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party politics can be traced along intellectual and political paths that initially followed, later paralleled, but have seldom deviated from or led the course of
Africanist historiography. The goal of these women involved in the African nationalism movement was to recover Africa's past and to celebrate the independent emergence of independent Africa. It was necessary to raise awareness of this cause, calling to the new emerging generation of African women, raised in a better, more stable society. Although the challenges they faced seemed increasingly more significant, they, however, had it better than past generations, allowing them to raise awareness of the African Nationalist moment. Whereas women's historians interested in effecting changes in the process and production of American or European history had to fight their way onto trains that had been moving through centuries on well-worn gauges, the "new" Africanist train had barely left the station in the early '60s. With a few exceptions, scholars have devoted little more than a passing mention of the presence of African women as conscious political actors in African nationalism.
348:âwomanâs work,â where women evoked, created and performed nationalism through their dances and songs. Equally, women were considered the best sloganeers, as traditional story-tellers and singers using ideas, images and phrases that appealed to the non-elite population. Market women in coastal Nigeria and Guinea also used their networks to convey anti-government information. âOrdinaryâ women themselves had transformed "traditional" methods for networking and expressing disapproval against individuals, into mechanisms for challenging and unsettling the local colonial administration. However, although these women contributed to African nationalist politics, they had limited impact as their strategies were concerned with shaming, retaliation, restitution and compensation, and were not directly about radical transformation. This problem was a reflection of the extent to which most African women had already been marginalized politically, economically and educationally under colonial regimes in Africa.
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313:(ANC). Nevertheless, in 1943, the ANC adopted a new constitution which included a new position for women to become full members of the national movement. Women also formed their own national organisations, such as the Federation of South African Women in 1954, which boasted a membership of 230,000 women. Though at the time women viewed themselves primarily as mothers and wives, the act of their joining in political organisations illustrated a kind of feminist consciousness.
361:
325:, a former singer in Dar es Salaam who became a Tanganyikan nationalist, Tanzanian women were organised into a Women's Section of the Tanganyikan African National Union. Mohammed, who was semi-illiterate, was an impressive orator and later combined her nationalist work in the 1950s with her political ambitions. She was one of the most visible Tanganyikan nationalists during the struggle against colonialism and imperialism. She was the only nationalist leader, besides
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the same way, throughout Africa, the influence of trade union movements, in particular, became the spawning ground for women organisers as such. South
African women, for instance, emerged as primary catalysts for protests against the Apartheid regime. These women first participated in resistance movements through women's branches of the larger male-dominated liberation organizations, as through the
233:
329:, who was recognized across the country at the time of Tanzanian independence. Her legacy as a leader, speaker, organiser and activist is testimony to the pivotal role played by many uneducated women in spreading a national consciousness, a political awareness and securing independence from British rule in Tanzania.
308:
and dedicated primarily to the vigorous support of head of state, President
Stevens. Women activists extended and conveyed militant behaviours. Nancy Dolly Steele was the organizing secretary and co-founder of the Congress, and has been noted for her militant political and nationalist activities. In
432:
administration. In 1958, he spearheaded the All Party
Committee â the purpose of which was for self-governance and to determine the political direction of the Gambia free from European colonialism and neo-colonialism. In 1959, he organised the Bread and Butter demonstration from outside his house in
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in 1958, where women refused to implement agricultural regulations that would have undermined their farming system. In the same way, women used music, dance and informal methods to convey their solidarity for
African nationalism. The production of Tanganyikan nationalism in Tanzania can be seen as
299:
As leaders and activists, women participated in
African nationalism through national organisations. The decade of the 1950s was a landmark because of the significant number of women who were politically involved in the nationalist struggle. A minority of women were incorporated and affiliated into
285:
During the late 1950s and 1960s, scholars of
African nationalist struggles primarily focused on the Western-educated male elites who led the nationalist movements and assumed power after independence. The history of studies of women's involvement in African nationalist struggle, mobilization, and
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has stressed that "all nationalisms are gendered." Undoubtedly, women played a significant role in arousing national consciousness as well as elevating their own political and social position through
African nationalism. It is with this in mind, that both feminism and the research of these women
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1957 and 1966. However, African nationalism was never a single movement, and political groups considered to be
African nationalists varied by economic orientation and degrees of radicalism and violence. Nationalists leaders struggled to find their own social and national identity following the
437:, and led his followers to Government House to lobby the British colonial administration. Following that demonstration, Cham Joof and his associates Crispin Grey Johnson and M. B. Jones were indicted as "inciting the public to disobey the laws of the land" and charged as political prisoners.'
