with 607:life of inquiry, or the zetetic ( 9937: 9925: 9819:Stratification of emotional life 9268: 9262: 9256: 7905: 7904: 7891: 5207: 5161: 5149: 4174:Spinoza's Radical Cartesian Mind 3924:James, William (November 1906). 3880:from the original on 18 May 2023 3216:. Cosimo Classics. p. 139. 3178:Aristotle Non-Modal Syllogistic. 2923:from the original on 18 May 2015 2888:from the original on 18 May 2015 2522:from the original on 18 May 2015 2214: 1443: 899:The superiority of reason thesis 80: 66: 52: 3958: 3945: 3932: 3906:from the original on 2023-06-06 3892: 3854: 3843:from the original on 2021-04-20 3816: 3805:from the original on 2023-06-17 3787: 3775: 3746: 3735:from the original on 2012-01-12 3721: 3690:from the original on 2010-03-26 3630:from the original on 2010-03-26 3600:from the original on 2010-03-26 3571:from the original on 2010-03-26 3541:from the original on 2011-05-13 3477:from the original on 2009-04-17 3469:Anthony Gottlieb (2009-09-07). 3442:from the original on 2023-10-18 3407:from the original on 2012-01-04 3381:from the original on 2009-09-03 3350:from the original on 7 May 2015 3319: 3294: 3283:"Low Sunday: Rationalism" 3270: 3230:from the original on 2023-02-11 3181: 3159: 3143: 3132:from the original on 2013-05-19 3113: 3090: 3027: 3001: 2980: 2935: 2854: 2841: 2832: 2825: – The original 2798: 2766: 2730: 2696: 2683: 2669:FactCheck.org Mission Statement 1732:Meditations on First Philosophy 1715:. He also argued that although 1609:Meditations on First Philosophy 1258:, but he is best known for the 1106:Meditations on First Philosophy 5855: 5624:Analytic–synthetic distinction 4353:Analytic–synthetic distinction 4153:New Essays on the Rationalists 2862:Concerning Human Understanding 2829:, translated, in its entirety. 2718:The Intuition/Deduction Thesis 2661: 2638: 2615: 2096:Analytic–synthetic distinction 1966: Any Future Metaphysics 1363: 249:Analytic–synthetic distinction 13: 1: 7588: 4141:. (Dordrecht: Springer, 2011) 3825:"Silicon Valley's Safe Space" 3618:Irwin Edman (July 22, 1934). 3438:. The New York Times: Books. 3436:"God Exists, Philosophically" 3306:History of western philosophy 3021:Lives of Eminent Philosophers 2805:Cottingham, J., ed. (1996) . 2490: 1851:Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716) 1356:. These included categorical 1314:known to us through sensation 614: 7377:Ordinary language philosophy 5868: 4230:"Rationalism vs. Empiricism" 4207:. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2018) 4035: 3401:"Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677)" 3037:in English translations and 2591:"Rationalism vs. Empiricism" 2297: 1989:Critique of Practical Reason 32:Rationalism (disambiguation) 7: 9411:Theological intellectualism 7427:Contemporary utilitarianism 7342:Internalism and externalism 5669:Internalism and externalism 4686:Hypothetico-deductive model 4661:Deductive-nomological model 4646:Constructivist epistemology 3964:See Robin Markwica (2018), 3928:(Speech). Lowell Institute. 2864:, Book I, Ch. III, Par. 20. 2754:The Innate Knowledge Thesis 2329: 2248:The Critique of Pure Reason 1177:Some philosophers, such as 1017:beyond a reasonable doubt. 547:"in which the criterion of 10: 9996: 9789:Principle of double effect 6691:Svatantrika and Prasangika 6330: 4160:A Dictionary of Philosophy 4107:The Life of Mahatma Gandhi 4050:Cambridge University Press 3980: 3975: 3013: 2545:A Dictionary of Philosophy 2417:Phenomenology (philosophy) 2227: 2026: Benevolent Motives 1854: 1788: 1785:Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) 1696: 1637:Christina, Queen of Sweden 1420:René Descartes (1596–1650) 1331: 1273: 1239: 1196: 925: 922:Intuition/deduction thesis 654:. This is commonly called 36: 29: 9920: 9859: 9656: 9433: 9403: 9365: 9322: 9284: 9277: 9254: 9188: 8905:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 8885: 8803: 8640: 8475: 8346:Standard Average European 8214: 8043: 7963: 7885: 7837: 7737: 7699: 7646: 7613: 7604: 7600: 7583: 7533: 7445: 7283: 7274: 7207: 6990: 6981: 6959: 6914: 6856: 6808: 6762: 6753: 6716: 6587: 6452: 6399: 6390: 6340: 6336: 6325: 6264: 6236: 6193: 6145: 6102: 6055: 6027: 5979: 5951: 5913:Philosophy of mathematics 5903:Philosophy of information 5878: 5874: 5863: 5795: 5744: 5593: 5500:Evolutionary epistemology 5470: 5215: 5140: 4972: 4874: 4804: 4747:Semantic view of theories 4666:Epistemological anarchism 4618: 4603:dependent and independent 4340: 4278:"Continental Rationalism" 4263:"Continental Rationalism" 3823:Metz, Cade (2021-02-13). 3709:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 3210:Heckethorn, C.W. (2011). 3087:, Darmstadt 2007, p. 157. 