537:(the key Malian politician who convinced Sissoko to join the meeting) as vice-chairmen. Second, as the parties main activity would be in the National Assembly, there were active discussions about what coalitions to form with French political parties. The debate largely focused on whether to form a permanent coalition with the Communist party or to align with them while they served RDA interests. The group agreed to compromise language that the party would form coalitions with whichever party was most useful for African issues. Third, although it was briefly mentioned, the conference agreed not to call for complete independence of the colonies, but instead for an end to the unequal colonial relationship with France. Although the party was to be anti-colonial and focus on increased autonomy for the French colonies, they were not advocating secession or withdrawal from France as an immediate goal.
602:
First, in May 1947 the coalition between the MRP, the SFIO, and the
Communists had dissolved. It is important to note that this dissolution coincides with American financing of Europe, including France, in the post-World War II period. The United States warned European nations that they would not receive financial support to reconstruct their nations if communist parties were a part of their ruling governmental bodies. This introduced significant differences between the parties which had before been set aside and meant that the Communists saw decreasing power to offer their RDA allies. Second, the French divided the Upper Volta from the Ivory Coast in order to try and reduce the power of Houphouët-Boigny and the RDA. The plan appeared to work when in 1948, Zinda Kaboré was killed and the Mossi chiefs in Upper Volta, who had renounced the RDA and connected with the MRP, were able to appoint
704:
convinced to resign his position in the party. On 9 August 1950, the RDA and the IOM entered into a secret accord aiming to bring together the two groups in the French
National Assembly, based primarily on the RDA ending their coalition with the Communist party. In domestic politics in the colonies, it was decided that the IOM and the RDA would largely retain power in the colonies which they controlled and thus prevent political conflict. The IOM was to be the main political party of the union in Guinea, Dahomey, Togo, Senegal (as Senghor had now joined the IOM), Upper Volta, Cameroon, and Ubangi-Shari while the RDA would be the representative of the alliance in French Sudan, Ivory Coast, Chad, and the Middle Congo. As both had a member of the National Assembly from Niger, the agreement was to keep that colony split. After this
674:
injured. The French authorities, and the French colonists in the colony, used this opportunity to foment general unrest between the RDA party and its opponents and then used the unrest to justify the arrest of RDA members and violent suppression of party activities. This pattern of partisan outbursts, French violence against RDA supporters at these incidents, and the mass arrests of RDA supporters continued throughout 1949 and into early 1950. Although an arrest warrant was issued for
Houphouët-Boigny, he was able to use immunity as a member of the National Assembly to avoid arrest. In December 1949, the RDA and its supporters began a general strike involving many different groups of workers, a boycott of European goods sold in the country, and a hunger strike in the prisons. The tension came to a head on 28 January 1950 when
1284:). The RDA legislators were now more than half of the total membership of the UDSR party, which actually resulted in the party changing its name to the UDSR-RDA during this period. Because of this, when the IOM tried once again to form an alliance with the RDA, they were rebuffed because the RDA had a solid alliance with significant power and the IOM wanted to remain with the MRP. In addition, because of the important role of the RDA within the UDSR, Houphouët-Boigny was able to become a Minister within the French cabinet, the first representative from French West Africa or French Equatorial Africa to achieve this. Further empowering the RDA during this time was a shift in the French colonial administration not wanting to see additional colonial violence like had been experienced in Madagascar, Indochina, and Algeria.
735:, RDA supporters were removed from voter rolls by French authorities, areas with high RDA support experienced a number of voting problems, and members were arrested and intimidated from political activity. All this resulted in a significant loss to the RDA throughout Africa and only Houphouët-Boigny, Konate, and Tchicaya were National Assembly members from the RDA following the election. In the same election, the IOM gained most consistently becoming the largest political party in Africa. Although electoral results showed significant support of the IOM over the RDA, the IOM remained largely a legislative coalition in Paris with limited support as a regional party in Africa. The RDA, in contrast, continued its efforts to build broad political bases and build the national RDA parties throughout Africa.
520:, viewed the meeting as a threat to his colonial policies and thus instructed his allies not to attend and for colonial authorities to do what they could to hinder the meeting. Moutet convinced some of the signatories of the document to renounce the manifesto and persuaded Guèye, Senghor, and Diallo not to attend. In addition, the colonial authorities confiscated Tchicaya's funds for travel. The result was that the 800 delegates who did arrive included few socialist moderates and instead was dominated by those who sought to align the party with the communists. Reflecting on the way this shaped the party, Houphouët-Boigny recalled in 1952 that "If Lamine and Senghor had been at Bamako, we would have written another page of history."
231:
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the UDSR which allowed
Houphouët-Boigny to become a prominent French minister after the 1956 elections. As minister, Houphouët-Boigny crafted the 1958 option to the colonies to vote for immediate independence or to join a community linking the colonies with France but with increased autonomy. The vote, however, divided the RDA over the issues of independence and federalism and the party largely split. Despite the breakup of the party after the 1958 vote, the national parties and the connections established regionally through the party remained important. The RDA parties in
618:, to present his cabinet in what would be a very close vote. During the debate on this cabinet, Apithy presented Schuman with a number of questions regarding the future of the colonial arrangement. When Schuman gave the closing speech before a vote to confirm his cabinet, Apithy's questions were the only ones which he did not address at all. Apithy was infuriated by this perceived slight and so cast the whole seven votes of the IOM (including those of the three absent Upper Volta members) against the cabinet. Schuman lost by six votes and was replaced by
1342:, the RDA became a key party shaping the colonial relationship that would exist in the next French state. DeGaulle appointed Houphouët-Boigny to assist in developing the specific laws for the new constitution which would govern the colonies. Houphouët-Boigny pushed for a strong federation linking France with the colonies, while the PRA, led by Senghor, pushed for a looser confederation arrangement. In a meeting on 18 July 1958, the PRA and RDA agreed that the eventual arrangement must include the right to self-determination for the colonies.