337:
Whilst some female-oriented initiatives may have been conceived and presented to women by male party-leaders, others were clearly created by women themselves. These women used nationalism as a platform to address their own concerns as wives, mothers, industrial workers, peasants, and as women
174:
as a result of wartime changes in the nature of colonial rule as well as social change in Africa itself. Nationalist political parties were established in almost all
African colonies during the 1950s, and their rise was an important reason for the
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become critical to the re-evaluation of the history of African nationalism. In 1943, a prominent organization called the African National Congress Women's League used its branches throughout the continent to build an international campaign.
342:
involved the women of Peasant Pare, where women employed methods of direct confrontation, provocative language and physical violence. Explicit use of sexual insult was also central to the powerful Anlu protest of the
874:
A. McClintock, ââNo Longer in Future Heavenâ: Gender, Race and Nationalism,â in Dangerous Liaisons: Gender, Nation and Postcolonial Perspectives ed. A. McClintock, A. Mufti, E. Shohat (United States, 1997).
199:. African nationalists of the period have also been criticised for their continued use of ideas and policies associated with colonial states. In particular, nationalists usually attempted to preserve
187:
African nationalism in the colonial era was often framed purely in opposition to colonial rule and was therefore frequently unclear or contradictory about its other objectives. According to historian
219:
which differ in their conceptions of political allegiance. Many Africans distinguish between their ethnic and national identities. Some nationalists have argued that tribes were a colonial creation.
2110:
928:
E. Schmidt, âTop Down or Bottom Up? Nationalist Mobilization Reconsidered, with Special Reference to Guinea (French West Africa,â American Historical Review (October, 2005), 975 â 1014.
892:
L. L. Frates, âWomen in the South African National Liberation Movement, 1948 â 1960: An Historiographical Overview,â Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies Vol. 21, No. 1-2 (1993).
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S. Geiger, âWomen in Nationalist Struggle: Tanu Activists in Dar es Salaam,â The International Journal of African Historical Studies, Vol. 20, No. 1, (1987), 1 â 26.
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568:
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152:. However, one of the challenges faced by nationalists in unifying their nation after European rule were the divisions of tribes and the formation of ethnicism.
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created arbitrarily under colonial rule after independence and create a national sense of national identity among the heterogeneous populations inside them.
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1957â66). However, the term refers to a broad range of different ideological and political movements and should not be confused with
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Hussain, Arif (1974). "The educated elite: collaborators, assailants nationalists: A note on African nationalists and nationalism".
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1982:
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Jean O'Barr, âAfrican Women in Politics,â in African Women South of the Sahara, ed. M. J. Hay and S. Stichter (London, 1984).
859:
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which refers to a group of political ideologies in West, Central, East and Southern Africa, which are based on the idea of
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1169:"Top Down or Bottom Up? Nationalist Mobilization Reconsidered, with Special Reference to Guinea (French West Africa)"
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was also ambiguous, with many nationalist leaders professing Pan-African loyalties but still refusing to commit to
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during the 19th and 20th centuries and was loosely inspired by nationalist ideas from Europe. Originally, African
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S. Geiger, âWomen and African Nationalism,â Journal of Women's History Vol. 2, No.1 (SAPRING, 1990), 227 â 244.
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S. Geiger, âWomen and African Nationalism,â Journal of Women's History Vol. 2, No.1 (SAPRING, 1990), 227 â 244.