2786:The Innate Concept Thesis 2462:Rationalist International 2017:The Metaphysics of Morals 1916:Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) 1652:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 1507:Causal adequacy principle 1154:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 975:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 954:from one or more general 751:noted how rationalism, a 719:, rationalism, since the 355:Evolutionary epistemology 9970:Epistemological theories 9045:Lancaster House Treaties 8535:Christian existentialism 8495:Ancient Roman philosophy 8485:Ancient Greek philosophy 5772:Philosophy of perception 5575:Representational realism 5545:Naturalized epistemology 4489:Intertheoretic reduction 4478:Ignoramus et ignorabimus 4455:Functional contextualism 4198:Dictionary of Philosophy 3650:"Roth Evaluates Spinoza" 2689:Cottingham, John. 1984. 2397:Objectivity (philosophy) 2263:Contemporary rationalism 1738:Principles of Philosophy 1614:Principles of Philosophy 1348:categorical propositions 1236:Pythagoras (570–495 BCE) 470:Philosophy of perception 37:Not to be confused with 9416:Theological voluntarism 8823:Equality before the law 8030:Romano-Germanic culture 7382:Postanalytic philosophy 7323:Experimental philosophy 5752:Outline of epistemology 5585:Transcendental idealism 4974:Philosophers of science 4752:Scientific essentialism 4701:Model-dependent realism 4636:Constructive empiricism 4529:Evidence-based practice 4094:Douglas, Alexander X.: 4083:Oxford University Press 4028:Critique of Pure Reason 3992:Discourse on the Method 3866:. Orion. 13 June 2019. 3399:Kelley L. Ross (1999). 3375:San Francisco Chronicle 3344:Encyclopædia Britannica 3288:Sermons from the Latins 3254:Oxford University Press 3081:Idee/Form/Gestalt/Wesen 2882:Encyclopædia Britannica 2740:, Preface, pp. 150–151. 2680:. Retrieved 2020-01-01. 2658:. Retrieved 2013-01-13. 2635:. Retrieved 2013-01-13. 2479:Pluralistic rationalism 2407:Pancritical rationalism 2347:Emotional choice theory 2337:17th-century philosophy 2311:emotional choice theory 2243:Transcendental Idealism 2116:Hypothetical imperative 2058:Transcendental idealism 1957:Critique of Pure Reason 1910:pre-established harmony 1726:Discourse on the Method 1599:Discourse on the Method 1375:Portrait on Silver Vase 1328:Aristotle (384–322 BCE) 1029:Innate knowledge thesis 849:makes a claim and then 816:theory of justification 656:continental rationalism 365:Historical epistemology 9932:Catholicism portal 8985:Eastern European Group 8574:Continental philosophy 8505:Judeo-Christian ethics 8490:Hellenistic philosophy 7971:Cradle of civilization 7515:Social constructionism 6527:Hellenistic philosophy 5943:Theoretical philosophy 5918:Philosophy of religion 5908:Philosophy of language 5699:Problem of other minds 5057:Alfred North Whitehead 5047:Charles Sanders Peirce 4294:John F. 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6931: 6926: 6920: 6918: 6912: 6911: 6909: 6908: 6903: 6902: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6860: 6858: 6854: 6853: 6851: 6850: 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6823:Augustinianism 6820: 6814: 6812: 6806: 6805: 6803: 6802: 6797: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6766: 6764: 6757: 6751: 6750: 6747: 6746: 6744: 6743: 6738: 6736:Zoroastrianism 6733: 6728: 6722: 6720: 6714: 6713: 6711: 6710: 6709: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6658: 6657: 6656: 6651: 6641: 6640: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6593: 6591: 6585: 6584: 6582: 6581: 6579:Church Fathers 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6524: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6493: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6461: 6459: 6450: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6441: 6436: 6431: 6426: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6405: 6403: 6394: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6384: 6383: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6352: 6346: 6344: 6334: 6333: 6323: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6312: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6270: 6268: 6262: 6261: 6259: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6242: 6240: 6234: 6233: 6231: 6230: 6225: 6220: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6199: 6197: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6151: 6149: 6143: 6142: 6140: 6139: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6108: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6096: 6094:Libertarianism 6091: 6090: 6089: 6079: 6078: 6077: 6067: 