549:, they were able to secure a number of seats by using the political organizations established by the various members. The National Assembly votes in France once again supported the three party center-left coalition of the MRP (29% of the vote), the PCF (28.6% of the vote) and the SFIO (16.5% of the vote). In French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa, the RDA was able to win 10 seats for the National Assembly: with members being Houphouët-Boigny,
753:. As a union organizer, Touré had significant ties with the Communists throughout French West Africa and thus connected quickly with the Communist-affiliated members of the RDA. His importance to the RDA's wider objectives was so large that he was named the head of the RDA coalition in the National Assembly in 1953. In the 1955 meeting of the Coordinating Council the party similarly consolidated around the new party identity. First, they decided that
811:
657:, Ivory Coast. The congress appointed Houphouët-Boigny as the President of the party and named d'Arboussier as the General Secretary. The main issue for debate was the alliance with the Communists in France with d'Arboussier arguing that the alliance was necessary but a number of other members questioning the alliance. However the issue was not resolved at the second party congress.
635:
their
African allies. The rise of the IOM meant that the RDA no longer had party affiliates and any significant presence in Togo or French Dahomey, and weakened colony affiliates elsewhere. At the same time that the IOM was increasing in strength, the Socialist party in Senegal saw a split between Guèye and Senghor with the later creating a new party, the Senegalese Democratic Bloc (
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political life. Touré and Keïta, the younger RDA leaders, in contrast pushed for an independent
African federation. The situation led to many embarrassing political votes for Houphouët-Boigny and eventually the adoption of a compromise position that the party would commit itself to working for democratization of any federal arrangements which existed.
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political faction to vote for the law and although
Houphouët-Boigny was required to vote for it because of his ministerial post, he organized to have the RDA vote against the legislation. Despite this opposition, the legislation passed and Territorial Assembly elections were held in March 1957. For these elections, the IOM had reformed itself into the
130:(UDSR). Although the regional party largely dissolved in 1958 with the independence votes for the colonies, many of the national parties retained the RDA in their name and some continue to do so. The political ideology of the party did not endorse outright secession of colonies from France, but it was
1354:
and remaining very close with France. In addition, the Ivory Coast, as the wealthiest colony in French West Africa, opposed the proposal from Keïta that the colonies should become independent together as an
African federation. Mortimer claims that the key person holding the party together and working
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which significantly reformed the relationship between France and the colonies by granting expanded power to
Territorial Assemblies in each colony. Because the reform did not go far enough in expanding self-rule to the colonies, the African legislators largely opposed it. The Socialists were the only
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by
Houphouët-Boigny from the RDA in early 1949. Djaument responded by forming a rival party, the Bloc Démocratique Eburnén. At the first meeting of this rival congress, supporters of Houphouët-Boigny responded with protests or rioting and in the resulting clash one person was killed and a number were
634:
as a result of dissatisfaction by the Upper Volta members who wanted their votes cast to support the MRP government of Schuman. These changes brought the IOM closer to the MRP while the RDA remained tied to the Communist party. The antagonisms between the French parties resulted in antagonism between
181:
Following a number of years of electoral defeats and French repression of the party, the RDA returned to prominence in regional politics by performing very well in the 1956 and 1957 elections throughout the colonies. The RDA became the largest political party in French Africa and the largest group in
157:
together to work on reconfiguring the relationship between France and the African colonies. However, the French Socialist leaders in France saw the proposal as undermining their relationships and so forced their African members to withdraw from the conference. The result was that the resulting party
1675:
The RDA maintained ties with a number of parties in France and in West Africa. Brief rapprochements with African parties never formed into solid coalitions, but the relationships with some French political parties lasted for many years. These included formal coalitions, brief partnerships, and loose
665:
Unlike other parts of the French empire (notably Madagascar and Indochina), independence movements in French Africa had remained largely peaceful. This changed in 1949 when French authorities used divisions between Houphouët-Boigny and other politicians to begin active and violent suppression of the
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which pushed for pan-African alternatives to Senghor's socialism and the Conseil de l'Entente continued linkages with France. Although the name Rassemblement Démocratique Africain and identification with this regional grouping remained in many of the local parties, the RDA as a regional party would
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which would keep the colonies linked to France but also provide some degree of self-rule, or to declare independence immediately. The RDA was divided on this position. The leaders with the most linkages to the trade-unions, mainly Touré in Guinea, generally believed that it was best for the French
589:
from Guinea. The Socialists won six seats with continued support in Senegal (where Guèye and Senghor were both elected to positions) and from other longtime supporters like Sissoko and an associate from the French Sudan, who had left the RDA right after the meeting, and Diallo from Guinea. Because
609:
These two factors combined to make many of the National Assembly delegates, particularly those with large Catholic constituencies in their colonies, feel uneasy about the coalition with the Communist party. Apithy, from Dahomey, in particular raised the issue many times and when his efforts to end
528:
and was provided by the communist party) they were greeted by a hostile Sissoko, worried the party would give support to other French Sudanese political leaders and weaken his leadership. Sissoko, as the host of the conference, refused to open up the discussion. Eventually pressure from within his
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of Senegal (and the most prominent socialist in Africa at the time) to work towards establishing a wider political movement with the goal of autonomy for the colonies of Africa. These two leaders then brought together many of the other African delegates in the National Assembly to sign a manifesto
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From this position of power, Houphouët-Boigny called for a Third Party Congress to bring together all the members. The last party congress had been in 1949 and, despite calls for an open congress from the Communist wing of the RDA for years, it had been resisted by the party leadership. The main
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In the 1957 Territorial Assembly elections, the RDA gained clear majorities in Guinea, Chad, the Ivory Coast, and, under the new leadership of Modibo Keïta, the French Sudan. Of the 474 seats up for election, 236 went to RDA politicians (49.79%), 62 went to the Socialists, 58 went to the African
686:
Although RDA members of the National Assembly stopped going to sessions because they were largely ignored, following the French Army shooting in Dimbokro, Senghor led much of the African membership to demand an inquiry into the incident. The French government secretly informed RDA politicians in
523:
The conference also got off to a rocky start as a result of the different factions in the French Sudan colony which was hosting the conference. When Houphouët-Boigny, Apithy, and d'Arboussier arrived on the morning of 18 October at the airport in Bamako (in a plane which was formerly the private
601:
as the Ministre de la France d'Outre-mer governing the colonies. Coste-Floret began an era of very rigid policy towards the colonies and particularly towards movements perceived to be pushing for independence. However, two changes served to exacerbate divisions within the membership of the RDA.
