2795:. Passed by Congress in 1957, the Price-Anderson Act ensured government assistance above the $ 60 million covered by private insurance companies in the case of a nuclear reactor accident. The main goal of the Price-Anderson Act was to protect the multi-billion-dollar companies overseeing the production of nuclear reactors. Without this protection, the nuclear reactor industry could potentially come to a halt, and the protective measures against nuclear fallout would be reduced. However, because of the limited experience in nuclear reactor technology, engineers had a difficult time calculating the potential risk of released radiation. Engineers were forced to imagine every unlikely accident, and the potential fallout associated with each accident. The AEC's regulations against potential nuclear reactor fallout were centered on the ability of the power plant to the Maximum Credible Accident (MCA). The MCA involved a "large release of radioactive isotopes after a substantial meltdown of the reactor fuel when the reactor coolant system failed through a Loss-of-Coolant Accident". The prevention of the MCA enabled a number of new nuclear fallout preventive measures. Static safety systems, or systems without power sources or user input, were enabled to prevent potential human error. Containment buildings, for example, were reliably effective at containing a release of radiation and did not need to be powered or turned on to operate. Active protective systems, although far less dependable, can do many things that static systems cannot. For example, a system to replace the escaping steam of a cooling system with cooling water could prevent reactor fuel from melting. However, this system would need a sensor to detect the presence of releasing steam. Sensors can fail, and the results of a lack of preventive measures would result in a local nuclear fallout. The AEC had to choose, then, between active and static systems to protect the public from nuclear fallout. With a lack of set standards and probabilistic calculations, the AEC and the industry became divided on the best safety precautions to use. This division gave rise to the
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These communities’ shelters would also help facilitate efforts to recuperate the community in the future. Single family shelters should be built below ground if possible. Many different types of fallout shelters could be made for a relatively small amount of money. A common format for fallout shelters was to build the shelter underground, with solid concrete blocks to act as the roof. If a shelter could only be partially underground, it was recommended to mound over that shelter with as much soil as possible. If a house had a basement, it is best for a fallout shelter to be constructed in a corner of the basement. The center of a basement is where the most radiation will be because the easiest way for radiation to enter a basement is from the floor above. The two of the walls of the shelter in a basement corner will be the basement walls that are surrounded by soil outside. Cinder blocks filled with sand or soil were highly recommended for the other two walls. Concrete blocks, or some other dense material, should be used as a roof for a basement fallout shelter because the floor of a house is not an adequate roof for a
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individually, the accident was upgraded to an INES Level 7. The radiation exposure from the incident caused a recommended evacuation for inhabitants up to 30 km away from the plant. However, it was also hard to track such exposure because 23 out of the 24 radioactive monitoring stations were also disabled by the tsunami. Removing contaminated water, both in the plant itself and run-off water that spread into the sea and nearby areas, became a huge challenge for the
Japanese government and plant workers. During the containment period following the accident, thousands of cubic meters of slightly contaminated water were released in the sea to free up storage for more contaminated water in the reactor and turbine buildings. However, the fallout from the Fukushima accident had a minimal impact on the surrounding population. According to the
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density, and they were often the most suitable building in a community to act as a fallout shelter. Schools also already had organization with leaders in place. The Office of Civil
Defense recommended altering current schools and the construction of future schools to include thicker walls and roofs, better-protected electrical systems, a purifying ventilation system, and a protected water pump. The Office of Civil Defense determined that around 10 square feet of net area per person were necessary in schools that were to function as a fallout shelter. A normal classroom could provide 180 people with area to sleep. If an attack were to happen, all the unnecessary furniture was to be moved out of the classrooms to make more room for people. It was recommended to keep one or two tables in the room if possible to use as a food-serving station.
2232:
2642:
2555:: the thickness of a layer of a material sufficient to reduce gamma radiation exposure by 50%. Halving thicknesses of common materials include: 1 cm (0.4 inch) of lead, 6 cm (2.4 inches) of concrete, 9 cm (3.6 inches) of packed earth or 150 m (500 ft) of air. When multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies. A practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of a given material, such as 90 cm (36 inches) of packed earth, which reduces gamma ray exposure by approximately 1024 times (2). A shelter built with these materials for the purposes of fallout protection is known as a
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intermediate time scale or long term. The intermediate time scale results from fallout that has been put into the troposphere and ejected by precipitation during the first month. Long-term fallout can sometimes occur from deposition of tiny particles carried in the stratosphere. By the time that stratospheric fallout has begun to reach the earth, the radioactivity is very much decreased. Also, after a year it is estimated that a sizable quantity of fission products move from the northern to the southern stratosphere. The intermediate time scale is between 1 and 30 days, with long term fallout occurring after that.
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2799:(NRC). The NRC was committed to 'regulations through research', which gave the regulatory committee a knowledge bank of research on which to draw their regulations. Much of the research done by the NRC sought to move safety systems from a deterministic viewpoint into a new probabilistic approach. The deterministic approach sought to foresee all problems before they arose. The probabilistic approach uses a more mathematical approach to weigh the risks of potential radiation leaks. Much of the probabilistic safety approach can be drawn from the
2062:
2892:
75:
6830:
2151:, prompt radiation is the dominant producer of casualties on the battlefield. Humans receiving an acute incapacitating dose (30 Gy) have their performance degraded almost immediately and become ineffective within several hours. However, they do not die until five to six days after exposure, assuming they do not receive any other injuries. Individuals receiving less than a total of 1.5 Gy are not incapacitated. People receiving doses greater than 1.5 Gy become disabled, and some eventually die.
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40:
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power that led to radiation-related deaths. The steam explosion and fires released approximately 5200 PBq, or at least 5 percent of the reactor core, into the atmosphere. The explosion itself resulted in the deaths of two plant workers, while 28 people died over the weeks that followed of severe radiation poisoning. Furthermore, young children and adolescents in the areas most contaminated by the radiation exposure showed an increase in the risk for
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2190:
2009:
1844:". The base surge is a cloud that rolls outward from the bottom of the subsiding column, which is caused by an excessive density of dust or water droplets in the air. For underwater bursts, the visible surge is, in effect, a cloud of liquid (usually water) droplets with the property of flowing almost as if it were a homogeneous fluid. After the water evaporates, an invisible base surge of small radioactive particles may persist.
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1302:
1860:
2596:, however, easily penetrates the skin and many thin shielding mechanisms to cause cellular degeneration in the stem cells found in bone marrow. While full body shielding in a secure fallout shelter as described above is the most optimal form of radiation protection, it requires being locked in a very thick bunker for a significant amount of time. In the event of a nuclear catastrophe of any kind, it is imperative to have
351:
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takes the same time to descend, so although it covers a larger path, it is more spread out or diluted. Thus, the width of the fallout pattern for any given dose rate is reduced where the downwind distance is increased by higher winds. The total amount of activity deposited up to any given time is the same irrespective of the wind pattern, so overall casualty figures from fallout are generally independent of winds. But
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6821:
6813:
6805:
2936:, "A radiation cloud doesn't know international boundaries." The NRC showed the Soviets the safety guidelines used in the US: capable regulation, safety-minded operations, and effective plant designs. The Soviets, however, had their own priority: keeping the plant running at all costs. In the end, the same shift between deterministic safety designs to probabilistic safety designs prevailed. In 1989, the
1508:, and surrounding this was graphite, both of which were vaporized by the hydrogen explosion that destroyed the reactor and breached its containment. An estimated 31 people died within a few weeks after this happened, including two plant workers killed at the scene. Although residents were evacuated within 36 hours, people started to complain of vomiting, migraines and other major signs of
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for every seven-fold increase in the number of hours since the explosion. He presents data showing that "it takes about seven times as long for the dose rate to decay from 1000 roentgens per hour (1000 R/hr) to 10 R/hr (48 hours) as to decay from 1000 R/hr to 100 R/hr (7 hours)." This is a rule of thumb based on observed data, not a precise relation.
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1516:, mainly among children. Fallout spread throughout Western Europe, with Northern Scandinavia receiving a heavy dose, contaminating reindeer herds in Lapland, and salad greens becoming almost unavailable in France. Some sheep farms in North Wales and the North Of England were required to monitor radioactivity levels in their flocks until the control was lifted in 2012.
2791:(AEC) began developing safety regulations against nuclear fallout for civilian nuclear reactors. Because the effects of nuclear fallout are more widespread and longer lasting than other forms of energy production accidents, the AEC desired a more proactive response towards potential accidents than ever before. One step to prevent nuclear reactor accidents was the
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1758:, produces less fallout than a comparable explosion near the ground. A nuclear explosion in which the fireball touches the ground pulls soil and other materials into the cloud and neutron activates it before it falls back to the ground. An air burst produces a relatively small amount of the highly radioactive heavy metal components of the device itself.
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2912:, over 62 percent of assessed residents within the Fukushima prefecture received external doses of less than 1 mSv in the four months following the accident. In addition, comparing screening campaigns for children inside the Fukushima prefecture and in the rest of the country revealed no significant difference in the risk of thyroid cancer.
1851:. A soil earth medium favors base surge formation in an underground burst. Although the base surge typically contains only about 10% of the total bomb debris in a subsurface burst, it can create larger radiation doses than fallout near the detonation, because it arrives sooner than fallout, before much radioactive decay has occurred.
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degree
Celsius. The result would have the potential of creating widespread food insecurity (nuclear famine). Precipitation across the globe would be disrupted as a result. If enough soot was introduced in the upper atmosphere the planet's ozone layer could potentially be depleted, affecting plant growth and human health.
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from fallout radiation. However, protective clothing can keep fallout particles off a person's body, but the radiation from these particles will still permeate through the clothing. For safety clothing to be able to block the fallout radiation, it would have to be so thick and heavy that a person could not function.
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radioactive material will be carried by low altitude winds and deposited in surrounding areas as radioactive dust. The material intercepted by high altitude winds will continue to travel. When a radiation cloud at high altitude is exposed to rainfall, the radioactive fallout will contaminate the downwind area below.
2940:(WANO) was formed to cooperate with the IAEA to ensure the same three pillars of reactor safety across international borders. In 1991, WANO concluded (using a probabilistic safety approach) that all former communist-controlled nuclear reactors could not be trusted, and should be closed. Compared to a "Nuclear
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The Office of Civil
Defense conducted four case studies to find the cost of turning four standing schools into fallout shelters and what their capacity would be. The cost of the schools per occupant in the 1960s were $ 66.00, $ 127.00, $ 50.00, and $ 180.00. The capacity of people these schools could
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Schools were the preferred fallout shelters according to the Office of Civil
Defense. Schools, not including universities, contained around one-quarter of the population of the United States when they were in session at that time. The distribution of schools across the nation reflected the population
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These guides indicated that fallout shelters should contain enough resources to keep its occupants alive for up to two weeks. Community shelters were preferred over single-family shelters. The more people in a shelter, the greater quantity and variety of resources that shelter would be equipped with.