6061: 6059: 6053: 6052: 6050: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6033: 6031: 6025: 6024: 6022: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5985: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5957: 5955: 5949: 5948: 5946: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5898:Metaphilosophy 5895: 5890: 5884: 5882: 5872: 5871: 5861: 5860: 5853: 5852: 5845: 5838: 5830: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5790: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5748: 5746: 5742: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5621: 5616: 5608: 5599: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5588: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5485:Constructivism 5482: 5476: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5464: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5435:Baruch Spinoza 5432: 5430:P. F. Strawson 5427: 5422: 5420:Susanna Siegel 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5397: 5395:W. V. O. Quine 5392: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5295:Nelson Goodman 5292: 5287: 5285:Edmund Gettier 5282: 5277: 5272: 5270:René Descartes 5267: 5262: 5260:Gilles Deleuze 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5237: 5235:William Alston 5232: 5227: 5225:Thomas Aquinas 5221: 5219: 5213: 5212: 5205: 5204: 5197: 5190: 5182: 5173: 5172: 5170: 5158: 5146: 5141: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5102:W. V. O. Quine 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5037:Rudolf Steiner 5034: 5029: 5027:Henri Poincaré 5024: 5018: 5015: 5014: 5012: 5011: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4985: 4983: 4976: 4970: 4969: 4967: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4925: 4924: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4897:Exact sciences 4894: 4889: 4884: 4878: 4876: 4875:Related topics 4872: 4871: 4869: 4868: 4867: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4834:Social science 4831: 4830: 4829: 4827:Space and time 4819: 4814: 4808: 4806: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4798: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4759: 4754: 4749: 4740: 4731: 4726: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4633: 4628: 4622: 4620: 4616: 4615: 4613: 4612: 4607: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4579: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4558: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4538: 4536:Scientific law 4533: 4532: 4531: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4467: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4445:Falsifiability 4442: 4437: 4432: 4431: 4430: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4404: 4403: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4377: 4376: 4374:Mill's Methods 4366: 4355: 4350: 4344: 4342: 4338: 4337: 4330: 4329: 4322: 4315: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4292: 4273: 4258: 4249: 4240: 4220: 4219:External links 4217: 4216: 4215: 4208: 4201: 4191: 4184: 4177: 4170: 4163: 4156: 4149: 4142: 4135: 4125: 4119: 4103:Fischer, Louis 4099: 4092: 4086: 4072: 4067:978-0131585911 4066: 4053: 4037: 4034: 4033: 4032: 4023:Kant, Immanuel 4020: 4008: 3996: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3971: 3970: 3957: 3944: 3931: 3916: 3891: 3872: 3853: 3815: 3786: 3774: 3745: 3720: 3700: 3670: 3640: 3610: 3581: 3551: 3522: 3487: 3456: 3421: 3391: 3361: 3327: 3318: 3293: 3269: 3263:978-0195376104 3262: 3240: 3222: 3202: 3180: 3158: 3142: 3112: 3089: 3085:Platon-Lexikon 3026: 3000: 2979: 2977:(2005), p. 92. 2934: 2899: 2866: 2853: 2840: 2831: 2820:978-0521558181 2819: 2797: 2774: 2765: 2742: 2729: 2704: 2695: 2682: 2671:, January 2020 2660: 2637: 2614: 2602: 2576: 2561: 2549: 2533: 2516:Britannica.com 2495: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2487: 2486: 2481: 2476: 2471: 2464: 2459: 2454: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2434: 2429: 2424: 2419: 2414: 2412:Panrationalism 2409: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2349: 2344: 2339: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2309:Proponents of 2299: 2296: 2269:Robert Brandom 2264: 2261: 2228:Main article: 2224: 2223: 2206: 2205: 2202: 2201: 2199:Neo-Kantianism 2196: 2190: 2188:Related topics 2187: 2186: 2183: 2182: 2179: 2178: 2176:Baruch Spinoza 2173: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2156:G. W. F. Hegel 2153: 2147: 2144: 2143: 2140: 2139: 2136: 2135: 2130: 2125: 2118: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2082: 2077: 2072: 2065: 2060: 2054: 2051:Kantian ethics 2045: 2044: 2041: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2029: 