History of nuclear weapons

865: 2057: 2982: 1163: 638: 1846: 19: 808: 937: 1532: 1684:" by the West. This created concern within the U.S. government and military, because, unlike Mike, the Soviet device was a deliverable weapon, which the U.S. did not yet have. This first device though was arguably not a true hydrogen bomb and could only reach explosive yields in the hundreds of kilotons (never reaching the megaton range of a staged weapon). Still, it was a powerful propaganda tool for the Soviet Union, and the technical differences were fairly oblique to the American public and politicians. 2280: 42: 792: 2179:. First strike meant the first use of nuclear weapons by one nuclear-equipped nation against another nuclear-equipped nation. If the attacking nation did not prevent the attacked nation from a nuclear response, the attacked nation would respond with a second strike against the attacking nation. In this situation, whether the U.S. first attacked the USSR, or the USSR first attacked the U.S., the result would be that both nations would be damaged to the point of utter social collapse. 2526: 1459:, both pushed for increased production of nuclear materials and a resultant increase in the American atomic stockpile. The size of that stockpile, which had been low in the immediate postwar years, was a closely guarded secret. Indeed, within the U.S. government, including the Departments of State and Defense, there was considerable confusion over who actually knew the size of the stockpile, and some people chose not to know for fear they might disclose the number accidentally. 2025: 3169: 1692:, the effect was pronounced on the security hearings in early 1954, which revoked former Los Alamos director Robert Oppenheimer's security clearance on the grounds that he was unreliable, had not supported the American hydrogen bomb program, and had made long-standing left-wing ties in the 1930s. Edward Teller participated in the hearing as the only major scientist to testify against Oppenheimer, resulting in his virtual expulsion from the physics community. 9548: 8682: 7949: 1084: 1604:

not worth the investment of resources to confirm whether this was so), and because Oppenheimer believed that the atomic forces of the United States would be more effective if they consisted of many large fission weapons (of which multiple bombs could be dropped on the same targets) rather than the large and unwieldy super bombs, for which there was a relatively limited number of targets of sufficient size to warrant such a development.

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different conclusions, Beria would bring them together for the first time and have them debate with their newfound counterparts. Beria used the espionage information as a way to double-check the progress of his scientists, and in his effort for duplication of the American project even rejected more efficient bomb designs in favor of ones that more closely mimicked the tried-and-true Fat Man bomb used by the U.S. against Nagasaki.

2037: 1893:(in the Nevada desert) became the primary location for all U.S. nuclear testing (in the USSR, Semipalatinsk Test Site in Kazakhstan served a similar role). Tests were divided into two primary categories: "weapons related" (verifying that a new weapon worked or looking at exactly how it worked) and "weapons effects" (looking at how weapons behaved under various conditions or how structures behaved when subjected to weapons). 1612: 1729:; one crew member was terminally ill. Efforts were made to recover the cargo of contaminated fish but at least two large tuna were probably sold and eaten. A further 75 tons of tuna caught between March and December were found to be unfit for human consumption. When the crew member died and the full results of the contamination were made public by the U.S., Japanese concerns were reignited about the hazards of radiation. 2507: 2646:

protest about nuclear weapons, and to support the second UN Special Session on Disarmament. As the nuclear abolitionist movement grew, there were many protests at the Nevada Test Site. For example, on February 6, 1987, nearly 2,000 demonstrators, including six members of Congress, protested against nuclear weapons testing and more than 400 people were arrested. Four of the significant groups organizing this renewal of

7937: 7961: 1436:(AEC) to take over the development of nuclear weapons from the military, and to develop nuclear power. The AEC made use of many private companies in processing uranium and thorium and in other urgent tasks related to the development of bombs. Many of these companies had very lax safety measures and employees were sometimes exposed to radiation levels far above what was allowed then or now. (In 1974, the 547: 1900:) or underwater (such as some of the tests done in the Marshall Islands). Testing was used as a sign of both national and technological strength, but also raised questions about the safety of the tests, which released nuclear fallout into the atmosphere (most dramatically with the Castle Bravo test in 1954, but in more limited amounts with almost all atmospheric nuclear testing). 2328:. One of the fishermen died in Japan seven months later. The incident caused widespread concern around the world and "provided a decisive impetus for the emergence of the anti-nuclear weapons movement in many countries". The anti-nuclear weapons movement grew rapidly because for many people the atomic bomb "encapsulated the very worst direction in which society was moving". 3017:. Ballistic missile systems, based on Wernher von Braun's World War II designs (specifically the V-2 rocket), were developed by both United States and Soviet Union teams (in the case of the U.S., effort was directed by the German scientists and engineers although the Soviet Union also made extensive use of captured German scientists, engineers, and technical data). 2846:

equipment. But as the relations between the two countries worsened the Soviets reduced the amount of assistance and, in 1959, refused to donate a bomb for copying purposes. Despite this, the Chinese made rapid progress. Chinese first gained possession of nuclear weapons in 1964, making it the fifth country to have them. It tested its first atomic bomb at

3320:, as he had lightly done in the past, alleged that Ukraine was on the path to receiving nuclear weapons. According to Putin, there was a "real danger" that Western allies could help supply Ukraine, which appeared to be on the path to joining NATO, with nuclear arms. Critics labelled Putin's claims as "conspiracy theories" designed to build a case for an 1316:, was a German émigré theoretical physicist who had been part of the early British nuclear efforts and the UK mission to Los Alamos. Fuchs had been intimately involved in the development of the implosion weapon and passed on detailed cross-sections of the Trinity device to his Soviet contacts. Other Los Alamos spies—none of whom knew each other—included 3006:(or ABM treaty), was signed by the U.S. and the USSR in 1972 to curtail the development of defenses against nuclear weapons and the ballistic missiles that carry them. This doctrine resulted in a large increase in the number of nuclear weapons, as each side sought to ensure it possessed the firepower to destroy the opposition in all possible scenarios. 2422:, demonstrated conclusively in 1961 that above-ground nuclear testing posed significant public health risks in the form of radioactive fallout spread primarily via milk from cows that had ingested contaminated grass. Public pressure and the research results subsequently led to a moratorium on above-ground nuclear weapons testing, followed by the 830:, the Manhattan project brought together some of the top scientific minds of the day, including exiles from Europe, with the production power of American industry for the goal of producing fission-based explosive devices before Germany. Britain and the U.S. agreed to pool their resources and information, but the main other Allied power, the 1159:. In late July and early August 1945, a series of leaflets were dropped over several Japanese cities warning them of an imminent destructive attack (though not mentioning nuclear bombs). Evidence suggests that these leaflets were never dropped over Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or were dropped too late, although a testimony does contradict this. 1570:) would be possible to complete before the end of the Second World War. However, in reality the problem of a regular atomic bomb was large enough to preoccupy the scientists for the next few years, much less the more speculative "Super" bomb. Only Teller continued working on the project—against the will of project leaders Oppenheimer and 2087:, first deployed by the U.S. in 1953—were surface-to-surface missiles with relatively short ranges (around 15 mi/25 km maximum) and yields around twice the size of the first fission weapons. The limited range meant they could only be used in certain types of military situations. U.S. rockets could not, for example, threaten 2203:" where the Soviet Union could potentially outshoot the Americans. It also encouraged the production of thousands of nuclear weapons by both the U.S. and the USSR, far more than needed to simply destroy the major civilian and military infrastructures of the opposing country. These policies and strategies were satirized in the 1964 1878:—and each plane could only carry a single bomb in its hold. The first hydrogen bombs were similarly massive and complicated. This ratio of one plane to one bomb was still fairly impressive in comparison with conventional, non-nuclear weapons, but against other nuclear-armed countries it was considered a grave danger. 1904:

lobbied for a ban on nuclear testing. In 1958, the U.S., USSR, and the United Kingdom (a new nuclear power) declared a temporary testing moratorium for both political and health reasons, but by 1961 the Soviet Union had broken the moratorium and both the USSR, and the U.S. began testing with great frequency.