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Fallout radionuclides' detriment in the human food chain is apparent in the lichen-caribou-eskimo studies in Alaska. The primary effect on humans observed was thyroid dysfunction. The result of a nuclear fallout is incredibly detrimental to human survival and the biosphere. Fallout alters the quality
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and atmospheric and oceanic sciences professor Brian Toon created a model of a hypothetical small-scale nuclear war that would have approximately 100 weapons used. In this scenario, the fires would create enough soot into the atmosphere to block sunlight, lowering global temperatures by more than one
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In the event of a large-scale nuclear exchange, the effects would be drastic on the environment as well as directly to the human population. Within direct blast zones everything would be vaporized and destroyed. Cities damaged but not completely destroyed would lose their water system due to the loss
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changes may follow the irradiation of animals. These vary from rapid death following high doses of penetrating whole-body radiation, to essentially normal lives for a variable period of time until the development of delayed radiation effects, in a portion of the exposed population, following low dose
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in 1979 was categorized as a Level 5 accident on the INES scale because of the "severe damage to the reactor core" and the radiation leak caused by the incident. Three Mile Island was the most serious accident in the history of
American commercial nuclear power plants, yet the effects were different
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If a person did not have a shelter previously built, these guides recommended trying to get underground. If a person had a basement but no shelter, they should put food, water, and a waste container in the corner of the basement. Then items such as furniture should be piled up to create walls around
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Some considered the baby tooth survey a "campaign effectively employed a variety of media advocacy strategies" to alarm the public and "galvanized" support against atmospheric nuclear testing,, and putting an end to such testing was commonly viewed as a positive outcome for a myriad of reasons. The
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survived a dose of more than 10 Gy, but many of the persons exposed there were not uniformly exposed over their entire body. If a person is exposed in a non-homogeneous manner then a given dose (averaged over the entire body) is less likely to be lethal. For instance, if a person gets a hand/low arm
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was categorized as a Level 7 accident, which is the highest possible ranking on the INES scale, due to widespread environmental and health effects and "external release of a significant fraction of reactor core inventory". The nuclear accident still stands as the only accident in commercial nuclear
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The central idea in these guides is that materials like concrete, soil, and sand are necessary to shield a person from fallout particles and radiation. A significant amount of materials of this type are necessary to protect a person from fallout radiation, so safety clothing cannot protect a person
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The danger of radiation from fallout also decreases rapidly with time due in large part to the exponential decay of the individual radionuclides. A book by
Cresson H. Kearny presents data showing that for the first few days after the explosion, the radiation dose rate is reduced by a factor of ten
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As the nuclear energy sector continues to grow, the international rhetoric surrounding nuclear warfare intensifies, and the ever-present threat of radioactive materials falling into the hands of dangerous people persists, many scientists are working hard to find the best way to protect human organs
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took place over the US mainland during this time and as a consequence scientists have been able to study the effect of nuclear fallout on the environment. Detonations conducted near the surface of the earth irradiated thousands of tons of soil. Of the material drawn into the atmosphere, portions of
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had risen steadily in children born in the 1950s, with those born later showing the most pronounced increases. The results of a more comprehensive study of the elements found in the teeth collected showed that children born after 1963 had levels of strontium-90 in their baby teeth that was 50 times
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A dose of 5.3 Gy to 8.3 Gy is considered lethal but not immediately incapacitating. Personnel exposed to this amount of radiation have their cognitive performance degraded in two to three hours, depending on how physically demanding the tasks they must perform are, and remain in this disabled state
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extending over 500 km downwind and varying in width to a maximum of 100 km was severely contaminated. There are three very different versions of the fallout pattern from this test, because the fallout was measured only on a small number of widely spaced
Pacific Atolls. The two alternative
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stated that "there is no evidence of a major public health impact" apart from that. The nuclear accident also took a heavy toll on the environment, including contamination in urban environments caused by the deposition of radionuclides and the contamination of "different crop types, in particular,
2588:) with minimal penetrating power is unlikely to cause significant damage to internal organs (although if contamination is ingested, inhaled or on the skin, and thus in close proximity to tissues and organs, the effect of these 'massive' particles may be catastrophic). The high penetrating power of
2454:
The dangers of nuclear fallout do not stop at increased risks of cancer and radiation sickness, but also include the presence of radionuclides in human organs from food. A fallout event would leave fission particles in the soil for animals to consume, followed by humans. Radioactively contaminated
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Rural areas' water supplies would be slightly less polluted by fission particles in intermediate and long-term fallout than cities and suburban areas. Without additional contamination, the lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and runoff would be gradually less contaminated as water continued to flow through
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Severe local fallout contamination can extend far beyond the blast and thermal effects, particularly in the case of high yield surface detonations. The ground track of fallout from an explosion depends on the weather from the time of detonation onward. In stronger winds, fallout travels faster but
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The US Department of
Homeland Security and the Federal Emergency Management Agency in coordination with other agencies concerned with public protection in the aftermath of a nuclear detonation have developed more recent guidance documents that build on the older Civil Defense frameworks. Planning
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of power and supply lines rupturing. Within the local nuclear fallout pattern suburban areas' water supplies would become extremely contaminated. At this point stored water would be the only safe water to use. All surface water within the fallout would be contaminated by falling fission products.
2605:(HSCT). The idea is to use enough shielding material to sufficiently protect the high concentration of bone marrow in the pelvic region, which contains enough regenerative stem cells to repopulate the body with unaffected bone marrow. More information on bone marrow shielding can be found in the
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The dose that would be lethal to 50% of a population is a common parameter used to compare the effects of various fallout types or circumstances. Usually, the term is defined for a specific time, and limited to studies of acute lethality. The common time periods used are 30 days or less for most
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from atmospheric nuclear testing. Fallout accumulates on vegetation, including fruits and vegetables. Starting from 1951 people may have gotten exposure, depending on whether they were outside, the weather, and whether they consumed contaminated milk, vegetables or fruit. Exposure can be on an
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following the incident reveals that the nearly 2 million people surrounding the Three Mile Island plant "are estimated to have received an average radiation dose of only 1 millirem above the usual background dose". Furthermore, unlike those affected by radiation in the
Chernobyl accident, the
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Groundwater supplies such as aquifers would however remain unpolluted initially in the event of a nuclear fallout. Over time the groundwater could become contaminated with fallout particles, and would remain contaminated for over 10 years after a nuclear engagement. It would take hundreds or
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the person in the corner. If the underground cannot be reached, a tall apartment building at least ten miles from the blast was recommended as a good fallout shelter. People in these buildings should get as close to the center of the building as possible and avoid the top and ground floors.
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was initially categorized as a Level 5 accident on the INES scale after a tsunami disabled the power supply and cooling of three reactors, which then suffered significant melting in the days that followed. However, after combining the events at the three reactors rather than assessing them
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for medical and security personnel to perform necessary containment, evacuation, and any number of other important public safety objectives. The mass of the shielding material required to properly protect the entire body from high energy radiation would make functional movement essentially
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is the time it takes the radiation emitted by a specific substance to decay to half the initial value. A large amount of short-lived isotopes such as Zr are present in bomb fallout. This isotope and other short-lived isotopes are constantly generated in a power reactor, but because the
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People and the Environment: This section of the scale consists of more serious nuclear accidents. Events in this category could potentially cause radiation to spread to people close to the location of the accident. This also includes an unplanned, widespread release of the radioactive
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born to survivors of the nuclear detonations at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki who could conceive and were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities than the Japanese average.
2239:
and post-war steel which is manufactured without atmospheric air, became a valuable commodity for scientists wishing to make extremely precise instruments that detect radioactive emissions, since these two types of steel are the only steels that do not contain trace amounts of
1935:, especially if they come from considerable heights, accelerate local fallout. Under special meteorological conditions, such as a local rain shower that originates above the radioactive cloud, limited areas of heavy contamination just downwind of a nuclear blast may be formed.
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The damage to other living organism as a result to nuclear fallout depends on the species. Mammals particularly are extremely sensitive to nuclear radiation, followed by birds, plants, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, insects, moss, lichen, algae, bacteria, mollusks, and viruses.
1461:, may take months or years to settle, and may do so anywhere in the world. Its radioactive characteristics increase the statistical cancer risk, with up to 2.4 million people having died by 2020 from the measurable elevated atmospheric radioactivity after the widespread
2123:
Because of the large amount of short-lived fission products, the activity and radiation levels of nuclear fallout decrease very quickly after being released; it is reduced by 50% in the first hour after a detonation, then by 80% during the first day. As a result, early
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to several millimeters in diameter—in addition to very fine particles that contribute to worldwide fallout. The larger particles spill out of the stem and cascade down the outside of the fireball in a downdraft even as the cloud rises, so fallout begins to arrive near
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Agricultural fields and plants will absorb the contaminated material and animals will consume the radioactive material. As a result, the nuclear fallout may cause livestock to become ill or die, and if consumed the radioactive material will be passed on to humans.
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within an hour. More than half the total bomb debris lands on the ground within about 24 hours as local fallout. Chemical properties of the elements in the fallout control the rate at which they are deposited on the ground. Less volatile elements deposit first.
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2758:) determines the percentage of that element that a power reactor accident releases. The ability of an element to form a solid determines the rate it is deposited on the ground after having been injected into the atmosphere by a nuclear detonation or accident.
2496:
2396:", as despite their papers being peer-reviewed, independent attempts to corroborate their results return findings that are not in agreement with what the organization suggests. The organization had earlier suggested the same thing occurred after the
4004:"Babies Surveyed for Strontium 90; Ratio to Calcium in Bones Is Discovered to Be Low A survey has shown that pregnant mothers and their unborn children absorb radioactive strontium, as a substitute for calcium, only about 10 per cent of the time"
2550:
radiation, and as ordinary clothing affords protection from alpha and beta radiation, most fallout protection measures deal with reducing exposure to gamma radiation. For the purposes of radiation shielding, many materials have a characteristic
1863:
Comparison of fallout gamma dose and dose rate contours for a 1 Mt fission land surface burst, based on DELFIC calculations. Because of radioactive decay, the dose rate contours contract after fallout has arrived, but dose contours continue to
2531:, the governments of the U.S., the USSR, Great Britain, and China attempted to educate their citizens about surviving a nuclear attack by providing procedures on minimizing short-term exposure to fallout. This effort commonly became known as
2924:(IAEA) was created to set forth international standards for nuclear reactor safety. However, without a proper policing force, the guidelines set forth by the IAEA were often treated lightly or ignored completely. In 1986, the disaster at
2665:, whether for a family, a hospital, or a school shelter were provided. There were also instructions for how to create an improvised fallout shelter, and what to do to best increase a person's chances for survival if they were unprepared.
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accident, though the Atomic Energy Commission argued this was unfounded. The tooth survey, and the organization's new target of pushing for test bans with US nuclear electric power stations, is detailed and critically labelled as the
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at least two days. However, at that point they experience a recovery period and can perform non-demanding tasks for about six days, after which they relapse for about four weeks. At this time they begin exhibiting symptoms of
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dose of 100 Gy, which gives them an overall dose of 4 Gy, they are more likely to survive than a person who gets a 4 Gy dose over their entire body. A hand dose of 10 Gy or more would likely result in loss of the hand. A
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3762:
The Nature of Radioactive Fallout and Its Effects on Man: Hearings Before the Special Subcommittee on Radiation of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Congress of the United States, Eighty-fifth Congress, First
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states that many scientists consider the group's work controversial, with little credibility with the scientific establishment, while some scientists consider it "good, careful work". In an April 2014 article in
1975:(Gy). For 1 MeV energy gamma rays, an exposure of 1 röntgen in air produces a dose of about 0.01 gray (1 centigray, cGy) in water or surface tissue. Because of shielding by the tissue surrounding the bones, the
2661:, provided guides to fallout protection in the 1960s, frequently in the form of booklets. These booklets provided information on how to best survive nuclear fallout. They also included instructions for various
2365:
survey could not show at the time, nor in the decades that have elapsed, that the levels of global strontium-90 or fallout in general, were life-threatening, primarily because "50 times the strontium-90 from
2842:
The INES scale is composed of seven steps that categorize the nuclear events, ranging from anomalies that must be recorded to improve upon safety measures to serious accidents that require immediate action.
2819:(INES) is the primary form of categorizing the potential health and environmental effects of a nuclear or radiological event and communicating it to the public. The scale, which was developed in 1990 by the
2128:, such as removing contaminated articles of outer clothing, is more effective than delayed but more thorough cleaning. Most areas become fairly safe for travel and decontamination after three to five weeks.
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area, such contamination leads to an immediate external radiation exposure as well as a possible later internal hazard from inhalation and ingestion of radiocontaminants, such as the rather short-lived
4690:
Waterman, Gideon; Kase, Kenneth; Orion, Itzhak; Broisman, Andrey; Milstein, Oren (29 March 2017). "Selective Shielding of Bone Marrow: An Approach to Protecting Humans from External Gamma Radiation".
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Defence-in-Depth: This is the lowest form of nuclear accidents and refers to events that have no direct impact on people or the environment but must be taken note of to improve future safety measures.
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1979:
only receives about 0.67 cGy when the air exposure is 1 röntgen and the surface skin dose is 1 cGy. Some lower values reported for the amount of radiation that would kill 50% of personnel (the
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2319:
radioactive isotope created by the more than 400 atomic tests conducted above ground that is absorbed from water and dairy products into the bones and teeth given its chemical similarity to
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Radiation from the fallout would linger in soil, plants, and food chains for years. Marine food chains are more vulnerable to the nuclear fallout and the effects of soot in the atmosphere.
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5342:
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1901:
at 100 m depth), and the land equivalent dose rate can be calculated by multiplying the ocean dose rate at two days after burst by a factor of about 530. In other 1954 tests, including
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2834:
Radiological Barriers and Control: This category refers to events that have no direct impact on people or the environment and only refer to the damage caused within major facilities.
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2447:
thousands of years for an aquifer to become completely pure. Groundwater would still be safer than surface water supplies and would need to be consumed in smaller doses. Long term,
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In case of water surface bursts, the particles tend to be rather lighter and smaller, producing less local fallout but extending over a greater area. The particles contain mostly
1244:
3528:
1415:
products, un-fissioned nuclear material, and weapon residues vaporized by the heat of the fireball. These materials are limited to the original mass of the device, but include
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area, hoping to gather 50,000 teeth each year. Ultimately, the project collected over 300,000 teeth from children of various ages before the project was ended in 1970.
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5284:
Goyal, Neerav; Camacho, Fabian; Mangano, Joseph; Goldenberg, David (22 March 2012). "Thyroid cancer characteristics in the population surrounding Three Mile Island".
2909:
2807:, which describes how radiation travels in free space and through barriers. Today, the NRC is still the leading regulatory committee on nuclear reactor power plants.
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5226:
2702:
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Bouville, André; Simon, Steven L.; Miller, Charles W.; Beck, Harold L.; Anspaugh, Lynn R.; Bennett, Burton G. (2002). "Estimates of Doses from Global Fallout".
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1971:) measure exposure. However, effects depend on the energy per unit mass, not the exposure measured in air. A deposit of 1 joule per kilogram has the unit of 1
3818:
1871:
conditions greatly influence fallout, particularly local fallout. Atmospheric winds are able to bring fallout over large areas. For example, as a result of a
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Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation was published in 2022 and provided in-depth analysis and response planning for local government jurisdictions.