515:
The congress was held from 18 October 1946 until 21 October 1946. However, the start of the conference was undermined as a result of French Socialist opposition and conflict between some of the members. The Communist party offered full support to the meeting, which only led the other parties to
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and the relationship with France for the future. Houphouët-Boigny, who saw the Congress as an opportunity to show off political power to his French guests (including Mitterrand) in attendance, argued that the colonies should enter into a federal relationship with France remaining the center of
703:
Following the end to the chaos in the Ivory Coast, Houphouët-Boigny began to see the alliance with the Communist party in France as counterproductive to his larger goals. He began meetings simultaneously with both the IOM legislators and the radical wing of the RDA, led by d'Arboussier who he
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The result was that the RDA, as a regional party, essentially ended with the independence vote in 1958. Guinea was the only country to vote for independence, incurring the immediate wrath of DeGaulle and Houphouët-Boigny who cut off aid to the colony and the French removed all personnel and
532:
The conference agreed to a few different issues. First, they agreed to form a regional political alliance between many of their different movements. Rather than a regional party which would have a significant regional infrastructure, the members viewed it as an alliance between the different
329:
Combined with the need for African deputies by the main French political parties, many African leaders believed that the pathway to improved conditions for the colonies lay largely in working with the French government rather than leading revolutionary movements. The result was a marriage of
533:
political forces operating in each of the colonies. Thus they created a Committee of Co-Ordination to be tasked with selecting which party in each colony would be the representative of the RDA party and named Houphouët-Boigny as chairman and Sissoko, Apithy, Tchicaya, d'Arboussier, and
590:
the second college of the National Assembly was not directly elected, the Socialist party was able to use political strategies to secure 12 of the 20 seats from West and Equatorial Africa in the 1947 election (including making Moutet himself a representative from the French Sudan).
321:
or SFIO). This split meant that each party needed to court African deputies to the National Assembly in order to further their legislative causes. The SFIO was the only party with actual party branches established in the African colonies, while the Communist party had established
126:. The RDA was composed of different political parties throughout the French colonies in Africa and lasted from 1946 until 1958. At certain points, the RDA was the largest political party in the colonies in Africa and played a key role in the French government headed by the
682:
which resulted in a French army shooting of 13 Ivorian civilians. The next day (February 1), the French declared all RDA meetings illegal throughout all of French West Africa. The end result of the year of violence was over 50 dead and 3000 RDA partisans imprisoned.
342:
constantly served as an example giving rise to demands by political movements in French West Africa throughout the 1950s. During the same period, violent anti-colonial struggles reached significant levels in many other French colonies: including the
1335:, PRA) which would serve as a rival to the RDA between the various other parties: including bringing together the African Convention and the Socialists. By mid-1958, French Africa along the Atlantic had developed largely a two-party system.
1363:, a block of countries including the Ivory Coast, Niger, Upper Volta, and Dahomey which worked to maintain connections to France while becoming independent. French Sudan initially joined a brief federation with Senegal called the
614:(IOM). The IOM included Apithy, the three new members from the Upper Volta, and three other members from throughout West and Equatorial Africa. The formation of the IOM coincided precisely with the naming of a new Prime Minister,
337:
More globally, the issue of independence from colonial rule had become a prominent topic throughout Africa and Asia. Many British and UN Trusteeship colonies in Africa had begun the process towards independence in the mid-1940s.
629:
In 1948, the IOM increased its membership in the French National Assembly by adding members from the RDA, the Socialist block, and MRP politicians. However, the IOM also saw a change in leadership as Apithy was replaced with
450:
colony. Houphouët-Boigny had spent a brief period as a delegate in the French National Assembly, where he had aligned most closely with the French Communist Party and had taken an active role in trying to get the recall of
174:(IOM) party. Continued French hostility to the RDA, a weakening of the Communist Party in France, and the defection of delegates to the IOM, resulted in the RDA ending its coalition with the communists and joining the small
1392:
The following were parties which were directly members of the regional RDA at some point. Some of the parties directly integrated RDA into their names, and these names remained even after the regional coalition ended.
158:
was exclusively supported by the Communist Party, a situation which shaped the early positions of the party and its political opportunities. The leader of the party from this first conference until the very end was
330:
convenience linking the French political parties with newly elected African deputies. While the SFIO had the most institutionalized linkages to African political leaders prior to 1946, many leaders felt that the
1322:
When many of the other parties in West and Equatorial Africa proposed another attempt at rapprochement between the parties, the RDA responded with little enthusiasm. This eventually led to the creation of the
761:(UPC) was no longer affiliated with the RDA because of its radical positions against the French state. Second, it settled a dispute in Niger with multiple parties claiming to be the RDA affiliate: supporting
529:
own political party and from the leaders assembled led him to agree to open the meeting at 4:00 PM (although he insisted on calling it "your congress" and not "our congress" throughout his opening speech).
643:, BDS), which he aligned with the IOM movement. This split made the alignment of parties in the National Assembly much more complex and allowed options for new groupings between the different factions.
731:
Although Mitterrand tried to change French policy towards the RDA, the colonial administration was still focused primarily on removing the RDA from any power it had remaining. In preparation for the
1276:(from only having 3 in the period of 1951-1955). The IOM saw the largest losses going from having fourteen deputies to only seven. The remaining seats saw six deputies go to persons allied with the
696:
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Without the active suppression of earlier elections and the end of the temporary IOM-RDA rapprochement, the RDA became the largest party from the African colonies earning nine seats in the
360:
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238:
With the end of World War II, the French colonial empire set about a significant reorganization of the relationship between France and the colonies. Before the establishment of the
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from Martinique) which relied significantly on their voting block. This bond was further strengthened when the coalition government named Popular Republican Movement politician
452:
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2719:
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1306:), in order to try to have a larger domestic base. The only other regional party of significance for these elections was a newly focused set of Socialist politicians.