1343:), but it was clear both to American commentators—and to the Soviets—that it was an attempt primarily to stymie Soviet nuclear efforts. The Soviets vetoed the plan, effectively ending any immediate postwar negotiations on atomic energy, and made overtures towards banning the use of atomic weapons in general. 1179: 1749:

by-products of fission reactions. While technically true, this hid a more gruesome point: the last stage of a multi-staged hydrogen bomb often used the neutrons produced by the fusion reactions to induce fissioning in a jacket of natural uranium and provided around half of the yield of the device itself.

2634:, a direct link between the superpowers that allowed them to more easily discuss future military activities and political maneuverings. It had been made clear that missiles, bombers, submarines, and computerized firing systems made escalating any situation to Armageddon far easier than anybody desired. 2540:

Bombers and short-range rockets were not reliable: planes could be shot down, and earlier nuclear missiles could cover only a limited range— for example, the first Soviet rockets' range limited them to targets in Europe. However, by the 1960s, both the United States and the Soviet Union had developed

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This philosophy made a number of technological and political demands on participating nations. For one thing, it said that it should always be assumed that an enemy nation may be trying to acquire first strike capability, which must always be avoided. In American politics this translated into demands

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Oppenheimer, who was now head of the General Advisory Committee of the successor to the Manhattan Project, the Atomic Energy Commission, presided over a recommendation against the development of the weapon. The reasons were in part because the success of the technology seemed limited at the time (and

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The Joe-1 atomic bomb test by the Soviet Union that took place in August 1949 came earlier than expected by Americans, and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the U.S. government, military, and scientific communities regarding whether to proceed with development of the far

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On August 6, 1945, a uranium-based weapon, Little Boy, was detonated above the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and three days later, a plutonium-based weapon, Fat Man, was detonated above the Japanese city of Nagasaki. To date, Hiroshima and Nagasaki remain the only two instances of nuclear weapons being

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The designing, testing, producing, deploying, and defending against nuclear weapons is one of the largest expenditures for the nations which possess nuclear weapons. In the United States during the Cold War years, between "one quarter to one third of all military spending since World War II devoted

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In December 1979, NATO decided to deploy cruise and Pershing II missiles in Western Europe in response to Soviet deployment of intermediate range mobile missiles, and in the early 1980s, a "dangerous Soviet-US nuclear confrontation" arose. In New York on June 12, 1982, one million people gathered to

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After stepping so close to the brink, both the U.S. and the USSR worked to reduce their nuclear tensions in the years immediately following. The most immediate culmination of this work was the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, in which the U.S. and USSR agreed to no longer test nuclear

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Peace movements emerged in Japan and in 1954 they converged to form a unified "Japanese Council Against Atomic and Hydrogen Bombs". Japanese opposition to the Pacific nuclear weapons tests was widespread, and "an estimated 35 million signatures were collected on petitions calling for bans on nuclear

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With the development of more rapid-response technologies (such as rockets and long-range bombers), this policy began to shift. If the Soviet Union also had nuclear weapons and a policy of "massive retaliation" was carried out, it was reasoned, then any Soviet forces not killed in the initial attack,

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Most tests were considerably more modest and worked for direct technical purposes as well as their potential political overtones. Weapons improvements took on two primary forms. One was an increase in efficiency and power, and within only a few years fission bombs were developed that were many times

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in U.S. history. The combination of the unexpectedly large blast and poor weather conditions caused a cloud of radioactive nuclear fallout to contaminate over 7,000 square miles (18,000 km). 239 Marshall Island natives and 28 Americans were exposed to significant amounts of radiation, resulting

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Its explosion yielded energy equivalent to 10.4 megatons of TNT—over 450 times the power of the bomb dropped onto Nagasaki— and obliterated Elugelab, leaving an underwater crater 6240 ft (1.9 km) wide and 164 ft (50 m) deep where the island had once been. Truman had initially tried to

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as its fusion fuel and a large fission weapon as its trigger. The device was a prototype design and not a deliverable weapon: standing over 20 ft (6 m) high and weighing at least 140,000 lb (64 t) (its refrigeration equipment added an additional 24,000 lb (11,000 kg) as well), it