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5397:
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3800:
NUCLEAR EVENTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES by the Borden institute. Chapter 7 BEHAVIORAL AND NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES WITH EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION
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Marston, Robert Q.; Solomon, Fred; War, Institute of Medicine (US) Steering Committee for the Symposium on the Medical Implications of Nuclear (1986).
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There are two main considerations for the location of an explosion: height and surface composition. A nuclear weapon detonated in the air, called an
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products, un-fissioned nuclear material, and weapon residues vaporized by the heat of the fireball condense into a suspension of particles 10
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nuclear testing" is a minuscule number, and multiplication of minuscule numbers results in only a slightly larger minuscule number. Moreover, the
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developing human fetuses present during the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings. Of all the pregnant women who were close enough to be exposed to the
4003:
2439:. These fission products would remain in the fallout dust, resulting in rivers, lakes, sediments, and soils being contaminated with the fallout.
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Within the first few months of the nuclear exchange the nuclear fallout will continue to develop and detriment the environment. Dust, smoke, and
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5155:
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of sufficient severity to render them totally ineffective. Death follows at approximately six weeks after exposure, although outcomes may vary.
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5193:
1419:
with long lives. When the nuclear fireball does not reach the ground, this is the only fallout produced. Its amount can be estimated from the
1254:
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that chemically bond to many surfaces. Water and detergent washing effectively removes less than 50% of this chemically bonded activity from
1364:
explodes. The amount and spread of fallout is a product of the size of the weapon and the altitude at which it is detonated. Fallout may get
213:
2787:. Because of this, steps must be taken to ensure the risk of nuclear fallout at nuclear reactors is controlled. In the 1950s and 60's, the
2244:
Late or delayed effects of radiation occur following a wide range of doses and dose rates. Delayed effects may appear months to years after
2538:
Fallout protection is almost exclusively concerned with protection from radiation. Radiation from a fallout is encountered in the forms of
274:
6474:
3918:
1922:
1332:
1020:
263:
4629:
3553:
3341:
1921:" (Defence Land Fallout Interpretive Code) computer calculations use the natural size distributions of particles in soil instead of the
4300:
2783:
Nuclear fallout can occur due to a number of different sources. One of the most common potential sources of nuclear fallout is that of
284:
3519:
4032:
1801:
underwater test, it was found that wet fallout must be immediately removed from ships by continuous water washdown (such as from the
1381:
315:
4998:
Carlisle, Rodney (October 1997). "Probabilistic Risk Assessment in Nuclear Reactors: Engineering Success, Public Relation Failure".
2435:
would be the dominant fission product within the first few weeks, and in the months following the dominant fission product would be
5547:– a 3D nuclear weapons effects simulator powered by Google Maps. It simulates the effects of nuclear weapons upon geographic areas.
3506:(page 436.) 9.107 A radiation dose of 700 rads over a period of 96 hours would probably prove fatal in the great majority of cases.
2389:
2227:
test at Bikini in 1956. The predictions were made under simulated tactical nuclear war conditions aboard ship by Edward A. Schuert.
1918:
258:
3684:
3243:
3155:
2252:
delayed consequences of radiation injury, with the rates above the background prevalence, depending on the absorbed dose, include
1890:
to a downwind hot spot caused by the large amount of radioactivity carried on fallout particles of about 50–100 micrometres size.
6713:
3960:
3040:
2602:
2418:
3941:
3308:
2087:
for gamma rays was set at 3.5 Gy, while under more dire conditions of war (a bad diet, little medical care, poor nursing) the LD
5123:
3579:"COMPILATION OF LOCAL FALLOUT DATA FROM TEST DETONATIONS 1945–1962 – EXTRACTED FROM DASA 1251 – Volume II – Oceanic U.S. Tests"
2937:
2932:, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission sought to improve the safety of Soviet nuclear reactors. As noted by IAEA Director General
2788:
228:
218:
4603:
3444:
1408:. The second, depending on the height of detonation, is a large quantity of radioactive dust and sand with a short half-life.
6756:
4744:
4662:
4597:
4558:
4236:
2341:
higher than that found in children born before large-scale atomic testing began. The findings helped convince U.S. President
1571:
The table below summarizes the abilities of common isotopes to form fallout. Some radiation taints large amounts of land and
1512:. The officials of Ukraine had to close off an 18-mile (30 km) area. Long term effects included at least 6,000 cases of
1239:
244:
233:
223:
4940:
4120:
4089:
6044:
5856:
3413:
2960:
2944:", efforts were taken throughout the 1990s and 2000s to ensure international standards of safety for all nuclear reactors.
513:
148:
5473:
3843:
3624:
2597:
6009:
5902:
5572:
5215:
4301:"In the Shadow of the Mushroom Cloud: Nuclear Testing, Radioactive Fallout, and Damage to U.S. Agriculture, 1945 to 1970"
3578:
2658:
2646:
2370:
640:
560:
197:
17:
6893:
6774:
6751:
5930:
5590:
2921:
2904:
2820:
1234:
1148:
590:
3220:
6878:
6816:
6563:
6449:
5943:
5938:
4386:
4277:
3853:
3499:
3214:
2816:
2601:
impossible. This has led scientists to begin researching the idea of partial body protection: a strategy inspired by
2048:
1090:
995:
6743:
4960:
Wellock, Thomas (October 2012). "Engineering Uncertainty and Bureaucratic Crisis at the Atomic Energy Commission".
3812:
2026:
5509:
4750:
4668:
4564:
2104:
who was estimated to have received a hand dose of 100 Gy over the course of his lifetime lost his hand because of
6489:
6226:
5616:
2775:
occurs over a long length of time, the majority of these short lived isotopes decay before they can be released.
2346:
1909:
hot spots were mapped out by ships with submersible probes, and similar hot spots occurred in 1956 tests such as
1325:
1035:
798:
380:
5364:
2030:
1477:
dose from all sources, and has slowly decreased since, with natural background radiation levels being around 1
4504:
Grover, Herbert D.; Harwell, Mark A. (1985). "Biological Effects of Nuclear War II: Impact on the Biosphere".
4176:
2883:
development of thyroid cancer in the people around Three Mile Island was "less aggressive and less advanced".
6908:
6824:
6799:
6104:
5254:
2974:
2928:
was evidence that international nuclear reactor safety was not to be taken lightly. Even in the midst of the
2879:
2796:
2406:
2397:
2330:
Preliminary results of the Baby Tooth Survey were published in the November 24, 1961, edition of the journal
1270:
720:
308:
126:
3977:
2231:
1925:
sweep-up spectrum, and this results in more straightforward fallout patterns lacking the downwind hot spot.
6275:
6024:
6004:
5756:
4911:
4866:
4832:
4787:
3124:
808:
660:
635:
430:
6380:
6034:
5043:"Blue Sky and Hot Piles: The Evolution of Radiative Transfer Theory from Atmospheres to Nuclear Reactors"
3051:
3015:
919:
670:
289:
5216:"Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and Their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience"
3735:"Fallout from a Nuclear Detonation: Description and Management - Radiation Emergency Medical Management"
3710:"Fallout from a Nuclear Detonation: Description and Management - Radiation Emergency Medical Management"
3625:"OPERATION REDWING – Project 2.63, Characterization of Fallout – Pacific Proving Grounds, May–July 1956"
3035:
2641:
1699:
A surface burst generates large amounts of particulate matter, composed of particles from less than 100
6898:
6808:
6708:
6631:
6039:
5869:
5699:
5501:
2874:
2724:
1847:
For subsurface land bursts, the surge is made up of small solid particles, but it still behaves like a
1318:
675:
525:
249:
94:
6903:
6868:
6511:
6469:
6431:
5996:
5790:
3088:
3020:
2431:
will fall hundreds of kilometers downwind of the explosion point and pollute surface water supplies.
2373:
that currently retains the teeth has had their stance and publications criticized: a 2003 article in
2295:
was below 50. No statistically demonstrable increase of congenital malformations was found among the
1729:
1393:
1365:
1050:
1015:
975:
628:
595:
445:
5185:
3655:
3609:
6873:
6863:
6506:
6029:
5970:
5881:
3558:
2569:
2503:
Public safety film created by the United States Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization from 1959.
2291:
burst of intense neutron and gamma doses in the two cities, the total number of children born with
2180:
1509:
1045:
665:
600:
537:
301:
114:
31:
2719:
of bomb fallout is very different from the fallout from a serious power reactor accident (such as
2611:
Selective Shielding of Bone Marrow: An Approach to Protecting Humans from External Gamma Radiation
2091:
was 2.5 Gy (250 rad). There have been few documented cases of survival beyond 6 Gy. One person at
1897:, it was discovered that fallout landing on the ocean disperses in the top water layer (above the
6718:
6484:
6014:
5565:
3082:
2654:
2459:
2358:
2019:
1770:
1462:
1404:
Fallout comes in two varieties. The first is a small amount of carcinogenic material with a long
1075:
1030:
650:
143:
109:
56:
2865:
green leafy vegetables ... depending on the deposition levels, and time of the growing season".
6677:
6067:
2731:
2677:. These shelters should contain water, food, tools, and a method for dealing with human waste.
2455:
milk, meat, fish, vegetables, grains and other food would all be dangerous because of fallout.
1683:
doses in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric
1213:
700:
4354:"Use of nuclear weapons and protection of the environment during international armed conflict"
4162:
4057:"In Baby Teeth, a Test of Fallout; A Long-Shot Search for Nuclear Peril in Molars and Cuspids"
3915:
2979:
6888:
6647:
6479:
6355:
6263:
5953:
5846:
5646:
5483:
4625:
4150:
3642:
3596:
3563:
3333:
3061:
2618:
2606:
2125:
2117:
1183:
1025:
891:
803:
500:
183:
168:
104:
5430:
Wellock, Thomas (2013). "The Children of Chernobyl: Engineers and the Campaign for Safety".
2223:
Comparison of predicted fallout "hotline" with test results in the 3.53 Mt 15% fission
1829:
1484:
Radioactive fallout has occurred around the world; for example, people have been exposed to
6454:
6109:
5805:
3890:
3881:
Heath, Clark W. (5 August 1992). "The Children of Atomic Bomb Survivors: A Genetic Study".
2236:
2212:
2144:
2105:
1474:
1424:
1380:(rain darkened by soot and other particulates), which occurred within 30–40 minutes of the
725:
458:
131:
119:
4029:
2622:
2518:
2248:
and include a wide variety of effects involving almost all tissues or organs. Some of the
8:
6521:
6459:
6426:
6365:
6297:
6162:
6157:
6135:
5709:
4458:
Hanson, Wayne C. (October 1968). "Fallout Radionuclides in Northern Alaskan Ecosystems".
3108:
3093:
3077:
2992:
2522:
2324:
2156:
2080:
figure assumes that the individuals did not receive other injuries or medical treatment.
1420:
1060:
1005:
970:
896:
823:
773:
768:
753:
410:
173:
48:
4260:
van der Heijde, P. K. M. (1989), "Models in Regulation: A Report on Panel Discussions",
3894:
6834:
6795:
6728:
6703:
6698:
6516:
6393:
6187:
6059:
5823:
5694:
5621:
5558:
5447:
5309:
5023:
5015:
4977:
4715:
4529:
4440:
4331:
4061:
4041:
4015:
3989:
3282:
3274:
3147:
2967:
2852:
2800:
2792:
2720:
2716:
2573:
2514:
2375:
2197:
2176:
2092:
1980:
1968:
1944:
1565:
1493:
1389:
1294:
1055:
931:
693:
475:
415:
385:
332:
3957:
2451:
and strontium-90 would be the major radionuclides affecting the fresh water supplies.
2384:, Sarah Fecht argues that the group's work, specifically the widely discussed case of
6723:
6583:
6403:
6312:
6280:
6197:
6150:
6077:
6049:
5818:
5813:
5611:
5451:
5301:
5027:
4981:
4740:
4707:
4658:
4593:
4554:
4521:
4483:
4475:
4432:
4382:
4335:
4323:
4273:
4242:
4232:
3938:
3902:
3849:
3495:
3388:
3380:
3376:
3266:
3210:
3103:
3098:
3045:
2755:
2593:
2428:
2332:
2304:
2132:
2061:
1349:
943:
866:
859:
813:
680:
470:
465:
375:
178:
163:
158:
153:
89:
5112:
4837:. Its [Handbook] H-6. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 1961.
4792:. Its [Handbook] H-6. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 1961.
3177:
1725:
is low enough to be below ("washout"), or mixed with ("rainout"), the thunderstorm.