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Nationalist ideas in Africa emerged during the mid-19th century among the emerging black middle classes in
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as the South African Native National Congress, the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of
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1254:"Women in the South African National Liberation Movement, 1948 â 1960: An Historiographical Overview"
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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494:, the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised
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S. Geiger, J.M Allman and N. Musisi, Women in African Colonial Histories (Bloomington, 2002).
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European influence that controlled the political landscape during the colonial occupation.
26:
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at the time. The early African nationalists were elitist and believed in the supremacy of
8:
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Women were fundamental nationalist leaders in their own right. Under the inspiration of
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Geiger, S. (1987). "Women in Nationalist Struggle: Tanu Activists in Dar es Salaam".
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but sought a greater role for themselves in political decision-making. They rejected
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428:, Cham Joof (as he is commonly referred to), held a series of campaigns against the
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191:, African nationalism would not have emerged without colonialism. Its relation to
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714:"Ethnicity, Patronage and the African State: The Politics of Uncivil Nationalism"
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In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a
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nationalists celebrating the 50th anniversary of national independence in 2007
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33:, a leading Zambian independence activist, pictured at a political rally in
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Perspectives on Africa: A Reader in Culture, History, and Representation
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100:. Early nationalists hoped to overcome ethnic fragmentation by creating
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Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League
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male-dominated national organisations. Founded by women in 1960, The
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The Politics of African Nationalism: Challenge to American Policy
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The root cause of the bread and butter demonstration. s.n. (1959)
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The root cause of the bread and butter demonstration. s.n. (1959)
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Dangerous Liaisons: Gender, Nation and Postcolonial Perspectives
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854:(2nd ed.). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p. 3.
159:
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The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in
244:
personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay
1101:(May 1966). "African Nationalism: Concept or Confusion?".
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was to become, in 1968, the women's section of the ruling
211:
African nationalism exists in an uneasy relationship with
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2084:
Pan-African Freedom Movement for East and Central Africa
814:
812:
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332:
1204:
The International Journal of African Historical Studies
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and played an important role in forcing the process of
23:
which defines national identity in purely racial terms.
794:
782:
770:
746:
1287:
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809:
338:
affiliated to the ANC. The 1940s Anti-tax protest in
2099:
Popular and Social League of the Great Sahara Tribes
1138:
Geiger, S. (1990). "Women and African Nationalism".
690:
602:
505:, although it is also a registered political party.
206:
1230:
1075:
463:and has governed the country since 1994, when the
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850:Southall, Aiden (2010). "The Illusion of Tribe".
3217:
1448:Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa
1299:African Women: Early History to the 21st Century
416:, one of the prominent Gambian nationalists and
222:
1409:The Politics of History in Contemporary Africa
1288:McClintock, A.; Mufti, A.; Shohat, E. (1997).
2328:
1480:
140:as "primitive" and embraced western ideas of
104:. In its earliest period, it was inspired by
1427:Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria
316:
1231:Geiger, S.; Allman, J.; Musisi, N. (2002).
1082:(First US ed.). Boston: Little-Brown.
2335:
2321:
1487:
1473:
1279:O'Barr, J.; Hay, M.; Stichter, S. (1984).
1078:Let Freedom Come: Africa in Modern History
671:
2069:Organisation of African Trade Union Unity
1320:Exclusive interview with Foroyaa Panorama
1269:
1184:
952:Exclusive interview with Foroyaa Panorama
729:
273:Learn how and when to remove this message
2029:All-African People's Revolutionary Party
1334:Party Politics in The Gambia (1945â1970)
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1011:Party Politics in The Gambia (1945â1970)
969:Party Politics in The Gambia (1945â1970)
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88:of many or all nation states in Africa.
25:
1788:I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson
1424:
1379:"Cham Joof's speech on Pan-Africanism".
1296:
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1097:
1050:"Cham Joof's speech on Pan-Africanism".
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166:African nationalism first emerged as a
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1251:
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1397:Almond Gabriel and James S. Coleman,
1258:Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies
1103:The Journal of Modern African Studies
705:
333:Women and Informal Methods of Protest
2064:International African Service Bureau
1454:Shepherd, George W., junior (1962).