442:
Within the context of a realignment between France and the colonies, one of the elected deputies pushing most significantly for increased autonomy of the colonies was
626:. Queille made a point of meeting with Apithy before the presentation of his cabinet and answered all of his questions in his first speech to the National Assembly.
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1367:, bringing RDA leader Keïta and PRA leader Senghor together. However, this broke apart and the French Sudan (now the independent country called
472:) for a meeting to establish a regional political party. In addition to Houphouët-Boigny and Guèye, the leaders who signed this manifesto were:
310:
150:
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254:. The rest of the colonies had few Africans who were considered citizens of France, no elections, and suppression of most political movements.
650:, Chad, Guinea, and in French Sudan. At the same time, it was actively suppressed in Upper Volta and French Sudan by the opposition parties.
738:
The result of these efforts was that the RDA saw increasing power from 1951 until 1955. This was most punctuated with the rise in Guinea of
1488:
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March that it had no intentions of implementing the 1 February decree banning all activities by the RDA and gradually the tension relaxed.
455:, the French governor of the Ivory Coast. Following the collapse of the National Assembly elected in July 1946 and wanting to establish a
326:(Communist Study Groups) in many of the capitals of the African colonies in 1943 and the MRP had various networks arranged by the church.
166:. Because of the withdrawal of the socialists from the party, the RDA was initially in a coalition with the French Communist Party in the
1107:
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pathway which the SFIO had helped write into the constitution of the Fourth Republic did not provide enough for the African colonies.
190:, which were the dominant parties in those countries during and after independence, joined together with the former British colony of
546:
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When the RDA members arrived in Paris, they were provided significant support and advice from the Communist party (and particularly
163:
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towards a compromise had been Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly who died suddenly on 7 September, thus sealing the fate of the party.
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By 1948, the RDA had active parties as a primary faction in six of the colonies of French Africa: Ivory Coast, Middle Congo,
282:
2490:
Crowder, Michael; O'Brien, Donal Cruise (1973). "French West Africa, 1945-1960". In J.F.A. Ajayi and Michael Crowder (ed.).
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equipment that was in the colony. Ivory Coast voted for the French Community and Houphouët-Boigny became a leader of the
678:, an RDA member of the National Assembly, disappeared in the Ivory Coast. Upset by this event, the RDA held a protest in
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Convention, and the rest were split between national parties without regional influence in Mauritania and Dahomey.
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between the two parties, the RDA broke with the Communist party and in December 1950 voted for the government of
1280:, four deputies allied with the Socialist party, and two who affiliated with Catholic conservatives (Apithy and
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In response to these shifting political environments, the RDA held its second party congress in January 1949 in
1926:
170:. However, this coalition alienated many RDA delegates who eventually split with the RDA and formed the rival
230:
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colonies to declare independence immediately. Houphouët-Boigny and others, instead, pushed for joining the
62:
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39:
1922:"Cold War in Guinea: The Rassemblement Démocratique Africain and the Struggle Over Communism, 1950–1958"
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which would provide to the colonies expanded citizenship, the right to elect members to the French
247:
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approach the meeting with suspicion. Most importantly the Socialist Minister of colonial affairs,
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The Foundations of Europe: European Integration Ideas in France, Germany and Britain in the 1950s
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This resulted in a law which would give each colony the right to vote to join a newly organized
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François Mitterrand in 1959 was a major figure facilitating the RDA's relationship with the UDSR
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affiliations. In addition, a number of parties opposed the RDA and worked against the party.
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Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Ivory Coast was the political leader of RDA for much of its existence
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Morgenthau, Ruth Schacter; Behrman, Lucy Creevey (1984). "French-speaking tropical Africa".
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769:. The party building activities set the RDA up to perform well in the upcoming election.
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481:
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67:
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the coalition failed, he formed a new regional political party in September 1948, the
149:, in 1946. The aim of the conference was to unite African leaders affiliated with the
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269:) in 1946 all of the colonies of French Africa (except for the trusteeship of
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from Senegal. Although he did not sign it at the time of its composition,
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712:. This would begin a long relationship between Pleven's party, the
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party in the National Assembly, Houphouët-Boigny convinced
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270:
187:
2607:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 611–673.
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2148:
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1998:
1996:
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1446:(RDD) claimed to be the RDA affiliate after the mid-1950s.
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During this time, the French political parties passed the
2080:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1714:
512:
from Senegal openly endorsed the contents of the letter.
285:
largely split the legislature between a coalition of the
2494:. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 664–699.
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at this point), Apithy represented Dahomey (present-day
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France and the Africans 1944-1960: A Political History
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Democratic Union for the Defense of African Interests
2730:
1958 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
2512:. Malabar, Fl: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company.
2425:
2353:
1853:
1670:
724:, UDSR), and particularly with the young politician
281:, and some limited autonomy for local councils. The
2656:"International Symposium on the History of the RDA"
545:Although they only had a month to organize for the
2720:1958 disestablishments in French Equatorial Africa
2510:History of Africa, Volume III From 1945 to Present
2489:
2440:
2188:
1963:
1805:
1781:
1743:
1737:
1708:
2715:1946 establishments in the French colonial empire
2602:
2371:
1847:
1541:Voltaic Democratic Union-African Democratic Rally
722:Union démocratique et socialiste de la Résistance
660:
436:Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance
250:with any elections for political authorities was
2691:
1032:
714:Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance
176:Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance
128:Democratic and Socialist Union of the Resistance
2735:African and Black nationalist parties in Africa
2705:1946 establishments in French Equatorial Africa
2622:
2585:Africa since 1935: General history of Africa, 8
2395:
1314:debate at the congress focused on the issue of
669:The catalyst for the chaos was the removal of
319:Section Française de l'Internationale Ouvrière
2675:"Le congrès de Bamako ou la naissance du RDA"
1253:
547:French legislative elections in November 1946
428:French Section of the Workers' International
2725:1958 disestablishments in French West Africa
2581:
2462:Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010).
