Rashidun Caliphate

1729: 4007:, which was sited in the center of the city. Markets were established at convenient points, which were overseen by market officers charged with ensuring the quality of goods. The cities were divided into quarters, and each quarter was reserved for particular tribes. During the reign of Umar, there were restrictions on the construction of palatial buildings by the rich and elites—symbolic of the egalitarian society of Islam, where all were equal—although the restrictions were later revoked by Uthman because of the rise in the overall standard of living, and the construction of two-story buildings were permitted. As a result, many palatial buildings were constructed throughout the empire, including Uthman's huge palace in Medina, 2155: 4169: 3511: 1628: 4587: 2268: 2397: 913: 1714: 2204: 2170: 2092: 4231:, Khalid ibn al-Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus). The cavalry was the army's main strike force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged. Once fully engaged, the enemy reserves were held by the infantry and archers, while the cavalry executed a pincer movement (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to assault their base camps. 2003: 2389: 1243: 882: 74: 1122: 492: 4670: 4126:) and Uthman had "already inaugurated a nepotistic style of government", for which later Caliphs were condemned, and wonders if the idea of a divinely guided "golden age" of early Islam came from a need by late Umayyad and Abbasid religious scholars to differentiate the first caliphs (who had more power in law making) and the contemporary Caliphs who they wanted to defer to them (the ulama) in religious matters. Consequently, the companions were "given a makeover" as "model's of piety and beyond reproach". 1509: 1909:

garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the

4497: 2761: 4349: 4424: 9732: 2788: 969:, "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph. Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon 2502: 2585: 2127: 1357:, a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor ( 2804:

be the foundation stone of the Caliphate. Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: "O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong", and at that instance, a Muslim man stood up and said, "O Amir al-Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers) if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you!". Hearing this Caliph Umar said "Alhamdulillah (Praise be to Allah) I have such followers."

9721: 573: 1101:, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. 4239:

of his Caliphate, adopted a more hands-on approach, directing his generals where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right-wing of the army in each particular battle. This made conquests comparatively slower but made the campaigns well-organized. Uthman and Ali reverted to Abu Bakr's method, giving missions to their generals and leaving the details to them.

2119:, the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed, the Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the 4196:. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date. The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type. 4154:. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops. 1485:

them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house from the back and killed him while he was reading the

3243:, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone. 1612:, a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as 1581:

It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the

4034:. In important cities, guest houses were constructed to serve traders and merchants coming from faraway places. Roads and bridges were constructed for public use. On the road from Medina to Mecca, shelters, wells, and meal houses were constructed at every stage for the convenience of the people who came for hajj. 3384:

connected with Allah’s Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if

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the Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly,

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The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to

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in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was

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made peace with the Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa

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Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and resources for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Umar, in the latter part

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During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of an increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary to treat the officers strictly, in order to prevent corruption. During

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The basic administrative system of the Dar al-Islamiyyah (The House of Islam) was laid down in the days of Muhammad. Caliph Abu Bakr stated in his sermon when he was elected: "If I order any thing that would go against the order of Allah and his Messenger; then do not obey me". This is considered to

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and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be

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and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met the rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies.

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were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; it is lunar-like the Arabian calendar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra

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and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records. Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the

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Various Islamic lawyers do, however, place multiple conditions, and stipulations—e.g., the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty—before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known that, during a time of drought during the Rashidun caliphate,

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Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's

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Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own

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Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of

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The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine

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got 4,000. The ordinary Muslim citizens were given allowances of between 2,000 and 2,500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population because they formed the backbone of the state's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the state's affairs, and

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was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on

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The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he

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After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution. After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute

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The mosques were not merely places for offering prayers, but also community centers where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar, as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the

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The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the

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who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case

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stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance,

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should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, so as not to affect trade within the Caliphate. The tax was levied only on merchandise meant for sale; goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. Merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed.

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briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world

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At the time of an officer's appointment, a complete inventory of all his possessions was prepared and kept on record. If there was later an unusual increase in his possessions, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property confiscated by the State. The principal officers were

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From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the

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Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Some suggested that the Caliph should first get the highest allowance, with the remaining allowances graduating downward from that. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.

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Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of

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The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these, some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupation troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the

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As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic

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Umar set up a committee to compile a list of persons by nearness to Muhammad. The committee produced the list clan-wise. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan, then the clan of Abu Bakr, and then the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but relegated his clan lower on the

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The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the

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sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategic town of

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imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt. Slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick, hermits and the poor were all exempt. In addition to the exemptions, some needy non-Muslims were given stipends by the state.

1254:. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle 3087:

The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main

2674:. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence. After leaving Cyprus, the Muslim fleet headed towards 1813:

in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and

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The basic strategy of early Muslim armies on the campaign was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels, the latter used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert

3239:(1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this 3137:

the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath.

2724:(the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner to other Muslims and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law. 2918:

Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising

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clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. During his reign, rebels rose, and he was assassinated in June 656.

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of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate was a hereditary monarchy). Furthermore, according to other hadiths in

2236:. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar. 1896:. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at 1104:

Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being

2435:. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. However, the Muslims sent for reinforcements, and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the 1338:. These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but the long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of 1187:, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet 3176:

were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The

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Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura.

2628:. Each side also agreed to afford free passage to each other through their respective territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses, and textiles to Nubia according to demand. 1921:. The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the 1596:, a kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the 3146:, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand 2608:. The Muslim army pulled out of Nubia with nothing to show for it. Ten years later, Uthman's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of 4138:

and his descendants of the divinely ordained right to leadership. In this Shi'ite perspective, many of the companions and their successors were usurpers, even hypocrites, who never ceased to subvert the religion for their own interests.

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usually denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects,

3466:(632–634) established a house where all money was kept on receipt. As all money was distributed immediately, the treasury generally remained locked up; at the time of Abu Bakr's death, there was only one dirham in the public treasury. 3336:

Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a

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And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great

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gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle.

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and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the

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Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1.

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of the companions, including the Rashidun Caliphs. Many of the Shi'a do not share the Sunni view that the companions were all models of piety, instead accusing many of them of conspiring after the Prophet's death to dispossess

1420:. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the 2076:

road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after a brief siege in July 634

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were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule.

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states that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. It is only with the fifth caliph",

1975:; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the 4115:(661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media." However, there do exist inscriptions dating to the period, one of which for instance mentions 980:, were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community. These caliphs are collectively known in 4037:

Military cantonments were constructed at strategic points. Special stables were provided for cavalry, which could accommodate as many as 4,000 horses. Special pasture grounds were provided and maintained for

3265:. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law ( 1848:

Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain

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Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an.

1223:). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an 3871:

there were two opinions. Some held that it should be the same for all Muslims. Umar, on the other hand, believed that the allowance should be graduated according to one's merit with reference to Islam.

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to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the

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in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of

3488:, sent his revenue to Umar, amounting to five hundred thousand dirhams. Umar summoned a meeting of his Consultative Assembly and sought the opinion of the Companions about the disposal of the money. 1409:

Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.

1263:. The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina. 3460:. Whatever revenues or other amounts were received were distributed immediately. There were no salaries to be paid, and there was no state expenditure, thereby making a public treasury unnecessary. 1195:; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of 1805:

in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Daumat-ul-jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general,

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The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer

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observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders. During the reign of

2029:. However, their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack 3100:

conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.

646:. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE. During its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in 2686:

and captured a large part of the island. Soon after this, Uthman was murdered, ending his expansionist policy, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor

1279:. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the 1648:

as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As.

11330: 2423:). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. In 639 some 4000 Rashidun troops led by 4122:

Hoyland also questions the alleged moral superiority of the Rashidun (or at least of Uthman and Ali) to their Umayyad successors, noting Ali was involved in the first civil war (

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advised that the amount should be kept for future needs. Walid bin Hisham suggested that, like the Byzantines, separate departments of treasury and accounts should be set up.

4052:, was a nine-mile (14 km) long canal which brought water from the Tigris to Basra. The Maqal canal was also dug from the Tigris. The Amir al-Mu'minin canal, named for a 4261:

up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by

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was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy

1553:, a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as 7349: 4219:. They also possessed spears and daggers. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraysh and the 1431:, while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph. 1109:, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian 748:

in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and

4119:

by name and the date of his death, and there were also coins struck during his rule (although as Hoyland notes, they do not bear his name, simply "In the name of God,")

3495:

After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by

4064:. During the famine of 639, grain was brought from Egypt to Arabia through this canal, which saved the lives of millions. The Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas canal, named for the 455: 430: 416: 402: 388: 1250:

Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of

803:

in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body - consisting of prominent members of the high-ranking companions of the Prophet - called

3456:) was the department that dealt with the revenues and all other economic matters of the state. In the time of Muhammad, there was no permanent Bait-ul-Mal or public 2359:

to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of

2166:

to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand.

2186:; Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, 1833:. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the 9481: 2299:

surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of

3988:

were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan, who not only expanded them but also beautified them on a large scale.

2650:

but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk to the soldiers. Once Uthman became caliph, however, he approved Muawiyah's request. In 650, Muawiyah attacked

11325: 9363: 8731: 2748:, which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims, 1656:

choose the next leader (this treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor). Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya founded the

1585:. Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son 2532:

Uthman gave him permission after considering it in the Majlis al-Shura. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in

1489:. It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him. 1821:

In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the

7678: 9348: 2658:, after a brief siege, but signed a treaty with the local rulers. During this expedition, a relative of Muhammad, Umm-Haram, fell from her mule near the 2251:

and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against

73: 5977: 1881:

followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general

3281:. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the 11345: 9447: 7554: 1353:

While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the

3864:

amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils.

1295:, but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634. 1291:. He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of 1097:, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, 6415:

Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Bernard Lewis; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1970). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam".

11355: 3411:, kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to deliver their verdict. 2458:, and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local 1695:

to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the

1424:

clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.

10119: 3666:, that over a certain amount unused for a year) to give to the poor. All and only those persons whose annual wealth exceeded a minimum level ( 2469:

In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by

976:

Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam, were among

5970: 2045: 6403:

He also foretold that there would be a caliphate for thirty years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) that would be followed by kingship.

3959:

making no contributions to development, were nevertheless often given stipends. On assuming office, Uthman increased these stipends by 25%.

11350: 6431: 3583:

were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist

407: 3297:

or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.

2013:

After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders:

1900:, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of 9378: 3317:

upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is

2529:

sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate.

2415:

In 639, Egypt was a prefecture of the Byzantine Empire. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under

8253: 7417:

Shadi Hamid (August 2003), "An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar",

7309: 4080:. This proposal, however, did not materialize due to unknown reasons, and it was 1200 years later that such a canal was dug—the modern 1508: 7614: 7583: 1786:, fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the 11285: 9452: 9368: 7277: 7134: 7112: 7082: 7052: 7007: 6987: 6971: 6951: 6927: 6907: 6891: 6875: 1564:

Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by

9469: 7539:

Zaman, M.Q., 1998. Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), p. 691.

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and was killed. She was buried in that same spot, which became a holy site for many local Muslims and Christians and, in 1816, the

3305:

argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that

9432: 9353: 3181:

also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.

7178: 11305: 11260: 9373: 8321: 6838: 3757:

represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.

2455: 2450:

The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of

1118:

which may have involved violence. However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.

1427:

Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the

11265: 11072: 10454: 9383: 9340: 8222: 8138: 8074: 8053: 7909: 7402: 7220: 6782: 6754: 6724: 6049: 6013: 2182:

on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards

1077:

clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the

740:, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the 7432: 2459: 10978: 3662:) is the Islamic equivalent of a luxury tax. It was taken from the Muslims in the amount of 2.5% of their dormant wealth ( 3150:

annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander-in-chief of the army of their sector).

11300: 4253:

The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of

3826:

Imports by citizens for trade purposes were subject to the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the

1931:

was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the

977: 601: 7156: 3967:

The evaluation greatly contributed to the prosperity of the citizens as trade increased, and their contributions to the

3403:

later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land. A

1885:

was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men.

1865:

in which Abu Ubayd was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the

1728: 1350:

under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643.

11315: 11124: 10124: 2637: 1754:

in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.

1462:

was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the

17: 11320: 11295: 9768: 9235: 9189: 8849: 8843: 8189: 8114: 8093: 8000: 7888: 7860: 7796: 7319: 6396: 6371: 6310: 6277: 6252: 6227: 6120: 3951: 4150:

The Rashidun Military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the seventh century, serving alongside the

3480:

In the time of Umar, things changed. With each conquest, revenue increased. Umar also granted salaries to the army.

2327:, which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many 2033:, to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through 11280: 9106: 8962: 8497: 8393: 6414: 4003:. These cities were laid out according to the principles of urban planning. All streets in these cities led to the 1155:

Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state.

11275: 10750: 9590: 9406: 6848: 6714: 6074: 4936: 1834: 1668:

The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising

9912: 7686: 6471: 4235:

Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies.

2812:

Under Abu Bakr, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.

2154: 1801:, and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and 11340: 9655: 9213: 9111: 8246: 8148: 8032: 6744: 5616: 3323:, and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two 3269:, the rules of life set by Allah in the Qur'an). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to 2687: 2470: 736:), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as 7278:"The Muslims Internet Directory: e Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa" 4168: 1766:. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the 158: 11290: 11188: 9023: 8782: 8517: 7447:

Shahid Alam, Articulating Group Differences: A Variety of Autocentrisms, Journal of Science and Society, 2003

4615: 4516: 3893: 2851: 1997: 8156: 5181: 4142:

The stark differences in these two views has led to sectarian tension that has even culminated in violence.

3587:(Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a 2473:

was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

2331:

in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647

11310: 11183: 11067: 9575: 9552: 9172: 9028: 9018: 8924: 8635: 3341:

against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.

2682:

and conquered them without much resistance. From 652 to 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against

2374:

in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign.

3674:

did not include one's primary residence, primary transportation, a moderate amount of woven jewelry, etc.

3510: 11335: 11250: 11193: 10230: 9677: 9542: 9358: 9126: 8919: 8354: 6219: 4215:

shields were also used as protection in combat. The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a

2568:. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the 1115: 5111: 11270: 9437: 9320: 8837: 8314: 8024: 7550: 7394: 1810: 7921:"Reformasi Sistem Administrasi Pemerintahan, Penakhlukkan di Darat Dan Dilautan Pada Era Bani Umayyah" 3006:. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a 2999:), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organization. 2267: 1878: 685:

clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of the

11151: 10299: 9863: 9517: 9218: 9047: 8743: 8523: 8486: 8239: 6432:"The Khilaafah Lasted for 30 Years Then There Was Kingship Which Allaah Gives To Whomever He Pleases" 6148: 4509: 3541:

three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.

2292: 2163: 2014: 1708: 1327: 1098: 257: 7901:

Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God [2 volumes]

2431:. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the 2396: 11109: 11084: 10934: 10593: 10588: 9672: 9401: 9225: 8998: 8536: 7880: 7846: 6136: 5860: 4072:, the governor of Egypt during the reign of Umar, even proposed the digging of a canal to join the 3710: 3250: 3080:

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the

2617: 2549: 2383: 2240: 2120: 1893: 1627: 1335: 1331: 948: 6616:, Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5–6. 4586: 3732:

was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural

11176: 11057: 10598: 10551: 10494: 10193: 10137: 9885: 9535: 8409: 6770: 5606: 4084:. Shuaibia was the port for Mecca, but it was inconvenient, so Uthman had a new seaport built at 4049: 4048:

were dug to irrigate fields as well as provide drinking water. The Abu Musa canal, named for the

3943: 3856: 3544: 2605: 2282:

Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards

1874: 1857:

to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of

1479: 1383: 1280: 1014: 917: 594: 294: 8563: 6843: 4223:

and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.

3500:

salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.

2115:

between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria.