6667:
6568:
6526:
6494:
6388:
6342:
6302:
6209:
6177:
6145:
6130:
6114:
6089:
5874:
5828:
5480:
NATO Handbook on the Medical Aspects of NBC Defensive Operations (Part I – Nuclear)
5439:
5313:
5293:
5054:
5007:
4969:
4719:
4699:
4587:
4513:
4471:
4467:
4372:
4364:
4315:
4265:
4224:
3916:"Sex ratio among offspring of childhood cancer survivors treated with radiotherapy"
3898:
3436:
3372:
3278:
3258:
3183:
3066:
2827:, classifies these nuclear accidents based on the potential impact of the fallout:
2784:
2751:
2708:
2269:
1827:
and radiation exposure to the inhabitants of the nearby atolls and the crew of the
1688:
1561:
1203:
1100:
1040:
926:
879:
828:
788:
763:
748:
730:
705:
645:
530:
480:
1348:
is residual radioactive material propelled into the upper atmosphere following a
6531:
6441:
6292:
6246:
6172:
6099:
5922:
5864:
5719:
5513:
5443:
5156:"Chernobyl | Chernobyl Accident | Chernobyl Disaster - World Nuclear Association"
4368:
4269:
4036:
4010:
3984:
3964:
3945:
3922:
3670:"Death of a classified worker probably caused by overexposure to gamma radiation"
3489:
3071:
3005:
3000:
2712:
2674:
2662:
2589:
2581:
2556:
2508:
2342:
2279:
effect observed in humans following nuclear attacks on highly populated areas is
2261:
2168:
2065:
1956:
1684:
1442:
1412:
1385:
988:
818:
783:
715:
583:
520:
420:
99:
43:
Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of radioactive
4703:
3958:"Nuclear Crises: Hiroshima and Nagasaki cast long shadows over radiation science
3669:
3407:
3128:, an official U.S. government booklet regarding the effects of a nuclear attack.
6844:
6578:
6464:
6421:
6415:
6411:
6256:
6241:
6192:
6182:
6094:
5948:
5704:
5675:
3631:
3554:"Continental US Fallout Pattern for Prevailing Winds (FEMA-196/September 1990)"
3494:. U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. pp. 436–437.
3466:
3113:
3056:
2857:
2585:
2385:
2350:
2283:
which is the only proven malformation, or congenital abnormality, found in the
2253:
2097:
1964:
1802:
1722:
1572:
1557:
1529:
1513:
1361:
1306:
1110:
1010:
965:
958:
953:
710:
405:
188:
136:
66:
4319:
3585:
6857:
6829:
6598:
6499:
6285:
6214:
5986:
5734:
5598:
4525:
4479:
4436:
4327:
4125:
3384:
2941:
2891:
2772:
2747:
2532:
2276:
2069:
1813:
1766:
1373:
1289:
1125:
615:
610:
605:
363:
2076:
small laboratory animals and to 60 days for large animals and humans. The LD
1496:, which contaminated over 20,000 km (7,700 sq mi) of land in
1492:
Examples of both intermediate and long term fallout occurred after the 1986
6619:
6593:
6573:
6397:
6360:
6324:
5960:
5907:
5783:
5739:
5724:
5653:
5494:
5305:
5059:
5042:
4973:
4711:
4246:
3622:
3392:
3204:
3030:
3010:
2547:
2539:
2436:
2393:
2354:
2337:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2292:
2280:
2101:
1878:
1873:
1809:
1794:
1714:
1692:
1548:
1533:
1458:
1454:
1435:
After the detonation of a weapon at or above the fallout-free altitude (an
1416:
1158:
1120:
1105:
936:
901:
846:
565:
425:
4628:. The Compass DeRose Guide to Emergency Preparedness – Hardened Shelters.
4487:
3734:
3709:
3270:
3187:
2543:
1352:, so called because it "falls out" of the sky after the explosion and the
6556:
6551:
6236:
6231:
6202:
6167:
6140:
5670:
5482:, Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, Washington, D.C., 1996, (
3789:
NUCLEAR EVENTS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES by the Borden institute. Chapter 1
3118:
2896:
2636:
2577:
2475:
2448:
2402:
2245:
2184:
2113:
1976:
1972:
1898:
1868:
1840:
For subsurface bursts, there is an additional phenomenon present called "
1817:
1705:
1369:
1357:
1080:
778:
758:
395:
39:
5506:
4444:
4359:, in Nystuen, Gro; Casey-Maslen, Stuart; Bersagel, Annie Golden (eds.),
6733:
6350:
5665:
5658:
5641:
5626:
5297:
5019:
4941:"Planning Guidance for Response to a Nuclear Detonation, Third Edition"
4734:
4652:
4548:
4533:
3939:"Birth defects among the children of atomic-bomb survivors (1948–1954)"
2986:
2954:
2458:
From 1945 to 1967 the U.S. conducted hundreds of nuclear weapon tests.
2432:
2033: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1960:
1841:
1734:
1539:
1485:
1466:
1450:
1377:
1353:
1130:
886:
390:
52:
4916:. H-12. Department of Defense, Office of Civil Defense. 28 July 1967.
4377:
3148:"Radioactive Fallout | Effects of Nuclear Weapons | atomicarchive.com"
2862:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1691:
from 1951 to 1962 and from emissions from plutonium production at the
1675:
6662:
6614:
6588:
6536:
6370:
6332:
6082:
6072:
5744:
5606:
5581:
5544:
4423:
Helfand, Ira (2013). "The Humanitarian Consequences of Nuclear War".
3262:
2933:
2925:
2767:
2735:
2486:
of our atmosphere, soil, and water and causes species to go extinct.
2265:
2208:
2204:
2172:
2136:
1824:
1755:
1700:
1446:
1437:
1405:
1198:
1153:
1115:
1065:
1000:
906:
370:
340:
44:
5011:
4517:
2008:
1963:
per unit volume of air. All ionisation based instruments (including
6307:
6251:
5912:
5761:
5729:
4938:
4219:
Solomon, Fred; Marston, Robert Q.; Thomas, Lewis (1 January 1986).
2929:
2528:
2257:
1887:
1786:
1774:
1762:
1576:
570:
4177:"Backgrounder on Radiation Protection and the "Tooth Fairy" Issue"
3085:
series produced for the British government in the 1970s and 1980s.
2645:
One of many possible fallout patterns mapped by the United States
2361:
that created the greatest amounts of atmospheric nuclear fallout.
2307:
founded by the husband and wife team of physicians Eric Reiss and
2189:
2131:
One hour after a surface burst, the radiation from fallout in the
1859:
6268:
5771:
5749:
5636:
5631:
5519:
T. Imanaka, S. Fukutani, M. Yamamoto, A. Sakaguchi and M. Hoshi,
4228:
3334:"Radioactive Fallout from Global Weapons Testing: Home | CDC RSB"
2985:—Irish drama exploring scenarios following a nuclear accident at
2804:
2320:
2193:
2148:
1882:
1738:
1680:
1524:
1505:
1501:
1497:
350:
4739:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. pp. 11–20.
4657:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. pp. 11–20.
3758:
2623:
Occupational Radiation Protection in Severe Accident Management.
1986:) refer to bone marrow dose, which is only 67% of the air dose.
6672:
6652:
6546:
6221:
5714:
2284:
1778:
1208:
1188:
1095:
1085:
793:
5113:"INES: The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale"
1793:. Complete decontamination requires aggressive treatment like
1781:
surfaces because the fission products are present as metallic
1552:), below the fallout-free altitude, or in shallow water, heat
6682:
6624:
5965:
5897:
5795:
5687:
5283:
5186:"WHO | Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview"
4592:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 131.
4030:"Dr. Louise Reiss, Who Helped Ban Atomic Testing, Dies at 90"
2615:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
2311:, was a research effort focused on detecting the presence of
2109:
2108:. Most people become ill after an exposure to 1 Gy or more.
1848:
1820:
1790:
1553:
1218:
1163:
555:
74:
5550:
4789:
Fallout Protection: What to Know and Do About Nuclear Attack
4553:. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. p. 44.
3811:
Simon, Steven L.; Bouville, André; Land, Charles E. (2006),
2689:
house as shelters were 735, 511, 484, and 460 respectively.
2649:
that could occur during a nuclear war. (Based on 1988 data.)
1556:
large amounts of earth or water, which is drawn up into the
6657:
5778:
5766:
5682:
5078:"International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES)"
4939:
Federal Emergency Management Agency, (FEMA) (7 July 2022).
4262:
Groundwater Contamination: Use of Models in Decision-Making
3257:(5020). U.S. Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory: 236–8.
2824:
2614:
2572:(ARS) is the most immediate risk to humans when exposed to
1995:
1932:
1928:
1718:
1193:
440:
435:
400:
3630:. US Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory. Archived from
3623:
Project Officer T. Triffet, P. D. LaRiviere (March 1961).
3309:"Resuming Nuclear Testing a Slap in the Face to Survivors"
2878:
from those of the Chernobyl accident. A study done by the
1560:. This material becomes radioactive when it combines with
5398:"Health impact in 2016 of the Fukushima Daiichi accident"
4689:
3202:
2915:
1886:
versions both ascribe the high radiation levels at north
1782:
1721:
allows fallout to drop more rapidly, particularly if the
1478:
1470:
5335:"Fukushima Daiichi Accident - World Nuclear Association"
4993:
4991:
4868:
A Guide to Fallout Protection for New York State Schools
4179:. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 17 February 2010.
2810:
2703:
Comparison of Chernobyl and other radioactivity releases
4121:"Scientists challenge baby deaths at Three Mile Island"
3362:
2219:
1587:) of the relative abilities of isotopes to form solids
27:
Residual radioactive material following a nuclear blast
4955:
4953:
3759:
Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, US Congress (1957).
3467:"Chernobyl sheep controls lifted in Wales and Cumbria"
2825:
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
2637:
United States government guides for fallout protection
1808:
Parts of the sea bottom may become fallout. After the
5255:"NRC: Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident"
4988:
4418:
4416:
4414:
4412:
3206:
Effects of Nuclear Earth-Penetrator and Other Weapons
2903:
Like the Three Mile Island incident, the incident at
1881:
on March 1, 1954, a roughly cigar-shaped area of the
1777:
burst is difficult to remove once it has soaked into
4499:
4497:
4218:
3817:, vol. 94, American Scientist, pp. 48–57,
3026:
Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
1528:
The 450 km (280 mi) fallout plume from 15
5534:(Boston MA: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1969), p. 98
4950:
3814:
Fallout from Nuclear Weapons Tests and Cancer Risks
3576:
2568:from the harmful effects of high energy radiation.
2323:. The team sent collection forms to schools in the
2235:Following the detonation of the first atomic bomb,
4409:
3837:
3835:
2910:Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire
2817:International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale
4834:School Shelter; An Approach to Fallout Protection
4494:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4288:
3810:
3766:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 1351.
3405:
1877:surface burst of a 15 Mt thermonuclear device at
6855:
5425:
5423:
4363:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 247–268,
4347:
4345:
3244:"Radionuclide Fractionation in Air-Burst Debris"
2562:
2139:in peacetime range from 30 to 100 ÎĽGy per year.
1833:fishing boat. The scientists called the fallout
1773:and areas of high local fallout. Fallout from a
1538:"Estimated total (accumulated) dose contours in
5505:, Office of Technology Assessment (May 1979), (
4214:
4212:
4210:
4208:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4200:
4198:
3832:
3521:KDFOC3: A Nuclear Fallout Assessment Capability
2112:are often more vulnerable to radiation and may
1546:During detonations of devices at ground level (
1384:. This radioactive dust, usually consisting of
5470:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (third edition)
4906:
4904:
4902:
4900:
4898:
4896:
4894:
4892:
4890:
4285:
4259:
3487:
55:, before levels slowly declined following the
30:"Fallout" redirects here. For other uses, see
5566:
5420:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4776:
4774:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4503:
4342:
3437:"Chernobyl: Facts About the Nuclear Disaster"
3198:
3196:
2412:
2135:region is 30 grays per hour (Gy/h). Civilian
1326:
309:
4692:The Radiation Safety Journal: Health Physics
4195:
4119:Information, Reed Business (24 April 1980).
3845:Teratology in the Twentieth Century Plus Ten
3527:. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories.
3488:Glasstone, Samuel; Dolan, Philip J. (1977).
3235:
2715:does not explode like a nuclear weapon. The
2390:2011 Fukushima accident caused infant deaths
1744:
1542:at 96 hours after the BRAVO test explosion."
4913:Fallout Protection for Homes with Basements
4887:
4118:
4087:
4054:
2696:
2181:Bikini Atoll § Current habitable state
1564:or other radio-contaminants, or when it is
1473:per year worldwide, or about 7% of average
5573:
5559:
5472:, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1977. (
4860:
4858:
4856:
4827:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4819:
4817:
4815:
4813:
4811:
4765:
4264:, Springer Netherlands, pp. 653–656,
3584:. General Electric Company. Archived from
3434:
3193:
1816:particles originating from pulverized and
1333:
1319:
349:
316:
302:
73:
5058:
4626:"Halving-thickness for various materials"
4376:
3848:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2049:Learn how and when to remove this message
1382:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
5468:Glasstone, Samuel and Dolan, Philip J.,
4997:
4928:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library.
4883:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library.
4849:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library.
4804:– via Hathi Trust Digital Library.
3491:The Effects of Nuclear Weapons (3rd ed.)