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In the end, President Truman made the final decision, looking for a proper response to the first Soviet atomic bomb test in 1949. On January 31, 1950, Truman announced a crash program to develop the hydrogen (fusion) bomb. The exact mechanism was still not known: the classical hydrogen bomb, whereby

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The Soviets had put their full industrial might and manpower into the development of their own atomic weapons. The initial problem for the Soviets was primarily one of resources—they had not scouted out uranium resources in the Soviet Union and the U.S. had made deals to monopolise the largest known

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into two new cells. Even before it was published, news of Meitner's and Frisch's interpretation crossed the Atlantic. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February 1939, Hahn and Strassmann predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening

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A day later, however, the Soviets sent another message, this time demanding that the U.S. remove its missiles from Turkey before any missiles were withdrawn from Cuba. On the same day, a U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba and another almost intercepted over the Soviet Union, as Soviet merchant ships

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You and I should not now pull on the ends of the rope in which you have tied a knot of war, because the harder you and I pull, the tighter the knot will become. And a time may come when this knot is tied so tight that the person who tied it is no longer capable of untying it, and then the knot will

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MAD played on two seemingly opposed modes of thought: cold logic and emotional fear. The English phrase MAD was often known by, "nuclear deterrence," was translated by the French as "dissuasion," and "terrorization" by the Soviets. This apparent paradox of nuclear war was summed up by British Prime

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Szilard started to acquire high-quality graphite and uranium, which were the necessary materials for building a large-scale chain reaction experiment. This experiment was successfully demonstrated on December 2, 1942, at the University of Chicago. The success of this demonstration and technological

711:. Two of his first acts were to obtain authorization to assign the highest priority AAA rating on necessary procurements, and to order the purchase of all 1,250 tons of the Shinkolobwe ore. The Tube Alloys project was quickly overtaken by the U.S. effort and after Roosevelt and Churchill signed the 3244:

to develop uranium-based nuclear weapons but dismantled its nuclear weapon program in the 1990s. Experts do not believe it actually tested such a weapon, though it later claimed it constructed crude devices that it eventually dismantled. In the late 1970s American spy satellites detected a "brief,

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between the Eastern and Western blocs and the fear of global destruction prevented the further military use of atomic bombs. This fear was even a central part of Cold War strategy, referred to as the doctrine of Mutually Assured Destruction. So important was this balance to international political

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Even in the decades before fission weapons, there had been speculation about the possibility for human beings to end all life on the planet, either by accident or purposeful maliciousness—but technology had not provided the capacity for such action. The great power of hydrogen bombs made worldwide

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led the scientific effort to develop the weapon. Beria distrusted his scientists, however, and he distrusted the carefully collected espionage information. As such, Beria assigned multiple teams of scientists to the same task without informing each team of the other's existence. If they arrived at

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they stated that: "The energy liberated in the explosion of such a super-bomb...will, for an instant, produce a temperature comparable to that of the interior of the sun. The blast from such an explosion would destroy life in a wide area. The size of this area is difficult to estimate, but it will

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By the start of the war in September 1939, many scientists likely to be persecuted by the Nazis had already escaped. Physicists on both sides were well aware of the possibility of utilizing nuclear fission as a weapon, but no one was quite sure how it could be engineered. In August 1939, concerned

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According to game theory, because starting a nuclear war was suicidal, no logical country would shoot first. However, if a country could launch a first strike that utterly destroyed the target country's ability to respond, that might give that country the confidence to initiate a nuclear war. The

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and the Soviet Union signed an agreement whereby China supplied uranium ore in exchange for technical assistance in producing nuclear weapons. In 1953, China established a research program under the guise of civilian nuclear energy. Throughout the 1950s the Soviet Union provided large amounts of

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a sub-critical sphere of plutonium, thus increasing its density and making it into a critical mass. The difficulties with implosion centered on the problem of making the chemical explosives deliver a perfectly uniform shock wave upon the plutonium sphere— if it were even slightly asymmetric, the

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After hearing arguments from scientists and military officers over the possible use of nuclear weapons against Japan (though some recommended using them as demonstrations in unpopulated areas, most recommended using them against built up targets, a euphemistic term for populated cities), Truman