1370:

With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the

1242: 657:

The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s passing in June 632 and the subsequent debate over the

539: 11198: 11099: 11094: 10782: 10730: 10650: 10583: 10487: 10472: 10365: 10132: 10086: 9927: 9814: 9687: 9616: 9585: 9525: 8507: 8502: 8420: 5711: 5656: 4505: 4274: 2162:

On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored

1367:. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire. 1323: 1292: 1125: 1035: 756: 749: 674: 658: 628: 244: 7899: 6500: 6110: 2744:

The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the

1691:, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost 1017:, towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God. The 11129: 11089: 10902: 10777: 9841: 9831: 9790: 9761: 9633: 9611: 8430: 8307: 8206: 7994: 7236: 5701: 5671: 4605: 4442: 4097: 4069: 3918: 3679: 3560: 3310: 2996: 2526: 2518: 2486: 2256: 1802: 1601: 1569: 1110: 11017: 7622: 7591: 7377: 4270: 2995:'s control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of 1910: 1713: 1382:

While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave

11222: 11052: 11022: 10897: 10828: 10799: 10718: 10052: 9890: 9880: 9300: 9207: 9152: 8202: 5845: 5726: 4635: 4447: 4248: 4151: 4065: 3860:

a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens.

3852: 3496: 2792: 2436: 2416: 2203: 2169: 2139: 2091: 2026: 2022: 1952: 1888:

Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of

1862: 1858: 1809:, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated the rebels in the 308: 11002: 7285: 7186: 7142: 7120: 7090: 7060: 7011: 6991: 6967: 6947: 6931: 6911: 6887: 6879: 2466:, a seventh-century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam. 2002: 1882: 8: 11255: 10914: 10794: 10760: 10662: 10482: 10477: 10289: 10008: 9944: 9819: 9804: 9530: 9411: 9305: 9121: 8618: 8415: 6348: 5998: 5935: 4946: 4526: 4258: 4053: 3887: 3407:(Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender, 2764: 2699: 2553: 2514: 2451: 2388: 2096: 1718: 1637: 1582: 1521: 1317: 1251: 559: 10630: 10620: 5251: 2037:

and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the

1246:

Tombs of caliphs: Abu Bakr and Umar (right), Medina, present-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

11027: 11007: 10990: 10941: 10806: 10615: 10566: 10499: 10417: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10304: 10274: 10064: 9932: 9907: 9692: 9606: 9457: 9393: 9201: 9177: 8854: 8832: 8792: 8682: 8595: 8512: 8403: 8163:. Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales. p. 90. 7982: 7974: 7942: 7834: 7826: 7354: 6152: 6091: 6018: 6003: 5641: 5406: 5291: 5151: 4876: 3423: 3415: 3394: 3081: 2601: 2481:, Egypt was captured by rebel troops under the command of former Rashidun army general 2108: 1798: 1605: 1565: 1558: 1404: 1347: 1255: 912: 881: 874:) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by 587: 5231: 2572:, the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdrew from north Africa to Egypt. The 2303:, most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, 1434:

Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The

744:. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the 11136: 11032: 10968: 10963: 10892: 10789: 10504: 10432: 10427: 10269: 10198: 10181: 10176: 10171: 9971: 9922: 9667: 9662: 9567: 9557: 9547: 9230: 9116: 9068: 8911: 8822: 8583: 8573: 8568: 8558: 8553: 8386: 8218: 8185: 8164: 8134: 8110: 8089: 8070: 8049: 8028: 7986: 7946: 7905: 7884: 7856: 7838: 7792: 7398: 7315: 7216: 6778: 6750: 6740: 6720: 6392: 6367: 6306: 6273: 6248: 6223: 6164: 6116: 6045: 5751: 5596: 5201: 4841: 4831: 4821: 4706: 4620: 4262: 4135: 4107: 3939: 3925: 3868: 3519: 3193:

caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the

2899: 2823: 2776: 2667: 2659: 2647: 2573: 2300: 2228: 2057: 1972: 1870: 1657: 1592:

Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by

1447: 1160: 1106: 768: 745: 549: 544: 521: 516: 511: 448: 7248:

The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis,

6866:

A. I. Alkram. "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains – Chapter 26: The Last Opposition".

6852: 6302: 3105:

his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to swear an oath:

1004:). According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous 10985: 10772: 10767: 10723: 10710: 10640: 10608: 10603: 10467: 10462: 10444: 10405: 10338: 10321: 10262: 10252: 10247: 10188: 10144: 10114: 10074: 10057: 10040: 10003: 9754: 9697: 9682: 9442: 9147: 8869: 8807: 8797: 8787: 8772: 8578: 8481: 8453: 8341: 8181: 8124: 7966: 7932: 7818: 6834: 6160: 6144: 6083: 5905: 5901: 5890: 5871: 5536: 5516: 5496: 5416: 5211: 5091: 5016: 5006: 4956: 4886: 4786: 4736: 4531: 4266: 3981: 3489: 3408: 3134: 2970: 2926:

During Uthman's reign the caliphate was divided into twelve provinces. These were:

2552:, the Exarchate was defeated and Gregory was killed due to the superior tactics of 2371: 2316: 2272: 2135: 1940: 1905: 1830: 1822: 1783: 1775: 1767: 1696: 1632: 1597: 1272: 1260: 1010: 741: 686: 651: 554: 11203: 11171: 11044: 11012: 10995: 10951: 10946: 10924: 10919: 10877: 10870: 10845: 10705: 10700: 10541: 10422: 10316: 10311: 10279: 10104: 10094: 9988: 9981: 9976: 9961: 9917: 9799: 9785: 9623: 9330: 9275: 9075: 8761: 8721: 8672: 8624: 8398: 8128: 8104: 8064: 8043: 8018: 7874: 7852:

The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text

7850: 7786: 7579: 7436: 7210: 6341: 6039: 5841: 5811: 5576: 5566: 5476: 5456: 5346: 5281: 5241: 5221: 5131: 5056: 5046: 5036: 4996: 4966: 4906: 4896: 4776: 4726: 4538: 4432: 3985: 3206: 2655: 2400: 2340: 2248: 2081: 1922: 1892:(also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a 1842: 1826: 1779: 1771: 1681: 1554: 1322:, which later became the standard title of caliphs. The new caliph continued the 1288: 1276: 901: 812: 792: 698: 690: 619: 421: 393: 47: 10625: 7428: 6497:

Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God

3309:

by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment,

3133:

Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of

2367:, but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656. 1235:, community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation was the 1121: 491: 11146: 11141: 11104: 11079: 11062: 10973: 10958: 10929: 10887: 10735: 10695: 10690: 10645: 10571: 10531: 10521: 10511: 10326: 10205: 10099: 9966: 9848: 9735: 9462: 9315: 9157: 8859: 6069: 6065: 5916: 5826: 5770: 5546: 5436: 5366: 5066: 4207:), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. 4031: 3955: 3911: 3904: 3427: 3354: 3110: 2975: 2717: 2671: 2541: 2364: 2197: 2179: 2112: 2100: 1932: 1854: 1838: 1806: 1787: 1733: 1604:, pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the 1208: 1074: 7970: 7822: 7164: 755:

The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a twenty-five-year period of rapid

11244: 11227: 11114: 10909: 10882: 10855: 10833: 10811: 10578: 10561: 10546: 10390: 10343: 10331: 10257: 10149: 10023: 10018: 9993: 9875: 9638: 9475: 9325: 8864: 8827: 8802: 8687: 8168: 8160: 7937: 7920: 5796: 5301: 5161: 4645: 4641: 4310: 4220: 4193: 4163: 4073: 4004: 3900: 3830:, the rate was 5% and, in the case of the Muslims, 2.5%, the same as that of 3596: 2960: 2955: 2907: 2871: 2865: 2482: 2424: 2328: 2038: 2018: 1928: 1897: 1722: 1652: 1586: 1435: 1203:, who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the 1050: 936: 776: 764: 726: 10655: 10635: 6295: 6087: 4669: 3249:

has said that the leader of the Muslims should simply be from the majority.

1271:

After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the

767:

numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the

11119: 10860: 10850: 10816: 10745: 10740: 10667: 10457: 10439: 10400: 10395: 10375: 10370: 10242: 10235: 10225: 10220: 10215: 10109: 10047: 10028: 10013: 9949: 9725: 9650: 9310: 9162: 9040: 8756: 8660: 8648: 8362: 7954: 6140: 5800: 5271: 5026: 3991:

During the caliphate of Umar, many new cities were founded. These included

3883:

The main provisions of the final scale of allowance approved by Umar were:

3795: 3380: 3293:

Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey,

3246: 3057: 2920: 2780: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2308: 2217: 2131: 2061: 1853:, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the 1794: 1617: 1526: 1439: 1192: 875: 862:) means "rightly-guided". The reign of these four caliphs is considered in 796: 780: 577: 7619:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

7588:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

6070:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 4203:. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail ( 3388:, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand." 2239:

Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and

2227:

Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the

1904:. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the 10838: 10823: 10672: 10385: 10294: 10284: 10210: 9858: 9853: 9287: 8777: 8716: 8643: 8530: 8214: 7870: 5660: 5426: 5336: 5121: 4976: 4926: 4627: 4123: 3523: 3481: 3475: 3444: 3419: 3364: 3294: 3232: 2889: 2885: 2760: 2569: 2463: 2443:, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The 2356: 2049: 2041:, and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria. 2034: 1948: 1944: 1850: 1759: 1669: 1600:, and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter, 1503: 1339: 1172: 981: 970: 893: 863: 760: 718: 710: 321: 280: 8088:. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press. 7830: 7806: 4496: 4423: 4348: 2363:. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack 677:. His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by 10865: 10682: 10556: 10516: 10449: 9580: 8677: 8652: 8010:

In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire

6095: 5946: 5586: 5556: 5386: 5191: 4756: 4367: 4212: 4130: 4112: 4081: 3932: 3896:, the uncle of Muhammad, received an annual allowance of 7,000 dirhams; 3714: 3584: 3580: 3527: 3338: 3306: 3302: 2992: 2965: 2915: 2903: 2643: 2560:

sued for peace, agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing

2440: 2432: 2420: 2336: 2335:, the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading 2332: 2158:

Syrian tile panel (c. 1600) with the names of the four Rashidun Caliphs

2085: 1960: 1815: 1763: 1745: 1737: 1645: 1609: 1593: 1236: 1200: 1188: 939:

debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the

929: 800: 737: 722: 435: 7978: 7179:"John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation" 10755: 10526: 10410: 10380: 10161: 10035: 9826: 9295: 8726: 8541: 7249: 5931: 5886: 5856: 5781: 5766: 5171: 5141: 4986: 4746: 4686: 4379: 4372: 4278: 4200: 4018:

quarters, government offices and residences for officers were sited.

3515: 3314: 3037: 3024: 2859: 2646:, sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the 2625: 2613: 2537: 2233: 2187: 2143: 2068:

were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to

2030: 1980: 1901: 1889: 1818:

Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh.

1486: 1443: 1196: 1082: 666: 647: 639: 474: 151: 97: 8207:"The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth" 3777:

Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the seventh century,

1744:) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating 866:

to have been 'rightly-guided', meaning that it constitutes a model (

10156: 9939: 9897: 9836: 9628: 9134: 8992: 8944: 8738: 8692: 8656: 8381: 8273: 8231: 8155:. Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae (in French). French ed.: 6716:

Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs

5715: 5486: 5446: 5396: 5356: 5261: 4916: 4866: 4766: 4454: 4386:

On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and he developed a high fever.

4324: 4302: 4189: 4177: 3588: 3576: 3463: 3457: 3368: 3274: 3190: 3067: 3034: 3007: 3003: 2816: 2631: 2589: 2501: 2312: 2283: 2221: 2147: 2116: 2073: 1964: 1741: 1688: 1677: 1621: 1428: 1183:. In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld 1176: 1156: 986: 952: 925: 846: 682: 662: 643: 177: 6247:(illustrated ed.). Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37. 3507:, which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards. 2787: 2584: 2126: 10069: 9998: 9954: 9809: 9643: 9249: 8937: 8817: 8709: 8702: 8697: 8439: 8211:

Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought

6364:

Muslim Nationhood in India: Perceptions of Seven Eminent Thinkers

6171: 5875: 5785: 5755: 5690: 5526: 5506: 5466: 5376: 5311: 5101: 4716: 4598: 4216: 4208: 4181: 4173: 4077: 4061: 3798:

paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only

3733: 3548: 3531: 3485: 3385: 3270: 3262: 3194: 3160: 3047: 2991:

During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under

2985: 2663: 2609: 2545: 2522: 2506: 2444: 2428: 2360: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2324: 2296: 2276: 2192: 2065: 1968: 1914: 1749: 1421: 1094: 1039: 1018: 956: 897: 878:, who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate. 788: 9870: 8133:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 268. 7057:

The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns

3503:

A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the

3012: 2207:

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of northern Syria

1943:(which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern 752:

after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad.

9902: 9777: 9167: 9141: 9100: 9061: 8978: 8891: 8812: 8667: 8613: 8608: 8375: 8299: 8283: 6630:

Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict

6301:(illustrated, annotated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 5950: 5830: 5686: 4696: 4644:

in 661. He ruled for five to six months and then abdicated for

4472: 4254: 4085: 4000: 3783: 3766: 3592: 3552: 3360: 3350: 3319: 3282: 3147: 3089: 2930: 2855: 2831: 2768: 2711: 2698:) but it was defeated: both sides suffered heavy losses in the 2691: 2683: 2679: 2651: 2320: 2304: 2252: 2220:

defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a

2173:

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of central Syria

2053: 2007: 1956: 1866: 1673: 1613: 1546: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1413: 1387: 1376: 1371: 1314:) as his successor. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title 1303:

Before dying in August 634 from an illness, Abu Bakr appointed

1168: 1005: 940: 933: 869: 772: 694: 670: 356: 204: 123: 107: 79: 8153:

Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La dynastie d'Amorium (820–867)

7791:, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 6391:. Sira: Companion- versus Caliph-Oriented History: Routledge. 4014:

Many buildings were built for administrative purposes. In the

10536: 9416: 9241: 9195: 9183: 8985: 8971: 8930: 8603: 8460: 8446: 8367: 8330: 7584:"Chapter Seven: Weapons and equipment in early Muslim armies" 6586:

Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state

6216:

Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context

6008: 5920: 5675: 5645: 4357: 4103: 4045: 3996: 3803: 3745: 3691: 3667: 3648: 3400: 3376: 3278: 3240: 3200: 2980: 2950: 2940: 2935: 2881: 2875: 2841: 2827: 2772: 2737: 2695: 2675: 2597: 2533: 2408: 2404: 2271:

Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn al-Walid's invasion of

2183: 2069: 1976: 1692: 1577: 1573: 1513: 1463: 1354: 1343: 1225: 1184: 1164: 1086: 1078: 806: 784: 693:. Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by 141: 7713: 6242: 2244:

sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.

78:

The Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph

9082: 9054: 9004: 8951: 8896: 8467: 8278: 7701: 7646: 6685:. 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370. 5815: 4397: 4116: 4057: 4027: 3992: 3404: 3324: 3168: 3143: 2945: 2895: 2845: 2837: 2796: 2621: 2287: 2255:, with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the 1936: 1918: 1793:

After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards

1550: 1446:

and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the

1359: 1304: 1284: 1204: 1180: 944: 892:, imitating Byzantine coins, featuring a Byzantine figure ( 714: 678: 192: 112: 9746: 8020:

The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate

7725: 3172:(judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The 2600:

during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the

1021:

believe the first three caliphs to be legitimate leaders.

725:

was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor

8288: 7737: 7378:

https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-

6803: 6112:

Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective

4572: 4556: 3717: 3564: 3261:

Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at

2490: 2478: 1535: 1517: 1417: 706: 216: 11331:

States and territories disestablished in the 7th century

7261: 6135: 3422:

were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the

3397:

were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.

3253:

also wrote that the leader must come from the majority.

2620:. As the Muslims were unable to overpower Makuria, they 2447:

seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.

1081:

among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the

7898:

Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (25 April 2014).

7761: 7749: 7658: 6696: 6694: 6692: 6676: 6674: 6672: 6670: 6668: 6666: 3092:, and read the instrument of instructions before them. 2513:

After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the

2392:

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of Egypt

2006:

Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the

1089:), though this has later become the subject of debate. 1049:

After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the

6651: 6389:

Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion

6268:

Anheier, Helmut K.; Juergensmeyer, Mark, eds. (2012).

6139:; Marín, Manuela; Ayalon, A. (1960–2007). "Shūrā". In 4102:

Some secular scholars have questioned the traditional

4088:. Uthman also reformed the city's police departments. 3129:

That he would always keep his door open to the public.