2419:
1464:(PSP) (only a member at 1946 party congress)
311:French Section of the Workers' International
2582:Mazrui, Ali A.; Wondji, Christophe (1999).
2553:
2461:
2275:
1725:
1371:) instead joined an informal grouping with
742:to political prominence as the head of the
2557:The Oxford Encyclopedia of African Thought
2516:
2089:
1260:
1246:
2710:1946 establishments in French West Africa
2605:The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 8
1384:never form again after the vote of 1958.
557:from the Ivory Coast (which included the
2770:Political parties disestablished in 1958
2611:
2434:
2407:
2383:
2347:
2335:
2323:
2311:
2299:
2287:
2260:
2248:
2236:
2224:
2212:
2200:
2176:
2164:
2152:
2137:
2125:
2113:
2101:
2074:
2062:
2050:
2038:
2026:
2014:
2002:
1987:
1975:
1907:
1895:
1883:
1871:
1832:
1820:
1793:
1769:
773:Return to power and dissolution: 1956–58
694:
358:
229:
221:
1919:
1468:Sudanese Union-African Democratic Rally
1387:
2692:
2554:Irele, Abiola; Jeyifo, Biodun (2010).
2525:
2507:
2446:
2359:
1859:
141:The RDA was formed at a conference in
2775:Political parties established in 1946
2632:
2503:. London: Cambridge University Press.
540:
2498:
1752:
1396:
1274:French legislative elections of 1956
573:), Konate represented French Sudan,
217:
2700:Rassemblement Démocratique Africain
2526:Hörber, Thomas (18 December 2007).
691:Break with the Communists (1950–55)
464:calling for all leaders to come to
124:decolonization of the French empire
95:Rassemblement Démocratique Africain
28:Rassemblement Démocratique Africain
16:1946–1958 political party in Africa
13:
2640:"African Democratic Rally (1946-)"
2492:History of West Africa: Volume Two
354:
347:in Madagascar and violence in the
14:
2786:
2740:African resistance to colonialism
1920:Schmidt, Elizabeth (March 2007).
1671:Coalitions with political parties
1415:Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire
1654:Union of the Peoples of Cameroon
809:
759:Union of the Peoples of Cameroon
2618:. New York: Walker and Company.
1913:
295:Mouvement Républicain Populaire
214:in the era after independence.
153:with those affiliated with the
2642:. BlackPast.org. 12 April 2009
1927:The Journal of African History
1470:(US/RDA) (after November 1946)
1333:Parti du Regroupement Africain
1202:
1018:
661:Chaos in the Ivory Coast: 1949
257:With the establishment of the
210:were joined together with the
1:
2745:French colonisation in Africa
2508:Gailey, Harry A. Jr. (1989).
2372:Morgenthau & Behrman 1984
1848:Morgenthau & Behrman 1984
1693:
1681:Party affiliations of the RDA
1557:No major RDA affiliated party
1493:No major RDA affiliated party
842:
829:
283:1946 French elections in June
2517:Hargreaves, John D. (1996).
1338:With the dissolution of the
751:Parti Démocratique de Guinée
641:Bloc Démocratique Sénégalais
565:), Tchicaya represented the
404:Popular Republican Movement
324:Groupes d’Etudes Communistes
102:and variously translated as
7:
2560:. Oxford University Press.
2468:. Oxford University Press.
1950:– via Cambridge Core.
1617:Congolese Progressive Party
1523:Senegalese Popular Movement
1517:Senegalese Democratic Union
1506:(leadership change in 1951)
1435:(UPD) (1946-September 1948)
1433:Dahomeyan Progressive Union
380:Senegalese Democratic Bloc
287:Popular Republican Movement
122:which was important in the
104:African Democratic Assembly
10:
2791:
2627:. 6 May 1959. p. A16.
2189:Crowder & O'Brien 1973
1964:Crowder & O'Brien 1973
1806:Crowder & O'Brien 1973
1782:Crowder & O'Brien 1973
1738:Crowder & O'Brien 1973
1709:Crowder & O'Brien 1973
1504:Nigerien Progressive Party
1481:Democratic Party of Guinea
1462:Progressive Sudanese Party
1444:Dahomeyan Democratic Rally
1440:Dahomeyan Democratic Union
744:Democratic Party of Guinea
453:André-Jean-Gaston Latrille
420:African Regroupment Party
138:in its political stances.
2760:History of Central Africa
2612:Mortimer, Edward (1969).
1940:10.1017/S0021853707002551
1582:Chadian Progressive Party
1325:African Regroupment Party
1035:Emperor of Central Africa
839:Trans-Saharan slave trade
396:Indépendants d'Outre-Mer
369:
307:Parti Communiste Français
61:
53:
45:
35:
21:
2532:. Springer. p. 38.
2519:Decolonization in Africa
2501:A History of West Africa
2422:, pp. 176–180, 210.
2420:Mazrui & Wondji 1999
1636:Gabonese Mixed Committee
1594:Central African Republic
1570:French Equatorial Africa
964:African Democratic Rally
881:French Equatorial Africa
800:Central African Republic
612:Indépendants d'Outre-Mer
551:Daniel Ouezzin Coulibaly
248:French Equatorial Africa
234:French Equatorial Africa
172:Indépendants d'Outre-Mer
168:French National Assembly
120:French Equatorial Africa
108:African Democratic Rally
98:, commonly known as the
24:African Democratic Rally
2276:Appiah & Gates 2010
1726:Irele & Jeyifo 2010
1381:Union of African States
1194:Conflict under Djotodia
1021:Coronation of Bokassa I
412:French Communist Party
196:Union of African States
2765:History of West Africa
2465:Encyclopedia of Africa
1340:French Fourth Republic
1332:
1303:
1133:United Nations Mission
1010:Central African Empire
950:Brazzaville Conference
765:'s party over that of
750:
721:
700:
640:
606:to fill the position.
