Political party - Knowledge

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regulations affect parties are by intervening in their sources of income and by mandating that they maintain some level of transparency about their funding. One common type of restriction on how parties acquire money is to limit who can donate money to political parties; for example, people who are not citizens of a country may not be allowed to make contributions to that country's political parties, in order to prevent foreign interference. It is also common to limit how much money an individual can give to a political party each election. Similarly, many governments cap the total amount of money that can be spent by each party in an election. Transparency regulations may require parties to disclose detailed financial information to the government, and in many countries transparency laws require those disclosures to be available to the public, as a safeguard against potential corruption. Creating, implementing, and amending laws regarding party expenses can be extremely difficult, since governments may be controlled by the very parties that these regulations restrict.

2097: 2644:. For this reason, in two-party democracies like the United States, proponents of forming new competitive political parties often argue that developing a multi-party system would make the country more democratic. However, the question of whether multi-party systems are more democratic than two-party systems, or if they enjoy better policy outcomes, is a subject of substantial disagreement among scholars as well as among the public. In the opposite extreme, a country with a very large number of parties can experience governing coalitions that include highly ideologically diverse parties that are unable to make much policy progress, which may cause the country to be unstable and experience a very large number of elections; examples of systems that have been described as having these problems include periods in the recent history of 1909:, which allows people to make informed choices with much less mental effort than if voters had to consciously evaluate the merits of every candidate individually. Without political parties, electors would have to individually evaluate every candidate in every election. Parties enable electors to make judgments about just a few groups, and then apply their judgment of the party to its entire slate of candidates. Because it is much easier to become informed about a few parties' platforms than the positions of a multitude of independent candidates, parties reduce the cognitive burden for people to cast informed votes. However, some evidence suggests that over the last several decades, the strength of party identification has been weakening, so this may be a less important function for parties to provide than it was in the past. 2600: 27: 1443:, and they streamline the process of making political decisions by encouraging their members to cooperate. Political parties usually include a party leader, who has primary responsibility for the activities of the party; party executives, who may select the leader and who perform administrative and organizational tasks; and party members, who may volunteer to help the party, donate money to it, and vote for its candidates. There are many different ways in which political parties can be structured and interact with the electorate. The contributions that citizens give to political parties are often regulated by law, and parties will sometimes govern in a way that favours the people who donate time and money to them. 2002: 2398: 1931: 3684: 2971: 3082: 2871: 3172: 3313: 3227: 3122: 1867: 2296:. Liberalism is the ideology that is most closely connected to the history of democracies and is often considered to be the dominant or default ideology of governing parties in much of the contemporary world. Many of the traditional competitors to liberal parties are conservative parties. Socialist, communist, feminist, anarchist, fascist, and nationalist parties are more recent developments, largely entering political competitions only in the 19th and 20th centuries. Environmentalism, multiculturalism, and certain types of fundamentalism became prominent towards the end of the 20th century. 3117: 2688: 3622: 3454: 3717: 2941: 1842: 3237: 2701:

which have more than a certain number of candidates or supporters. A common argument for public funding of political parties is that it creates fairer and more democratic elections by enabling more groups to compete, whereas many advocates for private funding of parties argue that donations to parties are a form of political expression that should be protected in a democracy. Public financing of political parties may decrease parties' pursuit of funds through corrupt methods, by decreasing their incentive to find alternate sources of funding.

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parties which are mostly funded through small donations by individual supporters. Private funding for political parties can also be thought of as coming from internal or external sources: this distinguishes between dues from party members or contributions by candidates, and donations from entities outside of the party like non-members, corporations, or trade unions. Internal funding may be preferred because external sources might make the party beholden to an outside entity.

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shown that party organizations could take advantage of the distribution of voters' preferences over political issues, adjusting themselves in response to what voters believe in order to become more competitive. Beginning in the 1960s, academics began identifying the social cleavages in different countries that might have given rise to specific parties, such as religious cleavages in specific countries that may have produced religious parties there.

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while social cleavages might cause political parties to exist, this obscures the opposite effect: that political parties also cause changes in the underlying social cleavages. A further objection is that, if the explanation for where parties come from is that they emerge from existing social cleavages, then the theory is an incomplete story of where political parties come from unless it also explains the origins of these social cleavages.

11387: 11375: 2486:. Scholars have debated whether or not a country that has never experienced a transfer of power from one party to another can nevertheless be considered a democracy. There have been periods of government exclusively or entirely by one party in some countries that are often considered to have been democratic, and which had no official legal barriers to the inclusion of other parties in the government; this includes recent periods in 2931: 2981: 11447: 3558: 3412: 2146:"drastic reduction of the party's ideological baggage" and the "downgrading of the role of the individual party member". By broadening their central ideologies into more open-ended ones, catch-all parties seek to secure the support of a wider section of the population. Further, the role of members is reduced as catch-all parties are financed in part by the state or by donations. In Europe, the shift of 3077: 2127:. These parties represented large groups of citizens who had not previously been represented in political processes, articulating the interests of different groups in society. In contrast to elite parties, mass parties are funded by their members, and rely on and maintain a large membership base. Further, mass parties prioritize the mobilization of voters and are more centralized than elite parties. 3627: 3030: 3025: 3308: 2976: 2936: 1978:, have rigid methods for selecting the next party leader, which involves selection by other party members. A small number of single-party states have hereditary succession, where party leadership is inherited by the child of an outgoing party leader. Autocratic parties use more restrictive selection methods to avoid having major shifts in the regime as a result of successions. 2664:

parties may serve a crucial factor in election outcomes. It is also possible for very large multi-party systems, like India's, to nevertheless be characterized largely by a series of regional contests that realistically have only two competitive parties, but in the aggregate can produce many more than two parties that have major roles in the country's national politics.

1822:. However, these sources allow that a country with multiple competitive parties is not necessarily democratic, and the politics of many autocratic countries are organized around one dominant political party. The ubiquity and strength of political parties in nearly every modern country has led researchers to remark that the existence of political parties is almost a 1970:. Because the leader of a major party is a powerful and visible person, many party leaders are well-known career politicians. Party leaders can be sufficiently prominent that they affect voters' perceptions of the entire party, and some voters decide how to vote in elections partly based on how much they like the leaders of the different parties. 2764:, so that someone who cannot read a party's name on a ballot can instead identify that party by colour or logo. Parties of similar ideologies will often use the same colours across different countries. Colour associations are useful as a short-hand for referring to and representing parties in graphical media. They can also be used to refer to 2359:, called a party system. Some basic features of a party system are the number of parties and what sorts of parties are the most successful. These properties are closely connected to other major features of the country's politics, such as how democratic it is, what sorts of restrictions its laws impose on political parties, and what type of 2223:, and dedicated to the advancement of that person or their policies. While some definitions of political parties state that a party is an organization that advances a specific set of ideological or policy goals, many political parties are not primarily motivated by ideology or policy, and instead exist to advance the career of a specific 2035:

of political parties often are allowed to participate in elections to choose the party leadership. Party members may form the base of the volunteer activists and donors who support political parties during campaigns. The extent of participation in party organizations can be affected by a country's political institutions, with certain

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the influence of outsiders, who were only required to assist in election campaigns. Mass parties tried to recruit new members who were a source of party income and were often expected to spread party ideology as well as assist in elections. In the United States, where both major parties were elite parties, the introduction of

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However, associations between colour and ideology can also be inconsistent: parties of the same ideology in different countries often use different colours, and sometimes competing parties in a country may even adopt the same colours. These associations also have major exceptions. For example, in the

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Many of the activities of political parties involve the acquisition and allocation of funds in order to achieve political goals. The funding involved can be very substantial, with contemporary elections in the largest democracies typically costing billions or even tens of billions of dollars. Much of

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Citizens in a democracy will often affiliate with a specific political party. Party membership may include paying dues, an agreement not to affiliate with multiple parties at the same time, and sometimes a statement of agreement with the party's policies and platform. In democratic countries, members

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Political parties are often structured in similar ways across countries. They typically feature a single party leader, a group of party executives, and a community of party members. Parties in democracies usually select their party leadership in ways that are more open and competitive than parties in

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Political parties are distinguished from other political groups or clubs, such as parliamentary groups, because only presidents have control over the political foundations of the party and also they include political factions, or advocacy groups, mostly by the fact that a party is focused on electing

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with a particular political party, the official party organizations that support the election of that party's candidates, and legislators in the government who are affiliated with the party. In many countries, the notion of a political party is defined in law, and governments may specify requirements

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One way of categorizing the sources of party funding is between public funding and private funding. Another dichotomy is between plutocratic and grassroots sources; parties which get much of their funding from large corporations may tend to pursue different policies and use different strategies than

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Common sources of party funding across countries include dues-paying party members, advocacy groups and lobbying organizations, corporations, trade unions, and candidates who may self-fund activities. In most countries, the government also provides some level of funding for political parties. Nearly

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Two-party systems have attracted heavy criticism for limiting the choices that electors have, and much of this criticism has centered around their association with restrictive political institutions. For example, some commentators argue that political institutions in prominent two-party systems like

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Niche parties are a type of political party that developed on the basis of the emergence of new cleavages and issues in politics, such as immigration and the environment. In contrast to mainstream or catch-all parties, niche parties articulate an often limited set of interests in a way that does not

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Political scientists have distinguished between different types of political parties that have evolved throughout history. These include elite parties, mass parties, catch-all parties and cartel parties. Elite parties were political elites that were concerned with contesting elections and restricted

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The number of people involved in choosing party leaders varies widely across parties and across countries. On one extreme, party leaders might be selected from the entire electorate; on the opposite extreme, they might be selected by just one individual. Selection by a smaller group can be a feature

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for candidates and legislators. For example, the existence of political parties might coordinate candidates across geographic districts, so that a candidate in one electoral district has an incentive to assist a similar candidate in a different district. Thus, political parties can be mechanisms for

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There are many ways in which political parties may deploy money in order to secure better electoral outcomes. Parties often spend money to train activists, recruit volunteers, create and deploy advertisements, conduct research and support for their leadership in between elections, and promote their

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first distinguished between elite and "mass" parties, founding his distinction on the differences within the organisational structures of these two types. Elite parties are characterized by minimal and loose organisation, and are financed by fewer larger monetary contributions typically originating

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One of the core explanations for the existence of political parties is that they arise from pre-existing divisions among people: society is divided in a certain way, and a party is formed to organize that division into the electoral competition. By the 1950s, economists and political scientists had

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are one of the major organizing features of political parties, and parties often officially align themselves with specific ideologies. Parties adopt ideologies for a number of reasons. Ideological affiliations for political parties send signals about the types of policies they might pursue if they

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The theory that parties are produced by social cleavages has drawn several criticisms. Some authors have challenged it on empirical grounds, either finding no evidence for the claim that parties emerge from existing cleavages, or arguing that the claim is not empirically testable. Others note that

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Political parties are collective entities and activities that organize competitions for political offices. The members of a political party contest elections under a shared label. In a narrow definition, a political party can be thought of as just the group of candidates who run for office under a

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have some form of public funding for political parties, and about a third have regular payments of government funds that goes beyond campaign reimbursements. In some countries, public funding for parties depends on the size of that party: for example, a country may only provide funding to parties

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Political parties may also temporarily cease to exist in countries that have either only been established recently, or that have experienced a major upheaval in their politics and have not yet returned to a stable system of political parties. For example, the United States began as a non-partisan

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Political parties are ubiquitous across both democratic and autocratic countries, and there is often very little change in which political parties have a chance of holding power in a country from one election to the next. This makes it possible to think about the political parties in a country as

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Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two parties have a realistic chance of holding power and influencing policy. A very large number of systems around the world have had periods of multi-party competition, and two-party democracies may be considered unusual or uncommon compared to

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Parties can also align their member's incentives when those members are in a legislature. The existence of a party apparatus can help coalitions of electors to agree on ideal policy choices, whereas a legislature of unaffiliated members might never be able to agree on a single best policy choice

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Fundraising and expenditures by political parties are typically regulated by governments, with many countries' regulations focusing on who can contribute money to parties, how parties' money can be spent, and how much of it can pass through the hands of a political party. Two main ways in which

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Some multi-party systems may have two parties that are noticeably more competitive than the other parties. Such party systems have been called "two-party-plus" systems, which refers to the two dominant parties, plus other parties that exist but rarely or never hold power in the government. Such

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this expense is paid by candidates and political parties, which often develop sophisticated fundraising organizations. Because paying for participation in electoral contests is such a central democratic activity, the funding of political parties is an important feature of a country's politics.