3241:
2890:
2653:The United States government, often the
2640:
2580:. Radiation in the low energy spectrum (
2576:in dosages greater than around 0.1
2493:
2230:
2218:
2203:
2196:-137 in Western European soil, from the
2188:
2060:
1858:
1674:
1523:
38:
6714:Pollutant release and transfer register
5429:
5365:"Fukushima Nuclear Accident Update Log"
4959:
4853:
4808:
4422:
4361:Nuclear Weapons under International Law
4221:The Medical Implications of Nuclear War
3948:. Radiation Effects Research Foundation
3041:Nuclear fallout effects on an ecosystem
2899:concentration in the air, 25 March 2011
2607:Health Physics Radiation Safety Journal
2603:hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
2419:Nuclear fallout effects on an Ecosystem
14:
6856:
5223:The International Atomic Energy Agency
5120:The International Atomic Energy Agency
4732:
4650:
4585:
4546:
4457:
4298:
3841:
3534:from the original on 27 September 2020
3517:
3511:
3435:Lallanilla, Marc (25 September 2013).
2938:World Association of Nuclear Operators
2916:International nuclear safety standards
2851:The 1986 nuclear reactor explosion at
2789:United States Atomic Energy Commission
2778:
2388:data to suggest that fallout from the
2215:and its deposition through the weather
2200:and its deposition through the weather
1356:has passed. It commonly refers to the
6884:Environmental impact of nuclear power
5554:
5493:, Princeton University Press, 1945. (
5392:
5390:
5329:
5327:
5325:
5323:
5265:from the original on 15 November 2021
5249:
5247:
5150:
5148:
5146:
5144:
5107:
5105:
5103:
5072:
5070:
5040:
4644:
4579:
4540:
4398:from the original on 14 December 2019
4351:
4022:
3880:
3862:from the original on 21 December 2021
3804:
3577:Howard A. Hawthorne, ed. (May 1979).
3416:from the original on 12 November 2020
3306:
2823:and the Nuclear Energy Agency of the
2811:Determining extent of nuclear fallout
2627:
2489:
1388:mixed with bystanding atoms that are
6804:
6045:Electromagnetic radiation and health
5232:from the original on 3 February 2019
4920:from the original on 25 January 2022
4875:from the original on 25 January 2022
4753:from the original on 21 January 2013
4671:from the original on 21 January 2013
4632:from the original on 22 January 2018
4606:from the original on 20 January 2013
4567:from the original on 21 January 2013
4137:from the original on 25 January 2022
4069:from the original on 25 January 2022
3821:from the original on 1 February 2017
3770:from the original on 25 January 2022
3690:from the original on 25 January 2022
3242:Freiling, E.C. (20 September 1965).
3158:from the original on 18 January 2018
3036:Mutation breeding#Radiation breeding
2961:Fallout: An American Nuclear Tragedy
2031:adding citations to reliable sources
2002:
6820:
6812:
5903:Radium and radon in the environment
5491:Atomic Energy for Military Purposes
4841:from the original on 8 October 2020
4796:from the original on 8 October 2020
4169:
4090:"What Can We Do About Junk Science"
4048:
3356:
3300:
2647:Federal Emergency Management Agency
2371:Radiation and Public Health Project
1504:. The main fuel of the reactor was
1465:of the 1950s, peaking in 1963 (the
1399:
561:Radium and radon in the environment
24:
5462:
5408:from the original on 19 April 2019
5387:
5375:from the original on 19 April 2019
5345:from the original on 17 April 2019
5320:
5244:
5196:from the original on 20 April 2019
5141:
5100:
5088:from the original on 19 April 2019
5067:
3447:from the original on 19 April 2019
3344:from the original on 19 April 2019
3203:National Research Council (2005).
2922:International Atomic Energy Agency
2821:International Atomic Energy Agency
1765:with some water; these can have a
1579:throughout animal and human life.
1469:). Levels reached about 0.15
25:
6920:
5538:
5166:from the original on 16 July 2016
5129:from the original on 28 June 2019
4183:from the original on 20 July 2017
3412:. National Academies Press (US).
1854:
1823:—fell for several hours, causing
1797:, or acidic treatment. After the
1728:Whenever individuals remain in a
1430:
6838:
6828:
6819:
6811:
6803:
6791:
6790:
4864:
4460:Archives of Environmental Health
4100:from the original on 20 May 2014
4055:Andy Newman (11 November 2003).
3967:. April 11, 2011. www.eenews.net
3903:10.1001/jama.1992.03490050109039
3377:10.1097/00004032-200205000-00015
3223:from the original on 15 May 2021
2007:
1519:
1300:
1288:
5617:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
5357:
5277:
5208:
5178:
5034:
4932:
4726:
4683:
4618:
4451:
4308:The Journal of Economic History
4299:Meyers, Keith (14 March 2019).
4253:
4112:
4081:
3996:
3970:
3951:
3932:
3909:
3874:
3842:Kalter, Harold (28 July 2010).
3793:
3782:
3752:
3727:
3702:
3662:
3616:
3570:
3546:
3481:
3459:
2519:Nuclear warfare § Survival
2357:, which ended the above-ground
2347:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
2018:needs additional citations for
1583:Table (according to T. Imanaka
1411:All nuclear explosions produce
381:Atmospheric dispersion modeling
4472:10.1080/00039896.1968.10665295
3428:
3399:
3326:
3170:
3140:
1812:test, white dust—contaminated
1737:, which is accumulated in the
1250:Least polluted cities by PM2.5
13:
1:
6105:Electrical resistance heating
5580:
3133:
3081:, a series of booklets and a
2975:Effects of nuclear explosions
2880:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
2797:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
2741:
2563:Personal protective equipment
2407:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
2177:Enewetak Atoll § History
1989:
1390:neutron-activated by exposure
1372:cloud and when combined with
721:Electrical resistance heating
5757:Persistent organic pollutant
5444:10.1080/07341512.2013.785719
4369:10.1017/cbo9781107337435.018
4270:10.1007/978-94-009-2301-0_60
4088:Sarah Fecht (8 April 2014).
3307:Adams, Lilly (26 May 2020).
3209:. National Academies Press.
3125:Survival Under Atomic Attack
2761:
2336:, and showed that levels of
2211:-239 and -240 in soil, from
2162:
1917:. However, the major U.S. "
1360:dust and ash created when a
431:Persistent organic pollutant
355:Air pollution from a factory
7:
6767:Least polluted cities by PM
4736:Nuclear War Survival Skills
4704:10.1097/HP.0000000000000688
4654:Nuclear War Survival Skills
4589:Nuclear War Survival Skills
4550:Nuclear War Survival Skills
3978:"Teeth to Measure Fall-Out"
3052:Nuclear War Survival Skills
3016:Human radiation experiments
2947:
2730:The key differences are in
2619:Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
2598:mobile protection equipment
1749:
1730:radiologically contaminated
1717:can bring down activity as
10:
6925:
6709:Pollution haven hypothesis
6632:Brain health and pollution
5870:Ecological light pollution
5700:Internal combustion engine
5502:The Effects of Nuclear War
4733:Kearny, Cresson H (1986).
4651:Kearny, Cresson H (1986).
4586:Kearny, Cresson H (1986).
4547:Kearny, Cresson H (1986).
3179:Energy & Radioactivity
2707:Fallout can also refer to
2700:
2512:
2506:
2416:
2413:Effects on the environment
2166:
2116:, especially in the first
1993:
1938:
1453:in diameter. This size of
29:
6894:Radioactive contamination
6788:
6742:
6691:
6640:
6607:
6512:Nonpoint source pollution
6440:
6432:War and environmental law
6379:
6341:
6323:
6123:
6058:
5995:
5921:
5890:
5855:
5839:
5804:
5791:Volatile organic compound
5597:
5588:
4320:10.1017/S002205071800075X
3927:British Journal of Cancer
3870:– via Google Books.
3089:Radioactive contamination
3021:List of nuclear accidents
1745:Factors affecting fallout
1394:radioactive contamination
976:War and environmental law
596:Health effects from noise
446:Volatile organic compound
6879:Radiation health effects
5971:Marine mammals and sonar
5882:Radio spectrum pollution
3559:University of Notre Dame
2971:—U.S. government booklet
2873:The nuclear meltdown at
2697:Nuclear reactor accident
2570:Acute radiation syndrome
2297:later conceived children
601:Marine mammals and sonar
32:Fallout (disambiguation)
6817:WikiProject Environment
6775:Most polluted countries
6719:Polluter pays principle
6450:Agricultural wastewater
4352:Koppe, Erik V. (2014),
3677:British Medical Journal
3083:public information film
2655:Office of Civil Defense
2359:nuclear weapons testing
1463:nuclear weapons testing
1368:with the products of a
1076:Freshwater salinization
996:Agricultural wastewater
57:Partial Test Ban Treaty
6835:Environment portal
6068:Agricultural pollution
5432:History and Technology
5060:10.1006/hmat.2002.2360
5041:Shore, Steven (2002).
5000:Technology and Culture
4974:10.1353/tech.2012.0144
4962:Technology and Culture
4871:. Cornell University.
3650:Cite journal requires
3604:Cite journal requires
2900:
2650:
2504:
2398:1979 Three Mile Island
2241:
2228:
2216:
2201:
2072:
2068:sign on a building in
1865:
1805:system on the decks).
1696:
1543:
1295:Environment portal
60:
6490:Industrial wastewater
6356:Clutter (advertising)
6264:Municipal solid waste
6110:Soil guideline values
5954:Sustainable transport
5847:Information pollution
5647:Open burning of waste
5521:J. Radiation Research
5339:www.world-nuclear.org
5160:www.world-nuclear.org
4133:(1204). London: 180.
3152:www.atomicarchive.com
3062:Nuclear weapon design
2920:Founded in 1974, the
2894:
2659:Department of Defense
2644:
2502:
2429:radioactive particles
2417:Further information:
2234:
2222:
2213:nuclear weapons tests
2207:
2192:
2126:gross decontamination
2064:
1994:Further information:
1862:
1769:effect causing local
1678:
1527:
1036:Industrial wastewater
804:Municipal solid waste
726:Soil guideline values
42:
6909:Radiological weapons
6762:Most polluted cities
6455:Biological pollution
6366:Overhead power lines
5084:. 22 November 2017.
5047:Historia Mathematica
4019:, November 25, 1961.
3469:. BBC. 22 March 2012
3340:. 11 February 2019.
2275:Presently, the only
2106:radiation dermatitis
2083:In the 1950s, the LD
2027:improve this article
1475:background radiation
1245:Most polluted cities
897:Overhead power lines
198:Nuclear-armed states
6825:WikiProject Ecology
6522:Ocean acidification
6427:Unexploded ordnance
6298:Post-consumer waste
6158:Foam food container
6136:Biodegradable waste
5710:Global distillation
4045:, January 10, 2011.
3895:1992RadR..131..229A
3518:Harvey, T. (1992).
3409:Radioactive Fallout
3109:Radiological weapon
3094:Radiation poisoning
3078:Protect and Survive
2779:Preventive measures
2523:Protect and Survive
2460:Atmospheric testing
2325:St. Louis, Missouri
2260:formation, chronic
2157:radiation poisoning
1969:ionisation chambers
1951:The unit of actual
1695:in Washington state
1588:
1061:Ocean acidification
971:Unexploded ordnance
892:Advertising clutter
824:Post-consumer waste
769:Foam food container
754:Biodegradable waste
411:Global distillation
49:Northern Hemisphere
18:Radioactive fallout
6845:Ecology portal
6729:Waste minimisation
6704:Industrial ecology
6699:Cleaner production
6517:Nutrient pollution
6394:Herbicidal warfare
6188:Construction waste
5824:Introduced species
5695:Indoor air quality
5622:Chlorofluorocarbon
5527:, Suppl A121–A127.
5512:2016-08-28 at the
5298:10.1002/lary.23314
4425:Arms Control Today
4161:has generic name (
4062:The New York Times
4042:The New York Times
4035:2019-04-19 at the
4016:The New York Times
4009:2018-07-22 at the
4002:Sullivan, Walter.
3990:The New York Times
3983:2018-07-22 at the
3963:2012-04-05 at the
3944:2018-05-20 at the
3921:2013-09-27 at the
3288:on 2 February 2020
2968:Fallout Protection
2901:
2801:radiative transfer
2793:Price-Anderson Act
2717:isotopic signature
2651:
2628:The seven-ten rule
2574:ionizing radiation
2515:Fallout Protection
2505:
2490:Fallout protection
2376:The New York Times
2242:
2229:
2217:
2202:
2198:Chernobyl disaster
2073:
1866:
1830:Daigo Fukuryū Maru
1697:
1582:
1544:
1510:radiation sickness
1494:Chernobyl accident
1455:particulate matter
1307:Ecology portal
932:Herbicidal warfare
476:Introduced species
416:Indoor air quality
386:Chlorofluorocarbon
61:
6899:Nuclear chemistry
6851:
6850:
6724:Pollution control
6404:Nuclear holocaust
6313:Thermal treatment
6281:Plastic pollution
6198:Mercury poisoning
6151:Battery recycling
6050:Radioactive waste
5819:Genetic pollution
5814:Biological hazard
5612:Air quality index
5532:The Careless Atom
5371:. 12 April 2011.