2521:, its dominions extended from the borders of Egypt to 1576:, set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached 1545:) was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of 1139: Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 6815: 6183: 3595:

occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest

3418:, the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the 2616:

in the center of the city, but Makuria also won this

2427:

were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient

2259:

the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.

1861:. This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at the 1145: Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750 943:

while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial.

7455: 7453: 6791: 6689: 6663: 6648:, Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458. 6267: 4576: 4487: 4413: 4339: 3379:: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from 3198: 1986: 1845:. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. 1534:

Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin

1315: 998: 867: 852: 844: 804: 633: 55: 7957:(October 1972). "The Murder of the Caliph Uthman". 7876:

Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam

6489: 6195: 3273:, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as 2815:Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of 1326:begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the 959:soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of 8178:Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights 7807:"Arab Attacks on Rhodes in the Pre-Ottoman Period" 6449: 6366:. Kanishka Publishers, Distributors. p. 173. 6340: 6294: 3602: 3184: 3095:Umar's general instructions to his officers were: 2752:were given important positions in the government. 2702:, and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death. 1778:, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a 1702: 1266: 324:(internal conflict) ends after Hasan's abdication 7897: 7450: 7046: 7044: 6547: 6535: 6386: 4545:Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house 3142:required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the 2705: 2579: 11242: 7621:. London: Routledge. p. 183. Archived from 7615:"Chapter Eight: Fortification and siege warfare" 7590:. London: Routledge. p. 168. Archived from 7382: 6768: 6292: 6044:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–132. 4172:Rashidun soldier wears an iron-bronze helmet, a 3917:Those who had become Muslims by the time of the 3469: 3016:). Other officers at the provincial level were: 2720:, and Christians—in conquered lands were called 2632:Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea 1412:The committee narrowed down the choices to two: 7215:. Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 20. 7089:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. Archived from 6605: 6603: 6338: 3806:, which carried a much lower rate of taxation. 3536:on their coins, instead of designing a new one. 2690:led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at 2564:, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a 2247:Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the 2200:and eventually captured the city in March 636. 1925:, shattering the last strongest Sasanian army. 1620:, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in 11326:States and territories established in the 630s 7788:A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period 7574: 7572: 7517: 7501: 7041: 6683:First Islamic Arab State (1–41 AH/ 623–661 CE) 6213: 6064: 3954:received an allowance of 3,000 dirhams, while 3414:According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at 2295:. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and 2196:and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid 1991: 9762: 8315: 8247: 7471: 6646:Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia 5978: 4068:, brought water to Anbar from the Euphrates. 3846: 2540:, and from there they marched west, captured 2517:declared its independence. Under its exarch, 1774:, fought in the third week of April 633; the 1732:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Imitation of 1029: 717:. Ali presided over the civil war called the 595: 345:6,400,000 km (2,500,000 sq mi) 11219:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 7959:International Journal of Middle East Studies 7578: 7347: 7298:Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681 7157:"Catholic Encyclopedia: Cyrus of Alexandria" 7087:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns 7036:Yarmuk 636 AD – The Muslim Conquest of Syria 6868:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns 6600: 6580: 6578: 6576: 6574: 6477: 4563: 4479: 4404: 4331: 4022:were constructed to house official records. 3924:Those who became Muslims at the time of the 3704: 3657: 3126:That he would not keep a porter at his door. 2642:During Umar's reign, the governor of Syria, 1230: 1069:), the natives of Medina, took place in the 991: 964: 857: 478: 39: 8175: 7855:. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. 7569: 7416: 7376:inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins. 7335: 7272: 7270: 6762: 6610:The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath 4284: 4011:, constructed from his personal resources. 3288: 3214: 2755: 2576:would later re-invade North Africa in 664. 1524:(16th-century miniature from a copy of the 1497: 1393: 1054: 820: 9769: 9755: 8322: 8308: 8254: 8240: 8176:Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997). 6429: 6361: 5985: 5971: 3834:. The levy was thus regarded as a part of 3607:The economic resources of the State were: 3153: 2496: 1473: 602: 588: 72: 8123: 8083: 7936: 7784: 7731: 7719: 6749:, Oxford University Press, p. 1892, 6571: 6189: 6102: 6037: 4180:leather armour. His sword is hung from a 2807: 2622:negotiated a mutual non-aggression treaty 2439:. Amr next proceeded in the direction of 2262: 2084:), effectively ending the dynasty of the 1298: 1044: 978:ten who were explicitly promised paradise 8201: 8147: 8045:A Concise History of Sunnis & Shi'is 8016: 7918: 7804: 7767: 7755: 7743: 7707: 7664: 7652: 7267: 6865: 6833: 6712: 6700: 6657: 6523: 6483: 6467: 6245:Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps 6177: 4167: 4091: 3509: 3002:The provinces were further divided into 2874:was divided in two provinces: Aylya and 2786: 2759: 2583: 2500: 2395: 2387: 2355:in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor 2266: 2202: 2168: 2153: 2125: 2090: 2001: 1727: 1712: 1635:, from a 14th-century manuscript of the 1626: 1507: 1492: 1241: 1120: 911: 880: 11346:7th-century disestablishments in Africa 11043: 7845: 7612: 7548: 7341: 6777:(6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. 6739: 6588:(Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 52. 6243:C. T. R. Hewer; Allan Anderson (2006). 4634:Assassinated during Fajr prayer in the 4030:were constructed for the first time in 3914:got an allowance of 6,000 dirhams each; 3084:of the army quartered in the province. 1133: Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632 916:Rashidun Caliphate at greatest extent ( 14: 11243: 8062: 8041: 7869: 7462: 7307: 7262:Bosworth, Marín & Ayalon 1960–2007 7050: 6821: 6809: 6201: 6157:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 6108: 1660:, supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate. 669:clan, was elected the first caliph in 11356:7th-century disestablishments in Asia 9750: 9502: 9270: 8886: 8303: 8235: 7953: 7410: 7388: 7229: 7208: 6888:"Chapter 20: The Battle of the River" 6797: 6680: 6343:The first Muslims: history and memory 6115:. Taylor & Francis. p. 159. 6014:The ten to whom Paradise was promised 3285:(example) of Muhammad in all things. 2771:, the empire's first capital, in the 2489:, the governor of Egypt appointed by 2017:(acting as their supreme commander), 1663: 1398: 1199:was led by another supposed prophet, 713:clan, who transferred the capital to 9271: 8887: 8261: 8102: 7811:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7676: 7419:Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal 6988:"Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again" 6495:Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker 6455: 4663:Historical Arab states and dynasties 4640:After his death he was succeeded by 4199:The standard form of body armor was 4026:was used to house royal treasuries. 3120:That he would not wear fine clothes. 2854:was divided into two provinces, the 2377: 1624:—were also lost to outside empires. 1363:) and a financial officer called an 1163:with the exception of the people in 11351:Historical transcontinental empires 8106:Islam and Contemporary Civilisation 7925:Jurnal Kajian Ekonomi Hukum Syariah 6968:"Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr" 6713:El-Hibri, Tayeb (19 October 2010). 4564: 4480: 4405: 4332: 4188:The Rashidun army was divided into 3705: 3658: 3210: 3123:That he would not eat sifted flour. 1231: 992: 965: 858: 816: 771:, the caliphate had subjugated the 681:, his appointed successor from the 623: 479: 40: 24: 7391:Medieval Islamic Political Thought 6948:"Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira" 6876:"Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains" 6272:. Sage Publications. p. 151. 4184:, and he carries a leather shield. 3526:, the picture of the last emperor 2898:was divided into three provinces: 2795:, the empire's second capital, in 2638:History of Islam in southern Italy 2596:A campaign was undertaken against 2343:. In 648 the Rashidun army raided 759:followed by a five-year period of 25: 11367: 7805:Bosworth, C. Edmund (July 1996). 7496:Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 7008:"Chapter 26: The Last Opposition" 6974:from the original on 6 March 2002 6954:from the original on 6 March 2002 6894:from the original on 6 March 2002 3327:from the Qur'an to justify this: 2716:The non-Muslim monotheists—Jews, 1987:Wars against the Byzantine Empire 1803:conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr 705:He was subsequently succeeded by 675:conquest of the Arabian Peninsula 27:First Islamic caliphate (632–661) 11286:History of the Arabian Peninsula 9731: 9730: 9719: 9250:Schools of islamic jurisprudence 8498:Timeline of the history of Islam 8329: 7557:from the original on 16 May 2011 7083:"Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl" 6928:"Chapter 22: The River of Blood" 6908:"Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja" 6870:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. 6165:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1063 5084:Western dynasties and caliphates 4668: 4585: 4495: 4422: 4347: 4242: 4157: 3821:. Umar issued instructions that 3774:was a tax on agricultural land. 2884:was divided into two provinces: 2840:was divided into two provinces, 2826:was divided into two provinces, 1644:In 661, Ali was assassinated by 1589:to escort Aisha back to Medina. 1549:. He transferred the capital to 885:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate, 571: 490: 453: 428: 414: 400: 386: 9591:List of ex-Muslim organisations 8048:. Georgetown University Press. 8007: 7670: 7637: 7606: 7542: 7533: 7523: 7507: 7487: 7477: 7441: 7369: 7328: 7301: 7292: 7255: 7242: 7202: 7193: 7171: 7149: 7127: 7105: 7075: 7028: 6859: 6849:Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation 6827: 6733: 6706: 6635: 6619: 6591: 6562: 6553: 6541: 6529: 6517: 6504: 6461: 6423: 6419:. 3 (Parts 57–58). Brill: 1164. 6408: 6380: 6355: 6332: 6319: 6286: 6261: 6075:International Studies Quarterly 4461:Assassinated by a Persian slave 4393:23 August 634 – 3 November 644 3974: 3603:Economic resources of the State 3438: 3256: 3185:Electing or appointing a caliph 2462:. He was one of the authors of 1959:(part of modern-day Pakistan), 1703:Conquest of the Sasanian Empire 1540: 1309: 1267:Expeditions to Persia and Syria 990:, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs ( 731: 642:to succeed the Islamic prophet 540:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus 8130:The Byzantine Revival, 780–842 7348:Noah Feldman (16 March 2008). 6746:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium 6548:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014 6536:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014 6430:Aqidah.Com (1 December 2009). 6270:Encyclopedia of Global Studies 6236: 6207: 6129: 6058: 6031: 4517:Umm Hakim bint Abd al-Muttalib 4468:11 November 644 – 20 June 656 3563:, since the time of Umar. The 3514:The Rashidun caliphs used the 3344: 2735:were also required to pay the 2706:Treatment of conquered peoples 2580:Campaign against Nubia (Sudan) 2232:future conquests, settling on 1935:. The entirety of present-day 1877:against the Persian army. The 1287:, the richest province of the 13: 1: 11306:Medieval history of Palestine 11261:Former countries in West Asia 7999:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 7549:Fratini, Dan (1 April 2006). 7314:. A&C Black. p. 61. 6719:. Columbia University Press. 6614:The Cambridge History of Iran 6512:The Essentials of Ibadi Islam 6024: 4616:Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib 4552:20 June 656 – 29 January 661 4265:, naval cove of privateer in 3962: 3950:Under this scale, Umar's son 3890:received 12,000 dirhams each; 3470:Establishment of Bait-ul-Maal 3363:establishes the principle of 2311:. Other columns were sent to 1998:Muslim conquest of the Levant 1516:, battling the fourth caliph 1215:) and South Arabia (known as 1159:spread to every tribe in the 1150: 886: 661:. Muhammad's close companion 83: 11266:Countries in medieval Africa 9576:Apostasy in Islam by country 9453:Liberalism and progressivism 8209:. In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.). 8084:Sowerwine, James E. (2010). 8063:Netton, Ian Richard (2013). 7785:Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1987), 7311:Islam Today: An Introduction 7053:"Chapter 31: The Unkind Cut" 6839:"Ḥasan B. ʿAli B. Abi Ṭāleb" 6612:, 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub, 3946:received 2,000 dirhams each. 3935:received 3,000 dirhams each. 3928:received 3,000 dirhams each; 3907:received 5,000 dirhams each; 3841: 3838:rather than a separate tax. 2548:, Gregory's capital. In the 1913:, some forty miles south of 1450:, as well as the islands of 838: 659:succession to his leadership 7: 9776: 8008:Hoyland, Robert G. (2015). 7553:. Military History Online. 7551:"The Battle Of Yarmuk, 636" 7059:. p. 1. Archived from 7038:, p. 43: gives 9,000–10,000 7010:. p. 1. Archived from 6990:. p. 1. Archived from 6930:. p. 1. Archived from 6910:. p. 1. Archived from 6878:. p. 1. Archived from 6220:Equinox Publishing (London) 4804:Arab empires and caliphates 4655: 4608:, Muhammad's granddaughter. 4577: 4488: 4414: 4340: 4320:8 June 632 – 22 August 634 4145: 3899:The grandsons of Muhammad, 3894:`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib 3794:, which later emerged as a 3670:) were collected from. The 3430:in the early 19th century. 