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to describe the parties that developed in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of changes within the mass parties. The term "big tent party" may be used interchangeably. Kirchheimer characterized the shift from the traditional mass parties to catch-all parties as a set of developments including the

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By the early 19th century, a number of countries had developed stable modern party systems. The party system that developed in Sweden has been called the world's first party system, on the basis that previous party systems were not fully stable or institutionalized. In many European countries,

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conform to the dominant economic left-right divide in politics, in turn emphasising issues that do not attain prominence within the other parties. Further, niche parties do not respond to changes in public opinion to the extent that mainstream parties do. Examples of niche parties include

2429:. However, it is also possible – albeit rare – for countries with no bans on political parties, and which have not experienced a major disruption, to nevertheless have no political parties: there are a small number of pacific island democracies, such as 2204:

in France. However, over time these parties may grow in size and shed some of their niche qualities as they become larger, a phenonmenon observable among European Green parties during their transformation from radical environmentalist movements to mainstream centre-left parties.

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preventing candidates with similar goals from acting to each other's detriment when campaigning or governing. This might help explain the ubiquity of parties: if a group of candidates form a party and are harming each other less, they may perform better over the long run than

2176:, who wrote that political parties have turned into "semi-state agencies", acting on behalf of the state rather than groups in society. The term 'cartel' refers to the way in which prominent parties in government make it difficult for new parties to enter, as such forming a 2421:, a ban on political parties has been used as a tool for protecting the monarchy. However, parties are also banned in some polities that have long democratic histories, usually in local or regional elections of countries that have strong national party systems. 1746:, but shifted and strengthened again by the second half of the 19th century. This was not the only country in which the strength of political parties had substantially increased by the end of the century; for example, around this time the Irish political leader 2563:

A democracy's political institutions can shape the number of parties that it has. In the 1950s Maurice Duverger observed that single-member district single-vote plurality-rule elections tend to produce two-party systems, and this phenomenon came to be known as

2303:. However, a simple left-right economic axis does not fully capture the variation in party ideologies. Other common axes that are used to compare the ideologies of political parties include ranges from liberal to authoritarian, from pro-establishment to 2425:

democracy, and it evolved a stable system of political parties over the course of many decades. A country's party system may also dissolve and take time to re-form, leaving a period of minimal or no party system, such as in Peru following the regime of

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An informative way to classify the party systems of the world is by how many parties they include. Because some party systems include a large number of parties that have a very low probability of winning elections, it is often useful to think about the

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were in power. Ideologies also differentiate parties from one another, so that voters can select the party that advances the policies that they most prefer. A party may also seek to advance an ideology by convincing voters to adopt its belief system.

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is focused on advancing a policy agenda. This is related to other features that sometimes distinguish parties from other political organizations, including a larger membership, greater stability over time, and a deeper connection to the electorate.

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in the mid-20th century, many newly sovereign countries outside of Europe and North America developed party systems that often emerged from their movements for independence. For example, a system of political parties arose out of factions in the

1478:. Political parties in different countries will often adopt similar colours and symbols to identify themselves with a particular ideology. However, many political parties have no ideological affiliation, and may instead be primarily engaged in 2506:. It can also occur that one political party dominates a sub-national region of a democratic country that has a competitive national party system; one example is the southern United States during much of the 19th and 20th centuries, where the 2451:, power is held entirely by one political party. When only one political party exists, it may be the result of a ban on the formation of any competing political parties, which is a common feature in authoritarian states. For example, the 2122:

in society and mobilized the ordinary citizens or 'masses' in the political process. In Europe, the introduction of universal suffrage resulted in the creation of worker's parties that later evolved into mass parties; an example is the

2718:, in which they distribute material rewards to people in exchange for political support; in many countries this is illegal, though even where it is illegal it may nevertheless be widespread in practice. Some parties engage directly in 1826:

of politics, and to ask why parties appear to be such an essential part of modern states. Political scientists have therefore come up with several explanations for why political parties are a nearly universal political phenomenon.

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of party leadership transitions in more autocratic countries, where the existence of political parties may be severely constrained to only one legal political party, or only one competitive party. Some of these parties, like the

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Political parties are a nearly ubiquitous feature of modern countries. Nearly all democratic countries have strong political parties, and many political scientists consider countries with fewer than two parties to necessarily be

2459:, and is the only party that can hold seats in the legislature. When only one powerful party is legally permitted to exist, its membership can grow to contain a very large portion of society and it can play substantial roles in 2322:

Though ideologies are central to a large number of political parties around the world, not all political parties have an organizing ideology, or exist to promote ideological policies. For example, some political parties may be

1599:. However, modern political parties are considered to have emerged around the end of the 18th century; they are usually considered to have first appeared in Europe and the United States of America, with the United Kingdom's 2171:

are a type of political party that emerged post-1970s and are characterized by heavy state financing and the diminished role of ideology as an organizing principle. The cartel party thesis was developed by Richard Katz and

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The presence of many competing political parties is usually associated with a greater level of democracy, and a country transitioning from having a one-party system to having a many-party system is often considered to be

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encouraging higher party membership. Since at least the 1980s, membership in large traditional party organizations has been steadily declining across a number of countries, particularly longstanding European democracies.

2331:-based organizations, which are largely concerned with distributing goods. Other political parties may be created as tools for the advancement of an individual politician. It is also common, in countries with important 2013:

Much as party leaders who are not in power are usually at least nominally competing to become the head of government, the entire party executive may be competing for various positions in the government. For example, in

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In some non-partisan countries, the formation of parties is explicitly banned by law. The existence of political parties may be banned in autocratic countries in order to prevent a turnover in power. For example, in

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along ethnic or racial lines, to represent the interests of one ethnic group or another. This may involve a non-ideological attachment to the interests of that group, or may be a commitment based on an ideology like

1946:, who serves as the main representative of the party and often has primary responsibility for overseeing the party's policies and strategies. The leader of the party that controls the government usually becomes the 10002: 2180:

of established parties. As with catch-all parties, the role of members in cartel parties is largely insignificant as parties use the resources of the state to maintain their position within the political system.

2568:. Whether or not this pattern is true has been heavily debated over the last several decades. Some political scientists have broadened this idea to argue that more restrictive political institutions (of which 2552:. Two-party systems are not limited to democracies; they may be present in authoritarian regimes as well. Competition between two parties has occurred in historical autocratic regimes in countries including 1705:

did not all anticipate that American political disputes would be primarily organized around political parties, political controversies in the early 1790s over the extent of federal government powers saw the

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is one example) tend to produce a smaller number of political parties, so that extremely small parties systems – like those with only two parties – tend to form in countries with very restrictive rules.

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it uses. Even in countries where the number of political parties is not officially constrained by law, political institutions affect how many parties are viable. For example, democracies that use a

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In both democratic and non-democratic countries, the party leader is often the foremost member of a larger party leadership. A party executive will commonly include administrative positions, like a

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Another prominent explanation for why political parties exist is psychological: parties may be necessary for many individuals to participate in politics because they provide a massively simplifying

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slowly spread throughout democracies, political parties expanded dramatically, and only then did a vision develop of political parties as intermediaries between the full public and the government.

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Political parties have become a major part of the politics of almost every country, as modern party organizations developed and spread around the world over the last few centuries. Although

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Scott Mainwaring; Mariano Torcal (2005). "Party System Institutionalization and Party System Theory After the Third Wave of Democratization". In Richard S. Katz; William Crotty (eds.).

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Campaign finance restrictions may be motivated by the perception that excessive or secretive contributions to political parties will make them beholden to people other than the voters.

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from outside the party. Elite parties give little priority to expanding the party's membership base, and its leaders are its only members. The earliest political parties, such as the

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Stephen P. Nicholson; Christopher J. Carman; Chelsea M. Coe; Aidan Feeney; Balázs Fehér; Brett K. Hayes; Christopher Kam; Jeffrey A. Karp; Gergo Vaczi; Evan Heit (13 February 2018).

9268: 9837: 8942: 3839: 7599: 2467:. Bans on competing parties can also ensure that only one party can ever realistically hold power, even without completely outlawing all other political parties. For example, in 4271:

The Frankfurt Declaration of the Socialist International, which almost all social democratic parties are members of, declares the goal of the development of democratic socialism

4199: 2656:. Multi-party systems are often viewed as fairer or more representative than one- or two-party systems, but they also have downsides, like the likelihood that in a system with 8965: 8587: 8322: 2697: 2577:

the United States have been specifically designed to ensure that no third party can become competitive. Criticisms also center around these systems' tendencies to encourage

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party label. In a broader definition, political parties are the entire apparatus that supports the election of a group of candidates, including voters and volunteers who

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Li Cheng; Lynn White (1998). "The Fifteenth Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party: Full-Fledged Technocratic Leadership with Partial Control by Jiang Zemin".

9745: 8000: 5940:"Are Niche Parties Fundamentally Different from Mainstream Parties? The Causes and the Electoral Consequences of Western European Parties' Policy Shifts, 1976–1998" 2026:

which (among other functions) provides a signal about which members of the party would hold which positions in the government if the party were to win an election.

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William Roberts Clark; Matt Golder (August 2006). "Rehabilitating Duverger's Theory: Testing the Mechanical and Strategic Modifying Effects of Electoral Laws".

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In several countries, there are only two parties that have a realistic chance of competing to form government. One current example of a two-party system is the

9767: 2628:. Multi-party systems encourage characteristically different types of governance than smaller party systems, for example by often encouraging the formation of 8778: 2729:

for expenses during a campaign. Once a party has crossed a particular spending threshold, additional expenditures might not increase their chance of success.

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was feasible, and held elections that were dominated by individual networks or cliques that could independently propel a candidate to victory in an election.

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Chris W. Bonneau; Damon M. Cann (October 2011). "Campaign Spending, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Campaign Finance Restrictions in Judicial Elections".

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Anthony Heath; Siana Glouharova; Oliver Heath (2005). "India: Two-Party Contests within a Multiparty System". In Michael Gallagher; Paul Mitchell (eds.).

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have been identified as the first modern political party, because they retained a coherent party label and motivating principles even while out of power.

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and immediately became a major political party after Indian independence, foreshadowed the dynamic in many newly independent countries; for example, the

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At the beginning of the 20th century in Europe, the liberal–conservative divide that characterized most party systems was disrupted by the emergence of

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is a type of political party that was dominant in the nineteenth century before the introduction of universal suffrage. The French political scientist

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autocracies, where the selection of a new party leader is likely to be tightly controlled. In countries with large sub-national regions, particularly

7079: 6730: 2402: 2105: 9712: 8850: 1432:, though usually democracies have more political parties than autocracies. Autocracies often have a single party that governs the country, and some 9609: 9394:

Korff, Gottfried; Peterson, Larry (Fall 1992). "From Brotherly Handshake to Militant Clenched Fist: On Political Metaphors for the Worker's Hand".

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Jean-François Daoust; André Blais; Gabrielle Péloquin-Skulski (29 April 2019). "What do voters do when they prefer a leader from another party?".

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Brian F. Schaffner; Matthew Streb; Gerald Wright (1 March 2001). "Tearns Without Uniforms: The Nonpartisan Ballot in State and Local Elections".