4746:978-0-942487-01-5
4664:978-0-942487-01-5
4599:978-0-942487-01-5
4560:978-0-942487-01-5
4238:978-0-309-07866-5
3993:, March 18, 1969.
3683:: 713–718. 1994.
3637:on 10 April 2008.
3591:on 10 April 2008.
3566:on 15 March 2011.
3104:Radioactive waste
3099:Radiation biology
3046:Nuclear terrorism
2875:Three Mile Island
2869:Three Mile Island
2709:nuclear accidents
2594:neutron radiation
2553:halving thickness
2500:
2305:Baby Tooth Survey
2270:genetic mutations
2059:
2058:
2051:
1687:conducted at the
1673:
1672:
1566:neutron-activated
1558:radioactive cloud
1343:
1342:
1278:
1277:
944:Nuclear holocaust
867:Urban heat island
681:Radioactive waste
466:Biological hazard
376:Air quality index
326:
325:
90:Nuclear explosion
16:(Redirected from
6916:
6904:Fission products
6869:Aftermath of war
6843:
6842:
6841:
6833:
6832:
6823:
6822:
6815:
6814:
6807:
6806:
6794:
6793:
6668:Legacy pollution
6527:Oil exploitation
6389:Chemical warfare
6303:Waste management
6210:Industrial waste
6178:Biomedical waste
6146:Electronic waste
6131:Advertising mail
6115:Phytoremediation
6090:Land degradation
5875:Overillumination
5829:Invasive species
5575:
5568:
5561:
5552:
5551:
5530:Sheldon Novick,
5507:Available Online
5489:Smyth, H. DeW.,
5484:Available Online
5474:Available Online
5456:
5455:
5427:
5418:
5417:
5415:
5413:
5394:
5385:
5384:
5382:
5380:
5361:
5355:
5354:
5352:
5350:
5331:
5318:
5317:
5286:The Laryngoscope
5281:
5275:
5274:
5272:
5270:
5251:
5242:
5241:
5239:
5237:
5231:
5220:
5212:
5206:
5205:
5203:
5201:
5182:
5176:
5175:
5173:
5171:
5152:
5139:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5128:
5117:
5109:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5093:
5074:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5038:
5032:
5031:
4995:
4986:
4985:
4957:
4948:
4947:
4945:
4936:
4930:
4929:
4927:
4925:
4908:
4885:
4884:
4882:
4880:
4862:
4851:
4850:
4848:
4846:
4829:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4801:
4784:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4758:
4730:
4724:
4723:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4678:
4676:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4637:
4622:
4616:
4615:
4613:
4611:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4574:
4572:
4544:
4538:
4537:
4501:
4492:
4491:
4455:
4449:
4448:
4420:
4407:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4397:
4380:
4358:
4349:
4340:
4339:
4305:
4296:
4283:
4282:
4257:
4251:
4250:
4216:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4188:
4173:
4167:
4166:
4160:
4156:
4154:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4105:
4085:
4079:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4052:
4046:
4028:Hevesi, Dennis.
4026:
4020:
4000:
3994:
3974:
3968:
3955:
3949:
3936:
3930:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3878:
3872:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3839:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3808:
3802:
3797:
3791:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3777:
3775:
3756:
3750:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3731:
3725:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3689:
3674:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3653:
3648:
3646:
3638:
3636:
3629:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3607:
3602:
3600:
3592:
3590:
3583:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3562:. Archived from
3550:
3544:
3543:
3541:
3539:
3533:
3526:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3485:
3479:
3478:
3476:
3474:
3463:
3457:
3456:
3454:
3452:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3403:
3397:
3396:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3330:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3319:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3287:
3281:. Archived from
3263:10.1038/209236a0
3248:
3239:
3233:
3232:
3230:
3228:
3200:
3191:
3190:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3144:
3067:Potassium iodide
2785:nuclear reactors
2663:fallout shelters
2621:'s 2015 report:
2501:
2392:in America, is "
2054:
2047:
2043:
2040:
2034:
2011:
2003:
1943:A wide range of
1689:Nevada Test Site
1633:Refractive index
1589:
1581:
1562:fission products
1457:, lifted to the
1400:Types of fallout
1386:fission products
1335:
1328:
1321:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1292:
1224:
1223:
927:Chemical warfare
829:Waste management
789:Industrial waste
764:Electronic waste
749:Advertising mail
731:Phytoremediation
706:Land degradation
646:Depleted uranium
531:Overillumination
481:Invasive species
353:
343:
328:
327:
318:
311:
304:
255:
149:Target selection
77:
63:
62:
21:
6924:
6923:
6919:
6918:
6917:
6915:
6914:
6913:
6874:Nuclear weapons
6864:Nuclear fallout
6854:
6853:
6852:
6847:
6839:
6837:
6827:
6784:
6770:
6738:
6687:
6636:
6603:
6542:Pharmaceuticals
6532:Oil exploration
6436:
6408:Nuclear fallout
6375:
6337:
6319:
6293:Packaging waste
6247:Deep sea mining
6173:Hazardous waste
6119:
6100:Open defecation
6054:
6020:Nuclear fallout
6015:Nuclear fission
5991:
5917:
5886:
5857:Electromagnetic
5851:
5835:
5800:
5720:Ozone depletion
5593:
5584:
5579:
5541:
5514:Wayback Machine
5465:
5463:Further reading
5460:
5459:
5428:
5421:
5411:
5409:
5396:
5395:
5388:
5378:
5376:
5363:
5362:
5358:
5348:
5346:
5333:
5332:
5321:
5282:
5278:
5268:
5266:
5253:
5252:
5245:
5235:
5233:
5229:
5225:. August 2005.
5218:
5214:
5213:
5209:
5199:
5197:
5184:
5183:
5179:
5169:
5167:
5154:
5153:
5142:
5132:
5130:
5126:
5115:
5111:
5110:
5101:
5091:
5089:
5076:
5075:
5068:
5039:
5035:
5012:10.2307/3106954
4996:
4989:
4958:
4951:
4943:
4937:
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4923:
4921:
4910:
4909:
4888:
4878:
4876:
4863:
4854:
4844:
4842:
4831:
4830:
4809:
4799:
4797:
4786:
4785:
4766:
4756:
4754:
4747:
4731:
4727:
4688:
4684:
4674:
4672:
4665:
4649:
4645:
4635:
4633:
4624:
4623:
4619:
4609:
4607:
4600:
4584:
4580:
4570:
4568:
4561:
4545:
4541:
4518:10.2307/1309966
4502:
4495:
4456:
4452:
4421:
4410:
4401:
4399:
4395:
4389:
4356:
4350:
4343:
4303:
4297:
4286:
4280:
4258:
4254:
4239:
4217:
4196:
4186:
4184:
4175:
4174:
4170:
4158:
4157:
4148:
4147:
4140:
4138:
4117:
4113:
4103:
4101:
4094:Popular Science
4086:
4082:
4072:
4070:
4053:
4049:
4037:Wayback Machine
4027:
4023:
4011:Wayback Machine
4001:
3997:
3985:Wayback Machine
3975:
3971:
3965:Wayback Machine
3956:
3952:
3946:Wayback Machine
3937:
3933:
3923:Wayback Machine
3914:
3910:
3879:
3875:
3865:
3863:
3856:
3840:
3833:
3824:
3822:
3809:
3805:
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3693:
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3594:
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3552:
3551:
3547:
3537:
3535:
3531:
3524:
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3512:
3502:
3486:
3482:
3472:
3470:
3465:
3464:
3460:
3450:
3448:
3433:
3429:
3419:
3417:
3404:
3400:
3361:
3357:
3347:
3345:
3332:
3331:
3327:
3317:
3315:
3305:
3301:
3291:
3289:
3285:
3246:
3240:
3236:
3226:
3224:
3217:
3201:
3194:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3161:
3159:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3072:Project GABRIEL
3006:Fission product
3001:Fallout shelter
2950:
2918:
2860:, although the
2813:
2781:
2764:
2744:
2713:nuclear reactor
2705:
2699:
2675:fallout shelter
2639:
2630:
2565:
2557:fallout shelter
2525:
2511:
2509:Fallout shelter
2494:
2492:
2421:
2415:
2382:Popular Science
2343:John F. Kennedy
2262:radiodermatitis
2187:
2169:Project GABRIEL
2165:
2142:
2090:
2086:
2079:
2066:Fallout shelter
2055:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2024:
2012:
2001:
1999:
1992:
1984:
1965:geiger counters
1941:
1857:
1752:
1747:
1575:causing formal
1537:
1522:
1433:
1427:of the weapon.
1402:
1392:, is a form of
1346:Nuclear fallout
1339:
1301:
1299:
1287:
1280:
1279:
1179:
1171:
1170:
1144:
1136:
1135:
1071:Pharmaceuticals
1051:Nonpoint source
991:
981:
980:
949:Nuclear fallout
922:
912:
911:
882:
872:
871:
862:
852:
851:
842:
834:
833:
819:Packaging waste
784:Hazardous waste
744:
736:
735:
696:
686:
685:
656:Nuclear fallout
651:Nuclear fission
631:
621:
620:
586:
576:
575:
551:
543:
542:
516:
514:Electromagnetic
506:
505:
496:
488:
487:
461:
451:
450:
421:Ozone depletion
366:
356:
341:
322:
273:
253:
243:
212:
67:Nuclear weapons
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6922:
6912:
6911:
6906:
6901:
6896:
6891:
6886:
6881:
6876:
6871:
6866:
6849:
6848:
6789:
6786:
6785:
6783:
6782:
6777:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6759:
6757:Law by country
6754:
6748:
6746:
6740:
6739:
6737:
6736:
6731:
6726:
6721:
6716:
6711:
6706:
6701:
6695:
6693:
6689:
6688:
6686:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6650:
6644:
6642:
6638:
6637:
6635:
6634:
6629:
6628:
6627:
6622:
6611:
6609:
6605:
6604:
6602:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6579:Surface runoff
6576:
6571:
6566:
6561:
6560:
6559:
6554:
6544:
6539:
6534:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6504:
6503:
6502:
6492:
6487:
6482:
6477:
6472:
6467:
6465:Eutrophication
6462:
6457:
6452:
6446:
6444:
6438:
6437:
6435:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6422:Scorched earth
6419:
6416:nuclear winter
6412:nuclear famine
6401:
6391:
6385:
6383:
6377:
6376:
6374:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6347:
6345:
6339:
6338:
6336:
6335:
6329:
6327:
6321:
6320:
6318:
6317:
6316:
6315:
6310:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6289:
6288:
6278:
6273:
6272:
6271:
6261:
6260:
6259:
6257:Uranium mining
6254:
6249:
6244:
6242:Surface mining
6239:
6234:
6224:
6219:
6218:
6217:
6207:
6206:
6205:
6200:
6195:
6193:Lead poisoning
6190:
6185:
6183:Chemical waste
6180:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6154:
6153:
6143:
6138:
6133:
6127:
6125:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6095:Bioremediation
6092:
6087:
6086:
6085:
6080:
6075:
6064:
6062:
6056:
6055:
6053:
6052:
6047:
6042:
6037:
6032:
6027:
6022:
6017:
6012:
6010:Bioremediation
6007:
6001:
5999:
5993:
5992:
5990:
5989:
5984:
5981:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5973:
5963:
5958:
5957:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5941:
5936:
5931:Transportation
5927:
5925:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5900:
5894:
5892:
5888:
5887:
5885:
5884:
5879:
5878:
5877:
5872:
5861:
5859:
5853:
5852:
5850:
5849:
5843:
5841:
5837:
5836:
5834:
5833:
5832:
5831:
5821:
5816:
5810:
5808:
5802:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5787:
5786:
5776:
5775:
5774:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5753:
5752:
5747:
5742:
5737:
5732:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5705:Global dimming
5702:
5697:
5692:
5691:
5690:
5680:
5679:
5678:
5676:Diesel exhaust
5668:
5663:
5662:
5661:
5651:
5650:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5624:
5619:
5614:
5609:
5603:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5589:
5586:
5585:
5578:
5577:
5570:
5563:
5555:
5549:
5548:
5540:
5539:External links
5537:
5536:
5535:
5528:
5517:
5498:
5487:
5477:
5464:
5461:
5458:
5457:
5419:
5386:
5356:
5319:
5292:(6): 1415–21.
5276:
5243:
5207:
5177:
5140:
5099:
5066:
5053:(4): 463–489.
5033:
5006:(4): 920–941.
4987:
4968:(4): 846–884.
4949:
4931:
4886:
4865:Mann, Albert.
4852:
4807:
4764:
4745:
4725:
4698:(3): 195–208.
4682:
4663:
4643:
4617:
4598:
4578:
4559:
4539:
4512:(9): 576–583.
4493:
4466:(4): 639–648.
4450:
4408:
4387:
4341:
4314:(1): 244–274.
4284:
4278:
4252:
4237:
4194:
4168:
4111:
4080:
4047:
4021:
3995:
3969:
3950:
3931:
3908:
3889:(5): 661–662.
3873:
3854:
3831:
3803:
3792:
3781:
3751:
3726:
3701:
3661:
3652:|journal=
3615:
3606:|journal=
3569:
3545:
3510:
3500:
3480:
3458:
3427:
3398:
3371:(5): 690–705.