468:(today the capital of
444:Félix Houphouët-Boigny
364:
318:
306:
299:French Communist Party
294:
266:
240:French Fourth Republic
235:
227:
160:Félix Houphouët-Boigny
155:French Communist Party
151:French Socialist Party
40:Félix Houphouët-Boigny
2623:"The Birth of UIAS".
1611:The Republic of Congo
1155:Kolingba coup attempt
733:1951 French elections
698:
571:Republic of the Congo
510:Léopold Sédar Senghor
362:
242:, the only colony in
233:
225:
2396:Washington Post 1959
1684:(approximate dates)
1625:(UDDIA) (after 1957)
1388:National RDA parties
1361:Conseil de l'Entente
1304:Convention Africaine
1119:Bangui Peace Accords
1073:Patassé coup attempt
1062:Kolingba coup d'état
939:Kongo-Wara rebellion
852:Sultanate of Bagirmi
506:Gabriel d'Arboussier
275:overseas departments
212:Conseil de l'Entente
2499:Fage, J.D. (1969).
2410:, pp. 320–325.
2350:, pp. 317–320.
2302:, pp. 262–263.
2263:, pp. 249–250.
2251:, pp. 227–229.
2179:, pp. 166–172.
2104:, pp. 146–147.
2053:, pp. 138–142.
1874:, pp. 111–112.
1823:, pp. 107–108.
1796:, pp. 105–106.
1740:, pp. 672–674.
1646:(currently part of
1108:Heightened tensions
1054:Operation Barracuda
996:Bokassa coup d'état
726:François Mitterrand
666:RDA in the colony.
632:Louis-Paul Aujoulat
577:represented Niger,
482:Sourou-Migan Apithy
474:Jean-Félix Tchicaya
388:African Convention
349:First Indochina War
198:. In contrast, the
145:, in the colony of
68:African nationalism
2755:French West Africa
2633:External resources
2588:. London: Oxford.
2521:. London: Longman.
2314:, p. 271-278.
1600:Union Oubanguienne
1483:(expelled in 1959)
1403:French West Africa
1296:African Convention
1282:Barthélemy Boganda
1169:Bozizé coup d'état
701:
581:represented Chad,
541:Divisions: 1947–49
365:
244:French West Africa
236:
228:
226:French West Africa
116:French West Africa
2567:978-0-19-533473-9
2539:978-3-531-90435-1
2475:978-0-19-533770-9
1667:
1666:
1270:
1269:
676:Victor Biaka Boda
599:Paul Coste-Floret
490:Fily Dabo Sissoko
440:
439:
345:Malagasy Uprising
309:or PCF), and the
279:National Assembly
218:Political context
90:
89:
85:African socialism
2782:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2660:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2628:
2619:
2608:
2599:
2578:
2576:
2574:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2522:
2513:
2504:
2495:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2450:
2444:
2438:
2432:
2423:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2357:
2351:
2345:
2339:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2228:
2222:
2216:
2210:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2174:
2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2123:
2117:
2111:
2105:
2099:
2093:
2087:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1952:
1951:
1917:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1767:
1756:
1750:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1723:
1712:
1706:
1397:
1352:French Community
1347:French Community
1262:
1255:
1248:
1211:
1203:
1192:
1186:
1175:
1167:
1161:
1153:
1139:
1131:
1125:
1117:
1103:
1097:General election
1079:
1068:
1052:
1046:
1033:
1027:
1019:
1008:
1002:
994:
962:
956:
948:
937:
920:
909:
898:
887:
847:
846: 1500–1600
844:
834:
831:
813:
812:
797:
777:
776:
671:Étienne Djaument
367:
76:Anti-colonialism
19:
18:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2779:
2690:
2689:
2680:
2678:
2673:
2664:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2645:
2643:
2638:
2635:
2625:Washington Post
2596:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2544:
2542:
2540:
2480:
2478:
2476:
2453:
2445:
2441:
2433:
2426:
2418:
2414:
2406:
2402:
2394:
2390:
2382:
2378:
2370:
2366:
2358:
2354:
2346:
2342:
2334:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2298:
2294:
2290:, pp. 248.
2286:
2282:
2274:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2247:
2243:
2235:
2231:
2223:
2219:
2211:
2207:
2199:
2195:
2187:
2183:
2175:
2171:
2163:
2159:
2151:
2144:
2136:
2132:
2124:
2120:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2096:
2090:Hargreaves 1996
2088:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1994:
1986:
1982:
1974:
1970:
1962:
1955:
1918:
1914:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1882:
1878:
1870:
1866:
1858:
1854:
1846:
1839:
1831:
1827:
1819:
1812:
1804:
1800:
1792:
1788:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1759:
1751:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1724:
1715:
1707:
1700:
1696:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1683:
1673:
1668:
1644:French Cameroon
1619:(PPC) (1946–57)
1563:
1548:French Togoland
1390:
1365:Mali Federation
1266:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1201:
1198:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1176:
1173:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1151:
1148:
1140:
1137:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1115:
1112:
1104:
1101:
1092:
1084:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1069:
1066:
1058:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1040:Operation Caban
1031:
1028:
1025:
1017:
1014:
1006:
1003:
1000:
992:
989:
980:
972:
971:
968:
960:
957:
954:
946:
943:
935:
927:
926:
922:French Cameroon
918:
915:
907:
904:
896:
893:
885:
876:
875:Colonial period
868:
867:
864:
856:
848:
845:
835:
833: 700–1380
832:
821:
803:
795:
786:
775:
728:, and the RDA.
693:
663:
585:from Togo, and
579:Gabriel Lisette
543:
372:
357:
355:Formation: 1946
267:Union française
220:
112:political party
83:
78:
74:
70:
31:
30:
25:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2788:
2778:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2688:
2687:
2671:
2652:
2634:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2620:
2609:
2600:
2594:
2579:
2566:
2551:
2538:
2523:
2514:
2505:
2496:
2487:
2474:
2452:
2451:
2439:
2424:
2412:
2400:
2398:, p. A16.
2388:
2386:, p. 320.
2376:
2374:, p. 627.
2364:
2352:
2340:
2338:, p. 305.