8910: 3236: 1966:, the members of a party frequently have substantial input into the selection of party leaders, for example by voting on party leadership at a 9964: 8136: 7964: 7742: 6847:

Steven Levitsky; Maxwell A. Cameron (19 December 2008). "Democracy Without Parties? Political Parties and Regime Change in Fujimori's Peru".

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had almost complete control, with the Southern states being functionally one-party regimes, though opposition parties were never prohibited.

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In a non-partisan system, no political parties exist, or political parties are not a major part of the political system. There are very few

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was a pro-independence party and the first political party in Uganda, and its name was chosen as an homage to the Indian National Congress.

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Gideon Rahat; Reuven Y. Hazan (2005). "Israel: The Politics of an Extreme Electoral System". In Michael Gallagher; Paul Mitchell (eds.).

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Anna Lührmann; Juraj Medzihorsky; Garry Hindle; Staffan I. Lindberg (26 October 2020). "New Global Data on Political Parties: V-Party".

3828: 10033: 7592: 1906: 635: 8615:"Typologies of Party Finance Systems: A Comparative Study of How Countries Regulate Party Finance and Their Institutional Foundations" 7503:"The Multi-Party System in Indonesia: Reviewing the Number of Electoral Parties from the Aspects of the National Defense and Security" 6890: 5816:

Katz, Richard S.; Mair, Peter (1995). "Changing Models of Party Organisation and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party".

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Katz, Richard S.; Mair, Peter (1995). "Changing Models of Party Organisation and Party Democracy: The Emergence of the Cartel Party".

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Cassel-Picot, Muriel "The Liberal Democrats and the Green Cause: From Yellow to Green" in Leydier, Gilles and Martin, Alexia (2013)

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and other reforms has transformed them so that power is held by activists who compete over influence and nomination of candidates.

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Before the development of mass political parties, elections typically featured a much lower level of competition, had small enough

1372: 9509: 7177:; Jae Woo Hong (December 2006). "Ghana's political parties: How ethno/regional variations sustain the national two-party system". 2760:, recognizing, and remembering the party. This branding is particularly important in polities where much of the population may be 2096: 9291: 2865: 1922:

countries, there may be regional party leaders and regional party members in addition to the national membership and leadership.

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Many political parties are motivated by ideological goals. It is common for democratic elections to feature competitions between

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Meitzner, Marcus (August 2007). "Party Financing in Post-Soeharto Indonesia: Between State Subsidies and Political Corruption".

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The formation of national party systems: Federalism and party competition in Canada, Great Britain, India, and the United States

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It is also possible for countries with free elections to have only one party that holds power. These cases are sometimes called

2340:. While any of these types of parties may be ideological, there are political parties that do not have any organizing ideology. 9737: 9001: 8326: 4169: 3231: 2599: 6429:

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9086: 8966:"Why Boris Johnson and MPs are wearing a wheat sheaf badge on their lapel: The campaign to support British farmers explained" 7725: 6550: 4953: 4333:

Jordan, Donald (1986). "John O'Connor Power, Charles Stewart Parnell and the Centralization of Popular Politics in Ireland".

4147: 3024: 2471:, more than one party is officially permitted to exist and even to seat members in the legislature, but laws ensure that the 2935: 9053: 6193:

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Meguid, Bonnie M. (2005). "Competition Between Unequals: The Role of Mainstream Party Strategy in Niche Party Success".

2582: 2383:(the number of parties weighted by the strength of those parties) rather than the literal number of registered parties. 9724: 9209: 8464: 8103: 7947: 7914: 7683: 7485: 7391: 7058: 7026: 7001: 6976: 6796: 6665: 6631: 6578: 6514: 6302: 6270: 6245: 6104: 5714:

Angell, Harold M. (June 1987). "Duverger, Epstein and the Problem of the Mass Party: The Case of the Parti Québécois".

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An alternative explanation for why parties are ubiquitous across the world is that the formation of parties provides

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Though it may be crucial for a party to spend more than some threshold to win a given election, there are typically

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Kroeger, Alex M. (9 March 2018). "Dominant Party Rule, Elections, and Cabinet Instability in African Autocracies".

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Belloni, Frank P.; Beller, Dennis C. (1976). "The Study of Party Factions as Competitive Political Organizations".

3121: 3081: 2797: 2793: 2533: 2529: 2507: 2307:, and from tolerant and pluralistic (in their behavior while participating in the political arena) to anti-system. 1329: 109: 20: 5441:"The Shadow Cabinet in Westminster Systems: Modeling Opposition Agenda Setting in the House of Commons, 1832–1915" 5068: 3710: 3671: 3154: 975: 11247: 10594: 10495: 10055: 9557: 5106:

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3509: 3453: 2751: 2433:, where political parties are permitted to exist and yet parties are not an important part of national politics. 2001: 1659: 1401:. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific 5505:

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Boix, Carles; Miller, Michael; Rosato, Sebastian (2013). "A complete data set of political regimes, 1800–2007".

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Nearly all political parties associate themselves with specific colours and symbols, primarily to aid voters in

2640:. Authoritarian countries can include multi-party competition, but typically this occurs when the elections are 2528:, where the national government has for much of the country's history exclusively been controlled by either the 10754: 10388: 9904: 7416: 3357: 3312: 3171: 2124: 1671: 628: 498: 276: 124: 9114: 8731: 6044: 5750: 5565:

Peter Mair; Ingrid van Biezen (1 January 2001). "Party Membership in Twenty European Democracies, 1980–2000".

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can arise out of, or be closely connected to, existing segments of society, such as organizations of workers.

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It is easier for voters to evaluate one simple list of policies for each party, like this platform for the

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Party positions for individual political parties are assessed by different published indices, such as the

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divide, or around religious disputes. The spread of the party model of politics was accelerated by the

1702: 1642:

caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition with North. George III is the blockhead in the centre.

1533:

The idea of people forming large groups or factions to advocate for their shared interests is ancient.

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Cini, Michelle (2 December 2009). "A Divided Nation: Polarization and the Two-Party System in Malta".

10967: 6964: 4426:"Formation and Impact of Political Parties in 1950s up to Independence (1962): Lessons for Democracy" 3302: 2006: 1589: 1292: 621: 226: 7019:

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tend to have more. The number of parties in a country can also be accurately estimated based on the

10762: 10744: 7431: 6921: 3716: 3621: 3592: 3411: 3401: 3307: 2870: 1846: 1799: 1791: 1439:

Parties can develop from existing divisions in society, like the divisions between lower and upper

1029: 960: 341: 231: 31: 11096: 3836:

University of Maryland-Hewlett Foundation Conference on Parties, Polarization and Policy Demanders

11137: 10924: 10413: 10398: 9430: 3166: 2777: 2673: 2464: 2452: 2311: 1975: 1879: 1747: 1663: 1600: 1358: 984: 271: 10026:"Coins of the Month – The symbols of the French socialists from the nineteenth century to today" 7835:"Africans increasingly support multiparty democracy, but trust in political parties remains low" 7214:"Introducing authoritarian diasporas: causes and consequences of authoritarian elite dispersion" 6684:

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1958:, and the leaders of other parties explicitly compete to become the head of government. In both 11192: 11177: 9896: 9890: 9505: 6321:

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3626: 3448: 3226: 2773: 2392: 2364: 2224: 2220: 2081: 1884: 1871: 1686:) supported a strong monarchy, and these two groups structured disputes in the politics of the 1487: 1220: 508: 450: 396: 9709: 8457:

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Kornblith, Miriam (July 2013). "Latin America's Authoritarian Drift: Chavismo After Chávez?".

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that are not necessarily directly related to political governance; one example of this is the

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Common ideologies that can form a central part of the identity of a political party include

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Lachat, Romain (December 2008). "The impact of party polarization on ideological voting".

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including Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and France, political parties organized around a

8: 11367: 11172: 10312: 10229: 9229: 8905: 8667: 8289: 7360: 6968: 5150: 4455: 2990: 2911: 2781: 2769: 2726: 2569: 2536:. Other examples of countries which have had long periods of two-party dominance include 2168: 2163: 2119: 1959: 1836: 1655: 1513: 1433: 1297: 1287: 1282: 1267: 1247: 1104: 926: 911: 786: 734: 550: 460: 314: 216: 166: 104: 9583: 4533:

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Przeworski, Adam; Alvarez, Michael E.; Cheibub, Jose Antonio; Limongi, Fernando (2000).

3587: 2405:, every member runs and legislates as a political independent with no party affiliation. 1841: 1569:. A few instances of recorded political groups or factions in history included the late 11472: 10987: 10646: 10500: 10485: 10463: 10207: 10187: 10140: 10130: 9656: 9501: 9483: 9411: 9371: 8639: 8614: 8503: 8399: 8391: 8263: 8228: 8047: 8039: 7649: 7641: 7593:"Governmental Coalitions in Multiparty Presidentialism: The Brazilian Case (1988–2011)" 7573: 7568: 7541: 7522: 7303: 7268: 7233: 7194: 7156: 7121: 6957: 6864: 6860: 6829: 6769: 6701: 6623: 6454: 6446: 6338: 6218: 6210: 6141: 5962: 5915: 5890: 5868: 5833: 5770: 5731: 5676: 5582: 5522: 5460: 5396: 5361: 5276: 5241: 5206: 5168: 5133: 5088: 5049: 5018: 4893: 4763: 4702: 4664: 4601: 4563: 4475: 4350: 4300: 3933: 2785: 2594: 2304: 2241: 2015: 1947: 1887:, so politicians with party affiliations will out-compete politicians without parties. 1806: 1698: 1697:

At the end of the century, the United States also developed a party system, called the

1595: 1436:

consider competition between two or more parties to be an essential part of democracy.

1417: 1402: 1252: 1211: 1146: 1064: 876: 749: 679: 670: 588: 181: 11427: 10972: 10894: 10732: 10475: 10470: 10423: 10348: 10342: 10182: 10100: 9945: 9937: 9910: 9900: 9863: 9720: 9660: 9487: 9415: 9375: 9205: 9175:"Forget Red vs. Blue: The Paradigm for the 21st Century is Orange, Purple, and Green" 9082: 8695:"Ceiling fans, brooms and mangoes: The election symbols of India's political parties" 8644: 8507: 8460: 8403: 8232: 8117: 8109: 8099: 8051: 7943: 7910: 7882: 7865: 7721: 7653: 7577: 7526: 7481: 7412: 7387: 7307: 7237: 7198: 7160: 7054: 7022: 6997: 6972: 6868: 6792: 6705: 6661: 6627: 6615: 6574: 6546: 6510: 6458: 6298: 6266: 6241: 6222: 6145: 6122:"What Drives Euroskepticism? Party–Public Cueing, Ideology and Strategic Opportunity" 6100: 5958: 5939: 5920: 5872: 5837: 5774: 5735: 5680: 5586: 5545: 5526: 5464: 5419: 5400: 5365: 5324: 5299: 5280: 5210: 5172: 5119: 5092: 5053: 4949: 4862: 4722:

Cleavage structures, party systems, and voter alignments: Cross-national perspectives

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Konfederacje a ewolucja mechanizmów walki politycznej w Rzeczypospolitej XVIII wieku

11451: 11355: 11343: 10977: 10944: 10443: 10307: 10302: 10267: 10056:"¿Coincidencia? ¿Por qué estos 3 logos de partidos de izquierda son tan parecidos?" 9648: 9473: 9403: 9363: 9153: 8634: 8626: 8612: 8584:"Let's talk about money: comparative perspectives on political finance regulations" 8530: 8493: 8435: 8383: 8255: 8220: 8091: 8031: 7935: 7902: 7877: 7713: 7633: 7563: 7553: 7514: 7473: 7445: 7334: 7295: 7260: 7225: 7186: 7148: 7125: 7113: 7051:

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discusses the tendency of different types of government to produce factions in the

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Organization coordinating policy priorities and candidates for government positions

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and alliances between political parties and other organizations; examples include

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policy agenda. Many political parties and candidates engage in a practice called

2641: 2637: 2448: 2442: 2332: 2299:

Parties can sometimes be organized according to their ideology using an economic

1987: 1823: 1736: 1421: 1348: 1277: 1272: 1192: 1166: 1161: 1141: 1079: 1039: 1034: 611: 418: 403: 9049: 7939: 7906: 7717: 7542:"The Novel Changes in Pakistan's Party Politics: Analysis of Causes and Impacts" 7477: 7117: 5829: 5672: 5578: 4458:(2006). "Political Context and the Turnout of New Women Voters after Suffrage". 2141:

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1630: 11303: 11111: 11029: 10618: 10584: 10535: 10520: 10292: 10197: 10177: 10167: 8937: 8845: 8095: 8087: 8065: 7969: 7866:"O Other, Where Art Thou? Support for Multiparty Politics in the United States" 7669:"Developing Multi-Party Politics: Stability and Change in Ghana and Mozambique" 7558: 7042: 6765: 6611: 5996: 5032:

William Cross; André Blais (26 January 2011). "Who selects the party leader?".