2020: 2013: 2006: 1999: 1992: 1985: 1978: 1969: 1964:Prolegomena to 1960: 1952: 1949: 1948: 1945: 1944: 1936: 1935: 1929: 1928: 1917: 1914: 1855:Main article: 1852: 1849: 1797:Baruch Spinoza 1789:Main article: 1786: 1783: 1699:René Descartes 1697:Main article: 1693: 1692: 1690: 1689: 1682: 1675: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1647:Baruch Spinoza 1644: 1639: 1633: 1630: 1629: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1580: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1561: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1487: 1485:Dream argument 1482: 1477: 1472: 1467: 1462: 1456: 1453: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1440: 1439: 1437:René Descartes 1433: 1432: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1405:Thomas Aquinas 1365: 1362: 1332:Main article: 1329: 1326: 1274:Main article: 1271: 1268: 1240:Main article: 1237: 1234: 1222:Vatican Palace 1203: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1111:René Descartes 1098:conscious mind 1080: 1077: 1030: 1027: 1006:ethical truths 923: 920: 803:Galen Strawson 782: 779: 733:utilitarianism 712: 709: 679:Baruch Spinoza 616: 613: 572:logical truths 511: 510: 508: 507: 500: 493: 485: 482: 481: 478: 477: 472: 467: 462: 456: 453:Related fields 452: 451: 450: 447: 446: 443: 442: 437: 435:W. V. O. Quine 432: 427: 422: 420:René Descartes 417: 412: 410:Edmund Gettier 407: 402: 396: 392: 391: 390: 387: 386: 383: 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 352: 346: 342: 341: 340: 337: 336: 333: 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 251: 246: 240: 236: 235: 234: 231: 230: 227: 226: 221: 216: 211: 206: 201: 196: 191: 186: 181: 176: 171: 166: 161: 156: 151: 146: 140: 136: 135: 134: 131: 130: 128: 127: 122: 117: 111: 108: 107: 101: 100: 86: 79: 78: 74:Baruch Spinoza 72: 65: 64: 60:René Descartes 58: 51: 50: 49: 48: 47: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9992: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9962: 9960: 9945: 9935: 9933: 9928: 9923: 9922: 9919: 9913: 9912:Phenomenology 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9864: 9862: 9858: 9852: 9849: 9847: 9844: 9842: 9839: 9835: 9832: 9830: 9827: 9826: 9825: 9822: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9812: 9810: 9809:Rota Fortunae 9807: 9805: 9802: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9790: 9787: 9785: 9782: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9769:Occam's razor 9767: 9765: 9762: 9760: 9757: 9755: 9752: 9750: 9749:Head of a pin 9747: 9745: 9742: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9665: 9664:Actus Essendi 9662: 9661: 9659: 9655: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9599: 9596: 9594: 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9498:Chateaubriand 9496: 9494: 9491: 9489: 9486: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9440: 9438: 9436: 9432: 9422: 9419: 9417: 9414: 9412: 9409: 9408: 9406: 9402: 9396: 9393: 9391: 9388: 9386: 9385:Conceptualism 9383: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9372: 9370: 9368: 9364: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9329: 9327: 9325: 9321: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9299:Scholasticism 9297: 9295: 9292: 9291: 9289: 9287: 9283: 9280: 9276: 9249: 9248:Virtue ethics 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9234: 9233:Seven virtues 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9195: 9193: 9191: 9187: 9183: 9176: 9171: 9169: 9164: 9162: 9157: 9156: 9153: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9085:PROSUR/PROSUL 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9013: 9011: 9008: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8980:Craiova Group 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8895:ABCANZ Armies 8893: 8892: 8890: 8884: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8837: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8824: 8821: 8820: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8810: 8808: 8806: 8802: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8743: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8723: 8722: 8719: 8713: 8710: 8709: 8708: 8705: 8701: 8700:Protestantism 8698: 8694: 8691: 8690: 8689: 8686: 8682: 8679: 8678: 8677: 8674: 8670: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8661: 8658: 8657: 8656: 8653: 8652: 8651: 8648: 8647: 8645: 8643: 8639: 8631: 8628: 8627: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8620:Sovereigntism 8618: 8616: 8613: 8609: 8608: 8604: 8603: 8602: 8599: 8595: 8592: 8591: 8590: 8587: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8544: 