3277:and collectively named the 3237:The Early Islamic Conquests 3199: 3115:which was a symbol of pride 2556:. Afterward, the people of 2095:Map detailing the route of 1992:Conquest of Byzantine Syria 1939:was conquered, followed by 1841:and Christian Arabs in the 1770:, fought in April 633; the 1717:Map detailing the route of 1572:and the widow of Muhammad, 1375:when Muhammad emigrated to 1316: 1179:and the Bani Abdul Qais of 999: 868: 853: 845: 805: 634: 56: 10: 11372: 11301:Medieval history of Jordan 9503: 8025:Cambridge University Press 8017:Madelung, Wilferd (1997). 8012:. Oxford University Press. 7777: 7395:Edinburgh University Press 6775:The Middle East: A History 6417:The Encyclopaedia of Islam 6387:Heather N. Keaney (2013). 6329:(I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54. 6180:, pp. 63, 72, note 1. 4519:, Muhammad's paternal aunt 4246: 4161: 4095: 3847:Beginning of the allowance 3764: 3743: 3689: 3646: 3473: 3442: 3433: 3348: 2709: 2654:, conquering the capital, 2635: 2612:. The Muslims damaged the 2381: 1995: 1811:Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal 1706: 1501: 1477: 1402: 1281:largest empires in history 1033: 1030:Abu Bakr's reign (632–634) 1024: 133:Various regional languages 11316:Medieval history of Syria 11212: 11164: 10681: 10085: 9784: 9714: 9599: 9566: 9516: 9512: 9498: 9425: 9392: 9364:Geography and cartography 9339: 9286: 9282: 9266: 9092: 9014: 8961: 8910: 8906: 8882: 8752: 8634: 8594: 8477: 8429: 8353: 8349: 8338: 8269: 7971:10.1017/S0020743800025216 7914:– via Google Books. 7823:10.1017/S1356186300007161 7338:, pp. 132 & 135) 6681:شبارو, عصام محمد (1995). 6293:Claire Alkouatli (2007). 3760: 3551:were introduced in early 3109:That he would not ride a 2347:. A major offensive into 2293:Battle of the Iron Bridge 2164:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah 2111:. It was the first major 2015:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah 1709:Muslim conquest of Persia 1334:territory, and went into 1099:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah 955:, with the Ansar and the 951:pledged their loyalty to 907: 624:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ 480: 365: 349: 341: 336: 332: 318: 305: 291: 277: 269:• Ascension of Umar 267: 254: 241: 237: 229: 225: 210: 198: 186: 171: 167: 157: 147: 137: 129: 119: 103: 93: 71: 66: 41:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ 34: 11321:Muslim conquest of Egypt 11296:Medieval history of Iraq 9673:Islamic view of miracles 7938:10.37567/shar-e.v6i2.227 7919:Frastuti, Melia (2020). 7881:Harvard University Press 7685:. Oxford. Archived from 7435:August 25, 2011, at the 7389:Crone, Patricia (2005), 7135:"The Conquest of Emessa" 6771:Fisher, Sydney Nettleton 6584:Gianluca Paolo Parolin, 6339:Asma Afsaruddin (2008). 6038:Versteegh, Kees (2014). 5112:Umayyad state of Córdoba 4594:Muhammad's first cousin. 4285:List of Rashidun caliphs 3739: 3685: 3642: 3289:Accountability of rulers 2756:Political administration 2384:Muslim conquest of Egypt 2319:, the important city of 2121:battle of Maraj-al-Debaj 1498:Crisis and fragmentation 1394:Uthman's reign (644–656) 993:الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ 949:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah 283:and Ascension of Uthman 11281:History of Central Asia 9438:Creationism (evolution) 8213:. London and New York: 8109:. Academic Monographs. 7209:Lewis, Bernard (1984). 6626:Battle of Yarmouk River 6568:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 467. 6214:Azyumardi Azra (2006). 6088:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 4512:, Muhammad's daughters. 3971:increased accordingly. 3944:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah 3921:got 4,000 dirhams each; 3857:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah 3809: 3530:) by adding the phrase 3154:Judicial administration 2819:which were as follows: 2670:was built there by the 2606:First Battle of Dongola 2544:, and then advanced to 2497:Conquest of the Maghreb 2456:Patriarch of Alexandria 2454:, prefect of Egypt and 2307:and the area up to the 1879:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah 1608:against the rebellious 1480:Assassination of Uthman 1474:Assassination of Uthman 1015:Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal 928:'s death in 632 CE (11 918:orthographic projection 727:Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan 295:Assassination of Uthman 120:Official languages 11276:Early Muslim conquests 9688:Persecution of Muslims 9586:List of former Muslims 8503:Succession to Muhammad 8149:Vasiliev, Alexander A. 8066:Encyclopaedia of Islam 8023:. Cambridge, England: 7683:Oxford Islamic studies 7613:Kennedy, Hugh (2001). 6597:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518 6327:Islam: An Introduction 6109:Triana, María (2017). 4601:, Muhammad's daughter. 4185: 4106:view of the Rashidun. 4056:, was dug to join the 3888:The widows of Muhammad 3724: 3559:(charity), one of the 3537: 3390: 3334: 3102: 2808:Districts or provinces 2800: 2784: 2593: 2510: 2412: 2393: 2279: 2263:Occupation of Anatolia 2208: 2174: 2159: 2151: 2103: 2010: 1755: 1725: 1641: 1531: 1372:companions of Muhammad 1299:Umar's reign (634–644) 1283:. Abu Bakr began with 1247: 1147: 1045:Accession to Caliphate 1036:Succession to Muhammad 1000:al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn 966:خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ 921: 904: 689:and nearly the entire 635:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah 245:Succession to Muhammad 57:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah 11341:661 disestablishments 11189:Medieval great powers 9482:Conversion to mosques 9349:Alchemy and chemistry 8203:Melchert, Christopher 8042:McHugo, John (2017). 7498:, 19(2), pp. 210–237. 7237:Encyclopedia of Islam 6769:Ochsenweld, William; 6632:(ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92. 5702:Sultanate of Zanzibar 5617:Mutawakkilite Kingdom 4636:Great Mosque of Kufah 4443:Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl 4171: 4129:This is in-line with 4098:Shia view of Abu Bakr 4092:Assessment and legacy 4054:title created by Umar 3919:Treaty of Hudaybiyyah 3867:On the amount of the 3680:Five Pillars of Islam 3561:Five Pillars of Islam 3513: 3373: 3329: 3311:Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani 3247:Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani 3097: 2790: 2763: 2636:Further information: 2587: 2519:Gregory the Patrician 2504: 2487:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr 2399: 2391: 2382:Further information: 2270: 2241:Jerusalem surrendered 2206: 2172: 2157: 2129: 2094: 2005: 1996:Further information: 1797:, which resisted and 1731: 1716: 1707:Further information: 1630: 1511: 1493:Ali's reign (656–661) 1390:to lead the prayers. 1245: 1124: 915: 884: 791:in the west; and the 297:and Ascension of Ali 281:Assassination of Umar 130:Common languages 11291:7th century in Egypt 11199:European colonialism 11184:Ancient great powers 9208:Ma malakat aymanukum 8783:Association football 8103:Rane, Halim (2010). 8086:Caliph and Caliphate 7397:, pp. 308–309, 7308:Geaves, Ron (2010). 7199:Nadvi (2000), p. 522 7139:Khalid bin Al-Waleed 7117:Khalid bin Al-Waleed 6855:on 17 November 2013. 6844:Encyclopædia Iranica 6510:Valerie J. Hoffman, 6347:. Oneworld. p. 6325:Catharina Raudvere, 4606:Umama bint Abi al-As 4249:Early Caliphate navy 4211:and large wooden or 3938:The veterans of the 3931:The veterans of the 3910:The veterans of the 3880:relationship scale. 3853:Battle of the Yarmuk 3790:was synonymous with 3497:Abdur Rahman bin Awf 3371:and accountability: 3251:Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man 3064:Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal 2793:Great Mosque of Kufa 2588:The Grand Mosque of 2437:Battle of Heliopolis 2044:The border forts of 2027:Shurhabil ibn Hasana 2023:Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan 1863:Battle of the Bridge 1859:Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi 1687:Unlike the Sasanian 1631:Illustration of the 961:Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh 309:Assassination of Ali 11311:7th century in Iran 11194:Modern great powers 7722:, pp. 285–286. 7679:"Islam and the Sea" 7655:, pp. 157–158. 7468:Lewis (2002), p. 72 7113:"The Eve of Yarmuk" 6882:on 26 January 2002. 6812:, pp. 157–159. 6362:Safia Amir (2000). 6041:The Arabic Language 5999:The Four Companions 4679:Ancient Arab states 4527:Affan ibn Abi al-As 4448:Hantama bint Hisham 4259:Battle of the Masts 3713:: cizye). It was a 3575:) collected in the 3395:capital punishments 3161:principles of Islam 2765:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi 2554:Abdullah ibn Zubayr 2515:Exarchate of Africa 2505:The Roman ruins of 2315:as far west as the 2286:taking the fort of 2097:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1875:Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās 1719:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1583:Battle of the Camel 1522:Battle of the Camel 1252:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1073:(courtyard) of the 560:Sharifian Caliphate 534:Parallel caliphates 11336:632 establishments 11251:Rashidun Caliphate 9693:Quran and miracles 9607:Criticism of Islam 9321:Geometric patterns 9173:Gender segregation 8744:Non-denominational 8217:. pp. 63–79. 7847:Charles, Robert H. 7710:, p. 131-207. 7689:on 27 January 2014 7459:Ali (1990), p. 507 7355:The New York Times 7189:on 9 January 2011. 7183:www.tertullian.org 7093:on 10 January 2003 6741:Kazhdan, Alexander 6628:, Spencer Tucker, 6147:; Bosworth, C.E.; 6068:(September 1997). 6019:Timeline of Medina 6004:Islamic Golden Age 5744:Current monarchies 5407:Sharifate of Mecca 4877:Emirate of Tbilisi 4867:Emirate of Armenia 4717:Kingdom of Osroene 4435:, Muhammad's wife. 4360:, Muhammad's wife. 4301:Relationship with 4186: 3538: 3484:, the Governor of 3454:the house of money 3416:Harvard University 3082:commander-in-chief 3076:, the Chief Judge. 2801: 2785: 2594: 2527:Abdullah ibn Sa'ad 2511: 2413: 2394: 2280: 2209: 2175: 2160: 2152: 2109:Battle of Ajnadayn 2104: 2011: 1911:Battle of Nihawānd 1829:, and finally the 1756: 1726: 1680:, and most of the 1664:Military expansion 1642: 1606:Battle of Nahrawan 1559:Salman the Persian 1532: 1512:Muhammad's widow, 1405:Election of Uthman 1399:Election of Uthman 1256:Malik ibn Nuwayrah 1248: 1219:and including the 1191:arose and invaded 1148: 1111:Ibrahim al-Nakha'i 1019:Zaydi Shia Muslims 922: 905: 757:military expansion 709:, a member of the 697:, a member of the 616:Rashidun Caliphate 507:Rashidun Caliphate 258:Conquest of Persia 36:Rashidun Caliphate 18:Rashidun caliphate 11271:7th-century Islam 11238: 11237: 11160: 11159: 11125:Polish–Lithuanian 10300:Gurjara-Pratihara 9744: 9743: 9710: 9709: 9706: 9705: 9678:Domestic violence 9668:Islamic terrorism 9663:Islamic extremism 9494: 9493: 9490: 9489: 9262: 9261: 9258: 9257: 9048:Marriage contract 8878: 8877: 8838:Political aspects 8625:Story of Prophets 8394:Prophets of Islam 8297: 8296: 8224:978-1-83860-765-4 8140:978-0-8047-1462-4 8125:Treadgold, Warren 8076:978-1-135-17960-1 8055:978-1-62-616587-8 7911:978-1-61069-178-9 7879:. Cambridge, MA: 7746:, pp. 68–69. 7734:, pp. 55–58. 7677:Fromherz, Allen. 7404:978-0-7486-2194-1 7222:978-0-691-00807-3 7212:The Jews of Islam 7167:on 24 March 2011. 7063:on 5 January 2003 6934:on 22 August 2002 6835:Madelung, Wilferd 6784:978-0-07-244233-5 6756:978-0-19-504652-6 6726:978-0-231-52165-9 6559:Balazuri: p. 113. 6526:, pp. 32–33) 6051:978-0-7486-4529-9 5995: 5994: 5960: 5959: 5735: 5734: 5727:Tippu Tip's State 5625: 5624: 5597:Emirate of Beihan 5329:Arabian Peninsula 5320: 5319: 5075: 5074: 4859:Eastern dynasties 4850: 4849: 4795: 4794: 4707:Nabataean Kingdom 4697:Kingdom of Lihyan 4653: 4652: 4621:Fatimah bint Asad 4136:Ali ibn Abi Talib 4108:Robert G. Hoyland 4050:governor of Basra 3952:Abdullah ibn Umar 3940:Battle of Yarmouk 3926:Conquest of Mecca 3520:Star and crescent 3426:of Sharia by the 2777:Arabian Peninsula 2668:Hala Sultan Tekke 2648:Mediterranean Sea 2624:with their king, 2574:Umayyad Caliphate 2460:Coptic Christians 2378:Conquest of Egypt 2229:Battle of Yarmouk 2188:Emperor Heraclius 1979:and north to the 1977:lower river Indus 1883:Rostam Farrokhzād 1871:Battle of Yarmouk 1835:Sasanian Persians 1658:Umayyad Caliphate 1464:lower Indus River 1448:Iberian Peninsula 1384:Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz 1161:Arabian Peninsula 1126:Islamic conquests 1107:Ali ibn Abi Talib 769:Arabian Peninsula 746:Umayyad Caliphate 673:and he began the 632: 612: 611: 550:Almohad Caliphate 545:Fatimid Caliphate 522:Ottoman Caliphate 517:Abbasid Caliphate 512:Umayyad Caliphate 469: 468: 465: 464: 461: 460: 449:Umayyad Caliphate 441: 440: 16:(Redirected from 11363: 11041: 11040: 10706:Austro-Hungarian 10406:Chagatai Khanate 9771: 9764: 9757: 9748: 9747: 9734: 9733: 9726:Islam portal 9724: 9723: 9722: 9514: 9513: 9506: 9500: 9499: 9341:Medieval science 9284: 9283: 9274: 9268: 9267: 8925:Economic history 8908: 8907: 8884: 8883: 8870:Islam by country 8703:Bektashi Alevism 8351: 8350: 8342:Outline of Islam 8324: 8317: 8310: 8301: 8300: 8263:Rashidun Caliphs 8256: 8249: 8242: 8233: 8232: 8228: 8195: 8182:Brill Publishers 8172: 8144: 8120: 8099: 8080: 8059: 8038: 8013: 8004: 7998: 7990: 7950: 7940: 7915: 7894: 7866: 7842: 7801: 7771: 7765: 7759: 7753: 7747: 7741: 7735: 7729: 7723: 7717: 7711: 7705: 7699: 7698: 7696: 7694: 7674: 7668: 7662: 7656: 7650: 7644: 7641: 7635: 7634: 7632: 7630: 7610: 7604: 7603: 7601: 7599: 7576: 7567: 7566: 7564: 7562: 7546: 7540: 7537: 7531: 7521: 7515: 7505: 7499: 7491: 7485: 7475: 7469: 7466: 7460: 7457: 7448: 7445: 7439: 7426: 7414: 7408: 7407: 7386: 7380: 7373: 7367: 7366: 7364: 7362: 7345: 7339: 7336:Weeramantry 1997 7332: 7326: 7325: 7305: 7299: 7296: 7290: 7289: 7284:. Archived from 7282:www.2muslims.com 7274: 7265: 7259: 7253: 7246: 7240: 7233: 7227: 7226: 7206: 7200: 7197: 7191: 7190: 7185:. Archived from 7175: 7169: 7168: 7163:. Archived from 7153: 7147: 7146: 7145:on 6 March 2007. 7141:. Archived from 7131: 7125: 7124: 7123:on 2 April 2007. 