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of a country's electoral districts and the number of seats in its legislature.

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On this 2012 Mexican ballot, voters have more than two parties to choose from.

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5084: 4835: 1794:, which developed in the late 19th century as a pro-independence faction in 11289: 11039: 11007: 10962: 10700: 10695: 10666: 10579: 10557: 10525: 10458: 10438: 10332: 10272: 10262: 10214: 10172: 10150: 10093: 9296: 8873: 8648: 6912: 5924: 5005:

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electoral system tend to have very few parties, whereas countries that use

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Some scholars argue that the first modern political parties developed in

1483: 1471: 1429: 1425: 1054: 1004: 940: 936: 906: 841: 776: 480: 445: 348: 336: 201: 11326: 9965:"Denmark's "Democratic Ownership" Agenda Shows We Can Run Our Own Lives" 9174: 9158: 9141: 8395: 5938:

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the winner of a race with many options will only have minority support.

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both frequently called the world's "oldest continuous political party".

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8319:"Are there provisions for direct public funding to political parties?" 7152: 6917:"China's Communist Party membership tops entire population of Germany" 5646:

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An Entrepreneurial party is a political party that is centered on a

11398: 11231: 11216: 10919: 10804: 10601: 10145: 10032:. Joint Centre for History and Economics, University of Cambridge. 8167:"2020 election to cost $ 14 billion, blowing away spending records" 8134: 6094: 3567: 3372: 3246: 3212: 2950: 2621: 2537: 2487: 2289: 2273: 1679: 1675: 1491: 1475: 1467: 1398: 921: 846: 821: 811: 704: 578: 538: 221: 206: 186: 55: 9706:

Environmental Issues in Political Discourse in Britain and Ireland

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John Anthony Maltese; Joseph A. Pika; W. Phillips Shively (2020).

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faction originally organized itself around support for Protestant

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Political Entrepreneurs: The Rise of Challenger Parties in Europe

3181: 2653: 2541: 2499: 2269: 806: 493: 151: 9830:"The Deep Meaning of the Color Purple at the Biden Inauguration" 7285: 5994: 4619:

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Conference on Constitutalism and Multiparty Governance in Uganda

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A mass party is a type of political party that developed around

11221: 11074: 10819: 10710: 10705: 10651: 10322: 8206: 5438: 4530: 4495:"The Political Theory of Parties and Partisanship: Catching up" 4192:"ConHome op-ed: the USA, Radical Conservatism and Edmund Burke" 3607: 3207: 2645: 2625: 2553: 2495: 2177: 2100:

Parties can arise from existing cleavages in society, like the

1615: 1406: 1009: 543: 485: 383: 11446: 9230:"Interview with Gerd Koenen: The Fading of a Political Colour" 8588:

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

8323:

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

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Political Authority and Party Secretaries in Poland, 1975–1986

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International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

38:), coordinate to collectively achieve and use political power. 11162: 11106: 11012: 10853: 10656: 10155: 8520: 8349:"Report of the Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters" 7864:

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for an organization to legally qualify as a political party.

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United States, red is associated with the more conservative

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have had long periods of multi-party competition, including