8543: 8540: 8536: 8533: 8532: 8531: 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8515:Scholasticism 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8482: 8480: 8478: 8474: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8447: 8446: 8443: 8439: 8436: 8435: 8434: 8431: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8418: 8417: 8414: 8410: 8407: 8406: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8379: 8378: 8375: 8371: 8368: 8367: 8366: 8363: 8359: 8356: 8355: 8354: 8351: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8338: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8324: 8322: 8319: 8315: 8312: 8311: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8298: 8295: 8294: 8293: 8290: 8286: 8283: 8282: 8281: 8278: 8274: 8271: 8270: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8257: 8254: 8253: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8240: 8237: 8235: 8232: 8230: 8227: 8226: 8225: 8222: 8221: 8219: 8217: 8213: 8205: 8204:War on terror 8202: 8200: 8197: 8196: 8195: 8192: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8099: 8098: 8097:Modern period 8095: 8093: 8090: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8072: 8071: 8068: 8064: 8061: 8060: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8050: 8048: 8046: 8042: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8003: 8002: 7999: 7997: 7994: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7983: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7968: 7966: 7962: 7958: 7954: 7953:Western world 7947: 7942: 7940: 7935: 7933: 7928: 7927: 7924: 7912: 7911: 7902: 7900: 7899: 7888: 7887: 7884: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7842: 7840: 7838:Miscellaneous 7836: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7763: 7760: 7759: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7744: 7742: 7740: 7736: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7702: 7698: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7653: 7651: 7649: 7645: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7620: 7618: 7616: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7603: 7599: 7591: 7590: 7586: 7582: 7564: 7563: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7538: 7536: 7534:Miscellaneous 7532: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7520:Structuralism 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7505:Postmodernism 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7495:Phenomenology 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7452: 7450: 7448: 7444: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7432:Vienna Circle 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7398: 7395: 7393: 7390: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7362:Moral realism 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7290: 7288: 7286: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7273: 7263: 7260: 7258: 7255: 7253: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7243: 7240: 7238: 7235: 7233: 7230: 7226: 7223: 7222: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7212: 7210: 7206: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7164:Phenomenology 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7104:Individualism 7102: 7098: 7095: 7093: 7090: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7068: 7065: 7061: 7058: 7057: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6980: 6970: 6969:Judeo-Islamic 6967: 6966: 6964: 6962: 6958: 6952: 6949: 6947: 6946: 6945:ʿIlm al-Kalām 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6907: 6904: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6894:Shuddhadvaita 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6862: 6861: 6859: 6855: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6828:Scholasticism 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6811: 6807: 6801: 6798: 6796: 6793: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6752: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6723: 6721: 6719: 6715: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6663: 6662: 6659: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6646: 6645: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6599: 6598: 6595: 6594: 6592: 6590: 6586: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6528: 6525: 6523: 6520: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6463: 6462: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6451: 6445: 6442: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6432: 6430: 6427: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6406: 6404: 