7119:. Archived from 7109: 7103: 7102: 7100: 7098: 7079: 7073: 7072: 7070: 7068: 7048: 7039: 7032: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7019: 7003: 7001: 6999: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6963: 6961: 6959: 6943: 6941: 6939: 6923: 6921: 6919: 6903: 6901: 6899: 6883: 6871: 6863: 6857: 6856: 6851:. Archived from 6831: 6825: 6819: 6813: 6807: 6801: 6795: 6789: 6788: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6737: 6731: 6730: 6710: 6704: 6698: 6687: 6686: 6678: 6661: 6655: 6649: 6642:Khalid ibn Walid 6639: 6633: 6623: 6617: 6607: 6598: 6595: 6589: 6582: 6569: 6566: 6560: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6527: 6521: 6515: 6508: 6502: 6493: 6487: 6481: 6475: 6465: 6459: 6453: 6447: 6446: 6444: 6442: 6427: 6421: 6420: 6412: 6406: 6405: 6384: 6378: 6377: 6359: 6353: 6352: 6346: 6336: 6330: 6323: 6317: 6316: 6300: 6290: 6284: 6283: 6265: 6259: 6258: 6240: 6234: 6233: 6211: 6205: 6199: 6193: 6187: 6181: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6133: 6127: 6126: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6062: 6056: 6055: 6035: 5987: 5980: 5973: 5748: 5747: 5712:Nabahani dynasty 5657:Nabahani dynasty 5642:Makhzumi dynasty 5638: 5637: 5333: 5332: 5088: 5087: 4887:Emirate of Crete 4863: 4862: 4808: 4807: 4787:Kingdom of Kinda 4737:Kingdom of Hatra 4687:Kingdom of Qedar 4683: 4682: 4672: 4660: 4659: 4589: 4580: 4567: 4566: 4532:Arwa bint Kurayz 4499: 4491: 4483: 4482: 4426: 4417: 4408: 4407: 4351: 4343: 4335: 4334: 4289: 4288: 4271:Cordoban Emirate 4267:La Garde-Freinet 4066:governor of Kufa 3982:Masjid an-Nabawi 3786:. At that time, 3708: 3707: 3661: 3660: 3490:Uthman ibn Affan 3228: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3216: 3212: 3204: 2372:Taurus Mountains 2317:Taurus Mountains 2273:Eastern Anatolia 2257:Battle of Aleppo 2136:Haram Ash-Sharif 1941:Greater Khorasan 1906:Zagros Mountains 1831:Battle of Zumail 1823:Battle of Muzieh 1784:Battle of Ullais 1776:Battle of Walaja 1768:Battle of Chains 1697:Byzantine Empire 1638:Tarikh-i Bal'ami 1633:Battle of Siffin 1598:Battle of Siffin 1544: 1542: 1458:. Also, coastal 1388:Suhayb ibn Sinan 1328:Sassanian Empire 1324:war of conquests 1321: 1318:amir al-mu'minin 1313: 1311: 1273:Byzantine Empire 1261:Battle of Yamama 1234: 1233: 1144: 1138: 1132: 1079:Muslim community 1068: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1056: 1011:Sunan Abu Dawood 1002: 995: 994: 968: 967: 891: 888: 873: 861: 860: 856: 850: 843:The Arabic word 834: 831: 828: 825: 822: 818: 810: 742:Battle of Siffin 735: 733: 687:Byzantine Empire 652:Northeast Africa 638:) was the first 637: 627: 625: 604: 597: 590: 578:Islam portal 576: 575: 574: 555:Sokoto Caliphate 494: 485: 484: 482: 471: 470: 457: 456: 445: 444: 432: 431: 418: 417: 408:Byzantine Empire 404: 403: 390: 389: 383: 382: 367: 366: 221: 182: 88: 85: 76: 61: 60: 59: 51: 43: 42: 32: 31: 21: 11371: 11370: 11366: 11365: 11364: 11362: 11361: 11360: 11241: 11240: 11239: 11234: 11223:American Empire 11208: 11204:African empires 11156: 11039: 10731:Central African 10677: 10495:Romano-Germanic 10081: 9815:Middle Assyrian 9788: 9780: 9775: 9745: 9740: 9720: 9718: 9702: 9624:Cultural Muslim 9595: 9562: 9518:Other religions 9508: 9504: 9486: 9421: 9388: 9335: 9278: 9276:Islamic studies 9272: 9254: 9088: 9033: 9010: 8957: 8902: 8901: 8874: 8823:Moral teachings 8766: 8748: 8722:Nation of Islam 8683:Twelver Shi'ism 8630: 8596:Religious texts 8590: 8508:Early conquests 8491: 8473: 8425: 8345: 8334: 8328: 8298: 8293: 8265: 8260: 8225: 8198: 8192: 8141: 8117: 8096: 8077: 8056: 8035: 7992: 7991: 7912: 7891: 7871:Donner, Fred M. 7863: 7799: 7780: 7775: 7774: 7766: 7762: 7754: 7750: 7742: 7738: 7730: 7726: 7718: 7714: 7706: 7702: 7692: 7690: 7675: 7671: 7663: 7659: 7651: 7647: 7642: 7638: 7628: 7626: 7611: 7607: 7597: 7595: 7577: 7570: 7560: 7558: 7547: 7543: 7538: 7534: 7522: 7518: 7506: 7502: 7492: 7488: 7476: 7472: 7467: 7463: 7458: 7451: 7446: 7442: 7437:Wayback Machine 7415: 7411: 7405: 7387: 7383: 7374: 7370: 7360: 7358: 7346: 7342: 7333: 7329: 7322: 7306: 7302: 7297: 7293: 7288:on 7 July 2011. 7276: 7275: 7268: 7260: 7256: 7247: 7243: 7234: 7230: 7223: 7207: 7203: 7198: 7194: 7177: 7176: 7172: 7155: 7154: 7150: 7133: 7132: 7128: 7111: 7110: 7106: 7096: 7094: 7081: 7080: 7076: 7066: 7064: 7049: 7042: 7033: 7029: 7017: 7015: 7014:on 6 March 2002 7006: 6997: 6995: 6994:on 6 March 2002 6986: 6977: 6975: 6966: 6957: 6955: 6946: 6937: 6935: 6926: 6917: 6915: 6914:on 6 March 2002 6906: 6897: 6895: 6886: 6874: 6864: 6860: 6832: 6828: 6820: 6816: 6808: 6804: 6796: 6792: 6785: 6767: 6763: 6757: 6738: 6734: 6727: 6711: 6707: 6699: 6690: 6679: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6644:, Timothy May, 6640: 6636: 6624: 6620: 6608: 6601: 6596: 6592: 6583: 6572: 6567: 6563: 6558: 6554: 6546: 6542: 6534: 6530: 6522: 6518: 6509: 6505: 6494: 6490: 6482: 6478: 6466: 6462: 6454: 6450: 6440: 6438: 6428: 6424: 6413: 6409: 6399: 6385: 6381: 6374: 6360: 6356: 6337: 6333: 6324: 6320: 6313: 6291: 6287: 6280: 6266: 6262: 6255: 6241: 6237: 6230: 6212: 6208: 6200: 6196: 6188: 6184: 6176: 6172: 6153:Heinrichs, W.P. 6134: 6130: 6123: 6107: 6103: 6063: 6059: 6052: 6036: 6032: 6027: 5991: 5962: 5961: 5745: 5737: 5736: 5672:Mahdali dynasty 5635: 5627: 5626: 5567:Muscat and Oman 5337:Imamate of Oman 5330: 5322: 5321: 5085: 5077: 5076: 4860: 4852: 4851: 4805: 4797: 4796: 4727:Emesene Dynasty 4680: 4658: 4560: 4476: 4401: 4328: 4315:Notable events 4287: 4251: 4245: 4166: 4160: 4148: 4100: 4094: 4070:'Amr ibn al-'As 3986:Masjid al-Haram 3977: 3965: 3849: 3844: 3812: 3769: 3763: 3748: 3742: 3727: 3711:Ottoman Turkish 3694: 3688: 3651: 3645: 3605: 3478: 3472: 3447: 3441: 3436: 3401:Islamic jurists 3367:in relation to 3357: 3347: 3291: 3271:Islamic lawyers 3259: 3226: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3187: 3156: 3054:Sahib-ul-Ahdath 3044:Sahib-ul-Kharaj 2997:Amr ibn Al-A'as 2868:was a province. 2810: 2758: 2714: 2708: 2640: 2634: 2582: 2499: 2401:Al-Azhar Mosque 2386: 2380: 2341:Caesarea Mazaca 2265: 2249:Battle of Hazir 2099:'s invasion of 2082:Battle of Bosra 2000: 1994: 1989: 1843:Battle of Firaz 1827:Battle of Sanni 1780:pincer movement 1772:Battle of River 1721:'s conquest of 1711: 1705: 1682:Sasanian Empire 1666: 1602:'Amr ibn al-'As 1555:Malik al-Ashtar 1539: 1506: 1500: 1495: 1482: 1476: 1407: 1401: 1396: 1386:. He appointed 1308: 1301: 1289:Sasanian Empire 1277:Sasanian Empire 1269: 1211:(known then as 1153: 1146: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1134: 1130: 1085:(migrants from 1066: 1063: 1060: 1057: 1047: 1042: 1034:Main articles: 1032: 1027: 910: 902:globus cruciger 889: 841: 832: 829: 826: 823: 793:Iranian Plateau 787:to present-day 761:internal strife 730: 691:Sasanian Empire 608: 572: 570: 565: 564: 535: 527: 526: 502: 501:Main caliphates 477: 454: 429: 422:Sasanian Empire 415: 401: 394:State of Medina 387: 361: 325: 311: 298: 284: 270: 260: 247: 219: 213: 212:• 656–661 201: 200:• 644–656 189: 188:• 634–644 180: 174: 173:• 632–634 111: 89: 86: 62: 54: 53: 52: 45: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11369: 11359: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11343: 11338: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11318: 11313: 11308: 11303: 11298: 11293: 11288: 11283: 11278: 11273: 11268: 11263: 11258: 11253: 11236: 11235: 11233: 11232: 11231: 11230: 11225: 11216: 11214: 11210: 11209: 11207: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11191: 11186: 11181: 11180: 11179: 11168: 11166: 11162: 11161: 11158: 11157: 11155: 11154: 11149: 11144: 11139: 11134: 11133: 11132: 11122: 11117: 11112: 11107: 11102: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11082: 11077: 11076: 11075: 11070: 11060: 11055: 11049: 11047: 11038: 11037: 11036: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11020: 11015: 11005: 11000: 10999: 10998: 10988: 10983: 10982: 10981: 10976: 10971: 10961: 10956: 10955: 10954: 10949: 10939: 10938: 10937: 10932: 10927: 10922: 10917: 10907: 10906: 10905: 10900: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10874: 10873: 10868: 10863: 10858: 10853: 10843: 10842: 10841: 10836: 10826: 10821: 10820: 10819: 10814: 10804: 10803: 10802: 10797: 10787: 10786: 10785: 10780: 10770: 10765: 10764: 10763: 10758: 10753: 10748: 10743: 10733: 10728: 10727: 10726: 10721: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10687: 10685: 10679: 10678: 10676: 10675: 10670: 10665: 10660: 10659: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10638: 10633: 10628: 10618: 10613: 10612: 10611: 10606: 10601: 10596: 10591: 10586: 10576: 10575: 10574: 10569: 10564: 10559: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10524: 10519: 10514: 10509: 10508: 10507: 10502: 10492: 10491: 10490: 10485: 10480: 10475: 10470: 10465: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10437: 10436: 10435: 10430: 10425: 10415: 10414: 10413: 10408: 10403: 10398: 10388: 10383: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10362: 10361: 10356: 10351: 10346: 10336: 10335: 10334: 10329: 10324: 10319: 10309: 10308: 10307: 10302: 10297: 10287: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10266: 10265: 10260: 10255: 10245: 10240: 10239: 10238: 10233: 10228: 10223: 10218: 10213: 10203: 10202: 10201: 10196: 10186: 10185: 10184: 10179: 10174: 10169: 10159: 10154: 10153: 10152: 10142: 10141: 10140: 10135: 10127: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10091: 10089: 10087:Post-classical 10083: 10082: 10080: 10079: 10078: 10077: 10067: 10062: 10061: 10060: 10055: 10045: 10044: 10043: 10033: 10032: 10031: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10011: 10006: 9996: 9991: 9986: 9985: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9969: 9959: 9958: 9957: 9952: 9942: 9937: 9936: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9920: 9915: 9905: 9900: 9895: 9894: 9893: 9888: 9886:Middle Kingdom 9883: 9873: 9868: 9867: 9866: 9861: 9856: 9846: 9845: 9844: 9842:Neo-Babylonian 9839: 9834: 9832:Old Babylonian 9824: 9823: 9822: 9817: 9807: 9802: 9796: 9794: 9782: 9781: 9774: 9773: 9766: 9759: 9751: 9742: 9741: 9739: 9738: 9728: 9715: 9712: 9711: 9708: 9707: 9704: 9703: 9701: 9700: 9695: 9690: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9670: 9665: 9660: 9659: 9658: 9648: 9647: 9646: 9641: 9636: 9626: 9621: 9620: 9619: 9614: 9603: 9601: 9600:Related topics 9597: 9596: 9594: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9578: 9572: 9570: 9564: 9563: 9561: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9539: 9538: 9533: 9522: 9520: 9510: 9509: 9496: 9495: 9492: 9491: 9488: 9487: 9485: 9484: 9479: 9472: 9467: 9466: 9465: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9440: 9435: 9429: 9427: 9423: 9422: 9420: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9398: 9396: 9390: 9389: 9387: 9386: 9381: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9361: 9356: 9351: 9345: 9343: 9337: 9336: 9334: 9333: 9328: 9323: 9318: 9313: 9308: 9303: 9298: 9292: 9290: 9280: 9279: 9264: 9263: 9260: 9259: 9256: 9255: 9253: 9252: 9247: 9246: 9245: 9233: 9231:Sources of law 9228: 9223: 9222: 9221: 9211: 9204: 9199: 9192: 9187: 9180: 9175: 9170: 9165: 9160: 9155: 9150: 9145: 9138: 9131: 9130: 9129: 9124: 9119: 9109: 9104: 9096: 9094: 9090: 9089: 9087: 9086: 9079: 9072: 9065: 9058: 9051: 9044: 9036: 9034: 9032: 9031: 9026: 9021: 9015: 9012: 9011: 9009: 9008: 9001: 8996: 8989: 8982: 8975: 8967: 8965: 8959: 8958: 8956: 8955: 8948: 8941: 8934: 8927: 8922: 8916: 8914: 8904: 8903: 8900: 8899: 8894: 8888: 8880: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8855:Social welfare 8852: 8847: 8840: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8780: 8775: 8769: 8767: 8765: 8764: 8759: 8753: 8750: 8749: 8747: 8746: 8741: 8736: 8735: 8734: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8713: 8712: 8707: 8706: 8705: 8695: 8690: 8685: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8664: 8663: 8640: 8638: 8632: 8631: 8629: 8628: 8621: 8616: 8611: 8606: 8600: 8598: 8592: 8591: 8589: 8588: 8587: 8586: 8581: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8539: 8534: 8527: 8520: 8518:Historiography 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8494: 8492: 8490: 8489: 8484: 8478: 8475: 8474: 8472: 8471: 8464: 8457: 8450: 8443: 8435: 8433: 8427: 8426: 8424: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8391: 8390: 8389: 8379: 8372: 8371: 8370: 8359: 8357: 8347: 8346: 8339: 8336: 8335: 8327: 8326: 8319: 8312: 8304: 8295: 8294: 8292: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8270: 8267: 8266: 8259: 8258: 8251: 8244: 8236: 8230: 8229: 8223: 8197: 8196: 8190: 8173: 8157:Henri Grégoire 8145: 8139: 8121: 8115: 8100: 8094: 8081: 8075: 8060: 8054: 8039: 8033: 8014: 8005: 7965:(4): 450–469. 7951: 7931:(2): 119–127. 7916: 7910: 7895: 7889: 7867: 7861: 7843: 7817:(2): 157–164. 7802: 7797: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7773: 7772: 7770:, p. 308. 7760: 7758:, p. 139. 7748: 7736: 7732:Abun-Nasr 1987 7724: 7720:Treadgold 1988 7712: 7700: 7669: 7667:, p. 122. 7657: 7645: 7636: 7625:on 5 June 2011 7605: 7594:on 5 June 2011 7568: 7541: 7532: 7516: 7500: 7486: 7470: 7461: 7449: 7440: 7409: 7403: 7381: 7368: 7350:"Why Shariah?" 7340: 7327: 7320: 7300: 7291: 7266: 7254: 7241: 7228: 7221: 7201: 7192: 7170: 7148: 7126: 7104: 7074: 7040: 7027: 7025: 7024: 7004: 6984: 6964: 6944: 6924: 6904: 6884: 6858: 6826: 6824:, p. 358. 6814: 6802: 6800:, p. 457. 6790: 6783: 6761: 6755: 6743:, ed. (1991), 6732: 6725: 6705: 6688: 6662: 6650: 6634: 6618: 6599: 6590: 6570: 6561: 6552: 6540: 6538:, p. 186) 6528: 6524:Madelung (1997 6516: 6503: 6488: 6484:Madelung (1997 6476: 6460: 6448: 6422: 6407: 6397: 6379: 6372: 6354: 6331: 6318: 6311: 6285: 6278: 6260: 6253: 6235: 6228: 6206: 6194: 6190:Sowerwine 2010 6182: 6170: 6149:van Donzel, E. 6137:Bosworth, C.E. 6128: 6121: 6101: 6066:Rein Taagepera 6057: 6050: 6029: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6022: 6021: 6016: 6011: 6006: 6001: 5993: 5992: 5990: 5989: 5982: 5975: 5967: 5964: 5963: 5958: 5957: 5954: 5943: 5942: 5939: 5928: 5927: 5924: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5898: 5897: 5894: 5883: 5882: 5879: 5868: 5867: 5864: 5853: 5852: 5849: 5838: 5837: 5834: 5823: 5822: 5819: 5808: 5807: 5804: 5793: 5792: 5789: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5771:Ras al Khaymah 5763: 5762: 5759: 5746: 5743: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5733: 5732: 5729: 5723: 5722: 5719: 5708: 5707: 5704: 5698: 5697: 5694: 5687:Mazrui dynasty 5683: 5682: 5679: 5668: 5667: 5664: 5653: 5652: 5649: 5636: 5633: 5632: 5629: 5628: 5623: 5622: 5619: 5613: 5612: 5609: 5603: 5602: 5599: 5593: 5592: 5589: 5583: 5582: 5579: 5573: 5572: 5569: 5563: 5562: 5559: 5553: 5552: 5549: 5543: 5542: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5519: 5513: 5512: 5509: 5503: 5502: 5499: 5493: 5492: 5489: 5483: 5482: 5479: 5473: 5472: 5469: 5463: 5462: 5459: 5453: 5452: 5449: 5443: 5442: 5439: 5433: 5432: 5429: 5423: 5422: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5409: 5403: 5402: 5399: 5393: 5392: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5379: 5373: 5372: 5369: 5363: 5362: 5359: 5353: 5352: 5349: 5343: 5342: 5339: 5331: 5328: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5318: 5317: 5314: 5308: 5307: 5304: 5298: 5297: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5274: 5268: 5267: 5264: 5258: 5257: 5254: 5248: 5247: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5234: 5228: 5227: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5214: 5208: 5207: 5204: 5198: 5197: 5194: 5188: 5187: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5164: 5158: 5157: 5154: 5148: 5147: 5144: 5138: 5137: 5134: 5128: 5127: 5124: 5118: 5117: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5104: 5102:Fihrid Emirate 5098: 5097: 5094: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5073: 5072: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5059: 5053: 5052: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5039: 5033: 5032: 5029: 5023: 5022: 5019: 5013: 5012: 5009: 5003: 5002: 4999: 4993: 4992: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4979: 4973: 4972: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4959: 4953: 4952: 4949: 4943: 4942: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4929: 4923: 4922: 4919: 4913: 4912: 4909: 4903: 4902: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4879: 4873: 4872: 4869: 4861: 4858: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4848: 4847: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4834: 4828: 4827: 4824: 4818: 4817: 4814: 4806: 4803: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4793: 4792: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4769: 