1451:(University Press of America, 1977).
1400:The Politics of the Developing Areas
831:Isabirye, Stephen (April 30, 1995).
731:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007947
513:
355:
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2105:Rassemblement DĂ©mocratique Africain
1234:Women in African Colonial Histories
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2094:Pan Africanist Congress of Azania
1281:African Women South of the Sahara
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1344:Gambia: AE Cham Joof Passes Away
1324:TRIBUTE TO ALHAJI A.E. CHAM JOOF
984:Gambia: AE Cham Joof Passes Away
956:TRIBUTE TO ALHAJI A.E. CHAM JOOF
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302:National Council of Sierra Leone
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207:Tribalism and ethnic nationalism
2220:All-African Peoples' Conference
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295:Women in national organisations
1418:Nationalism in Colonial Africa
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1:
3226:African and Black nationalism
2245:United States of Latin Africa
2074:Organisation of African Unity
2003:African Leadership University
1064:
545:Organisation of African Unity
478:Founded on 8 January 1912 in
465:first post-apartheid election
351:
180:
134:African traditional religions
77:
60:. The ideology emerged under
16:Group of political ideologies
2059:First Pan-African Conference
1445:Ohaegbulam, Festus Ugboaja.
1301:. Indiana Press University.
1237:. Indiana University Press.
525:African Nationalist Movement
459:known for its opposition to
420:during the colonial era was
223:Women in African nationalism
7:
2709:International organisations
508:
54:national self-determination
10:
3247:
2961:Africa Cricket Association
2767:Countries by GDP (nominal)
1998:African Leadership Academy
1297:Sheldon, Kathleen (2017).
1173:American Historical Review
1140:Journal of Women's History
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2290:Pan-Africanism portal
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2054:Economic Freedom Fighters
2044:Convention People's Party
2019:African Unification Front
2011:
1990:
1981:
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1635:
1626:
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1509:
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1115:10.1017/s0022278x00012957
712:Berman, Bruce J. (1998).
490:government came to power
473:President of South Africa
447:African National Congress
391:
317:Women as national leaders
311:African National Congress
68:was based on demands for
2210:African-American leftism
1959:Henry Sylvester Williams
1723:Ochola Ogaye Mak'Anyengo
659:21 December 2013 at the
641:
177:decolonisation of Africa
74:decolonisation of Africa
19:Not to be confused with
3023:Countries by population
2736:United States of Africa
2268:Pan-Africanism category
2240:United States of Africa
2235:Union of African States
2225:East African Federation
2174:Ethnic groups of Africa
2079:Pan African Association
1668:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
1614:United States of Africa
1461:New York: F.A. Praeger.
1351:Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham.
1009:Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham.
997:Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham.
967:Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham.
424:. From the 1950s up to
114:Back-to-Africa movement
112:intellectuals from the
2772:Countries by GDP (PPP)
2714:Pan-African Parliament
2505:Science and technology
2049:East African Community
1688:Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof
1537:Anti-Western sentiment
1152:10.1353/jowh.2010.0247
422:Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof
404:Politics of the Gambia
398:Alieu Ebrima Cham Joof
253:by rewriting it in an
163:
62:European colonial rule
42:
2425:European colonisation
2388:Pre-colonial kingdoms
1954:Frances Cress Welsing
1364:(2009). p. 200,
1358:Jawara, Dawda Kairaba
1330:Joof, Alh. A. E. Cham
1271:10.5070/F7211-2016742
1186:10.1086/ahr.110.4.975
1023:Jawara, Dawda Kairaba
833:"Tribalism in Africa"
674:"African nationalism"
569:Congolese nationalism
564:Ethiopian nationalism
455:. It originated as a
426:Gambia's independence
408:History of the Gambia
306:All People's Congress
158:
29:
2996:Stadiums by capacity
2943:World Heritage Sites
2420:European exploration
2136:Black Star of Africa
2089:Pan-African Congress
2039:Conseil de l'Entente
1819:Edward Wilmot Blyden
1743:Abdias do Nascimento
1708:Toussaint Louverture
1336:, pp. 21, 53â56
1167:Schmidt, E. (2005).