6402: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6389: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6357: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6347: 6345: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6328: 6324: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6279:Conceptualism 6277: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6269: 6267: 6263: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6243: 6241: 6239: 6235: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6208:Particularism 6206: 6204: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6175:Functionalism 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6160:Eliminativism 6158: 6156: 6153: 6152: 6150: 6148: 6144: 6138: 6135: 6133: 6130: 6128: 6125: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6109: 6107: 6105: 6101: 6095: 6092: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6083: 6080: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6065:Compatibilism 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6054: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6032: 6030: 6026: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6004:Particularism 6002: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5984: 5982: 5978: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5958: 5956: 5954: 5950: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5846: 5844: 5839: 5837: 5832: 5831: 5828: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5797: 5794: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5743: 5737: 5736: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5674:Justification 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5613: 5609: 5607: 5605: 5601: 5600: 5598: 5596: 5592: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5550:Phenomenalism 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5540:Naïve realism 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5490:Contextualism 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5458: 5456: 5455:Vienna Circle 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5396: 5393: 5391: 5390:Hilary Putnam 5388: 5386: 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5365:Robert Nozick 5363: 5361: 5360:John McDowell 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5336: 5333: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5320:Immanuel Kant 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5290:Alvin Goldman 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5214: 5210: 5203: 5198: 5196: 5191: 5189: 5184: 5183: 5180: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5157: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5139: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5087:Rudolf Carnap 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5022:Auguste Comte 5020: 5019: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4994:Francis Bacon 4992: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4923: 4922:Pseudoscience 4920: 4919: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4883: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4873: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4832: 4828: 4825: 4824: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4803: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4781:Structuralism 4779: 4777: 4774: 4772: 4769: 4767: 4763: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4744: 4743:Received view 4741: 4739: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4651:Contextualism 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4632: 4629: 4627: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4617: 4611: 4608: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4595: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4563: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4530: 4527: 4526: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4451: 4448: 4446: 4443: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4402: 4399: 4398: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4323: 4321: 4316: 4314: 4309: 4308: 4305: 4299: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4288: 4283: 4279: 4274: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4259: 4257: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4241: 4237: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4222: 4213: 4209: 4206: 4202: 4199: 4196:(ed., 1962), 4195: 4192: 4189: 4185: 4182: 4178: 4175: 4171: 4168: 4164: 4161: 4157: 4154: 4150: 4147: 4143: 4140: 4136: 4133: 4132: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4112: 4111:HarperCollins 4108: 4104: 4100: 4097: 4093: 4090: 