2328:
2326:, p. 295.
2316:
2304:
2292:
2280:
2278:, p. 318.
2265:
2253:
2241:
2239:, p. 223.
2229:
2227:, p. 200.
2217:
2215:, p. 198.
2205:
2203:, p. 172.
2193:
2191:, p. 680.
2181:
2169:
2167:, p. 157.
2157:
2155:, p. 155.
2142:
2140:, p. 153.
2130:
2128:, p. 152.
2118:
2116:, p. 148.
2106:
2094:
2092:, p. 153.
2079:
2077:, p. 146.
2067:
2065:, p. 144.
2055:
2043:
2041:, p. 132.
2031:
2029:, p. 138.
2019:
2017:, p. 131.
2007:
2005:, p. 130.
1992:
1990:, p. 129.
1980:
1978:, p. 121.
1968:
1966:, p. 676.
1953:
1912:
1910:, p. 119.
1900:
1898:, p. 118.
1888:
1886:, p. 117.
1876:
1864:
1852:
1850:, p. 626.
1837:
1835:, p. 110.
1825:
1810:
1808:, p. 675.
1798:
1786:
1784:, p. 672.
1774:
1772:, p. 105.
1757:
1755:, p. 207.
1742:
1730:
1728:, p. 275.
1713:
1711:, p. 673.
1697:
1695:
1692:
1686:
1678:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1659:
1658:
1657:
1641:
1640:
1639:
1628:
1627:
1626:
1620:
1604:
1603:
1602:
1590:Oubangui-Chari
1587:
1586:
1585:
1573:
1572:
1565:
1561:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1528:
1527:
1526:
1520:
1509:
1508:
1507:
1496:
1495:
1494:
1486:
1485:
1484:
1473:
1472:
1471:
1465:
1449:
1448:
1447:
1442:(UDD) and the
1436:
1420:
1419:
1418:
1406:
1405:
1395:
1389:
1386:
1278:Gaullist Party
1268:
1267:
1265:
1264:
1257:
1250:
1242:
1239:
1238:
1237:
1236:
1231:
1226:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1207:
1205:Fall of Bangui
1199:
1196:
1188:
1182:
1177:
1171:
1163:
1157:
1149:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1127:
1121:
1113:
1110:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1091:Current period
1090:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1081:
1075:
1070:
1064:
1059:
1056:
1048:
1042:
1037:
1029:
1023:
1015:
1012:
1004:
998:
990:
987:
985:Bokassa period
981:
978:
977:
974:
973:
970:
969:
966:
958:
952:
944:
941:
933:
931:Decolonization
928:
924:
916:
913:
905:
902:
894:
891:
883:
877:
874:
873:
870:
869:
866:
865:
862:
857:
854:
849:
841:
836:
828:
822:
819:
818:
815:
814:
806:
805:
802:
801:
798:
796:History of the
792:
788:
787:
780:
774:
771:
755:Ruben Um Nyobé
692:
689:
662:
659:
624:Henri Queuille
616:Robert Schuman
542:
539:
535:Mamadou Konate
526:Hermann Göring
486:French Dahomey
438:
437:
434:
430:
429:
426:
422:
421:
418:
414:
413:
410:
406:
405:
402:
398:
397:
394:
390:
389:
386:
382:
381:
378:
374:
373:
371:Party Acronyms
370:
356:
353:
219:
216:
136:pan-Africanist
88:
87:
72:Pan-Africanism
65:
59:
58:
55:
51:
50:
47:
43:
42:
37:
33:
32:
26:
23:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2787:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2676:
2672:
2657:
2653:
2641:
2637:
2636:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2595:9780520067035
2591:
2587:
2586:
2580:
2569:
2563:
2559:
2558:
2552:
2541:
2535:
2531:
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2443:
2436:
2435:Mortimer 1969
2431:
2429:
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2409:
2408:Mortimer 1969
2404:
2397:
2392:
2385:
2384:Mortimer 1969
2380:
2373:
2368:
2362:, p. 13.
2361:
2356:
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2348:Mortimer 1969
2344:
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2336:Mortimer 1969
2332:
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2324:Mortimer 1969
2320:
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2301:
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2288:Mortimer 1969
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2262:
2261:Mortimer 1969
2257:
2250:
2249:Mortimer 1969
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2214:
2213:Mortimer 1969
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2185:
2178:
2177:Mortimer 1969
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2166:
2165:Mortimer 1969
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2154:
2153:Mortimer 1969
2149:
2147:
2139:
2138:Mortimer 1969
2134:
2127:
2126:Mortimer 1969
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2115:
2114:Mortimer 1969
2110:
2103:
2102:Mortimer 1969
2098:
2091:
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2075:Mortimer 1969
2071:
2064:
2063:Mortimer 1969
2059:
2052:
2051:Mortimer 1969
2047:
2040:
2039:Mortimer 1969
2035:
2028:
2027:Mortimer 1969
2023:
2016:
2015:Mortimer 1969
2011:
2004:
2003:Mortimer 1969
1999:
1997:
1989:
1988:Mortimer 1969
1984:
1977:
1976:Mortimer 1969
1972:
1965:
1960:
1958:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1923:
1916:
1909:
1908:Mortimer 1969
1904:
1897:
1896:Mortimer 1969
1892:
1885:
1884:Mortimer 1969
1880:
1873:
1872:Mortimer 1969
1868:
1862:, p. 38.