574:Nigerian nationalism
550:Types of nationalism
484:black South Africans
197:supranational unions
56:and the creation of
2680:Freedom of religion
2665:Heads of government
2457:Scramble for Africa
2189:Conflicts in Africa
2179:Languages of Africa
2153:Pan-African colours
1874:Yosef Ben-Jochannan
1517:African nationalism
1375:The Point Newspaper
1252:Frates, L. (1993).
1046:The Point Newspaper
654:African nationalism
503:liberation movement
457:liberation movement
170:in the years after
84:which may seek the
46:African nationalism
3231:Politics of Africa
2405:Indian Ocean trade
2205:African philosophy
2184:Religion in Africa
1909:Zephania Mothopeng
1859:Amy Ashwood Garvey
1834:John Henrik Clarke
1824:Stokely Carmichael
1809:Molefi Kete Asante
1763:John Nyathi Pokela
1748:Gamal Abdel Nasser
1384:2011-11-23 at the
1099:Rotberg, Robert I.
1055:2011-11-23 at the
598:Amhara nationalism
588:Somali nationalism
371:. You can help by
323:Bibi Titi Mohammed
255:encyclopedic style
242:is written like a
217:ethnic nationalism
201:national frontiers
164:
118:nationalist ideals
70:self-determination
43:
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2802:Natural resources
2744:
2743:
2690:Linguistic rights
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2302:Africa portal
2142:Le Marron Inconnu
2124:
2123:
1977:
1976:
1773:Ahmed Sékou Touré
1622:
1621:
1542:Black nationalism
1522:African socialism
1415:Hodgkin, Thomas.
1412:(Springer, 2010.)
1308:978-0-253-02716-0
861:978-1-4051-9060-2
767:, pp. 166â7.
638:
637:
530:African socialism
471:being elected as
389:
388:
283:
282:
275:
215:and sub-national
189:Robert I. Rotberg
35:Northern Rhodesia
21:black nationalism
3238:
3193:
3186:
2971:Afro-Asian Games
2891:
2890:
2834:
2833:
2812:Renewable energy
2777:Countries by HDI
2755:
2754:
2643:
2642:
2560:
2559:
2361:
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2330:
2323:
2314:
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2300:
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2287:
2276:
2275:
2266:
2265:
2158:Pan-African flag
1988:
1987:
1934:Randall Robinson
1869:Leonard Jeffries
1849:W. E. B. Du Bois
1844:Cheikh Anta Diop
1839:Martin R. Delany
1663:David Comissiong
1633:
1632:
1532:Anti-imperialism
1507:
1506:
1489:
1482:
1475:
1466:
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1442:
1312:
1293:
1284:
1275:
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1134:
1093:
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1029:(2009). p. 200,
1020:
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866:
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837:hartford-hwp.com
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792:
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733:
724:(388): 305â341.
709:
703:
697:
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687:
685:
684:
672:BlackFacts.com.
669:
663:
651:
629:
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593:Igbo nationalism
540:Green resistance
514:
430:British colonial
384:
381:
363:
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278:
271:
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264:
258:
235:
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182:
106:African-American
79:
3246:
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3237:
3236:
3235:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3196:
3189:
3182:
3173:
3076:
3072:Youth in Africa
3050:Life expectancy
3005:
2947:
2923:Africanfuturism
2880:
2821:
2817:Stock exchanges
2740:
2628:
2587:Natural history
2545:
2509:
2466:
2415:Muslim conquest
2410:Bantu expansion
2350:
2341:
2311:
2306:
2296:
2294:
2282:
2278:Africa category
2254:
2193:
2162:
2120:
2007:
1973:
1969:Omali Yeshitela
1949:Issa Laye Thiaw
1879:Maulana Karenga
1864:John G. Jackson
1792:
1713:Patrice Lumumba
1678:Muammar Gaddafi
1618:
1583:African century
1571:
1498:
1493:
1394:
1392:Further reading
1386:Wayback Machine
1346:(4 APRIL 2011)
1309:
1245:
1179:(4): 975â1014.