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Because testing was seen as a sign of technological development (the ability to design usable weapons without some form of testing was considered dubious), halts on testing were often called for as stand-ins for halts in the nuclear arms race itself, and many prominent scientists and statesmen

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in the popular and military mind. With only fission bombs, nuclear war was something that possibly could be limited. Dropped by planes and only able to destroy the most built up areas of major cities, it was possible for many to look at fission bombs as a technological extension of large-scale

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transnational organizations or the purposeful distribution of weapons information to all superpowers, but due to a deep distrust of the intentions of the Soviet Union, both in postwar Europe and in general, the policymakers of the United States worked to maintain the American nuclear monopoly.

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In the years immediately after World War II, the issue of who should control atomic weapons became a major international point of contention. Many of the Los Alamos scientists who had built the bomb began to call for "international control of atomic energy," often calling for either control by

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In early 1943 Oppenheimer determined that two projects should proceed forwards: the Thin Man project (plutonium gun) and the Fat Man project (plutonium implosion). The plutonium gun was to receive the bulk of the research effort, as it was the project with the most uncertainty involved. It was

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to the Soviet embassy to accept the second deal privately. On October 28, the Soviet ships stopped at the quarantine line and, after some hesitation, turned back towards the Soviet Union. Khrushchev announced that he had ordered the removal of all missiles in Cuba, and U.S. Secretary of State

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The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 essentially ended the Cold War. However, the end of the Cold War failed to end the threat of nuclear weapon use, although global fears of nuclear war reduced substantially. In a major move of symbolic de-escalation, Boris Yeltsin, on January 26, 1992,

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to follow eastward-moving victorious Allied troops into Europe to assess the status of the German nuclear program (and to prevent the westward-moving Soviets from gaining any materials or scientific manpower). They concluded that, while Germany had a modest nuclear research program headed by

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in the summer of 1946. Its purpose was to test the effect of nuclear weapons on naval ships. To prepare the Bikini atoll for the nuclear tests, Bikini's native residents were evicted from their homes and resettled on smaller, uninhabited islands where they were unable to sustain themselves.

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The Castle Bravo incident itself raised a number of questions about the survivability of a nuclear war. Government scientists in both the U.S. and the USSR had insisted that fusion weapons, unlike fission weapons, were cleaner, as fusion reactions did not produce the dangerously radioactive

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nuclear war seemed even more remote in the public and political mind. Even cities and countries that were not direct targets would suffer fallout contamination. Extremely harmful fission products would disperse via normal weather patterns and embed in soil and water around the planet.

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create a media blackout about the test—hoping it would not become an issue in the upcoming presidential election—but on January 7, 1953, Truman announced the development of the hydrogen bomb to the world as hints and speculations of it were already beginning to emerge in the press.

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The Soviet Union was not invited to share in the new weapons developed by the United States and the other Allies. During the war, information had been pouring in from a number of volunteer spies involved with the Manhattan Project (known in Soviet cables under the code-name of

2583:. The U.S. administration of John F. Kennedy concluded that the Soviet Union, then led by Nikita Khrushchev, was planning to station Soviet nuclear missiles on the island (as a response to placing US Jupiter MRBMs in Italy and Turkey), which was under the control of communist 2290:

The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the end of World War II quickly followed the 1945 Trinity nuclear test, and the Little Boy device was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of

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Speculation began to run towards what fallout and dust from a full-scale nuclear exchange would do to the world as a whole, rather than just cities and countries directly involved. In this way, the fate of the world was now tied to the fate of the bomb-wielding superpowers.

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The first atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively, were large, custom-made devices, requiring highly trained personnel for their arming and deployment. They could be dropped only from the largest bomber planes—at the time the

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in the Congo which produced by far the highest quality uranium ore in the world, had become aware of uranium's possible use in a bomb. In late 1940, fearing that it might be seized by the Germans, he shipped the mine's entire stockpile of ore to a warehouse in New York.