4763: 4762: 4759: 4753: 4752: 4749: 4743: 4742: 4739: 4733: 4732: 4729: 4723: 4722: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4703: 4702: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4689: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4674: 4673: 4665: 4664: 4657: 4654: 4651: 4650: 4649: 4648: 4638: 4630: 4625: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4602: 4595: 4590: 4583: 4553: 4549: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4535: 4534: 4529: 4522: 4521: 4520: 4513: 4500: 4493: 4469: 4465: 4464: 4463: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4445: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4427: 4420: 4394: 4390: 4389: 4388: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4376: 4375: 4370: 4363: 4362: 4361: 4352: 4345: 4321: 4317: 4316: 4313: 4308: 4305: 4299: 4296: 4293: 4286: 4283: 4247:Main article: 4244: 4241: 4162:Main article: 4159: 4156: 4147: 4144: 4093: 4090: 4032:Muslim history 3976: 3973: 3964: 3961: 3956:Usama ibn Zaid 3948: 3947: 3936: 3929: 3922: 3915: 3912:Battle of Badr 3908: 3905:Husayn ibn Ali 3897: 3891: 3848: 3845: 3843: 3840: 3811: 3808: 3802:, a religious 3765:Main article: 3762: 3759: 3744:Main article: 3741: 3738: 3726: 3723: 3690:Main article: 3687: 3684: 3678:is one of the 3647:Main article: 3644: 3641: 3640: 3639: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3619: 3614: 3604: 3601: 3597:welfare states 3579:of an Islamic 3545:Social welfare 3474:Main article: 3471: 3468: 3443:Main article: 3440: 3437: 3435: 3432: 3428:Ottoman Empire 3359:The following 3355:Islamic ethics 3346: 3343: 3290: 3287: 3258: 3255: 3235:, in his book 3186: 3183: 3155: 3152: 3131: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3078: 3077: 3071: 3061: 3051: 3041: 3031:Katib-ud-Diwan 3028: 2989: 2988: 2983: 2978: 2973: 2968: 2963: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2933: 2912: 2911: 2893: 2879: 2869: 2863: 2849: 2835: 2809: 2806: 2757: 2754: 2707: 2704: 2633: 2630: 2581: 2578: 2550:ensuing battle 2498: 2495: 2379: 2376: 2365:Constantinople 2264: 2261: 2180:Battle of Fahl 2132:Jami'a Al-Aqsa 2113:pitched battle 1993: 1990: 1988: 1985: 1933:Persian Empire 1855:Arabian desert 1807:Iyad ibn Ghanm 1788:Battle of Hira 1734:Sasanid Empire 1704: 1701: 1665: 1662: 1543: 656–661 1502:Main article: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1478:Main article: 1475: 1472: 1403:Main article: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1312: 634–644 1300: 1297: 1268: 1265: 1209:Eastern Arabia 1152: 1149: 1141: 1135: 1129: 1116:an altercation 1046: 1043: 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 909: 906: 890: 647–670 840: 837: 779:in the north; 734: 661–680 610: 609: 607: 606: 599: 592: 584: 581: 580: 567: 566: 563: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 536: 533: 532: 529: 528: 525: 524: 519: 514: 509: 503: 500: 499: 496: 495: 487: 486: 467: 466: 463: 462: 459: 458: 451: 442: 439: 438: 433: 425: 424: 419: 411: 410: 405: 397: 396: 391: 379: 378: 373: 363: 362: 360: 359: 353: 351: 347: 346: 343: 339: 338: 334: 333: 330: 329: 326: 319: 316: 315: 312: 306: 303: 302: 299: 292: 289: 288: 285: 278: 275: 274: 271: 268: 265: 264: 261: 255: 252: 251: 248: 242: 239: 238: 235: 234: 231: 227: 226: 223: 222: 214: 211: 208: 207: 202: 199: 196: 195: 190: 187: 184: 183: 175: 172: 169: 168: 165: 164: 161: 155: 154: 149: 145: 144: 139: 135: 134: 131: 127: 126: 121: 117: 116: 105: 101: 100: 95: 91: 90: 77: 69: 68: 64: 63: 38: 35: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11368: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11307: 11304: 11302: 11299: 11297: 11294: 11292: 11289: 11287: 11284: 11282: 11279: 11277: 11274: 11272: 11269: 11267: 11264: 11262: 11259: 11257: 11254: 11252: 11249: 11248: 11246: 11229: 11228:Soviet empire 11226: 11224: 11221: 11220: 11218: 11217: 11215: 11213:Miscellaneous 11211: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11182: 11178: 11175: 11174: 11173: 11170: 11169: 11167: 11163: 11153: 11150: 11148: 11145: 11143: 11140: 11138: 11135: 11131: 11128: 11127: 11126: 11123: 11121: 11118: 11116: 11113: 11111: 11108: 11106: 11103: 11101: 11098: 11096: 11093: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11074: 11071: 11069: 11066: 11065: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11054: 11051: 11050: 11048: 11046: 11042: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11024: 11021: 11019: 11016: 11014: 11011: 11010: 11009: 11006: 11004: 11001: 10997: 10994: 10993: 10992: 10989: 10987: 10984: 10980: 10977: 10975: 10972: 10970: 10967: 10966: 10965: 10962: 10960: 10957: 10953: 10950: 10948: 10945: 10944: 10943: 10940: 10936: 10933: 10931: 10928: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10912: 10911: 10908: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10895: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10872: 10869: 10867: 10864: 10862: 10859: 10857: 10854: 10852: 10849: 10848: 10847: 10844: 10840: 10837: 10835: 10832: 10831: 10830: 10827: 10825: 10822: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10812:German Empire 10810: 10809: 10808: 10805: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10792: 10791: 10788: 10784: 10781: 10779: 10776: 10775: 10774: 10771: 10769: 10766: 10762: 10759: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749: 10747: 10744: 10742: 10739: 10738: 10737: 10734: 10732: 10729: 10725: 10722: 10720: 10717: 10716: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10688: 10686: 10684: 10680: 10674: 10671: 10669: 10666: 10664: 10661: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10627: 10624: 10623: 10622: 10619: 10617: 10614: 10610: 10607: 10605: 10602: 10600: 10597: 10595: 10592: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10582: 10581: 10580: 10577: 10573: 10570: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10554: 10553: 10552:Turco-Persian 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10535: 10533: 10530: 10528: 10525: 10523: 10520: 10518: 10515: 10513: 10510: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10497: 10496: 10493: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10479: 10476: 10474: 10471: 10469: 10466: 10464: 10461: 10460: 10459: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10438: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10426: 10424: 10421: 10420: 10419: 10416: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10393: 10392: 10389: 10387: 10384: 10382: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10345: 10342: 10341: 10340: 10337: 10333: 10330: 10328: 10325: 10323: 10320: 10318: 10315: 10314: 10313: 10310: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10293: 10292: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10273: 10271: 10268: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10256: 10254: 10251: 10250: 10249: 10246: 10244: 10241: 10237: 10234: 10232: 10229: 10227: 10224: 10222: 10219: 10217: 10214: 10212: 10209: 10208: 10207: 10204: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10191: 10190: 10187: 10183: 10180: 10178: 10175: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10164: 10163: 10160: 10158: 10155: 10151: 10148: 10147: 10146: 10143: 10139: 10136: 10134: 10131: 10130: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10092: 10090: 10088: 10084: 10076: 10073: 10072: 10071: 10068: 10066: 10063: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10050: 10049: 10046: 10042: 10039: 10038: 10037: 10034: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10001: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9990: 9987: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9970: 9968: 9965: 9964: 9963: 9960: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9947: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9924: 9921: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9910: 9909: 9906: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9878: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9851: 9850: 9847: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9835: 9833: 9830: 9829: 9828: 9825: 9821: 9818: 9816: 9813: 9812: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9787: 9783: 9779: 9772: 9767: 9765: 9760: 9758: 9753: 9752: 9749: 9737: 9729: 9727: 9717: 9716: 9713: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9689: 9686: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9657: 9654: 9653: 9652: 9649: 9645: 9642: 9640: 9639:Post-Islamism 9637: 9635: 9632: 9631: 9630: 9627: 9625: 9622: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9609: 9608: 9605: 9604: 9602: 9598: 9592: 9589: 9587: 9584: 9582: 9579: 9577: 9574: 9573: 9571: 9569: 9565: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9537: 9536:Protestantism 9534: 9532: 9529: 9528: 9527: 9524: 9523: 9521: 9519: 9515: 9511: 9501: 9497: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9477: 9473: 9471: 9468: 9464: 9461: 9460: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9430: 9428: 9424: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9399: 9397: 9395: 9391: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9379:Ophthalmology 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9346: 9344: 9342: 9338: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9317: 9314: 9312: 9309: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9293: 9291: 9289: 9285: 9281: 9277: 9269: 9265: 9251: 9248: 9244: 9243: 9239: 9238: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9220: 9217: 9216: 9215: 9212: 9210: 9209: 9205: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9197: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9185: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9151: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9143: 9139: 9137: 9136: 9132: 9128: 9127:Death penalty 9125: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9114: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9102: 9098: 9097: 9095: 9093:Other aspects 9091: 9085: 9084: 9080: 9078: 9077: 9073: 9071: 9070: 9066: 9064: 9063: 9059: 9057: 9056: 9052: 9050: 9049: 9045: 9043: 9042: 9038: 9037: 9035: 9030: 9027: 9025: 9022: 9020: 9017: 9016: 9013: 9007: 9006: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8994: 8990: 8988: 8987: 8983: 8981: 8980: 8976: 8974: 8973: 8969: 8968: 8966: 8964: 8960: 8954: 8953: 8949: 8947: 8946: 8942: 8940: 8939: 8935: 8933: 8932: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8917: 8915: 8913: 8909: 8905: 8898: 8897:Jurisprudence 8895: 8893: 8890: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8871: 8868: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8845: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8771: 8770: 8768: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8754: 8751: 8745: 8742: 8740: 8737: 8733: 8730: 8729: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8711: 8708: 8704: 8701: 8700: 8699: 8696: 8694: 8691: 8689: 8686: 8684: 8681: 8680: 8679: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8647: 8646: 8645: 8642: 8641: 8639: 8637: 8636:Denominations 8633: 8627: 8626: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8607: 8605: 8602: 8601: 8599: 8597: 8593: 8585: 8582: 8580: 8577: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8549: 8545: 8544: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8532: 8528: 8526: 8525: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8495: 8493: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8479: 8476: 8470: 8469: 8465: 8463: 8462: 8458: 8456: 8455: 8451: 8449: 8448: 8444: 8442: 8441: 8437: 8436: 8434: 8432: 8428: 8422: 8421:Holiest sites 8419: 8417: 8416:Judgement Day 8414: 8412: 8411: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8388: 8385: 8384: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8366: 8365: 8364: 8361: 8360: 8358: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8343: 8337: 8332: 8325: 8320: 8318: 8313: 8311: 8306: 8305: 8302: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8271: 8268: 8264: 8257: 8252: 8250: 8245: 8243: 8238: 8237: 8234: 8226: 8220: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8199: 8193: 8191:90-411-0241-8 8187: 8183: 8179: 8174: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8161:Marius Canard 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8136: 8132: 8131: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8116:9780522857283 8112: 8108: 8107: 8101: 8097: 8095:9780199806003 8091: 8087: 8082: 8078: 8072: 8069:. Routledge. 8068: 8067: 8061: 8057: 8051: 8047: 8046: 8040: 8036: 8030: 8026: 8022: 8021: 8015: 8011: 8006: 8002: 7996: 7988: 7984: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7955:Hinds, Martin 7952: 7948: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7930: 7926: 7922: 7917: 7913: 7907: 7903: 7902: 7896: 7892: 7890:9780674050976 7886: 7882: 7878: 7877: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7862:9781889758879 7858: 7854: 7853: 7848: 7844: 7840: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7803: 7800: 7798:0-521-33767-4 7794: 7790: 7789: 7783: 7782: 7769: 7768:Madelung 1997 7764: 7757: 7756:Madelung 1997 7752: 7745: 7744:Madelung 1997 7740: 7733: 7728: 7721: 7716: 7709: 7708:Vasiliev 1935 7704: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7673: 7666: 7665:Frastuti 2020 7661: 7654: 7653:Bosworth 1996 7649: 7643:Augus Mcbride 7640: 7624: 7620: 7616: 7609: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7581: 7575: 7573: 7556: 7552: 7545: 7536: 7529: 7527: 7526:In God's Path 7520: 7513: 7511: 7510:In God's Path 7504: 7497: 7490: 7483: 7481: 7480:In God's Path 7474: 7465: 7456: 7454: 7444: 7438: 7434: 7430: 7424: 7420: 7413: 7406: 7400: 7396: 7392: 7385: 7379: 7372: 7357: 7356: 7351: 7344: 7337: 7331: 7323: 7321:9781847064783 7317: 7313: 7312: 7304: 7295: 7287: 7283: 7279: 7273: 7271: 7263: 7258: 7251: 7245: 7238: 7235:Cl. Cahen in 7232: 7224: 7218: 7214: 7213: 7205: 7196: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7174: 7166: 7162: 7158: 7152: 7144: 7140: 7136: 7130: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7108: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7078: 7062: 7058: 7054: 7047: 7045: 7037: 7031: 7013: 7009: 7005: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6973: 6970:. p. 1. 6969: 6965: 6953: 6950:. p. 1. 6949: 6945: 6933: 6929: 6925: 6913: 6909: 6905: 6893: 6890:. p. 1. 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6872: 6869: 6862: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6845: 6840: 6836: 6830: 6823: 6818: 6811: 6806: 6799: 6794: 6786: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6765: 6758: 6752: 6748: 6747: 6742: 6736: 6728: 6722: 6718: 6717: 6709: 6702: 6701:Madelung 1997 6697: 6695: 6693: 6684: 6677: 6675: 6673: 6671: 6669: 6667: 6660:, p. 49. 6659: 6658:Madelung 1997 6654: 6647: 6643: 6638: 6631: 6627: 6622: 6615: 6611: 6606: 6604: 6594: 6587: 6581: 6579: 6577: 6575: 6565: 6556: 6549: 6544: 6537: 6532: 6525: 6520: 6513: 6507: 6501: 6499:(2014), p. 3 6498: 6492: 6486:, p. 32) 6485: 6480: 6473: 6469: 6468:Madelung 1997 6464: 6458:, p. 83. 6457: 6452: 6437: 6433: 6426: 6418: 6411: 6404: 6400: 6398:9781134081066 6394: 6390: 6383: 6375: 6373:9788173913358 6369: 6365: 6358: 6350: 6345: 6344: 6335: 6328: 6322: 6314: 6312:9780761421207 6308: 6304: 6299: 6298: 6289: 6281: 6279:9781412994224 6275: 6271: 6264: 6256: 6254:9780334040323 6250: 6246: 6239: 6231: 6229:9789799988812 6225: 6222:. p. 9. 