1090:
1072:Davidson, Basil
1067:
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1057:Wayback Machine
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986:(4 APRIL 2011)
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661:Wayback Machine
652:
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627:Politics portal
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418:Pan-Africanists
410:
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394:
385:
379:
376:
369:needs expansion
354:
335:
319:
297:
288:Anne McClintock
279:
268:
262:
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251:help improve it
248:
236:
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130:Western culture
94:
24:
17:
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5:
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3001:Tour d'Afrique
2998:
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2894:
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2856:Climate change
2853:
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2823:
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2814:
2809:
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2792:Infrastructure
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2719:Pan-Africanism
2716:
2711:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2703:
2702:
2695:Women's rights
2692:
2687:
2682:
2672:
2670:Heads of state
2667:
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2577:Impact craters
2574:
2572:Highest points
2569:
2563:
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2490:
2488:Historiography
2485:
2480:
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2462:Decolonisation
2459:
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2255:
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2252:
2250:Year of Africa
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2215:Africanization
2212:
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2015:
2013:
2009:
2008:
2006:
2005:
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1994:
1992:
1985:
1979:
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1971:
1966:
1964:Amos N. Wilson
1961:
1956:
1951:
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1936:
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1924:Runoko Rashidi
1921:
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1914:George Padmore
1911:
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1783:Robert Sobukwe
1780:
1778:Haile Selassie
1775:
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1768:Thomas Sankara
1765:
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1758:Julius Nyerere
1755:
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1700:
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1693:Kenneth Kaunda
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1673:Anténor Firmin
1670:
1665:
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1658:AmĂlcar Cabral
1655:
1653:Nnamdi Azikiwe
1650:
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1562:Uhuru Movement
1559:
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1534:
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1500:
1499:
1496:Pan-Africanism
1492:
1491:
1484:
1477:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1452:
1443:
1433:(3): 485â497.
1422:
1413:
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1146:(1): 227â244.
1135:
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1002:
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930:
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903:
894:
885:
876:
867:
860:
842:
823:
808:
806:, p. 374.
793:
791:, p. 202.
781:
779:, p. 167.
769:
757:
755:, p. 165.
745:
704:
689:
678:Blackfacts.com
664:
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488:National Party
469:Nelson Mandela
445:Main article:
442:
439:
433:Barthurst now
396:Main article:
393:
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387:
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350:
334:
331:
327:Julius Nyerere
318:
315:
296:
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263:September 2020
239:
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193:Pan-Africanism
110:Afro-Caribbean
93:
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82:Pan-Africanism
31:Kenneth Kaunda
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9:
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4:
3:
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2762:Central banks
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2650:African Union
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2450:Trans-Saharan
2448:
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2148:Lion of Judah
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2024:African Union
2022:
2020:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1995:
1993:
1989:
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1984:
1983:Organizations
1980:
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1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
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1944:Burning Spear
1942:
1940:
1939:Walter Rodney
1937:
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1932:
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1925:
1922:
1920:
1919:Motsoko Pheko
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1899:Archie Mafeje
1897:
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1884:Alice Kinloch
1882:
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1753:Kwame Nkrumah
1751:
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1746:
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1741:
1739:
1738:Robert Mugabe
1736:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1724:
1721:
1719:
1718:Samora Machel
1716:
1714:
1711:
1709:
1706:
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1703:Jomo Kenyatta
1701:
1699:
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1683:Marcus Garvey
1681:
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168:mass movement
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116:who imported
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102:nation-states
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58:nation states
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50:umbrella term
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28:
22:
3055:Urbanization
3015:Demographics
2991:Rugby Africa
2898:Architecture
2782:Billionaires
2675:Human rights
2445:Indian Ocean
2376:North Africa
2140:
2103:
1929:Paul Robeson
1854:Frantz Fanon
1829:Aimé Césaire
1698:Modibo KeĂŻta
1643:Dennis Akumu
1606:
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1527:Afrocentrism
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700:Rotberg 1966
681:. Retrieved
677:
667:
649:
632:
582:By ethnicity
500:
480:Bloemfontein
477:
467:resulted in
453:South Africa
450:
441:South Africa
411:
377:
373:adding to it
368:
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172:World War II
165:
150:nation state
142:Christianity
95:
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3065:urban areas
2986:FIBA Africa
2685:LGBT rights
2383:Archaeology
1991:Educational
1804:Marimba Ani
1728:Thabo Mbeki
1636:Politicians
1588:Black power
1210:(1): 1â26.