2603:. Khrushchev's ambitions for putting the weapons on the island were motivated in part by the fact that the U.S. had stationed similar weapons in Britain, Italy, and nearby Turkey, and had previously attempted to sponsor an invasion of Cuba the year before in the failed 437:

speculated about the possible military implications: "Might not a bomb no bigger than an orange be found to possess a secret power to destroy a whole block of buildings—nay to concentrate the force of a thousand tons of cordite and blast a township at a stroke?"

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What is more, if such weapons were developed by both superpowers, they would be more effective against the U.S. than against the USSR, as the U.S. had far more regions of dense industrial and civilian activity as targets for large weapons than the Soviet Union.

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around Cuba that would turn back Soviet nuclear shipments and warned that the military was prepared "for any eventualities." The missiles had 2,400 mile (4,000 km) range and would allow the Soviet Union to quickly destroy many major American cities on the

834:(USSR), was not informed. The U.S. made a tremendous investment in the project, then the second largest industrial enterprise ever seen, spread across more than 30 sites in the U.S. and Canada. Scientific development was centralized in a secret laboratory at 1138:

were also intent on ending the Pacific war before the Soviets could enter it, given that Roosevelt had promised Stalin control of Manchuria if he joined the invasion. On May 10–11, 1945, the Target Committee at Los Alamos, led by Oppenheimer, recommended

6008:, Boston, October 12, 2009. Four panels: "The Race to Build the Bomb and the Decision to Use It", "Cuban Missile Crisis and the First Nuclear Test Ban Treaty", "The Cold War and the Nuclear Arms Race" and "Nuclear Weapons, Terrorism and the Presidency". 1300:

was carefully watching the Allied weapons development. It came as no surprise to Stalin when Truman had informed him at the Potsdam conference that he had a "powerful new weapon." Truman was shocked at Stalin's lack of interest. Stalin was nonetheless

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in the midst of the Cold War. It highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven pre-eminent intellectuals and scientists, including

910:, where a sub-critical mass would be shot at another sub-critical mass. The result would be a super-critical mass and an uncontrolled chain reaction that would create the desired explosion. The weapons envisaged in 1942 were the two gun-type weapons, 2238:. Conventional war, even at its fastest, was fought over days and weeks. With long-range bombers, from the start of a nuclear attack to its conclusion was mere hours. Rockets could reduce a conflict to minutes. Planners reasoned that conventional 3094:

The Soviet Union was less forthcoming about such incidents, but the environmental group Greenpeace believes that there are around forty non-U.S. nuclear devices that have been lost and not recovered, compared to eleven lost by America, mostly in

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weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. Testing underground continued, allowing for further weapons development, but the worldwide fallout risks were purposefully reduced, and the era of using massive nuclear tests as a form of

614:. When the nucleus of uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission, releasing energy and, on average, 2.5 neutrons. Because uranium-235 releases more neutrons than it absorbs, it can support a chain reaction and so is described as 1385:

of the 1930s), would use the Report as a blueprint, seeking to duplicate as much as possible the American effort. The "secret cities" used for the Soviet equivalents of Hanford and Oak Ridge literally vanished from the maps for decades to come.

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In the immediate postwar years, the U.S. expended much effort on making the bombs "G.I.-proof"—capable of being used and deployed by members of the U.S. Army, rather than Nobel Prize–winning scientists. In the 1950s, the U.S. undertook a

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The Crisis was later seen as the closest the U.S. and the USSR ever came to nuclear war and had been narrowly averted by last-minute compromise by both superpowers. Fears of communication difficulties led to the installment of the first

603:) being the first official document explicitly mentioning a nuclear explosion as a purpose, including for war. This patent was applied for on May 4, 1939, but only granted in 1950, being withheld by French authorities in the meantime. 3270:

of Pakistan's programme confessed to having been a key mover in "proliferation activities", seen as part of an international proliferation network of materials, knowledge, and machines from Pakistan to Libya, Iran, and North Korea.

1600:, argued that such a development was inevitable, and to deny such protection to the people of the United States—especially when the Soviet Union was likely to create such a weapon themselves—was itself an immoral and unwise act. 420:

identified that atoms were breaking down and turning into different elements. Hopes were raised among scientists and laymen that the elements around us could contain tremendous amounts of unseen energy, waiting to be harnessed.