6221: 6217: 6210: 6204:, p. 93. 6203: 6198: 6191: 6186: 6179: 6178:Melchert 2020 6174: 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6145:Bianquis, Th. 6142: 6138: 6132: 6124: 6122:9781317423683 6118: 6114: 6113: 6105: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6076: 6071: 6067: 6061: 6053: 6047: 6043: 6042: 6034: 6030: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6005: 6002: 6000: 5997: 5996: 5988: 5983: 5981: 5976: 5974: 5969: 5968: 5966: 5965: 5955: 5952: 5948: 5945: 5944: 5940: 5937: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5925: 5922: 5918: 5915: 5914: 5910: 5907: 5903: 5900: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5888: 5885: 5884: 5880: 5877: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5865: 5862: 5861:Umm al-Quwain 5858: 5855: 5854: 5850: 5847: 5843: 5840: 5839: 5835: 5832: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5813: 5810: 5809: 5805: 5802: 5798: 5795: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5783: 5780: 5779: 5775: 5772: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5760: 5757: 5753: 5750: 5749: 5741: 5740: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5724: 5720: 5717: 5713: 5710: 5709: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5688: 5685: 5684: 5680: 5677: 5673: 5670: 5669: 5665: 5662: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5650: 5647: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5631: 5630: 5620: 5618: 5615: 5614: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5604: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5594: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5584: 5580: 5578: 5575: 5574: 5570: 5568: 5565: 5564: 5560: 5558: 5555: 5554: 5550: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5530: 5528: 5525: 5524: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5514: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5504: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5484: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5474: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5454: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5444: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5434: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5414: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5394: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5384: 5380: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5370: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5334: 5326: 5325: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5309: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5279: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5229: 5225: 5223: 5220: 5219: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5209: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5199: 5195: 5193: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5163: 5162:Muslim Sicily 5160: 5159: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5119: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5109: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5099: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5089: 5081: 5080: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5054: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5044: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5014: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5004: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4980: 4978: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4968: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4954: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4944: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4924: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4894: 4890: 4888: 4885: 4884: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4856: 4855: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4829: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4809: 4801: 4800: 4791:450 AD–550 AD 4790: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4768: 4765: 4764: 4760: 4758: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4744: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4731:64 BC–300s AD 4730: 4728: 4725: 4724: 4721:132 BC–244 AD 4720: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4711:400 BC–106 AD 4710: 4708: 4705: 4704: 4701:600 BC–100 BC 4700: 4698: 4695: 4694: 4691:800 BC–300 BC 4690: 4688: 4685: 4684: 4676: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4666: 4662: 4661: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4637: 4633: 4632: 4631: 4629: 4626: 4622: 4619: 4617: 4614: 4613: 4612: 4607: 4603: 4600: 4596: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4588: 4584: 4582: 4581: 4579: 4574: 4573: 4568: 4559: 4558: 4554: 4551: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4523: 4518: 4514: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4502: 4501: 4498: 4494: 4492: 4490: 4484: 4475: 4474: 4470: 4467: 4466: 4460: 4459: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4440: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4429: 4428: 4425: 4421: 4419: 4418: 4416: 4409: 4400: 4399: 4395: 4392: 4391: 4385: 4384: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4366: 4365: 4364: 4359: 4355: 4354: 4353: 4350: 4346: 4344: 4342: 4336: 4327: 4326: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4314: 4312: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4300: 4298:Calligraphic 4297: 4294: 4291: 4290: 4282: 4281:in later era 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4257:, the famous 4256: 4250: 4243:Rashidun navy 4240: 4236: 4232: 4230: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4195: 4194:light cavalry 4191: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4164:Rashidun Army 4158:Rashidun army 4155: 4153: 4152:Rashidun navy 4143: 4140: 4137: 4132: 4131:Shi'ite views 4127: 4125: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4109: 4105: 4099: 4089: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4075: 4074:Mediterranean 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4041: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4016:Dar-ul-Amarat 4012: 4010: 4006: 4005:Friday mosque 4002: 3998: 3994: 3989: 3987: 3983: 3972: 3970: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3933:Apostasy wars 3930: 3927: 3923: 3920: 3916: 3913: 3909: 3906: 3902: 3901:Hasan ibn Ali 3898: 3895: 3892: 3889: 3886: 3885: 3884: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3858: 3854: 3839: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3824: 3820: 3816: 3807: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3773: 3768: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3747: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3722: 3719: 3716: 3712: 3702: 3698: 3693: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3655: 3650: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3618: 3615: 3613: 3610: 3609: 3608: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3535: 3534: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3512: 3508: 3506: 3501: 3498: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3467: 3465: 3461: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3446: 3431: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3396: 3389: 3387: 3382: 3378: 3372: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3356: 3352: 3342: 3340: 3333: 3328: 3326: 3322: 3321: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3298: 3296: 3286: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3254: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3242: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3208: 3203: 3202: 3196: 3192: 3182: 3180: 3175: 3171: 3170: 3166:Accordingly, 3164: 3162: 3151: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3136: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3107: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3093: 3091: 3085: 3083: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3065: 3062: 3059: 3055: 3052: 3049: 3045: 3042: 3039: 3036: 3032: 3029: 3026: 3022: 3019: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3014: 3009: 3005: 3000: 2998: 2994: 2987: 2984: 2982: 2979: 2977: 2974: 2972: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2962: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2952: 2949: 2947: 2944: 2942: 2939: 2937: 2934: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2927: 2924: 2922: 2917: 2909: 2905: 2901: 2897: 2894: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2880: 2877: 2873: 2870: 2867: 2864: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2850: 2847: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2813: 2805: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2782: 2779:(present-day 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2753: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2740: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2725: 2723: 2719: 2713: 2703: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2681: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2639: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2592:, Sudan, 2013 2591: 2586: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2508: 2503: 2494: 2492: 2488: 2485:, who killed 2484: 2483:Amr ibn al-As 2480: 2474: 2472: 2467: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2425:Amr ibn al-As 2422: 2418: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2390: 2385: 2375: 2373: 2368: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2285: 2278: 2274: 2269: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2245: 2242: 2237: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2223: 2219: 2213: 2205: 2201: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2171: 2167: 2165: 2156: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2128: 2124: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2102: 2098: 2093: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2080: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2040: 2039:Syrian Desert 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2019:Amr ibn al-As 2016: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1984: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1898:Qasr-e Shirin 1895: 1891: 1886: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1819: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1753: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1730: 1724: 1720: 1715: 1710: 1700: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1661: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1647: 1640: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1588: 1587:Hasan ibn Ali 1584: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1562: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1537: 1529: 1528: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1490: 1488: 1481: 1471: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1436:Rashidun army 1432: 1430: 1425: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1366: 1362: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1330:, north into 1329: 1325: 1320: 1319: 1306: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1264: 1262: 1257: 1253: 1244: 1240: 1238: 1228: 1227: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1117: 1114:resulting in 1112: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1090: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1052: 1041: 1037: 1022: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1007: 1003: 1001: 989: 988: 983: 979: 974: 972: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 938: 935: 931: 927: 919: 914: 903: 899: 895: 883: 879: 877: 872: 871: 865: 855: 849: 848: 836: 814: 809: 808: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 778: 777:Transcaucasus 774: 770: 766: 765:Rashidun Army 762: 758: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 703: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 655: 653: 649: 645: 641: 636: 630: 621: 617: 605: 600: 598: 593: 591: 586: 585: 583: 582: 579: 569: 568: 561: 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 537: 531: 530: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 504: 498: 497: 493: 489: 488: 476: 473: 472: 452: 450: 447: 446: 443: 437: 434: 427: 426: 423: 420: 413: 412: 409: 406: 399: 398: 395: 392: 385: 384: 381: 380: 377: 374: 372: 369: 368: 364: 358: 355: 354: 352: 348: 344: 340: 335: 331: 327: 323: 317: 313: 310: 304: 300: 296: 290: 286: 282: 276: 272: 266: 262: 259: 253: 249: 246: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 218: 215: 209: 206: 203: 197: 194: 191: 185: 179: 176: 170: 166: 162: 160: 156: 153: 150: 146: 143: 140: 136: 132: 128: 125: 122: 118: 114: 109: 106: 102: 99: 96: 92: 81: 75: 70: 65: 58: 49: 33: 30: 19: 10979:Contemporary 10829:Indo-Persian 10817:Nazi Germany 10761:Contemporary 10663:Vijayanagara 10562:Great Seljuk 10473:Thessalonica 10401:Golden Horde 10166: 10041:Carthaginian 9820:Neo-Assyrian 9805:Neo-Sumerian 9651:Islamophobia 9526:Christianity 9474: 9407:Contemporary 9301:Architecture 9240: 9206: 9194: 9182: 9140: 9133: 9099: 9081: 9076:Nikah mut'ah 9074: 9067: 9060: 9053: 9046: 9039: 9003: 8991: 8984: 8977: 8970: 8950: 8943: 8936: 8929: 8842: 8623: 8547: 8546: 8529: 8522: 8466: 8459: 8452: 8445: 8438: 8431:Five Pillars 8408: 8374: 8363:God in Islam 8340: 8262: 8210: 8177: 8152: 8129: 8105: 8085: 8065: 8044: 8019: 8009: 7995:cite journal 7962: 7958: 7928: 7927:(in Malay). 7924: 7904:. ABC-CLIO. 7900: 7875: 7851: 7814: 7810: 7787: 7763: 7751: 7739: 7727: 7715: 7703: 7691:. Retrieved 7687:the original 7682: 7672: 7660: 7648: 7639: 7629:10 September 7627:. Retrieved 7623:the original 7618: 7608: 7598:10 September 7596:. Retrieved 7592:the original 7587: 7580:Hugh Kennedy 7559:. Retrieved 7544: 7535: 7525: 7519: 7509: 7503: 7495: 7489: 7479: 7473: 7464: 7443: 7422: 7418: 7412: 7390: 7384: 7371: 7359:. Retrieved 7353: 7343: 7330: 7310: 7303: 7294: 7286:the original 7281: 7257: 7244: 7231: 7211: 7204: 7195: 7187:the original 7182: 7173: 7165:the original 7160: 7151: 7143:the original 7138: 7129: 7121:the original 7116: 7107: 7095:. Retrieved 7091:the original 7086: 7077: 7065:. Retrieved 7061:the original 7056: 7051:A.I. Akram. 7035: 7034:D. Nicolle, 7030: 7016:. Retrieved 7012:the original 6996:. Retrieved 6992:the original 6976:. Retrieved 6956:. Retrieved 6936:. Retrieved 6932:the original 6916:. Retrieved 6912:the original 6896:. Retrieved 6880:the original 6867: 6861: 6853:the original 6842: 6829: 6817: 6805: 6793: 6774: 6764: 6745: 6735: 6715: 6708: 6682: 6653: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6629: 6625: 6621: 6613: 6609: 6593: 6585: 6564: 6555: 6550:, p. 4) 6543: 6531: 6519: 6514:(2012), p. 6 6511: 6506: 6496: 6491: 6479: 6463: 6451: 6439:. Retrieved 6435: 6425: 6416: 6410: 6402: 6388: 6382: 6363: 6357: 6342: 6334: 6326: 6321: 6296: 6288: 6269: 6263: 6244: 6238: 6215: 6209: 6197: 6192:, p. 5. 