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Blackwell. p. 74. 4687:Perspectives on Politics 4560:10.1177/0010414012463905 4335:Irish Historical Studies 2778:traffic light coalitions 1960:presidential democracies 1885:unaffiliated politicians 1847:Romanian Communist Party 1800:Uganda National Congress 1792:Indian National Congress 1674:faction (originally the 1584:factions as well as the 1330:Banned political parties 1030:Leader of the Opposition 998:Leaders and organization 961:Parliamentary opposition 32:Indian National Congress 10925:Principle of typicality 10399:International trade law 10115: 10001:(in Portuguese). 2015. 9803:The Wall Street Journal 9502:"Hate Symbols Database" 9173:McLarty, Scott (2019). 8523:The Journal of Politics 7017:Mickey, Robert (2015). 6126:European Union Politics 5749:Krouwel, Andre (2003). 5544:. 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E. 5755:West European Politics 4792:Hicken, Allen (2009). 4240:The first party system 2920:surrounded by a circle 2692: 2683:Sources of party funds 2604: 2581:and to facilitate the 2480:dominant-party systems 2406: 2393:Non-partisan democracy 2365:single-member district 2357:political institutions 2225:political entrepreneur 2221:political entrepreneur 2109: 2082:Democratic-Republicans 2010: 2007:National Woman's Party 1939: 1875: 1872:United Australia Party 1850: 1643: 1620:direct decision-making 1512:candidates, whereas a 1488:political entrepreneur 39: 10920:Principle of legality 10679:Delegated legislation 10379:Intellectual property 9715:3 August 2020 at the 8631:10.1089/elj.2018.0493 8082:. Thousand Oaks, CA: 7265:10.1353/jod.2013.0050 7175:Minion K. C. Morrison 6543:10.1057/9781403938763 6533:Birch, Sarah (2003). 4809:Legislative leviathan 4318:Kollman, Ken (2012). 4126:. Thousand Oaks, CA: 4100:Jones, J. R. (1961). 3895:. Sage. p. 182. 2690: 2630:coalition governments 2602: 2400: 2215:Entrepreneurial party 2191:Single-issue politics 2099: 2004: 1933: 1895:Parties as heuristics 1880:compatible incentives 1869: 1844: 1633: 1263:Confidence and supply 1120:Leadership convention 971:Official party status 927:Entrepreneurial party 589:Political campaigning 329:Public administration 162:Collective leadership 29: 11468:Comparative politics 11138:Barristers' chambers 11080:Legal representation 11018:Justice of the peace 10364:Financial regulation 9616:. 14 November 2020. 9584:"Green Party Taiwan" 9200:Witte, John (1993). 8090:. pp. 379–380. 7253:Journal of Democracy 7078:. The Conversation. 6729:. 10 February 2011. 6358:V-Dem Briefing Paper 6016:10.5817/PC2017-2-137 5273:10.1353/wp.2008.0002 4456:Wolbrecht, Christina 4198:. 2 September 2013. 4134:. pp. 542–543. 4017:Politifact Wisconsin 3132:Democratic socialism 2782:pan-green coalitions 2709:Uses for party funds 2387:Non-partisan systems 2242:Political ideologies 1901:Party identification 1744:Era of Good Feelings 1648:early modern Britain 1636:A Block for the Wigs 1434:political scientists 1268:Consensus government 1258:Coalition government 1050:Parliamentary leader 857:Classical radicalism 439:Separation of powers 310:Political psychology 285:Comparative politics 263:political scientists 250:Academic disciplines 130:Political philosophy 19:For other uses, see 11173:Election commission 10885:Expressive function 10414:Landlord–tenant law 10313:Consumer protection 9159:10.1257/jep.20.2.97 8906:The Washington Post 8668:Library of Congress 8290:Library of Congress 8173:. 28 October 2020. 8070:"Political Parties" 7361:The Washington Post 6969:Library of Congress 6814:Columbia Law Review 4735:Ware, Alan (1995). 4368:Liddiard, Patrick. 2991:Christian Democracy 2804: 2786:pan-blue coalitions 2774:red–green alliances 2727:diminishing returns 2589:Multi-party systems 2570:first past the post 2164:Cartel party theory 2020:Official Opposition 2016:Westminster systems 1837:Cleavage (politics) 1777:During the wave of 1758:political parties. 1656:Glorious Revolution 1514:parliamentary group 1349:Politics portal 1298:Rotation government 1288:Minority government 1283:Majority government 1248:Parliamentary group 1105:Leadership election 787:Christian democracy 612:Politics portal 461:Election commission 432:Government branches 315:Political sociology 167:Confessional system 105:Politics by country 11131:Legal institutions 10998:Lawsuit/Litigation 10988:Dispute resolution 10793:Catholic canon law 10501:State of emergency 10464:Will and testament 10188:Law of obligations 10141:Constitutional law 10131:Administrative law 7451:10.1111/pops.12486 6727:The New York Times 4913:The American Voter 4454:Corder, J. Kevin; 3966:Aristotle (1984). 2803: 2693: 2605: 2595:Multi-party system 2407: 2305:anti-establishment 2110: 2011: 1948:head of government 1940: 1876: 1851: 1807:universal suffrage 1699:First Party System 1644: 1601:Conservative Party 1253:Divided government 1147:Crossing the floor 1093:Internal elections 1065:Party spokesperson 976:Single-issue party 671:Political Spectrum 295:Political analysis 227:Semi-parliamentary 40: 11478:Political parties 11313: 11312: 10973:Constitutionalism 10895:Law and economics 10733:Act of parliament 10471:Product liability 10424:Legal archaeology 10349:Environmental law 10343:Entertainment law 10183:International law 9864:The History Press 9332:, 20 April 2006, 9088:978-1-60980-472-5 9026:. Anarchism.net. 7727:978-3-658-09510-9 7153:10.1080/714004966 6552:978-1-349-43138-0 6372:"V-Party Dataset" 6168:Electoral Studies 5630:. pp. 65–67. 5628:Political parties 4955:978-1-349-33368-4 4554:(12): 1523–1554. 4149:978-1-4129-6580-4 3735: 3734: 3396:Star and crescent 3060:Hammer and sickle 2514:Two-party systems 2475:retains control. 2437:One-party systems 2361:electoral systems 2338:identity politics 2131:Catch-all parties 2037:electoral systems 1996:party conferences 1684:English Civil War 1518:political faction 1393:that coordinates 1383: 1382: 1229: 1228: 1045:Political faction 758: 757: 646: 645: 594:Political parties 534:Electoral systems 258:Political science 232:Semi-presidential 144:Political systems 120:Political history 115:Political economy 11485: 11450: 11449: 11438: 11437: 11436: 11426: 11425: 11414: 11413: 11402: 11401: 11390: 11389: 11388: 11378: 11377: 11376: 11366: 11365: 11364: 11354: 11353: 11352: 11342: 11341: 11340: 11330: 11329: 11321: 11288: 11287: 11286: 11274: 11273: 11097:Question of fact 10978:Criminal justice 10308:Construction law 10303:Conflict of laws 10268:Agricultural law 10110: 10103: 10096: 10087: 10086: 10076: 10075: 10073: 10071: 10052: 10046: 10045: 10043: 10041: 10021: 10015: 10014: 10012: 10010: 9991: 9985: 9984: 9982: 9980: 9960: 9954: 9953: 9925: 9919: 9918: 9886: 9880: 9879: 9877: 9875: 9856: 9850: 9849: 9847: 9845: 9825: 9819: 9818: 9816: 9814: 9794: 9788: 9787: 9785: 9783: 9764: 9758: 9757: 9755: 9753: 9733: 9727: 9702: 9696: 9695: 9693: 9691: 9671: 9665: 9664: 9636: 9630: 9629: 9627: 9625: 9606: 9600: 9599: 9597: 9595: 9580: 9574: 9573: 9571: 9569: 9554: 9548: 9547: 9545: 9543: 9528: 9522: 9521: 9519: 9517: 9498: 9492: 9491: 9481: 9457: 9451: 9450: 9448: 9446: 9426: 9420: 9419: 9391: 9380: 9379: 9351: 9345: 9344: 9343: 9341: 9320: 9314: 9313: 9311: 9309: 9287: 9281: 9280: 9278: 9276: 9256: 9250: 9249: 9247: 9245: 9225: 9216: 9215: 9197: 9191: 9190: 9188: 9186: 9170: 9164: 9163: 9161: 9142:"Purple America" 9137: 9131: 9130: 9128: 9126: 9111: 9105: 9104: 9102: 9100: 9072: 9066: 9065: 9063: 9061: 9046: 9040: 9039: 9037: 9035: 9020: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9009: 8994: 8988: 8987: 8985: 8983: 8961: 8955: 8954: 8952: 8950: 8928: 8922: 8921: 8920: 8918: 8896: 8890: 8889: 8887: 8885: 8869: 8863: 8862: 8860: 8858: 8836: 8830: 8829: 8827: 8825: 8803: 8794: 8793: 8791: 8789: 8783: 8772: 8763: 8748: 8747: 8745: 8743: 8728: 8715: 8714: 8712: 8710: 8690: 8684: 8683: 8681: 8679: 8659: 8653: 8652: 8642: 8610: 8604: 8603: 8601: 8599: 8579: 8570: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8545: 8539: 8538: 8529:(4): 1267–1280. 8518: 8512: 8511: 8501: 8477: 8471: 8470: 8452: 8446: 8445: 8443: 8419: 8408: 8407: 8371: 8365: 8364: 8362: 8360: 8345: 8339: 8338: 8336: 8334: 8315: 8306: 8305: 8303: 8301: 8281: 8272: 8271: 8243: 8237: 8236: 8204: 8187: 8186: 8184: 8182: 8163: 8157: 8156: 8154: 8152: 8132: 8126: 8125: 8062: 8056: 8055: 8019: 8013: 8012: 8010: 8008: 7988: 7982: 7981: 7979: 7977: 7960: 7954: 7953: 7927: 7921: 7920: 7894: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7861: 7855: 7854: 7852: 7850: 7841:. 18 June 2018. 7831: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7820: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7789: 7769: 7763: 7762: 7760: 7758: 7738: 7732: 7731: 7705: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7694: 7688: 7673: 7664: 7658: 7657: 7632:(3): 1093–1117. 7621: 7615: 7614: 7612: 7610: 7604: 7597: 7588: 7582: 7581: 7571: 7561: 7537: 7531: 7530: 7498: 7492: 7491: 7465: 7456: 7455: 7453: 7429: 7423: 7422: 7404: 7398: 7397: 7379: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7368: 7351: 7345: 7344: 7342: 7318: 7312: 7311: 7283: 7277: 7276: 7248: 7242: 7241: 7209: 7203: 7202: 7171: 7165: 7164: 7136: 7130: 7129: 7101: 7092: 7091: 7089: 7087: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7039: 7033: 7032: 7014: 7008: 7007: 6989: 6983: 6982: 6963:(5th ed.). 6962: 6949: 6943: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6915:(30 June 2015). 6909: 6903: 6902: 6900: 6898: 6879: 6873: 6872: 6844: 6838: 6837: 6820:(7): 1677–1701. 6809: 6803: 6802: 6784: 6778: 6777: 6749: 6743: 6742: 6740: 6738: 6719: 6710: 6709: 6681: 6672: 6671: 6658:Party Government 6650: 6644: 6643: 6641: 6639: 6591: 6585: 6584: 6566: 6557: 6556: 6530: 6521: 6520: 6494: 6485: 6484: 6472: 6463: 6462: 6426: 6420: 6419: 6417: 6393: 6387: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6368: 6362: 6361: 6353: 6347: 6346: 6318: 6309: 6308: 6290: 6277: 6276: 6258: 6252: 6251: 6233: 6227: 6226: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6163: 6157: 6156: 6154: 6152: 6117: 6111: 6110: 6092: 6083: 6082: 6070: 6061: 6060: 6058: 6056: 6041: 6035: 6034: 6032: 6030: 6024: 6001: 5992: 5986: 5985: 5983: 5981: 5975: 5944: 5935: 5929: 5928: 5918: 5886: 5877: 5876: 5848: 5842: 5841: 5813: 5807: 5806: 5798: 5792: 5785: 5779: 5778: 5746: 5740: 5739: 5711: 5705: 5704: 5696: 5685: 5684: 5656: 5650: 5649: 5641: 5632: 5631: 5623: 5617: 5616: 5608: 5591: 5590: 5562: 5556: 5555: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5502: 5496: 5495: 5475: 5469: 5468: 5436: 5430: 5429: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5316: 5310: 5309: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5221: 5215: 5214: 5186: 5177: 5176: 5159:(2): 1103–1109. 5148: 5142: 5141: 5131: 5103: 5097: 5096: 5064: 5058: 5057: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5002: 4996: 4995: 4993: 4969: 4960: 4959: 4941: 4932: 4931: 4923: 4917: 4916: 4908: 4902: 4901: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4758:(1–2): 105–113. 4747: 4741: 4740: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4693:(4): 1257–1258. 4678: 4672: 4671: 4669: 4659: 4653: 4652: 4650: 4640: 4616: 4610: 4609: 4581: 4572: 4571: 4543: 4537: 4536: 4528: 4517: 4516: 4514: 4490: 4484: 4483: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4430: 4421: 4415: 4414: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4387: 4385: 4365: 4359: 4358: 4330: 4324: 4323: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4280: 4274: 4273: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4243: 4233: 4227: 4226: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4188: 4182: 4181: 4179: 4177: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4097: 4088: 4087: 4061: 4048: 4047: 4039: 4033: 4032: 4030: 4028: 4008: 4002: 4001: 3992:(1–4): 265–287. 