3365:Health Physics
3355:
3325:
3299:
3234:
3215:
3192:
3169:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3121:
3116:
3114:Joseph Rotblat
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3057:Cresson Kearny
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2990:
2977:
2972:
2964:
2957:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2917:
2914:
2858:thyroid cancer
2840:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2812:
2809:
2780:
2777:
2763:
2760:
2743:
2740:
2698:
2695:
2638:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2586:beta radiation
2564:
2561:
2507:Main article:
2491:
2488:
2474:Climatologist
2414:
2411:
2405:issue" by the
2386:cherry-picking
2351:United Kingdom
2317:cancer-causing
2254:carcinogenesis
2164:
2161:
2088:
2084:
2077:
2057:
2056:
2015:
2013:
2006:
1997:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1940:
1937:
1869:Meteorological
1856:
1855:Meteorological
1853:
1803:fire sprinkler
1751:
1748:
1746:
1743:
1723:mushroom cloud
1671:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
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1649:
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1623:
1620:
1617:
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1611:
1608:
1605:
1602:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1573:drinking water
1532:surface burst
1521:
1518:
1514:thyroid cancer
1432:
1431:Global fallout
1429:
1421:fission-fusion
1401:
1398:
1362:nuclear weapon
1341:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1330:
1323:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1310:
1309:
1297:
1282:
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1276:
1275:
1274:
1273:
1265:
1264:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1240:Law by country
1237:
1229:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1186:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1161:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1111:Surface runoff
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1033:
1028:
1023:
1018:
1013:
1011:Eutrophication
1008:
1003:
998:
992:
987:
986:
983:
982:
979:
978:
973:
968:
966:Scorched earth
963:
962:
961:
959:Nuclear winter
956:
954:Nuclear famine
951:
941:
940:
939:
929:
923:
918:
917:
914:
913:
910:
909:
904:
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883:
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854:
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839:
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832:
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826:
821:
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796:
791:
786:
781:
776:
771:
766:
761:
756:
751:
745:
742:
741:
738:
737:
734:
733:
728:
723:
718:
713:
711:Bioremediation
708:
703:
697:
692:
691:
688:
687:
684:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
641:Bioremediation
638:
632:
627:
626:
623:
622:
619:
618:
613:
608:
603:
598:
593:
591:Transportation
587:
582:
581:
578:
577:
574:
573:
568:
563:
558:
552:
549:
548:
545:
544:
541:
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538:Radio spectrum
535:
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406:Global dimming
403:
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367:
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224:United Kingdom
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3:
2:
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6887:
6885:
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6859:
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6797:
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6758:
6755:
6753:
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6745:
6741:
6735:
6732:
6730:
6727:
6725:
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6715:
6712:
6710:
6707:
6705:
6702:
6700:
6697:
6696:
6694:
6690:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
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6666:
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6651:
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6626:
6623:
6621:
6618:
6617:
6616:
6613:
6612:
6610:
6606:
6600:
6599:Water quality
6597:
6595:
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6570:
6567:
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6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6417:
6413:
6409:
6405:
6402:
6399:
6395:
6392:
6390:
6387:
6386:
6384:
6382:
6378:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6361:Traffic signs
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6348:
6346:
6344:
6340:
6334:
6331:
6330:
6328:
6326:
6322:
6314:
6311:
6309:
6306:
6305:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6287:
6286:Microplastics
6284:
6283:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6276:Nanomaterials
6274:
6270:
6267:
6266:
6265:
6262:
6258:
6255:
6253:
6250:
6248:
6245:
6243:
6240:
6238:
6235:
6233:
6230:
6229:
6228:
6225:
6223:
6220:
6216:
6215:Lead smelting
6213:
6212:
6211:
6208:
6204:
6201:
6199:
6196:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6175:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6164:
6161:
6159:
6156:
6152:
6149:
6148:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6137:
6134:
6132:
6129:
6128:
6126:
6122:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6101:
6098:
6096:
6093:
6091:
6088:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6074:
6071:
6070:
6069:
6066:
6065:
6063:
6061:
6057:
6051:
6048:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6035:Radioactivity
6033:
6031:
6028:
6026:
6023:
6021:
6018:
6016:
6013:
6011:
6008:
6006:
6003:
6002:
6000:
5998:
5994:
5988:
5987:Noise control
5985:
5982:
5979:
5976:
5972:
5969:
5968:
5967:
5964:
5962:
5959:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5940:
5937:
5934:
5933:
5932:
5929:
5928:
5926:
5924:
5920:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5904:
5901:
5899:
5896:
5895:
5893:
5889:
5883:
5880:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5867:
5866:
5863:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5854:
5848:
5845:
5844:
5842:
5838:
5830:
5827:
5826:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5811:
5809:
5807:
5803:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5785:
5782:
5781:
5780:
5777:
5773:
5770:
5769:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5751:
5748:
5746:
5743:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5735:Metal working
5733:
5731:
5728:
5727:
5726:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5716:
5713:
5711:
5708:
5706:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5689:
5686:
5685:
5684:
5681:
5677:
5674:
5673:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5664:
5660:
5657:
5656:
5655:
5652:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5629:
5628:
5625:
5623:
5620:
5618:
5615:
5613:
5610:
5608:
5605:
5604:
5602:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5587:
5583:
5576:
5571:
5569:
5564:
5562:
5557:
5556:
5553:
5546:
5543:
5542:
5533:
5529:
5526:
5522:
5518:
5515:
5511:
5508:
5504:
5503:
5499:
5496:
5492:
5488:
5485:
5481:
5478:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5466:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5441:
5437:
5433:
5426:
5424:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5393:
5391:
5374:
5370:
5366:
5360:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5330:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5303:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5280:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5250:
5248:
5228:
5224:
5217:
5211:
5195:
5191:
5187:
5181:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5151:
5149:
5147:
5145:
5125:
5121:
5114:
5108:
5106:
5104:
5087:
5083:
5079:
5073:
5071:
5061:
5056:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5037:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4994:
4992:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4956:
4954:
4942:
4935:
4919:
4915:
4914:
4907:
4905:
4903:
4901:
4899:
4897:
4895:
4893:
4891:
4874:
4870:
4869:
4861:
4859:
4857:
4840:
4836:
4835:
4828:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4818:
4816:
4814:
4812:
4795:
4791:
4790:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4775:
4773:
4771:
4769:
4752:
4748:
4742:
4738:
4737:
4729:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4670:
4666:
4660:
4656:
4655:
4647:
4631:
4627:
4621:
4605:
4601:
4595:
4591:
4590:
4582:
4566:
4562:
4556:
4552:
4551:
4543:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4523:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4500:
4498:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4454:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4419:
4417:
4415:
4413:
4394:
4390:
4388:9781107337435
4384:
4379:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4355:
4348:
4346:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4325:
4321:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4302:
4295:
4293:
4291:
4289:
4281:
4279:9789401075336
4275:
4271:
4267:
4263:
4256:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4234:
4230:
4226:
4222:
4215:
4213:
4211:
4209:
4207:
4205:
4203:
4201:
4199:
4182:
4178:
4172:
4164:
4159:|first1=
4152:
4136:
4132:
4128:
4127:
4126:New Scientist
4122:
4115:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4084:
4068:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4051:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4034:
4031:
4025:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4008:
4005:
3999:
3992:
3991:
3986:
3982:
3979:
3973:
3966:
3962:
3959:
3954:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3935:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3917:
3912:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3877:
3861:
3857:
3855:9789048188208
3851:
3847:
3846:
3838:
3836:
3820:
3816:
3815:
3807:
3801:
3796:
3790:
3785:
3769:
3765:
3764:
3755:
3740:
3736:
3730:
3715:
3711:
3705:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3671:
3665:
3657:
3644:
3633:
3626:
3619:
3611:
3598:
3587:
3580:
3573:
3565:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3549:
3530:
3523:
3522:
3514:
3507:
3503:
3501:9780318203690
3497:
3493:
3492:
3484:
3468:
3462:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3431:
3415:
3411:
3410:
3402:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3329:
3314:
3310:
3303:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3245:
3238:
3222:
3218:
3216:9780309096737
3212:
3208:
3207:
3199:
3197:
3189:
3185:
3181:
3180:
3173:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3139:
3127:
3126:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3084:
3080:
3079:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3053:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2988:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2945:
2943:
2942:Marshall Plan
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2913:
2911:
2906:
2898:
2893:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2863:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2848:
2844:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2776:
2774:
2769:
2759:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2748:boiling point
2739:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2711:, although a
2710:
2704:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2676:
2670:
2666:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2648:
2643:
2634:
2625:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2541:
2536:
2534:
2533:Civil Defense
2530:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2510:
2487:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2450:
2444:
2440:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2420:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2334:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2277:teratological
2273:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2238:
2237:pre-war steel
2233:
2226:
2221:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2160:
2158:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2138:
2134:
2129:
2127:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2081:
2071:
2070:New York City
2067:
2063:
2053:
2050:
2042:
2039:December 2008
2032:
2028:
2022:
2021:
2016:This section
2014:
2010:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1987:
1985:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1959:, defined in
1958:
1954:
1949:
1946:
1936:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1870:
1861:
1852:
1850:
1845:
1843:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1819:
1815:
1814:calcium oxide
1811:
1806:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1767:cloud seeding
1764:
1759:
1757:
1742:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1715:thunderstorms
1710:
1707:
1702:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1685:nuclear tests
1682:
1677:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1621:
1618:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1550:
1549:surface burst
1541:
1535:
1531:
1526:
1520:Local fallout
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1417:radioisotopes
1414:
1409:
1407:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1374:precipitation
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1350:nuclear blast
1347:
1336:
1331:
1329:
1324:
1322:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1313:
1308:
1298:
1296:
1291:
1286:
1285:
1284:
1283:
1272:
1269:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1181:
1175:
1174:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1126:Water quality
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
993:
990:
985:
984:
977:
974:
972:
969:
967:
964:
960:
957:
955:
952:
950:
947:
946:
945:
942:
938:
935:
934:
933:
930:
928:
925:
924:
921:
916:
915:
908:
905:
903:
902:Traffic signs
900:
898:
895:
893:
890:
888:
885:
884:
881:
876:
875:
868:
865:
864:
861:
856:
855:
848:
845:
844:
838:
837:
830:
827:
825:
822:
820:
817:
815:
812:
810:
809:Nanomaterials
807:
805:
802:
800:
797:
795:
792:
790:
787:
785:
782:
780:
777:
775:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
746:
740:
739:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
717:
714:
712:
709:
707:
704:
702:
699:
698:
695:
690:
689:
682:
679:
677:
674:
672:
671:Radioactivity
669:
667:
664:
662:
659:
657:
654:
652:
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
633:
630:
625:
624:
617:
616:Soundproofing
614:
612:
611:Noise control
609:
607:
606:Noise barrier
604:
602:
599:
597:
594:
592:
589:
588:
585:
580:
579:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
559:
557:
554:
553:
547:
546:
539:
536:
532:
529:
527:
524:
523:
522:
519:
518:
515:
510:
509:
502:
499:
498:
492:
491:
482:
479:
478:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
463:
460:
455:
454:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
368:
365:
360:
359:
352:
348:
347:
344:
339:
338:
334:
330:
329:
319:
314:
312:
307:
305:
300:
299:
297:
296:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
272:
269:
268:
265:
262:
260:
257:
251:
248:
246:
242:
239:
238:
235:
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
214:United States
211:
209:
205:
204:
203:
202:
199:
196:
195:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
169:Proliferation
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
141:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
124:
121:
118:
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6889:Radiobiology
6678:Point source
6620:Heavy metals
6594:Urban runoff
6574:Sulfur water
6552:Septic tanks
6407:
6398:Agent Orange
6252:Mining waste
6078:Manure waste
6019:
5908:Volcanic ash
5784:Black carbon
5740:Oil refining
5725:Particulates
5654:Construction
5531:
5524:
5520:
5500:
5495:Smyth Report
5490:
5479:
5469:
5435:
5431:
5410:. Retrieved
5401:
5377:. Retrieved
5369:www.iaea.org
5368:
5359:
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5338:
5289:
5285:
5279:
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5258:
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5222:
5210:
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5189:
5180:
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5159:
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5119:
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5082:www.iaea.org
5081:
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4620:
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4588:
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4549:
4542:
4509:
4505:
4463:
4459:
4453:
4431:(9): 22–26.