6185: 6173: 6156: 6131: 6111: 6104: 6079: 6073: 6060: 6040: 6033: 5956:1921–present 5941:1900–present 5926:1868–present 5911:1833–present 5896:1810–present 5881:1783–present 5866:1775–present 5851:1761–present 5836:1752–present 5821:1749–present 5806:1744–present 5801:Saudi Arabia 5791:1727–present 5776:1727–present 5761:1631–present 4811: 4771:300s–500s AD 4575: 4571: 4570: 4562: 4555: 4515:Grandson of 4486: 4478: 4471: 4412: 4411: 4403: 4396: 4338: 4330: 4323: 4275:Sack of Rome 4252: 4237: 4233: 4228: 4225: 4204: 4198: 4187: 4149: 4141: 4128: 4121: 4101: 4044: 4039: 4036: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4013: 4008: 3990: 3978: 3975:Public works 3969:bait al maal 3968: 3966: 3949: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3866: 3862: 3850: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3813: 3799: 3791: 3787: 3778: 3776: 3771: 3770: 3754: 3750: 3749: 3729: 3728: 3700: 3696: 3695: 3675: 3671: 3663: 3653: 3652: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3611: 3606: 3572: 3568: 3556: 3555:as forms of 3543: 3539: 3532: 3505:bait ul maal 3504: 3502: 3494: 3479: 3462: 3453: 3450:Bait-ul-Maal 3449: 3448: 3439:Bait-ul-Maal 3424:codification 3413: 3399: 3391: 3381:Bani Makhzum 3374: 3358: 3335: 3330: 3318: 3299: 3292: 3266: 3260: 3257:Sunni belief 3245: 3236: 3231: 3224:consultation 3188: 3178: 3173: 3167: 3165: 3157: 3140: 3132: 3114: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3086: 3079: 3073: 3063: 3058:Police Chief 3053: 3043: 3030: 3023:, the Chief 3020: 3011: 3001: 2990: 2925: 2921:North Africa 2913: 2814: 2811: 2802: 2781:Saudi Arabia 2749: 2745: 2743: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2726: 2721: 2718:Zoroastrians 2715: 2641: 2595: 2566:vassal state 2562:North Africa 2558:North Africa 2531: 2512: 2475: 2468: 2449: 2419:(616 to 629 2414: 2369: 2339:and sacking 2309:Ararat plain 2281: 2246: 2238: 2226: 2218:mobile guard 2214: 2210: 2176: 2161: 2105: 2078: 2062:al-Qaryatayn 2043: 2012: 1927: 1887: 1847: 1820: 1799:was defeated 1792: 1757: 1750: 1699:to recover. 1686: 1667: 1650: 1643: 1636: 1618:North Africa 1591: 1563: 1533: 1527:Siyer-i Nebi 1525: 1483: 1468: 1440:North Africa 1433: 1426: 1411: 1408: 1381: 1369: 1364: 1358: 1352: 1302: 1270: 1249: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1212: 1193:South Arabia 1154: 1103: 1091: 1070: 1048: 997: 985: 975: 960: 923: 896:) holding a 876:Shia Muslims 842: 830:consultation 797:Central Asia 795:to parts of 781:North Africa 754: 704: 656: 615: 613: 506: 376:Succeeded by 375: 370: 29: 10567:Khwarezmian 10500:Carolingian 10305:Rashtrakuta 10009:Shaishunaga 9908:Hellenistic 9891:New Kingdom 9881:Old Kingdom 9426:Other areas 9417:Theological 9412:Eschatology 9369:Mathematics 9306:Calligraphy 9236:Theological 9190:Inheritance 9107:Cleanliness 8537:Shi'a Imams 8531:Ahl al-Bayt 8215:I.B. Tauris 7561:29 November 6822:Netton 2013 6810:Donner 2010 6202:McHugo 2017 6141:Bearman, P. 5661:Pate Island 5634:East Africa 5427:Sulaymanids 5367:Ukhaidhirds 5152:Sulaymanids 5122:Muhallabids 5027:Munqidhites 4927:Shirvanshah 4781:300s–602 AD 4751:196–1100 AD 4741:100s–241 AD 4628:Banu Hashim 4604:Husband of 4597:Husband of 4539:Banu Umayya 4510:Umm Kulthum 4504:Husband of 4124:First Fitna 4040:Bait-ul-Mal 4024:Bait-ul-Mal 3567:(including 3553:Islamic law 3524:fire temple 3482:Abu Huraira 3476:Bayt al-mal 3445:Bayt al-mal 3420:rule of law 3365:rule of law 3345:Rule of law 3233:Fred Donner 2890:Lower Egypt 2886:Upper Egypt 2688:Constans II 2570:First Fitna 2471:Constans II 2464:monothelism 2357:Constans II 2198:siege to it 2035:Mesopotamia 1953:Balochistan 1949:Transoxania 1945:Afghanistan 1894:brief siege 1851:Mesopotamia 1825:, then the 1782:), and the 1760:Mesopotamia 1740:type. BYS ( 1676:, parts of 1670:Mesopotamia 1504:First Fitna 1340:Mesopotamia 1173:Banu Thaqif 1093:tribe, the 1075:Banu Sa'ida 982:Sunni Islam 894:Constans II 864:Sunni Islam 851:(singular: 719:First Fitna 711:Banu Hashim 699:Banu Umayya 371:Preceded by 322:First Fitna 11256:Caliphates 11245:Categories 11137:Portuguese 11018:Revival Le 11008:Vietnamese 10651:Later Tran 10621:Vietnamese 10517:Singhasari 10505:Holy Roman 10129:Bulgarian 10065:Satavahana 10036:Phoenician 9972:Achaemenid 9933:Indo-Greek 9913:Macedonian 9827:Babylonian 9581:Ex-Muslims 9476:Shu'ubiyya 9470:Psychology 9458:Literature 9448:Inventions 9394:Philosophy 9202:Leadership 9178:Honorifics 8833:Philosophy 8688:Isma'ilism 8653:Maturidism 8542:Caliphates 8513:Golden Age 8404:Revelation 8034:0521646960 7693:31 October 7161:New Advent 6798:Hinds 1972 6436:Aqidah.Com 6082:(3): 495. 6025:References 5947:Hashemites 5902:Al Maktoum 5872:Al Khalifa 5557:Upper Yafa 5547:Ya'arubids 5387:Qarmatians 5272:Sumadihids 4761:220–638 AD 4757:Ghassanids 4508:and later 4431:Father of 4368:Abu Quhafa 4356:Father of 4273:, and the 4213:wickerwork 4113:Muawiyah I 4096:See also: 4082:Suez Canal 3963:Evaluation 3851:After the 3736:reserves. 3715:per capita 3585:Al-Ghazali 3581:government 3528:Khosrau II 3375:Narrated ‘ 3349:See also: 3339:revolution 3307:oppression 3303:Al-Juwayni 3050:Collector. 2993:Muawiyah I 2966:Azerbaijan 2904:Azerbaijan 2710:See also: 2656:Constantia 2644:Muawiyah I 2509:(Sufetula) 2479:Caliph Ali 2441:Alexandria 2433:Nile Delta 2417:Khosrau II 2337:Cappadocia 2086:Ghassanids 1981:Oxus River 1967:(Russia), 1961:Azerbaijan 1917:in modern 1839:Byzantines 1764:Ridda wars 1762:after the 1746:Khosrau II 1738:Khosrau II 1651:Ali's son 1646:Ibn Muljam 1610:Kharijites 1444:Byzantines 1438:conquered 1237:Ridda wars 1213:al-Bahrayn 1201:Musaylimah 1189:Aswad Ansi 1151:Ridda wars 937:companions 801:South Asia 738:Kharijites 723:suzerainty 436:Ghassanids 148:Government 87: 654 11130:Couronian 10768:Ethiopian 10756:Manchukuo 10711:Brazilian 10557:Ghaznavid 10527:Srivijaya 10478:Trebizond 10463:Byzantine 10445:North Sea 10440:Norwegian 10428:Almoravid 10411:Ilkhanate 10381:Majapahit 10354:Muromachi 10263:Solomonic 10248:Ethiopian 10162:Caliphate 10095:Aragonese 9923:Ptolemaic 9698:Symbolism 9656:Incidents 9634:Criticism 9531:Mormonism 9433:Astrology 9359:Cosmology 9354:Astronomy 9296:Arabesque 9163:Etiquette 9122:Blasphemy 8912:Economics 8727:Ahmadiyya 8661:Mu'tazili 8649:Ash'arism 8169:181731396 7987:159763369 7947:234578454 7849:(2007) . 7839:163550092 7524:Hoyland, 7508:Hoyland, 7478:Hoyland, 7361:5 October 7250:Cambridge 7018:21 August 6998:21 August 6978:21 August 6958:21 August 6938:21 August 6918:21 August 6898:21 August 6456:Rane 2010 6441:16 August 5932:Al Sharqi 5887:Al Nuaimi 5857:Al Mualla 5846:Abu Dhabi 5842:Al Nahyan 5782:Al Qasimi 5767:Al Qasimi 5731:1860–1887 5721:1858–1895 5706:1856–1964 5696:1746–1828 5681:1277–1495 5666:1203–1894 5621:1926–1970 5611:1906–1934 5601:1903–1967 5591:1858–1967 5587:Qu'aitids 5581:1836–1921 5577:Rashidids 5571:1820–1970 5561:1800–1967 5551:1624–1742 5541:1597–1872 5531:1463–1521 5521:1454–1526 5511:1395–1967 5507:Kathirids 5501:1305–1487 5497:Jarwanids 5491:1253–1320 5481:1229–1454 5471:1159–1174 5461:1154–1624 5457:Nabhanids 5451:1083–1174 5441:1076–1253 5431:1063–1174 5421:1047–1138 5417:Sulayhids 5316:1837–1969 5312:Senussids 5306:1554–1659 5296:1230–1492 5286:1049–1078 5276:1041–1091 5266:1039–1110 5256:1031–1091 5252:Jawharids 5246:1027–1063 5242:Muzaynids 5236:1026–1057 5232:Hammudids 5226:1023–1062 5222:Yahsubids 5216:1023–1091 5206:1020–1086 5196:1013–1039 5186:1012–1051 5176:1004–1412 5142:Aghlabids 5071:1697–1842 5061:1517–1865 5051:1480–1677 5041:1517–1697 5031:1025–1157 5021:1024–1080 5017:Mirdasids 5007:Numayrids 4987:Jarrahids 4977:Mazyadids 4957:Hamdanids 4947:Hashimids 4907:Habbarids 4897:Dulafids 4747:Tanukhids 4578:Al-Haydar 4380:Banu Taym 4373:Umm Khayr 4341:Al-Siddiq 4279:Aghlabids 4201:chainmail 4042:animals. 3980:west. Al- 3869:allowance 3842:Allowance 3533:bismillah 3518:symbols ( 3516:Sassanids 3332:curse"... 3315:rebellion 3275:Mujtahids 3189:The four 3038:Secretary 3025:Secretary 3004:districts 2916:testament 2872:Palestine 2860:Euphrates 2817:provinces 2678:and then 2660:Salt Lake 2626:Qalidurut 2614:cathedral 2602:Makurians 2538:Cyrenaica 2234:Jerusalem 2144:Jerusalem 2031:Ctesiphon 1929:Yazdegerd 1923:Sasanians 1902:Khuzestan 1890:Ctesiphon 1816:Christian 1751:bismillah 1442:from the 1429:Rashiduns 1348:Palestine 1332:Byzantine 1197:al-Yamama 1128:622–750: 1083:Muhajirun 839:Etymology 667:Banu Taym 665:, of the 648:West Asia 640:caliphate 629:romanized 475:Caliphate 152:Caliphate 138:Religion 115:(656–661) 110:(632–656) 98:Caliphate 11110:Japanese 11073:Scottish 11053:American 11045:Colonial 10974:Imperial 10942:Moroccan 10878:Japanese 10856:Afsharid 10715:Burmese 10701:Austrian 10656:Later Le 10631:Early Le 10616:Venetian 10542:Tiwanaku 10455:Hellenic 10418:Moroccan 10349:Kamakura 10339:Japanese 10322:Saffarid 10275:Georgian 10189:Chalukya 10167:Rashidun 10157:Calakmul 10125:Bruneian 10004:Haryanka 9982:Sasanian 9977:Parthian 9928:Bactrian 9918:Seleucid 9898:Goguryeo 9876:Egyptian 9810:Assyrian 9800:Akkadian 9791:Colonies 9736:Category 9629:Islamism 9612:Muhammad 9568:Apostasy 9543:Hinduism 9443:Feminism 9374:Medicine 9214:Military 9168:Gambling 9117:Apostasy 9112:Criminal 9024:Marriage 8993:Tayammum 8945:Murabaha 8818:Madrasas 8808:Holidays 8798:Clothing 8793:Children 8788:Calendar 8739:Quranism 8693:Alawites 8657:Atharism 8548:Rashidun 8387:In Islam 8382:Muhammad 8274:Abu Bakr 8205:(2020). 8151:(1935). 8127:(1988). 7873:(2010). 7831:25183178 7582:(2001). 7555:Archived 7530:: p. 227 7514:: p. 134 7433:Archived 6972:Archived 6952:Archived 6892:Archived 6837:(2003). 6773:(2004). 6155:(eds.). 5936:Fujairah 5917:Al Thani 5827:Al Sabah 5716:Wituland 5651:896–1279 5607:Idrisids 5537:Qasimids 5517:Tahirids 5487:Usfurids 5477:Rasulids 5447:Zurayids 5411:968–1925 5397:Wajihids 5391:899–1077 5381:897–1962 5371:865–1066 5357:Yufirids 5351:819–1138 5347:Ziyadids 5341:751–1970 5282:Tahirids 5212:Abbadids 5192:Tujibids 5166:831–1091 5132:Idrisids 5116:756–1031 5096:710–1019 5092:Salihids 5057:Harfushs 5047:Turabays 5011:990–1081 5001:990–1096 4997:Uqaylids 4991:970–1107 4981:961–1150 4971:955–1071 4967:Rawadids 4961:890–1004 4951:869–1075 4931:861–1538 4917:Kaysites 4911:854–1011 4881:736–1122 4846:909–1171 4842:Fatimids 4836:750–1258 4832:Abbasids 4822:Umayyads 4812:Rashidun 4777:Lakhmids 4767:Salihids 4656:See also 4646:Mu'awiya 4642:Al-Hasan 4489:Al-Ghani 4455:Banu Adi 4415:Al-Faruq 4325:Abu Bakr 4307:Parents 4303:Muhammad 4209:Hauberks 4190:infantry 4178:lamellar 4146:Military 4009:Al-Zawar 3942:and the 3796:poll tax 3751:Ghanimah 3589:disaster 3577:treasury 3549:pensions 3464:Abu Bakr 3458:treasury 3369:nepotism 3313:obliged 3211:شُـوْرَى 3191:Rashidun 3070:Officer. 3068:Treasury 3035:Military 3008:governor 2971:Khorasan 2900:Khorasan 2858:and the 2692:Phoinike 2672:Ottomans 2604:won the 2590:Khartoum 2546:Sufetula 2429:pharaohs 2333:Muawiyah 2313:Anatolia 2284:Anatolia 2222:skirmish 2148:Ash-Sham 2140:Old City 2117:Damascus 2074:Damascus 2072:via the 1965:Dagestan 1742:Bishapur 1689:Persians 1678:Anatolia 1622:Anatolia 1594:Mu'awiya 1275:and the 1217:al-Yaman 1157:Apostasy 987:Rashidun 953:Abu Bakr 926:Muhammad 847:rāshidūn 683:Banu Adi 663:Abu Bakr 644:Muhammad 350:Currency 178:Abu Bakr 11177:largest 11172:Empires 11152:Swedish 11147:Spanish 11142:Russian 11105:Italian 11080:Chinese 11068:English 11063:British 11058:Belgian 11033:Vietnam 11023:Tay son 10969:Tsarist 10964:Russian 10959:Ottoman 10925:Dzungar 10920:Khoshut 10893:Mexican 10888:Maratha 10871:Pahlavi 10851:Safavid 10846:Iranian 10773:Haitian 10736:Chinese 10696:Ashanti 10668:Wagadou 10594:Eastern 10589:Western 10572:Timurid 10532:Tibetan 10522:Songhai 10512:Serbian 10433:Almohad 10423:Idrisid 10327:Samanid 10317:Tahirid 10312:Iranian 10290:Kannauj 10270:Genoese 10206:Chinese 10199:Eastern 10194:Western 10182:Fatimid 10177:Abbasid 10172:Umayyad 10145:Burmese 10105:Ayyubid 10100:Angevin 10070:Xianbei 10058:Eastern 10053:Western 9999:Magadha 9962:Iranian 9955:Xiongnu 9940:Hittite 9849:Chinese 9837:Kassite 9786:Ancient 9778:Empires 9683:Nursing 9644:Qutbism 9558:Sikhism 9553:Judaism 9548:Jainism 9384:Physics 9331:Pottery 9316:Gardens 9311:Carpets 9226:Slavery 9148:Divorce 9135:Dhabiĥa 8963:Hygiene 8938:Takaful 8920:Banking 8850:Science 8844:Qurbani 8813:Mosques 8773:Animals 8762:Culture 8710:Zaydism 8698:Alevism 8584:Ottoman 8574:Almohad 8569:Fatimid 8564:Córdoba 8559:Abbasid 8554:Umayyad 8487:Leaders 8482:History 8440:Shahada 8355:Beliefs 7778:Sources 7484:: p. 98 7239:– Jizya 7097:16 July 7067:16 July 6096:2600793 5876:Bahrain 5812:Al Said 5797:Al Saud 5786:Sharjah 5756:Morocco 5752:'Alawis 5691:Mombasa 5527:Jabrids 5467:Mahdids 5437:Uyunids 5401:926–965 5377:Rassids 5361:847–997 5302:Saadids 5292:Nasrids 5202:Amirids 5182:Bakrids 5172:Kanzids 5156:814–922 5146:800–909 5136:788–974 5126:771–793 5106:745-757 5067:Shihabs 5037:Ma'nids 4941:864–928 4937:Alavids 4921:860–964 4901:840–897 4891:824–961 4871:654–884 4826:661–750 4816:632–661 4599:Fatimah 4506:Ruqayya 4333:أبو بكر 4295:Caliph 4292:Period 4277:by the 4263:Umayyad 4217:baldric 4205:dir’ayn 4182:baldric 4174:hauberk 4078:Red Sea 4076:to the 4062:Red Sea 4060:to the 3828:dhimmis 3784:dhimmis 3734:mineral 3486:Bahrain 3452:(lit., 3434:Economy 3295:impeach 3263:Saqifah 3218: 3197:called 3195:Quraysh 3148:dirhams 3113:horse ( 3048:Revenue 2986:Maghreb 2914:In his 2783:), 2008 2769:Medinah 2750:dhimmis 2746:dhimmis 2733:Dhimmis 2728:Dhimmis 2722:dhimmis 2664:Larnaca 2610:Dongola 2542:Tripoli 2523:Morocco 2507:Sbeitla 2445:Thebaid 2361:Armenia 2353:Isauria 2349:Cilicia 2345:Phrygia 2325:Malatya 2297:Antioch 2277:Armenia 2193:Chalcis 2066:Hawarin 2058:Sukhnah 1973:Georgia 1969:Armenia 1915:Hamadan 1869:at the 1748:right; 1520:in the 1422:Umayyad 1232:أُمَّـة 1095:Quraysh 1071:Saqifah 1064:Helpers 1058: 1040:Saqifah 1025:History 984:as the 957:Quraysh 941:Muslims 934:Medinan 932:), his 898:scepter 824: 789:Tunisia 775:to the 721:as his 631:: 483:‎ 320:• 307:• 293:• 279:• 263:633–654 256:• 243:• 230:History 181:(first) 104:Capital 67:632–661 11115:Mongol 11100:German 11095:French 11085:Danish 11028:Dainam 11003:Tongan 10991:Somali 10986:Sokoto 10952:'Alawi 10930:Kalmyk 10910:Mongol 10903:Second 10883:Korean 10834:Mughal 10824:Indian 10807:German 10800:Second 10790:French 10783:Second 10719:Second 10691:Afghan 10683:Modern 10609:Kyrgyz 10604:Uighur 10599:Second 10579:Turkic 10547:Toltec 10483:Epirus 10468:Nicaea 10391:Mongol 10344:Yamato 10280:Huetar 10138:Second 10075:Rouran 10024:Shunga 10019:Maurya 9994:Kushan 9967:Median 9945:Hunnic 9903:Harsha 9505: 9463:poetry 9273: 9158:Ethics 9142:Dhimmi 9101:Baligh 9062:Mahram 9019:Family 8999:Toilet 8979:Miswak 8732:Lahori 8673:Salafi 8619:Seerah 8614:Tafsir 8609:Hadith 8579:Sokoto 8524:Sahaba 8399:Angels 8376:Tawhid 8333:topics 8284:Uthman 8221: 8188: 8167: 8137: 8113: 8092: 8073: 8052: 8031: 7985: 7979:162492 7977: 7945: 7908: 7887: 7859: 7837: 7829: 7795: 7528:, 2015 7512:, 2015 7482:, 2015 7429:online 7401: 7318: 7219: 6781: 6753: 6723: 6395: 6370: 6309: 6276: 6251: 6226: 6119: 6094: 6048: 5951:Jordan 5831:Kuwait 5262:Hudids 4473:Uthman 4255:Cyprus 4086:Jeddah 4046:Canals 4020:Diwans 4001:Fustat 3999:, and 3792:jizyah 3788:kharaj 3779:kharaj 3772:Kharaj 3767:Kharaj 3761:Kharaj 3701:jizyah 3637:Kharaj 3593:famine 3409:colour 3386:Fatima 3361:hadith 3351:Sharia 3320:haraam 3283:sunnah 3207:Arabic 3135:Uthman 3111:Turkic 3090:mosque 3066:, the 3056:, the 3046:, the 3033:, the 2956:Jazira 2931:Medina 2906:, and 2896:Persia 2876:Ramlah 2856:Tigris 2852:Jazira 2832:Medina 2824:Arabia 2799:, 2016 2712:Dhimmi 2700:battle 2684:Sicily 2680:Rhodes 2652:Cyprus 2618:battle 2411:, 2013 2323:, and 2321:Marash 2305:Edessa 2301:Jazira 2253:Aleppo 2150:, 1982 2134:in Al- 2054:Tadmur 2008:Levant 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