3981: 3972: 3971: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3948: 3942: 3941: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3888: 3882: 3881: 3861: 3855: 3854: 3852: 3850: 3844: 3833: 3824: 3818: 3817: 3809: 3792: 3791: 3783: 3729: 3724: 3719: 3703: 3686: 3658: 3652: 3646: 3637:Social democracy 3629: 3624: 3619: 3577: 3560: 3555: 3541: 3535: 3529: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3479: 3473: 3456: 3451: 3437: 3431: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3388: 3382: 3365: 3360: 3355: 3332: 3315: 3310: 3305: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3239: 3234: 3229: 3197: 3191: 3174: 3169: 3141: 3124: 3119: 3114: 3101: 3084: 3079: 3074: 3049: 3032: 3027: 3022: 3006: 3000: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2960: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2901: 2895: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2858:Four-leaf clover 2845: 2805: 2802: 2798:Democratic Party 2794:Republican Party 2770:purple alliances 2748:Political colour 2658:plurality voting 2579:insincere voting 2534:Republican Party 2530:Democratic Party 2520:Two-party system 2508:Democratic Party 2449:one-party system 2427:Alberto Fujimori 2333:social cleavages 2294:multiculturalism 2278:environmentalism 2143:Otto Kirchheimer 2077:Maurice Duverger 2030:Party membership 1982:Party executives 1968:party conference 1831:Social cleavages 1752:party discipline 1737:1848 Revolutions 1712:Federalist Party 1692:Rockingham Whigs 1652:Exclusion Crisis 1605:Democratic Party 1586:Dutch Republic's 1571:Roman Republic's 1565:factions at the 1539:Classical Athens 1375: 1368: 1361: 1347: 1346: 1186: 1185: 1152:Party discipline 1134:Party discipline 1100:Primary election 956:Opposition party 867:Social democracy 802:Environmentalism 676: 675: 650: 649: 638: 631: 624: 610: 609: 400: 345: 300:Political theory 290:Election science 280: 266: 44: 43: 11493: 11492: 11488: 11487: 11486: 11484: 11483: 11482: 11458: 11457: 11456: 11444: 11434: 11432: 11420: 11408: 11396: 11386: 11384: 11374: 11372: 11362: 11360: 11350: 11348: 11338: 11336: 11324: 11316: 11314: 11309: 11282: 11268: 11259: 11236: 11227:Political party 11200:Legal education 11188:Law enforcement 11168:Court of equity 11126: 11102:Question of law 11055:Practice of law 11035:Judicial review 10949: 10900:Legal formalism 10880:Comparative law 10875:Contract theory 10858: 10778:Legal pluralism 10749: 10738:Act of Congress 10662:Executive order 10628: 10530: 10449:Nationality law 10374:Immigration law 10298:Competition law 10251: 10119: 10114: 10084: 10079: 10069: 10067: 10054: 10053: 10049: 10039: 10037: 10022: 10018: 10008: 10006: 9993: 9992: 9988: 9978: 9976: 9961: 9957: 9926: 9922: 9907: 9887: 9883: 9873: 9871: 9858: 9857: 9853: 9843: 9841: 9826: 9822: 9812: 9810: 9795: 9791: 9781: 9779: 9766: 9765: 9761: 9751: 9749: 9734: 9730: 9717:Wayback Machine 9703: 9699: 9689: 9687: 9672: 9668: 9653:10.1355/CS29-2F 9637: 9633: 9623: 9621: 9608: 9607: 9603: 9593: 9591: 9582: 9581: 9577: 9567: 9565: 9556: 9555: 9551: 9541: 9539: 9530: 9529: 9525: 9515: 9513: 9500: 9499: 9495: 9472:(72): 151–173. 9458: 9454: 9444: 9442: 9427: 9423: 9392: 9383: 9352: 9348: 9339: 9337: 9322: 9321: 9317: 9307: 9305: 9288: 9284: 9274: 9272: 9257: 9253: 9243: 9241: 9234:Goethe-Institut 9226: 9219: 9212: 9198: 9194: 9184: 9182: 9171: 9167: 9138: 9134: 9124: 9122: 9113: 9112: 9108: 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Datawrapper. 8870: 8866: 8856: 8854: 8837: 8833: 8823: 8821: 8804: 8797: 8787: 8785: 8781: 8770: 8764: 8751: 8741: 8739: 8730: 8729: 8718: 8708: 8706: 8691: 8687: 8677: 8675: 8660: 8656: 8611: 8607: 8597: 8595: 8580: 8573: 8563: 8561: 8546: 8542: 8519: 8515: 8478: 8474: 8467: 8453: 8449: 8420: 8411: 8388:10.1355/cs29-2b 8372: 8368: 8358: 8356: 8347: 8346: 8342: 8332: 8330: 8317: 8316: 8309: 8299: 8297: 8282: 8275: 8260:10.2307/3595635 8244: 8240: 8205: 8190: 8180: 8178: 8165: 8164: 8160: 8150: 8148: 8133: 8129: 8106: 8066:Basham, Patrick 8063: 8059: 8036:10.2307/1952754 8020: 8016: 8006: 8004: 7989: 7985: 7975: 7973: 7961: 7957: 7950: 7928: 7924: 7917: 7895: 7891: 7862: 7858: 7848: 7846: 7833: 7832: 7828: 7818: 7816: 7801: 7797: 7787: 7785: 7770: 7766: 7756: 7754: 7739: 7735: 7728: 7706: 7702: 7692: 7690: 7686: 7671: 7665: 7661: 7638:10.2307/1959150 7622: 7618: 7608: 7606: 7602: 7595: 7589: 7585: 7538: 7534: 7499: 7495: 7488: 7466: 7459: 7444:(S1): 279–304. 7430: 7426: 7419: 7405: 7401: 7394: 7380: 7376: 7366: 7364: 7352: 7348: 7319: 7315: 7284: 7280: 7249: 7245: 7218:Democratization 7210: 7206: 7172: 7168: 7137: 7133: 7102: 7095: 7085: 7083: 7072: 7068: 7061: 7040: 7036: 7029: 7015: 7011: 7004: 6990: 6986: 6979: 6971:. p. 214. 6950: 6946: 6936: 6934: 6910: 6906: 6896: 6894: 6881: 6880: 6876: 6845: 6841: 6826:10.2307/1122744 6810: 6806: 6799: 6785: 6781: 6750: 6746: 6736: 6734: 6721: 6720: 6713: 6682: 6675: 6668: 6651: 6647: 6637: 6635: 6592: 6588: 6581: 6567: 6560: 6553: 6531: 6524: 6517: 6495: 6488: 6473: 6466: 6443:10.2307/1964135 6427: 6423: 6394: 6390: 6380: 6378: 6376:V-Dem Institute 6370: 6369: 6365: 6354: 6350: 6319: 6312: 6305: 6291: 6280: 6273: 6259: 6255: 6248: 6234: 6230: 6207:10.2307/2944707 6191: 6187: 6164: 6160: 6150: 6148: 6118: 6114: 6107: 6093: 6086: 6071: 6064: 6054: 6052: 6043: 6042: 6038: 6028: 6026: 6022: 5999: 5993: 5989: 5979: 5977: 5973: 5942: 5936: 5932: 5887: 5880: 5849: 5845: 5814: 5810: 5799: 5795: 5786: 5782: 5747: 5743: 5712: 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3810: 3795: 3784: 3771: 3767: 3740: 3707: 3701: 3679: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3612: 3581: 3575: 3545: 3539: 3533: 3527: 3495: 3483: 3477: 3471: 3444:Bird in flight 3441: 3435: 3429: 3392: 3386: 3380: 3348: 3336: 3330: 3298: 3278: 3272: 3266: 3260: 3254: 3222: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3162: 3145: 3139: 3105: 3099: 3067: 3053: 3047: 3014:Christian cross 3010: 3004: 2998: 2964: 2958: 2926: 2905: 2899: 2893: 2861: 2849: 2843: 2754: 2746:Main articles: 2744: 2735: 2711: 2685: 2676: 2670: 2597: 2591: 2522: 2516: 2445: 2443:One-party state 2439: 2395: 2389: 2352: 2346: 2320: 2312:V-Party Dataset 2239: 2233: 2217: 2211: 2193: 2187: 2166: 2160: 2139: 2133: 2116: 2094: 2069: 2063: 2050: 2032: 2005:Members of the 1988:party secretary 1984: 1928: 1915: 1903: 1897: 1864: 1839: 1833: 1815: 1764: 1739:around Europe. 1724: 1682:faction of the 1628: 1531: 1500: 1418:several parties 1387:political party 1379: 1341: 1336: 1335: 1334: 1314: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1278:Hung parliament 1273:Grand coalition 1242: 1241:between parties 1231: 1230: 1225: 1216: 1197: 1183: 1173: 1172: 1171: 1167:Party switching 1162:Party-line vote 1142:Conscience vote 1136: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1094: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1040:Minority leader 1035:Majority leader 999: 991: 990: 989: 922:Catch-all party 896: 888: 887: 886: 771: 760: 759: 754: 729: 699: 673: 655:Politics series 642: 604: 599: 598: 529: 528: 519: 518: 476: 475: 466: 465: 434: 433: 424: 423: 419:Public interest 404:Domestic policy 394: 387: 386: 375: 374: 339: 332: 331: 320: 319: 281: 274: 267: 260: 252: 251: 242: 241: 147: 146: 135: 134: 90: 89: 80: 49:Politics series 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 11491: 11481: 11480: 11475: 11470: 11455: 11454: 11442: 11440:Libertarianism 11430: 11418: 11406: 11394: 11382: 11380:European Union 11370: 11358: 11346: 11334: 11311: 11310: 11308: 11307: 11300: 11293: 11279: 11276:Law portal 11264: 11261: 11260: 11258: 11257: 11256: 11255: 11244: 11242: 11238: 11237: 11235: 11234: 11229: 11224: 11219: 11214: 11209: 11208: 11207: 11197: 11196: 11195: 11185: 11180: 11175: 11170: 11165: 11160: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11134: 11132: 11128: 11127: 11125: 11124: 11119: 11114: 11112:Trial advocacy 11109: 11104: 11099: 11094: 11093: 11092: 11087: 11082: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11062: 11052: 11047: 11042: 11037: 11032: 11027: 11026: 11025: 11020: 11010: 11005: 11000: 10995: 10990: 10985: 10980: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10959: 10957: 10951: 10950: 10948: 10947: 10942: 10937: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10917: 10912: 10907: 10902: 10897: 10892: 10887: 10882: 10877: 10872: 10866: 10864: 10860: 10859: 10857: 10856: 10851: 10846: 10841: 10836: 10835: 10834: 10824: 10823: 10822: 10817: 10812: 10807: 10802: 10797: 10796: 10795: 10780: 10775: 10770: 10765: 10759: 10757: 10751: 10750: 10748: 10747: 10742: 10741: 10740: 10735: 10730: 10720: 10719: 10718: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10692: 10691: 10686: 10681: 10671: 10670: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10649: 10644: 10642:Ballot measure 10638: 10636: 10630: 10629: 10627: 10626: 10621: 10619:Legal treatise 10616: 10615: 10614: 10609: 10599: 10598: 10597: 10587: 10585:Letters patent 10582: 10577: 10576: 10575: 10565: 10560: 10555: 10546: 10540: 10538: 10536:Sources of law 10532: 10531: 10529: 10528: 10523: 10521:Unenforced law 10518: 10513: 10508: 10503: 10498: 10493: 10488: 10483: 10478: 10473: 10468: 10467: 10466: 10461: 10451: 10446: 10441: 10436: 10431: 10426: 10421: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10401: 10396: 10391: 10386: 10381: 10376: 10371: 10366: 10361: 10356: 10351: 10346: 10340: 10335: 10330: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10310: 10305: 10300: 10295: 10293:Commercial law 10290: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10270: 10265: 10259: 10257: 10253: 10252: 10250: 10249: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10233: 10232: 10222: 10217: 10212: 10211: 10210: 10205: 10195: 10190: 10185: 10180: 10175: 10170: 10165: 10160: 10159: 10158: 10148: 10143: 10138: 10133: 10127: 10125: 10121: 10120: 10113: 10112: 10105: 10098: 10090: 10083: 10082:External links 10080: 10078: 10077: 10047: 10016: 9986: 9955: 9920: 9905: 9881: 9851: 9820: 9789: 9759: 9728: 9725:978-1443852838 9697: 9666: 9647:(2): 333–358. 9631: 9601: 9575: 9549: 9523: 9493: 9452: 9421: 9381: 9362:(4): 951–972. 9346: 9315: 9282: 9251: 9217: 9211:978-0813318431 9210: 9192: 9165: 9132: 9106: 9087: 9067: 9041: 9015: 8989: 8956: 8938:Nunatsiaq News 8923: 8891: 8864: 8846:Deutsche Welle 8831: 8795: 8749: 8716: 8685: 8654: 8625:(3): 243–261. 8605: 8571: 8540: 8513: 8492:(3): 382–411. 8472: 8466:978-1107106673 8465: 8447: 8409: 8382:(2): 238–263. 8366: 8340: 8307: 8273: 8254:(2): 353–358. 8238: 8219:(6): 619–626. 8213:Party Politics 8188: 8158: 8141:Bloomberg News 8127: 8105:978-1412965804 8104: 8088:Cato Institute 8074:Hamowy, Ronald 8057: 8014: 7983: 7970:Foreign Policy 7955: 7949:978-0199257560 7948: 7922: 7916:978-0199257560 7915: 7889: 7876:(1): 147–159. 7856: 7826: 7795: 7764: 7747:Foreign Policy 7733: 7726: 7700: 7659: 7616: 7583: 7552:(4): 513–533. 7532: 7513:(3): 711–724. 7493: 7487:978-0199257560 7486: 7457: 7424: 7417: 7399: 7393:978-0231110358 7392: 7374: 7346: 7313: 7294:(6): 679–708. 7278: 7243: 7224:(3): 465–483. 7204: 7185:(4): 623–647. 7166: 7131: 7112:(4): 547–568. 7106:Party Politics 7093: 7066: 7060:978-0198280545 7059: 7043:Arend Lijphart 7034: 7028:978-0691149639 7027: 7009: 7003:978-0813167466 7002: 6984: 6978:978-1598044683 6977: 6944: 6904: 6874: 6839: 6804: 6798:978-0774804189 6797: 6779: 6744: 6711: 6686:Party Politics 6673: 6667:978-1412830508 6666: 6645: 6586: 6580:978-1108404266 6579: 6558: 6551: 6522: 6516:978-0761943143 6515: 6486: 6464: 6437:(3): 737–747. 6421: 6388: 6363: 6348: 6329:(2): 167–199. 6323:Party Politics 6310: 6304:978-0198275329 6303: 6278: 6272:978-1137606044 6271: 6253: 6247:978-1444311051 6246: 6228: 6201:(2): 327–335. 6185: 6174:(4): 687–698. 6158: 6112: 6106:978-0691194752 6105: 6084: 6062: 6036: 6010:(2): 137–157. 5987: 5953:(3): 513–529. 5930: 5901:(2): 259–271. 5895:Party Politics 5878: 5859:(3): 347–348. 5843: 5818:Party Politics 5808: 5793: 5780: 5741: 5706: 5686: 5661:Party Politics 5651: 5633: 5618: 5592: 5567:Party Politics 5557: 5551:978-3030417956 5550: 5532: 5513:(4): 467–481. 5507:Party Politics 5497: 5486:(2): 232–248. 5470: 5451:(2): 343–367. 5431: 5425:978-1317929451 5424: 5406: 5371: 5352:(4): 347–373. 5336: 5330:978-1400875870 5329: 5311: 5305:978-0521363693 5304: 5286: 5267:(4): 595–628. 5261:World Politics 5251: 5232:(3): 231–264. 5216: 5197:(4): 433–447. 5178: 5153:Party Politics 5143: 5114:(3): 175–185. 5098: 5059: 5040:(2): 127–150. 5034:Party Politics 5024: 5013:(3): 229–231. 4997: 4984:(2): 328–346. 4961: 4954: 4933: 4918: 4903: 4884:(4): 695–705. 4868: 4841: 4830:(4): 441–474. 4814: 4799: 4784: 4769: 4742: 4727: 4712: 4673: 4654: 4625:World Politics 4611: 4592:(2): 153–168. 4573: 4538: 4518: 4485: 4446: 4416: 4410:978-0295986463 4409: 4391: 4360: 4325: 4310: 4275: 4257: 4251:978-0471143406 4250: 4228: 4213: 4183: 4148: 4132:Cato Institute 4116:Hamowy, Ronald 4107: 4089: 4083:978-0199566020 4082: 4049: 4034: 4003: 3973: 3958: 3951:Plato (1935). 3943: 3924:(4): 531–549. 3908: 3902:978-1544345222 3901: 3883: 3872:(2): 283–300. 