4087: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4073: 4069: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4051: 4047: 4044:(ed., 1999), 4043: 4040: 4039: 4030: 4029: 4025:(1781/1787), 4024: 4021: 4018: 4017: 4012: 4009: 4006: 4005: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3993: 3988: 3985: 3984: 3967: 3961: 3954: 3948: 3941: 3935: 3927: 3920: 3905: 3901: 3895: 3879: 3875: 3873:9781474608800 3869: 3865: 3864: 3857: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3819: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3790: 3783: 3778: 3764:on 2012-12-27 3763: 3759: 3755: 3754:"Rationalism" 3749: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3717: 3713: 3710: 3704: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3674: 3660:on 2010-03-24 3659: 3655: 3651: 3644: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3614: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3585: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3526: 3519: 3518:philosophy... 3508:on 2011-06-15 3507: 3503: 3496: 3494: 3492: 3476: 3472: 3465: 3463: 3461: 3453: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3428: 3426: 3418: 3406: 3402: 3395: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3331: 3322: 3315: 3311: 3308: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3273: 3265: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3229: 3225: 3219: 3215: 3214: 3206: 3199: 3198:Ancient Logic 3195: 3191: 3188: 3184: 3177: 3176:Ancient Logic 3173: 3169: 3166: 3162: 3155: 3151: 3146: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3116: 3109: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3093: 3086: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3030: 3022: 3010: 3004: 2997: 2993: 2990: 2983: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2967:C.J. de Vogel 2964: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2871: 2863: 2857: 2850: 2844: 2835: 2828: 2822: 2816: 2811: 2810: 2801: 2794: 2790: 2787: 2781: 2779: 2769: 2762: 2758: 2755: 2749: 2747: 2739: 2733: 2726: 2722: 2719: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2699: 2692: 2686: 2679: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2664: 2657: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2641: 2634: 2630: 2627: 2625: 2618: 2609: 2607: 2599: 2595: 2592: 2588: 2583: 2581: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2556: 2554: 2546: 2540: 2538: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2512:"Rationalism" 2507: 2505: 2503: 2501: 2496: 2485: 2482: 2480: 2477: 2475: 2472: 2470: 2469: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2458: 2455: 2453: 2450: 2448: 2445: 2443: 2440: 2438: 2435: 2433: 2430: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2400: 2398: 2395: 2393: 2390: 2388: 2385: 2383: 2380: 2378: 2377:Logical truth 2375: 2373: 2372:Irrationalism 2370: 2368: 2365: 2363: 2360: 2358: 2355: 2353: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2343: 2340: 2338: 2335: 2334: 2327: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2307: 2305: 2304:William James 2295: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2237: 2231: 2230:Immanuel Kant 2222: 2211: 2208: 2207: 2200: 2197: 2195: 2192: 2191: 2185: 2184: 2177: 2174: 2172: 2169: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2142: 2141: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2123: 2119: 2117: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2071: 2070: 2066: 2064: 2061: 2059: 2056: 2055: 2052: 2048: 2043: 2042: 2035: 2034: 2033:Opus Postumum 2030: 2027: 2021: 2019: 2018: 2014: 2012: 2011: 2007: 2005: 2004: 2000: 1998: 1997: 1993: 1991: 1990: 1986: 1984: 1983: 1979: 1976: 1973:Answering the 1970: 1968: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1958: 1954: 1953: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1937: 1934: 1933:Immanuel Kant 1931: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1921: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1898: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1883:jurisprudence 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1858: 1848: 1846: 1842: 1841: 1836: 1835: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1809:Thomas Hobbes 1806: 1802: 1798: 1792: 1782: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1759: 1758: 1753: 1752: 1746: 1744: 1740: 1739: 1734: 1733: 1728: 1727: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1708: 1706: 1700: 1688: 1683: 1681: 1676: 1674: 1669: 1668: 1666: 1665: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1634: 1628: 1627: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1610: 1607: 1605: 1602: 1600: 1597: 