1861:
1856:
1849:
1844:
1842:
1834:
1833:Mortimer 1969
1829:
1822:
1821:Mortimer 1969
1817:
1815:
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1802:
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1794:Mortimer 1969
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1770:Mortimer 1969
1766:
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1410:Côte d'Ivoire
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820:Early history
817:
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748:
745:
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736:
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729:
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723:
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706:rapprochement
697:
688:
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677:
672:
667:
658:
656:
651:
649:
644:
642:
638:
633:
627:
625:
621:
620:Radical Party
617:
613:
607:
605:
600:
596:
591:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
569:(present-day
568:
564:
560:
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552:
548:
538:
536:
530:
527:
521:
519:
518:Marius Moutet
513:
511:
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498:Yacine Diallo
495:
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144:
139:
137:
133:
132:anti-colonial
129:
125:
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117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
96:
86:
81:
77:
73:
69:
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
41:
38:
34:
29:
20:
2750:French Sudan
2679:. Retrieved
2663:. Retrieved
2644:. Retrieved
2624:
2614:
2604:
2584:
2571:. Retrieved
2556:
2543:. Retrieved
2528:
2518:
2509:
2500:
2491:
2479:. Retrieved
2464:
2456:Bibliography
2455:
2454:
2442:
2415:
2403:
2391:
2379:
2367:
2355:
2343:
2331:
2319:
2307:
2295:
2283:
2256:
2244:
2232:
2220:
2208:
2196:
2184:
2172:
2160:
2133:
2121:
2109:
2097:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2034:
2022:
2010:
1983:
1971:
1931:
1925:
1915:
1903:
1891:
1879:
1867:
1855:
1828:
1801:
1789:
1777:
1733:
1680:
1679:
1674:
1661:
1607:French Congo
1569:
1562:
1535:Burkino Faso
1525:(after 1951)
1452:French Sudan
1402:
1391:
1357:
1344:
1337:
1321:
1312:
1308:
1288:
1286:
1271:
1191:
1166:
1152:
1130:
1116:
1051:
1007:
993:
979:Independence
963:
961:
947:
936:
919:
911:Ubangi-Shari
908:
897:
889:French Congo
886:
860:Wadai Empire
826:Kanem Empire
767:Djibo Bakary
763:Hamani Diori
737:
730:
705:
702:
685:
668:
664:
652:
648:Ubangi-Shari
645:
628:
608:
595:Aimé Césaire
592:
575:Hamani Diori
567:Middle Congo
555:Zinda Kaboré
544:
531:
522:
514:
494:French Sudan
478:French Congo
461:Lamine Guèye
441:
351:in Vietnam.
336:
332:assimilation
331:
328:
297:or MRP) the
259:French Union
256:
237:
194:to form the
180:
147:French Sudan
140:
107:
103:
99:
94:
93:
91:
79:
27:
2677:. webAfriqa
2665:19 November
2646:19 November
2447:Gailey 1989
2360:Gailey 1989
1860:Hörber 2007
1609:(currently
1592:(currently
1550:(currently
1533:(currently
1531:Upper Volta
1454:(currently
1425:(currently
1379:called the
900:French Chad
740:Sékou Touré
710:René Pleven
655:Treichville
622:politician
559:Upper Volta
457:pan-African
448:Ivory Coast
200:Ivory Coast
164:Ivory Coast
57:Around 1958
2694:Categories
1694:References
1489:Mauritania
1316:federalism
587:Mamba Sano
583:Martin Aku
2573:28 August
2545:27 August
2481:28 August
1948:153492274
1934:(1): 99.
1753:Fage 1969
1656:(1946–50)
1519:(1946–51)
1438:Both the
1290:Loi Cadre
1197:2013–2014
1180:Civil War
1147:2004–2007
1111:1993–1998
1057:1979–1981
1013:1976–1979
988:1966–1979
967:1946–1958
942:1928–1931
925:1918–1960
914:1903–1958
903:1900–1960
892:1882–1910
863:1635–1909
855:1522–1897
604:Nazi Boni
524:plane of
273:) became
54:Dissolved
2661:. UNESCO
1648:Cameroon
1224:Category
1144:Bush War
783:a series
781:Part of
680:Dimbokro
178:(UDSR).
110:, was a
80:Factions
63:Ideology
2681:15 June
1512:Senegal
1423:Dahomey
1229:Commons
446:of the
252:Senegal
208:Dahomey
162:of the
46:Founded
36:Founder
2592:
2564:
2536:
2472:
1946:
1662:
1476:Guinea
1417:(PDCI)
1377:Guinea
1329:French
1300:French
1234:Portal
785:on the
747:French
718:French
637:French
553:, and
504:, and
502:Guinea
466:Bamako
315:French
303:French
291:French
263:French
184:Guinea
143:Bamako
2659:(PDF)
1944:S2CID
1638:(CMG)
1631:Gabon
1584:(PPT)
1499:Niger
1427:Benin
1373:Ghana
1210:–0000
1183:2012–
1174:–0000
1160:–0000
1138:–0000
1124:–0000
1102:–0000
1078:–0000
1067:–0000
1045:–0000
1026:–0000
1001:–0000
955:–0000
563:Benin
500:from
492:from
484:from
476:from
433:UDSR
425:SFIO
340:Ghana
204:Niger
192:Ghana
2683:2017
2667:2013
2648:2013
2590:ISBN
2575:2013
2562:ISBN
2547:2013
2534:ISBN
2483:2013
2470:ISBN
1577:Chad
1552:Togo
1456:Mali
1375:and
1369:Mali
1208:2013
1185:0000
1172:2003
1158:2001
1136:1998
1122:1997
1100:1993
1076:1982
1065:1981
1043:1979
1024:1977
999:1966
953:1944
470:Mali
417:PRA
409:PCF
401:MRP
393:IOM
377:BDS
271:Togo
206:and
188:Mali
186:and
134:and
118:and
106:and
92:The
49:1946
1936:doi
757:'s
385:CA
246:or
114:in
100:RDA
2696::
2427:^
2268:^
2145:^
2082:^
1995:^
1956:^
1942:.
1932:48
1930:.
1924:.
1840:^
1813:^
1760:^
1745:^
1716:^
1701:^
1650:)
1613:)
1596:)
1554:)
1537:)
1458:)
1429:)
1331::
1302::
843:c.
830:c.
749::
720::
639::
496:,
488:,
480:,
317::
305::
293::
265::
202:,
2685:.
2669:.
2650:.
2598:.
2577:.
2549:.
2485:.
2449:.
2437:.
1938::
1327:(
1298:(
1261:e
1254:t
1247:v
716:(
313:(
301:(
289:(
261:(
82::
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