3856: 3819: 3793: 3768: 3766: 3763: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3746: 3739: 3736: 3733: 3732: 3730: 3713: 3708: 3706: 3705: 3698: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3680: 3678: 3677: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3641: 3639: 3633: 3632: 3630: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3588:The white flag 3584: 3582: 3580: 3579: 3572: 3570: 3564: 3563: 3561: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3524: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3496: 3494: 3493: 3490: 3486: 3484: 3482: 3481: 3475: 3468: 3466: 3464:Libertarianism 3460: 3459: 3457: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3439: 3433: 3426: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3398: 3393: 3391: 3390: 3384: 3377: 3375: 3369: 3368: 3366: 3349: 3347: 3346: 3343: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3334: 3327: 3325: 3323:Green politics 3319: 3318: 3316: 3299: 3297: 3296: 3290: 3287: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3258: 3251: 3249: 3243: 3242: 3240: 3223: 3221: 3220: 3215: 3210: 3204: 3202: 3200: 3199: 3193: 3186: 3184: 3178: 3177: 3175: 3163: 3161: 3160: 3157: 3152: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3143: 3136: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3125: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3103: 3096: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3068: 3066: 3065: 3062: 3056: 3054: 3052: 3051: 3044: 3042: 3036: 3035: 3033: 3016: 3011: 3009: 3008: 3002: 2995: 2993: 2987: 2986: 2984: 2967: 2965: 2963: 2962: 2955: 2953: 2947: 2946: 2944: 2927: 2925: 2924: 2921: 2914: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2903: 2897: 2890: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2879: 2862: 2860: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2850: 2848: 2847: 2840: 2838: 2832: 2831: 2826: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2743: 2740: 2734: 2731: 2710: 2707: 2684: 2681: 2672:Main article: 2669: 2666: 2593:Main article: 2590: 2587: 2583:spoiler effect 2566:Duverger's law 2518:Main article: 2515: 2512: 2441:Main article: 2438: 2435: 2391:Main article: 2388: 2385: 2348:Main article: 2345: 2342: 2319: 2316: 2286:fundamentalism 2235:Main article: 2232: 2229: 2213:Main article: 2210: 2207: 2202:National Rally 2186: 2183: 2169:Cartel parties 2162:Main article: 2159: 2158:Cartel parties 2156: 2137:Big tent party 2135:Main article: 2132: 2129: 2112:Main article: 2093: 2090: 2065:Main article: 2062: 2059: 2049: 2046: 2031: 2028: 2024:shadow cabinet 1983: 1980: 1956:prime minister 1950:, such as the 1927: 1924: 1914: 1911: 1899:Main article: 1896: 1893: 1863: 1860: 1835:Main article: 1832: 1829: 1814: 1811: 1779:decolonization 1763: 1760: 1723: 1720: 1688:United Kingdom 1666:as opposed to 1627: 1624: 1563:chariot racing 1530: 1527: 1522:advocacy group 1499: 1496: 1381: 1380: 1378: 1377: 1370: 1363: 1355: 1352: 1351: 1338: 1337: 1333: 1332: 1327: 1322: 1316: 1315: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1305: 1301: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1244: 1243: 1237: 1236: 1233: 1232: 1227: 1226: 1224: 1223: 1217: 1215: 1214: 1209: 1204: 1202:Dominant-party 1198: 1196: 1195: 1189: 1184: 1179: 1178: 1175: 1174: 1170: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1154: 1149: 1144: 1138: 1137: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1123: 1122: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1096: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1083: 1082: 1077: 1075:Shadow cabinet 1072: 1067: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1037: 1032: 1027: 1025:Lead candidate 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1001: 1000: 997: 996: 993: 992: 988: 987: 978: 973: 968: 966:Party of power 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 934: 929: 924: 919: 914: 909: 904: 898: 897: 894: 893: 890: 889: 885: 884: 879: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 839: 834: 832:Libertarianism 829: 824: 819: 817:Green politics 814: 809: 804: 799: 794: 789: 784: 779: 773: 772: 766: 765: 762: 761: 756: 755: 753: 752: 747: 741: 738: 737: 731: 730: 728: 727: 722: 720:Radical Centre 717: 711: 708: 707: 701: 700: 698: 697: 692: 686: 683: 682: 674: 669: 668: 665: 664: 662:Party politics 658: 657: 644: 643: 641: 640: 633: 626: 618: 615: 614: 601: 600: 597: 596: 591: 586: 581: 576: 575: 574: 558: 553: 548: 547: 546: 536: 530: 526: 525: 524: 521: 520: 517: 516: 511: 506: 501: 496: 483: 477: 474:Related topics 473: 472: 471: 468: 467: 464: 463: 458: 453: 448: 442: 441: 435: 431: 430: 429: 426: 425: 422: 421: 416: 411: 409:Foreign policy 406: 401: 388: 382: 381: 380: 377: 376: 373: 372: 371: 370: 356: 351: 346: 333: 327: 326: 325: 322: 321: 318: 317: 312: 307: 305:Policy studies 302: 297: 292: 287: 282: 270: 268: 256: 253: 249: 248: 247: 244: 243: 240: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 148: 142: 141: 140: 137: 136: 133: 132: 127: 122: 117: 112: 107: 102: 97: 91: 88:Primary topics 87: 86: 85: 82: 81: 79: 78: 73: 68: 62: 59: 58: 52: 51: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11490: 11479: 11476: 11474: 11471: 11469: 11466: 11465: 11463: 11453: 11448: 11443: 11441: 11431: 11429: 11424: 11419: 11417: 11412: 11407: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11393: 11383: 11381: 11371: 11369: 11359: 11357: 11347: 11345: 11335: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11322: 11319: 11306: 11305: 11301: 11299: 11298: 11294: 11292: 11291: 11280: 11278: 11277: 11272: 11266: 11265: 11262: 11254: 11251: 11250: 11249: 11246: 11245: 11243: 11239: 11233: 11230: 11228: 11225: 11223: 11220: 11218: 11215: 11213: 11210: 11206: 11203: 11202: 11201: 11198: 11194: 11191: 11190: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11174: 11171: 11169: 11166: 11164: 11161: 11159: 11158:Civil society 11156: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11136: 11135: 11133: 11129: 11123: 11120: 11118: 11117:Trier of fact 11115: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11103: 11100: 11098: 11095: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11061: 11058: 11057: 11056: 11053: 11051: 11048: 11046: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11036: 11033: 11031: 11028: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11015: 11014: 11011: 11009: 11006: 11004: 11003:Legal opinion 11001: 10999: 10996: 10994: 10991: 10989: 10986: 10984: 10983:Court-martial 10981: 10979: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10960: 10958: 10956: 10955:Jurisprudence 10952: 10946: 10943: 10941: 10938: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10911: 10908: 10906: 10903: 10901: 10898: 10896: 10893: 10891: 10888: 10886: 10883: 10881: 10878: 10876: 10873: 10871: 10868: 10867: 10865: 10861: 10855: 10852: 10850: 10847: 10845: 10844:Statutory law 10842: 10840: 10839:Socialist law 10837: 10833: 10832:Byzantine law 10830: 10829: 10828: 10825: 10821: 10818: 10816: 10813: 10811: 10808: 10806: 10803: 10801: 10798: 10794: 10791: 10790: 10789: 10786: 10785: 10784: 10783:Religious law 10781: 10779: 10776: 10774: 10771: 10769: 10766: 10764: 10761: 10760: 10758: 10756: 10755:Legal systems 10752: 10746: 10743: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10725: 10724: 10723:Statutory law 10721: 10717: 10714: 10713: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10690: 10687: 10685: 10682: 10680: 10677: 10676: 10675: 10672: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10660: 10658: 10655: 10654: 10653: 10650: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10639: 10637: 10635: 10631: 10625: 10622: 10620: 10617: 10613: 10610: 10608: 10605: 10604: 10603: 10600: 10596: 10593: 10592: 10591: 10588: 10586: 10583: 10581: 10578: 10574: 10571: 10570: 10569: 10566: 10564: 10561: 10559: 10556: 10554: 10553:Statutory law 10550: 10547: 10545: 10542: 10541: 10539: 10537: 10533: 10527: 10524: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10514: 10512: 10511:Transport law 10509: 10507: 10504: 10502: 10499: 10497: 10494: 10492: 10489: 10487: 10484: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10465: 10462: 10460: 10457: 10456: 10455: 10452: 10450: 10447: 10445: 10442: 10440: 10437: 10435: 10432: 10430: 10429:Legal fiction 10427: 10425: 10422: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10405: 10402: 10400: 10397: 10395: 10392: 10390: 10387: 10385: 10382: 10380: 10377: 10375: 10372: 10370: 10367: 10365: 10362: 10360: 10359:Financial law 10357: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10344: 10341: 10339: 10336: 10334: 10331: 10329: 10326: 10324: 10321: 10319: 10318:Corporate law 10316: 10314: 10311: 10309: 10306: 10304: 10301: 10299: 10296: 10294: 10291: 10289: 10286: 10284: 10281: 10279: 10276: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10260: 10258: 10254: 10248: 10245: 10243: 10242:Statutory law 10240: 10238: 10235: 10231: 10228: 10227: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10209: 10206: 10204: 10201: 10200: 10199: 10196: 10194: 10191: 10189: 10186: 10184: 10181: 10179: 10176: 10174: 10171: 10169: 10166: 10164: 10161: 10157: 10154: 10153: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10137: 10134: 10132: 10129: 10128: 10126: 10124:Core subjects 10122: 10118: 10111: 10106: 10104: 10099: 10097: 10092: 10091: 10088: 10065: 10061: 10057: 10051: 10035: 10031: 10027: 10020: 10004: 10000: 9996: 9990: 9974: 9970: 9966: 9959: 9951: 9947: 9943: 9939: 9935: 9931: 9924: 9916: 9912: 9908: 9902: 9898: 9894: 9893: 9885: 9869: 9865: 9861: 9855: 9839: 9835: 9831: 9824: 9808: 9804: 9800: 9793: 9777: 9773: 9769: 9763: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9732: 9726: 9722: 9718: 9714: 9711: 9707: 9701: 9685: 9681: 9677: 9670: 9662: 9658: 9654: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9635: 9619: 9615: 9611: 9605: 9589: 9585: 9579: 9563: 9559: 9553: 9537: 9533: 9527: 9511: 9507: 9503: 9497: 9489: 9485: 9480: 9475: 9471: 9467: 9463: 9456: 9440: 9436: 9432: 9425: 9417: 9413: 9409: 9405: 9401: 9397: 9390: 9388: 9386: 9377: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9357: 9350: 9335: 9331: 9330: 9325: 9319: 9303: 9299: 9298: 9293: 9286: 9270: 9266: 9262: 9255: 9239: 9235: 9231: 9224: 9222: 9213: 9207: 9203: 9196: 9180: 9176: 9169: 9160: 9155: 9152:(2): 97–118. 9151: 9147: 9143: 9136: 9120: 9116: 9110: 9094: 9090: 9084: 9080: 9079: 9071: 9055: 9051: 9045: 9029: 9025: 9019: 9003: 8999: 8993: 8977: 8973: 8972: 8967: 8960: 8944: 8940: 8939: 8934: 8927: 8912: 8908: 8907: 8902: 8895: 8879: 8875: 8868: 8852: 8848: 8847: 8842: 8835: 8819: 8815: 8814: 8809: 8802: 8800: 8780: 8776: 8769: 8762: 8760: 8758: 8756: 8754: 8737: 8733: 8727: 8725: 8723: 8721: 8704: 8700: 8696: 8689: 8673: 8669: 8665: 8658: 8650: 8646: 8641: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8609: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8578: 8576: 8559: 8555: 8551: 8544: 8536: 8532: 8528: 8524: 8517: 8509: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8491: 8487: 8483: 8476: 8468: 8462: 8458: 8451: 8442: 8437: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8418: 8416: 8414: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8370: 8354: 8350: 8344: 8328: 8324: 8320: 8314: 8312: 8295: 8291: 8287: 8280: 8278: 8269: 8265: 8261: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8242: 8234: 8230: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8203: 8201: 8199: 8197: 8195: 8193: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8162: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8131: 8123: 8119: 8115: 8111: 8107: 8101: 8097: 8093: 8089: 8085: 8081: 8080: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8061: 8053: 8049: 8045: 8041: 8037: 8033: 8029: 8025: 8018: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7987: 7972: 7971: 7966: 7959: 7951: 7945: 7941: 7937: 7933: 7926: 7918: 7912: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7893: 7884: 7879: 7875: 7871: 7867: 7860: 7844: 7840: 7839:Afrobarometer 7836: 7830: 7814: 7810: 7806: 7799: 7783: 7779: 7778:Boston Review 7775: 7768: 7752: 7748: 7744: 7737: 7729: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7712:. p. 1. 