1595: 1592: 1590: 1587: 1585: 1582: 1581: 1575: 1574: 1567: 1566: 1562: 1560: 1559: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1537:Rule of signs 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1492: 1488: 1486: 1483: 1481: 1478: 1476: 1473: 1471: 1468: 1466: 1463: 1461: 1458: 1457: 1451: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1425: 1412: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1387: 1383: 1374: 1370: 1361: 1359: 1355: 1354: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1335: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1296: 1292: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1277: 1267: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1248:mathematician 1243: 1233: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1214: 1208: 1194: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1183:Enlightenment 1180: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1163: 1161: 1160: 1155: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1107: 1101: 1099: 1095: 1094: 1087: 1086: 1076: 1074: 1073:unconsciously 1070: 1066: 1062: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1048: 1043: 1037: 1036: 1026: 1024: 1018: 1014: 1011: 1007: 1003: 998: 996: 995: 989: 983: 978: 976: 971: 969: 963: 961: 957: 953: 948: 947: 940: 939: 933: 929: 919: 917: 913: 912: 906: 904: 900: 896: 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 876: 875:justification 872: 868: 864: 856: 852: 848: 843: 841: 837: 833: 832:justification 829: 825: 821: 817: 813: 807: 804: 800: 799: 794: 793: 788: 777: 775: 771: 764: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 721:Enlightenment 718: 708: 706: 702: 701: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 667: 663: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 640: 638: 634: 630: 626: 622: 612: 610: 606: 602: 598: 592: 589: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 565: 561: 560:Enlightenment 556: 554: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 506: 501: 499: 494: 492: 487: 486: 484: 483: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 457: 449: 448: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 430:Immanuel Kant 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 415:Wang Yangming 413: 411: 408: 406: 403: 401: 398: 397: 389: 388: 381: 378: 376: 373: 371: 368: 366: 363: 361: 358: 356: 353: 351: 348: 347: 339: 338: 331: 328: 326: 323: 321: 318: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 295:Justification 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 260: 256: 252: 250: 247: 245: 242: 241: 233: 232: 225: 224:Structuralism 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 207: 205: 202: 200: 197: 195: 194:Perspectivism 192: 190: 187: 185: 182: 180: 179:Infallibilism 177: 175: 172: 170: 167: 165: 162: 160: 157: 155: 152: 150: 149:Contextualism 147: 145: 142: 141: 133: 132: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 112: 110: 109: 106: 103: 102: 98: 97: 89: 75: 61: 44: 40: 33: 19: 9901: 9882:Neoplatonism 9804:Ressentiment 9799:Quinque viae 9764:Memento mori 9724:Double truth 9669:Actus primus 9435:Philosophers 9342:Cartesianism 9130:Western Bloc 8930:AUSCANNZUKUS 8886:Contemporary 8835:Human rights 8681:Latin Church 8655:Christianity 8605: 8564:Conservatism 8519: 8409:contemporary 8246:Architecture 8182:World War II 8142:Emancipation 8137:Abolitionism 8025:Romanization 8020:Roman legacy 8001:Roman Empire 7903: 7889: 7560: 7551:Postcritique 7541:Kyoto School 7500:Posthumanism 7480:Hermeneutics 7335: / 7276:Contemporary 7252:Newtonianism 7215:Cartesianism 7178: 7174:Reductionism 7010:Conservatism 7005:Collectivism 6943: 6671:Sarvāstivadā 6649:Anekantavada 6574:Neoplatonism 6542:Epicureanism 6475:Pythagoreans 6414:Confucianism 6380:Contemporary 6370:Early modern 6274:Anti-realism 6228:Universalism 6185:Subjectivism 6008: 5981:Epistemology 5733: 5634:Common sense 5612:A posteriori 5611: 5603: 5565:Reductionism 5559: 5459: 5410:Gilbert Ryle 5280:Fred Dretske 5265:Keith DeRose 5209:Epistemology 5132:Larry Laudan 5112:Imre Lakatos 5067:Otto Neurath 5042:Karl Pearson 5032:Pierre Duhem 5004:Isaac Newton 4934:Protoscience 4892:Epistemology 4766:Anti-realism 4764: / 4745: / 4736: / 4733: 4722: / 4720:Reductionism 4718: / 4691:Inductionism 4671:Evolutionism 4476: 4363:a posteriori 4362: 4358: 4295: 4285: 4266: 4233: 4211: 4204: 4197: 4187: 4180: 4173: 4166: 4159: 4152: 4145: 4138: 4129:Spinoza and 4128: 4106: 4095: 4078: 4057: 4045: 4042:Audi, Robert 4026: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3965: 3960: 3952: 3947: 3939: 3934: 3925: 3919: 3908:. 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