486:. When the
120:current in
98:West Africa
66:nationalism
3220:Categories
3035:Emigration
2938:Philosophy
2918:Literature
2364:Chronology
1904:Ali Mazrui
1814:Steve Biko
1628:Proponents
1340:All Africa
1065:References
981:All Africa
683:2020-05-24
402:See also:
352:By country
148:, and the
86:federation
41:) in 1960.
2871:Languages
2861:Etiquette
2787:Education
2660:Democracy
2655:Elections
2555:Geography
2514:By region
2498:conflicts
2371:Antiquity
2012:Political
1894:Malcolm X
1889:Fela Kuti
1733:Tom Mboya
1594:NĂ©gritude
1557:Sankarism
1552:Nkrumaism
1547:Garveyism
1195:162562610
1160:145550056
1131:144714462
496:apartheid
461:apartheid
213:tribalism
146:modernity
138:tribalism
3200:Category
3045:HIV/AIDS
2876:Religion
2841:Abortion
2797:Internet
2724:Politics
2700:feminism
2638:Politics
2493:Military
2471:By topic
2435:Atlantic
2398:Sahelian
2348:articles
2167:Dynamics
1648:Idi Amin
1576:Concepts
1510:Variants
1503:Ideology
1439:41857033
1406:Eze, M.
1382:Archived
1377: :
1318: :
1074:(1978).
1053:Archived
1048: :
971:, p. 21.
950: :
657:Archived
558:By state
509:See also
345:Cameroon
340:Tanzania
179:between
160:Ghanaian
126:Americas
124:and the
3184:Outline
3086:By year
3028:density
2913:Cuisine
2886:Culture
2830:Society
2807:Poverty
2750:Economy
2729:parties
2597:Central
2592:Regions
2582:Islands
2521:Central
2483:Empires
2478:Economy
2440:Barbary
2430:Slavery
2393:Empires
2356:History
2230:Kwanzaa
2198:Related
2129:Symbols
2116:ZANUâPF
1421:(1956).
1362:Kairaba
1316:Foroyaa
1264:(1/2).
1027:Kairaba
948:Foroyaa
519:General
492:in 1948
412:In the
249:Please
92:History
3205:Portal
3060:cities
2908:Cinema
2866:Health
2624:Rivers
2346:
2344:Africa
1797:Others
1608:Ujamaa
1601:Ubuntu
1567:Zikism
1437:
1403:(1971)
1368:
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1241:
1224:219275
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740:723213
738:
633:
435:Banjul
414:Gambia
392:Gambia
122:Europe
48:is an
39:Zambia
3191:Index
2953:Sport
2933:Music
2928:Media
2612:South
2607:North
2536:South
2531:North
1435:JSTOR
1220:JSTOR
1191:S2CID
1156:S2CID
1127:S2CID
1119:JSTOR
736:JSTOR
642:Notes
37:(now
3169:2020
3164:2019
3159:2018
3154:2017
3149:2016
3144:2015
3139:2014
3134:2013
3129:2012
3124:2011
3119:2010
3114:2009
3109:2008
3104:2007
3099:2006
3094:2005
2617:West
2602:East
2541:West
2526:East
1366:ISBN
1303:ISBN
1239:ISBN
1084:ISBN
1031:ISBN
856:ISBN
406:and
136:and
108:and
2903:Art
1266:doi
1212:doi
1181:doi
1177:110
1148:doi
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692:^
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181:c.
144:,
78:c.
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