4428:
4424:
4402:24 September
4400:, retrieved
4360:
4311:
4307:
4261:
4255:
4229:10.17226/940
4220:
4185:. Retrieved
4171:
4151:cite journal
4139:. Retrieved
4130:
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4114:
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4093:
4083:
4071:. Retrieved
4060:
4050:
4040:
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3864:. Retrieved
3844:
3823:, retrieved
3813:
3806:
3795:
3784:
3772:. Retrieved
3761:
3754:
3742:. Retrieved
3739:remm.hhs.gov
3738:
3729:
3717:. Retrieved
3714:remm.hhs.gov
3713:
3704:
3692:. Retrieved
3680:
3676:
3664:
3643:cite journal
3632:the original
3618:
3597:cite journal
3586:the original
3572:
3564:the original
3557:
3548:
3536:. Retrieved
3520:
3513:
3505:
3490:
3483:
3471:. Retrieved
3461:
3449:. Retrieved
3441:Live Science
3440:
3430:
3418:. Retrieved
3408:
3401:
3368:
3364:
3358:
3346:. Retrieved
3337:
3328:
3316:. Retrieved
3313:The Equation
3312:
3302:
3290:. Retrieved
3283:the original
3254:
3250:
3237:
3225:. Retrieved
3205:
3178:
3172:
3160:. Retrieved
3151:
3142:
3123:
3076:
3050:
3031:Neutron bomb
3011:Hot particle
2993:
2980:
2966:
2959:
2919:
2902:
2886:
2885:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2850:
2846:
2845:
2841:
2814:
2782:
2765:
2745:
2729:
2706:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2671:
2667:
2652:
2631:
2613:, or in the
2566:
2552:
2537:
2526:
2484:
2481:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2457:
2453:
2445:
2443:its system.
2441:
2437:strontium-90
2426:
2422:
2394:junk science
2381:
2374:
2366:
2363:
2355:Soviet Union
2345:to sign the
2338:strontium-90
2331:
2329:
2313:strontium-90
2309:Louise Reiss
2302:
2296:
2293:microcephaly
2288:
2281:microcephaly
2274:
2264:, decreased
2249:
2243:
2224:
2153:
2147:of up to 10
2141:
2130:
2122:
2102:radiographer
2082:
2074:
2045:
2036:
2025:Please help
2020:verification
2017:
1952:
1950:
1942:
1927:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1892:
1879:Bikini Atoll
1874:Castle Bravo
1872:
1867:
1846:
1839:
1834:
1828:
1810:Castle Bravo
1807:
1798:
1795:sandblasting
1760:
1753:
1727:
1711:
1698:
1693:Hanford Site
1584:
1570:
1547:
1545:
1534:Castle Bravo
1491:
1483:
1459:stratosphere
1436:
1434:
1410:
1403:
1345:
1344:
1214:Point source
1159:Heavy metals
1121:Urban runoff
1106:Sulfur water
1081:Septic tanks
948:
937:Agent Orange
847:Space debris
701:Agricultural
655:
566:Volcanic ash
426:Particulates
275:South Africa
270:
254:(undeclared)
240:
206:
36:
6648:Area source
6557:Pit latrine
6480:Groundwater
6237:Gold mining
6232:Coal mining
6203:Toxic waste
6168:Green waste
6141:Brown waste
6124:Solid waste
5671:Exhaust gas
5438:(1): 3–32.
5402:www.irsn.fr
5259:www.nrc.gov
4073:31 December
3338:www.cdc.gov
3162:31 December
3119:Salted bomb
2983:(RTÉ drama)
2897:caesium-137
2895:Calculated
2773:criticality
2527:During the
2476:Alan Robock
2403:Tooth Fairy
2246:irradiation
2185:Project 4.1
2100:industrial
1977:bone marrow
1961:ionisations
1948:exposures.
1899:thermocline
1835:Bikini snow
1706:ground zero
1679:Per capita
1449:to 20
1423:design and
1370:pyrocumulus
1358:radioactive
1184:Area source
1026:Groundwater
779:Green waste
759:Brown waste
743:Solid waste
501:Information
396:Exhaust gas
264:North Korea
174:Disarmament
51:called the
6858:Categories
6800:by country
6796:Categories
6734:Zero waste
6615:Pollutants
6569:Stagnation
6507:Monitoring
6475:Freshwater
6351:Air travel
6163:Food waste
6083:Pesticides
6073:Herbicides
5977:Industrial
5806:Biological
5666:Demolition
5659:Renovation
5642:Joss paper
5627:Combustion
4506:BioScience
4378:1887/35608
4187:7 November
4141:19 October
3866:19 October
3774:21 October
3538:4 December
3292:4 December
3227:4 December
3134:References
2987:Sellafield
2955:Dirty bomb
2803:theory in
2742:Volatility
2732:volatility
2701:See also:
2513:See also:
2449:cesium-137
2433:Iodine-131
2167:See also:
2137:dose rates
1990:Short term
1945:biological
1842:base surge
1825:beta burns
1799:Crossroads
1735:iodine-131
1486:iodine-131
1467:Bomb pulse
1378:black rain
1354:shock wave
1271:By country
1263:Categories
1154:Pollutants
1131:Wastewater
1101:Stagnation
1046:Monitoring
1021:Freshwater
887:Air travel
774:Food waste
716:Defecation
526:Ecological
459:Biological
391:Combustion
331:Part of a
285:Kazakhstan
210:recognized
184:Opposition
82:Background
53:Bomb pulse
6692:Responses
6663:Garbology
6589:Turbidity
6537:Oil spill
6470:Firewater
6371:Vandalism
6333:Satellite
6030:Poisoning
6025:Plutonium
6005:Actinides
5997:Radiation
5745:Wood dust
5607:Acid rain
5582:Pollution
5545:NUKEMAP3D
5452:108578526
5028:112329893
4982:143252147
4526:0006-3568
4480:0003-9896
4437:0196-125X
4336:134969796
4328:0022-0507
3744:11 August
3719:11 August
3385:0017-9078
3188:Q63214334
2934:Hans Blix
2926:Chernobyl
2905:Fukushima
2887:Fukushima
2853:Chernobyl
2847:Chernobyl
2838:material.
2768:half life
2762:Half-life
2756:compounds
2736:half-life
2725:Fukushima
2721:Chernobyl
2349:with the
2266:fertility
2209:Plutonium
2173:Bellesrad
2163:Long term
2118:trimester
2093:Chernobyl
1923:afterwind
1763:sea salts
1756:air burst
1577:mutations
1554:vaporizes
1438:air burst
1406:half-life
1376:falls as
1366:entrained
1199:Garbology
1116:Turbidity
1066:Oil spill
1016:Firewater
1001:Biosolids
907:Vandalism
666:Poisoning
661:Plutonium
636:Actinides
629:Radiation
371:Acid rain
342:Pollution
179:Terrorism
164:Espionage
159:Blackmail
154:Arms race
6780:Treaties
6752:Diseases
6564:Shipping
6460:Diseases
6308:Landfill
5983:Abstract
5980:Military
5913:Wildfire
5762:Smelting
5730:Asbestos
5523:, 2006,
5510:Archived
5412:19 April
5406:Archived
5379:19 April
5373:Archived
5349:19 April
5343:Archived
5306:22565486
5269:19 April
5263:Archived
5236:19 April
5227:Archived
5200:19 April
5194:Archived
5170:19 April
5164:Archived
5133:19 April
5124:Archived
5092:19 April
5086:Archived
4924:11 April
4918:Archived
4879:11 April
4873:Archived
4845:11 April
4839:Archived
4800:11 April
4794:Archived
4751:Archived
4712:28749810
4669:Archived
4630:Archived
4604:Archived
4565:Archived
4445:23629551
4393:archived
4247:25032468
4181:Archived
4135:Archived
4098:Archived
4067:Archived
4033:Archived
4007:Archived
3981:Archived
3961:Archived
3942:Archived
3919:Archived
3860:Archived
3819:archived
3768:Archived
3685:Archived
3529:Archived
3473:13 April
3451:19 April
3445:Archived
3420:19 April
3414:Archived
3393:12003019
3348:19 April
3342:Archived
3221:Archived
3184:Wikidata
3156:Archived
2996:(series)
2948:See also
2930:Cold War
2754:(or its
2617:and the
2609:article
2529:Cold War
2285:in utero
2258:cataract
2250:possible
2240:fallout.
2114:miscarry
1953:exposure
1888:Rongelap
1818:calcined
1787:concrete
1775:seawater
1750:Location
1255:Treaties
1235:Diseases
1091:Shipping
1056:Nutrient
1006:Diseases
571:Wildfire
280:Belarus
259:Pakistan
144:Arsenals
115:Delivery
6809:Commons
6584:Thermal
6485:Hypoxia
6269:Garbage
6040:Uranium
5891:Natural
5840:Digital
5772:Aerosol
5750:Welding
5637:Biomass
5632:Biofuel
5591:History
5314:5132110
5020:3106954
4757:9 April
4720:3300412
4675:9 April
4636:9 April
4610:9 April
4571:9 April
4534:1309966
4488:5693144
3976:Staff.
3891:Bibcode
3825:16 June
3763:Session
3318:16 July
3279:4149383
3271:5915953
2994:Fallout
2981:Fallout
2805:Physics
2752:element
2657:in the
2333:Science
2321:calcium
2194:Caesium
2110:Fetuses
2098:British
1957:röntgen
1955:is the
1939:Effects
1907:Nectar,
1883:Pacific
1771:rainout
1739:thyroid
1681:thyroid
1592:Isotope
1536:, 1954.
1530:megaton
1506:uranium
1502:Belarus
1498:Ukraine
1443:fission
1413:fission
1149:History
1031:Hypoxia
860:Thermal
814:Plastic
676:Uranium
550:Natural
495:Digital
471:Genetic
290:Ukraine
132:Workers
127:Effects
110:Testing
100:Warfare
95:History
47:in the
6673:Midden
6653:Debris
6608:Topics
6547:Sewage
6500:debris
6495:Marine
6343:Visual
6227:Mining
6222:Litter
5715:Mining
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3694:22 May
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3269:
3251:Nature
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2750:of an
2546:, and
2521:, and
2367:before
2289:prompt
2268:, and
2183:, and
2145:yields
2133:crater
1919:DELFIC
1903:Yankee
1893:After
1821:corals
1779:porous
1585:et al.
1209:Midden
1204:Legacy
1189:Debris
1143:Topics
1096:Sludge
1086:Sewage
1041:Marine
880:Visual
799:Mining
794:Litter
333:series
271:Former
252:
250:Israel
241:Others
229:France
219:Russia
189:Winter
137:Ethics
105:Design
6744:Lists
6683:Waste
6625:Paint
6442:Water
6325:Space
5966:Sonar
5961:Urban
5939:Water
5923:Noise
5898:Ozone
5865:Light
5796:Waste
5688:Smoke
5448:S2CID
5310:S2CID
5230:(PDF)
5219:(PDF)
5127:(PDF)
5116:(PDF)
5024:S2CID
5016:JSTOR
4978:S2CID
4944:(PDF)
4716:S2CID
4530:JSTOR
4441:JSTOR
4396:(PDF)
4357:(PDF)
4332:S2CID
4304:(PDF)
3688:(PDF)
3673:(PDF)
3635:(PDF)
3628:(PDF)
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3525:(PDF)
3286:(PDF)
3275:S2CID
3247:(PDF)
2590:gamma
2582:alpha
2578:Gy/hr
2548:gamma
2540:alpha
1895:Bravo
1864:grow.
1849:fluid
1791:steel
1425:yield
1227:Lists
1219:Waste
1164:Paint
989:Water
841:Space
584:Noise
556:Ozone
521:Light
245:India
234:China
120:Yield
6658:Dust
6641:Misc
6060:Soil
5949:Rail
5935:Land
5779:Soot
5767:Smog
5683:Haze
5414:2019
5381:2019
5351:2019
5302:PMID
5271:2019
5238:2019
5202:2019
5172:2019
5135:2019
5094:2019
4926:2019
4881:2019
4847:2019
4802:2019
4759:2013
4741:ISBN
4708:PMID
4677:2013
4659:ISBN
4638:2013
4612:2013
4594:ISBN
4573:2013
4555:ISBN
4522:ISSN
4484:PMID
4476:ISSN
4433:ISSN
4404:2019
4383:ISBN
4324:ISSN
4274:ISBN
4243:PMID
4233:ISBN
4189:2010
4163:help
4143:2020
4106:2014
4075:2008
3883:JAMA
3868:2020
3850:ISBN
3827:2018
3776:2021
3746:2024
3721:2024
3696:2016
3656:help
3610:help
3540:2018
3496:ISBN
3475:2024
3453:2019
3422:2019
3389:PMID
3381:ISSN
3350:2019
3320:2024
3294:2018
3267:PMID
3229:2018
3211:ISBN
3164:2016
2815:The
2746:The
2734:and
2592:and
2584:and
2544:beta
2353:and
2315:, a
2303:The
2225:Zuni
2143:For
1973:gray
1967:and
1933:rain
1931:and
1929:Snow
1915:Tewa
1913:and
1911:Zuni
1905:and
1783:ions
1719:rain
1669:1.0
1540:rads
1500:and
1194:Dust
1178:Misc
694:Soil
441:Soot
436:Smog
401:Haze
6769:2.5
6381:War
5944:Air
5599:Air
5440:doi
5294:doi
5290:122
5190:WHO
5055:doi
5008:doi
4970:doi
4700:doi
4696:113
4514:doi
4468:doi
4373:hdl
4365:doi
4316:doi
4266:doi
4225:doi
3899:doi
3887:268
3373:doi
3259:doi
3255:209
3055:by
2727:).
2723:or
2029:by
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1663:0.3
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