7711: 7704: 7685: 7681: 7677: 7670: 7663: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7627: 7620: 7601: 7594: 7587: 7579: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7536: 7528: 7524: 7520: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7497: 7489: 7483: 7479: 7475: 7471: 7464: 7462: 7452: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7428: 7420: 7414: 7410: 7403: 7395: 7389: 7385: 7378: 7363: 7362: 7357: 7350: 7341: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7317: 7309: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7282: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7247: 7239: 7235: 7231: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7215: 7208: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7170: 7162: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7135: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7100: 7098: 7081: 7077: 7070: 7062: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7038: 7030: 7024: 7020: 7013: 7005: 6999: 6995: 6988: 6980: 6974: 6970: 6966: 6961: 6960: 6954: 6948: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6923: 6918: 6914: 6908: 6892: 6888: 6887:Freedom House 6884: 6878: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6843: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6819: 6815: 6808: 6800: 6794: 6790: 6783: 6775: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6748: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6718: 6716: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6680: 6678: 6669: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6649: 6633: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6597: 6590: 6582: 6576: 6572: 6565: 6563: 6554: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6529: 6527: 6518: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6493: 6491: 6482: 6478: 6471: 6469: 6460: 6456: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6425: 6416: 6411: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6398:"Clientelism" 6392: 6377: 6373: 6367: 6359: 6352: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6317: 6315: 6306: 6300: 6296: 6289: 6287: 6285: 6283: 6274: 6268: 6264: 6257: 6249: 6243: 6239: 6232: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6208: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6189: 6181: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6162: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6116: 6108: 6102: 6098: 6091: 6089: 6080: 6076: 6069: 6067: 6050: 6046: 6040: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 5998: 5991: 5972: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5941: 5934: 5926: 5922: 5917: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5885: 5883: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5812: 5804: 5797: 5790: 5784: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5745: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5710: 5702: 5695: 5693: 5691: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5655: 5647: 5640: 5638: 5629: 5622: 5614: 5607: 5605: 5603: 5601: 5599: 5597: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5553: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5501: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5474: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5435: 5427: 5421: 5417: 5410: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5390: 5387:(1): 79–101. 5386: 5382: 5375: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5340: 5332: 5326: 5322: 5315: 5307: 5301: 5297: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5220: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5183: 5174: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5147: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5102: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5063: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5001: 4992: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4966: 4957: 4951: 4947: 4940: 4938: 4929: 4922: 4914: 4907: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4872: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4818: 4810: 4803: 4795: 4788: 4780: 4773: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4753: 4746: 4738: 4731: 4723: 4716: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4658: 4649: 4644: 4639: 4634: 4631:(1): 98–143. 4630: 4626: 4622: 4615: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4580: 4578: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4549: 4542: 4534: 4527: 4525: 4523: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4489: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4450: 4434: 4427: 4420: 4412: 4406: 4402: 4395: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4364: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4341:(97): 46–66. 4340: 4336: 4329: 4321: 4314: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4279: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4253: 4247: 4242: 4241: 4232: 4224: 4217: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4187: 4171: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4111: 4103: 4096: 4094: 4085: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4045: 4038: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4007: 3999: 3995: 3991: 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3338: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3321: 3320: 3317: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3289:Clenched fist 3288: 3286: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3271: 3265: 3259: 3253: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3216: 3214: 3211: 3209: 3206: 3205: 3203: 3194: 3188: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3158: 3156: 3153: 3150: 3149: 3147: 3138: 3137: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3129: 3126: 3123: 3118: 3113: 3109: 3107: 3098: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3090: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3063: 3061: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3046: 3045: 3043: 3041: 3038: 3037: 3034: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3003: 2997: 2996: 2994: 2992: 2989: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2977: 2972: 2968: 2966: 2957: 2956: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2922: 2919: 2915: 2913: 2910: 2909: 2907: 2898: 2892: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2883: 2880: 2877: 2872: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2842: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2834: 2833: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2806: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2753: 2749: 2739: 2730: 2728: 2723: 2721: 2717: 2706: 2702: 2699: 2689: 2680: 2675: 2665: 2661: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2638:democratizing 2633: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2601: 2596: 2586: 2584: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2567: 2561: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2526:United States 2521: 2511: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2461:civil society 2458: 2454: 2450: 2444: 2434: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2420: 2414: 2412: 2404: 2399: 2394: 2384: 2382: 2376: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2351: 2344:Party systems 2341: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2325:clientelistic 2315: 2313: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2246: 2243: 2238: 2228: 2226: 2222: 2216: 2206: 2203: 2199: 2198:Green parties 2192: 2185:Niche parties 2182: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2155: 2153: 2149: 2144: 2138: 2128: 2126: 2121: 2115: 2114:Mass politics 2107: 2103: 2098: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2078: 2074: 2068: 2061:Elite parties 2058: 2056: 2045: 2042: 2041:party systems 2038: 2027: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1979: 1977: 1971: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1937: 1932: 1926:Party leaders 1923: 1921: 1910: 1908: 1902: 1892: 1888: 1886: 1881: 1873: 1868: 1859: 1855: 1848: 1843: 1838: 1828: 1825: 1821: 1810: 1808: 1803: 1801: 1797: 1796:British India 1793: 1789: 1788:Indira Gandhi 1785: 1780: 1775: 1773: 1769: 1759: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1719: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1700: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1668:absolute rule 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1641: 1640:James Gillray 1637: 1632: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1612: 1610: 1609:United States 1606: 1602: 1598: 1597: 1596:Staatsgezinde 1592: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1582: 1577: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1550: 1546: 1545: 1540: 1536: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1509: 1506: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1442: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1422:only have one 1420:while others 1419: 1415: 1410: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1376: 1371: 1369: 1364: 1362: 1357: 1356: 1354: 1353: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1339: 1331: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1307: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1234: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1213: 1210: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1199: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1188: 1187: 1182: 1181:Party systems 1177: 1176: 1168: 1165: 1163: 1160: 1158: 1155: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1145: 1143: 1140: 1139: 1135: 1130: 1129: 1121: 1118: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1106: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1097: 1090: 1089: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1058: 1056: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1033: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1002: 995: 994: 986: 985:International 982: 981:Transnational 979: 977: 974: 972: 969: 967: 964: 962: 959: 957: 954: 952: 949: 947: 944: 942: 938: 935: 933: 930: 928: 925: 923: 920: 918: 915: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 899: 892: 891: 883: 880: 878: 875: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 862:Republicanism 860: 858: 855: 853: 852:Progressivism 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 838: 835: 833: 830: 828: 825: 823: 820: 818: 815: 813: 810: 808: 805: 803: 800: 798: 795: 793: 790: 788: 785: 783: 780: 778: 775: 774: 770: 764: 763: 751: 748: 746: 743: 742: 740: 739: 736: 733: 732: 726: 723: 721: 718: 716: 713: 712: 710: 709: 706: 703: 702: 696: 693: 691: 688: 687: 685: 684: 681: 678: 677: 672: 667: 666: 663: 660: 659: 656: 652: 651: 648: 639: 634: 632: 627: 625: 620: 619: 617: 616: 613: 608: 603: 602: 595: 592: 590: 587: 585: 582: 580: 577: 572: 568: 564: 563: 562: 559: 557: 554: 552: 549: 545: 542: 541: 540: 537: 535: 532: 531: 523: 522: 515: 512: 510: 507: 505: 502: 500: 497: 495: 491: 487: 484: 482: 479: 478: 470: 469: 462: 459: 457: 454: 452: 449: 447: 444: 443: 440: 437: 436: 428: 427: 420: 417: 415: 414:Civil society 412: 410: 407: 405: 402: 398: 393: 392:Public policy 390: 389: 385: 379: 378: 368: 364: 360: 359: 357: 355: 352: 350: 347: 343: 338: 335: 334: 330: 324: 323: 316: 313: 311: 308: 306: 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 278: 273: 269: 264: 259: 255: 254: 246: 245: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 212:Parliamentary 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 197:Hybrid regime 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 149: 145: 139: 138: 131: 128: 126: 123: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 92: 84: 83: 77: 74: 72: 69: 67: 64: 63: 61: 60: 57: 54: 53: 50: 46: 45: 42: 37: 33: 28: 22: 11368:Conservatism 11302: 11295: 11281: 11267: 11226: 11040:Jurisdiction 11008:Legal remedy 10963:Adjudication 10863:Legal theory 10701:Ratification 10696:Promulgation 10667:Proclamation 10647:Codification 10580:Human rights 10568:Divine right 10558:Constitution 10526:Women in law 10444:Military law 10439:Marriage law 10434:Maritime law 10333:Election law 10273:Aviation law 10263:Abortion law 10215:Property law 10151:Criminal law 10068:. Retrieved 10059: 10050: 10038:. Retrieved 10029: 10019: 10007:. Retrieved 9998: 9989: 9977:. Retrieved 9968: 9958: 9936:(4): 40–46. 9933: 9929: 9923: 9891: 9884: 9872:. Retrieved 9854: 9842:. Retrieved 9833: 9823: 9811:. Retrieved 9802: 9792: 9780:. Retrieved 9771: 9762: 9750:. Retrieved 9741: 9731: 9705: 9700: 9688:. Retrieved 9679: 9669: 9644: 9640: 9634: 9622:. Retrieved 9613: 9604: 9592:. Retrieved 9578: 9566:. Retrieved 9552: 9540:. Retrieved 9526: 9514:. Retrieved 9496: 9469: 9466:Ler História 9465: 9455: 9443:. Retrieved 9434: 9424: 9399: 9395: 9359: 9355: 9349: 9338:, retrieved 9327: 9318: 9306:. Retrieved 9297:The Guardian 9295: 9285: 9273:. Retrieved 9265:The Diplomat 9264: 9254: 9242:. Retrieved 9201: 9195: 9183:. Retrieved 9168: 9149: 9145: 9135: 9123:. Retrieved 9109: 9097:. Retrieved 9077: 9070: 9058:. Retrieved 9044: 9032:. Retrieved 9018: 9006:. Retrieved 8992: 8980:. Retrieved 8969: 8959: 8947:. Retrieved 8936: 8926: 8915:, retrieved 8904: 8894: 8882:. 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Retrieved 7359: 7349: 7330: 7326: 7316: 7291: 7287: 7281: 7259:(3): 47–61. 7256: 7252: 7246: 7221: 7217: 7207: 7182: 7178: 7169: 7144: 7140: 7134: 7109: 7105: 7084:. Retrieved 7069: 7050: 7037: 7018: 7012: 6993: 6987: 6958: 6947: 6935:. Retrieved 6920: 6913:Staff writer 6907: 6895:. Retrieved 6877: 6852: 6848: 6842: 6817: 6813: 6807: 6788: 6782: 6757: 6753: 6747: 6735:. Retrieved 6726: 6692:(1): 27–36. 6689: 6685: 6657: 6648: 6636:. Retrieved 6603: 6599: 6589: 6570: 6534: 6498: 6483:(2): 97–102. 6480: 6476: 6434: 6430: 6424: 6405: 6401: 6391: 6379:. Retrieved 6375: 6366: 6357: 6351: 6326: 6322: 6294: 6262: 6256: 6237: 6231: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6171: 6167: 6161: 6149:. Retrieved 6129: 6125: 6115: 6096: 6078: 6074: 6053:. Retrieved 6039: 6027:. Retrieved 6007: 6003: 5990: 5978:. 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