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Throughout the 1950s and the early 1960s the U.S. and the USSR both endeavored, in a tit-for-tat approach, to prevent the other power from acquiring nuclear supremacy. This had massive political and cultural effects during the

1911:, which was tested in a reduced state with a yield of around 50 megatons—in its full state it was estimated to have been around 100 Mt. The weapon was largely impractical for actual military use but was hot enough to induce 665:

but, with little initial funding ($ 6,000), progress was slow. It was not until the U.S. entered the war in December 1941 that Washington decided to commit the necessary resources to a top-secret high priority bomb project.

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breakthrough were partially due to Szilard's new atomic theories, his uranium lattice design, and the identification and mitigation of a key graphite impurity (boron) through a joint collaboration with graphite suppliers.

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Heginbotham, Eric; Chase, Michael S.; Heim, Jacob L.; Lin, Bonny; Cozad, Mark R.; Morris, Lyle J.; Twomey, Christopher P.; Morgan, Forrest E.; Nixon, Michael; Garafola, Cristina L.; Berkowitz, Samuel K. (March 6, 2017).

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National leaders debated the impact of nuclear weapons on domestic and foreign policy. Also involved in the debate about nuclear weapons policy was the scientific community, through professional associations such as the

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correctly interpreted these results as being due to the splitting of the uranium atom. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on January 13, 1939. They gave the process the name "fission" because of its similarity to the

5213:...the total figure will likely be equal to the $ 5 trillion national debt. In short, one quarter to one third of all military spending since World War II has been devoted to nuclear weapons and their infrastructure... 388:. Around the turn of the 20th century, it was discovered by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden and then Ernest Rutherford, that atoms had a highly dense, very small, charged central core called an atomic nucleus. In 1898, 2607:. On October 26, Khrushchev sent a message to Kennedy offering to withdraw all missiles if Kennedy committed to a policy of no future invasions of Cuba. Khrushchev worded the threat of assured destruction eloquently: 2809:, the United Kingdom has bought United States designs for submarine missiles and fitted its own warheads. It retains full independent control over the use of the missiles. It no longer possesses any free-fall bombs. 5329: 1933:

in development in the 1950s and 1960s. U.S. rocket science received a large boost in the postwar years, largely with the help of engineers acquired from the Nazi rocketry program. These included scientists such as

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Following the Mike blast by less than a year, Joe-4 seemed to validate claims that the bombs were inevitable and vindicate those who had supported the development of the fusion program. Coming during the height of

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to develop a logic considerably different from previous military thinking. Because the threat of nuclear warfare was so awful, it was first thought that it might make any war of the future impossible. President

2101:—weapons that could threaten an entire country—relied, for the time being, on long-range bombers that could penetrate deep into enemy territory. In the U.S., this requirement led, in 1946, to creation of the 1639:" test (a boosted-fission device using a small amount of fusion fuel to boost the yield of a fission bomb) to confirm the fusion of heavy hydrogen elements before preparing for their first true multi-stage, 861:, one of the Oak Ridge facilities, was the world's largest factory under one roof. The Oak Ridge site employed tens of thousands of people at its peak, most of whom had no idea what they were working on. 1305:, more by the Americans' guarded monopoly of the bomb than the weapon itself. Some historians share the assessment that Truman immediately authorized nuclear weapons as a "negotiating tool" in the early 956:

impurities. If such plutonium were used in a gun-type design, the chain reaction would start in the split second before the critical mass was fully assembled, blowing the weapon apart with a much lower

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Wells ... had read the record of research ... by Ernest Rutherford, and was aware that atoms could break apart. In this finding, he saw the ultimate weapon of war. He named the weapon an "atom bomb."

2894:" in 1964, the only nuclear weapons state to announce such a policy; this declaration has no effect on its capabilities and there are no diplomatic means of verifying or enforcing this declaration. 479:, he was not sure about the use of isotopes or standard forms of elements. Despite this uncertainty, he correctly theorized uranium and thorium as primary candidates for such a reaction, along with 1589:

was still quite uncertain and unworkable—and in part moral: such a weapon, they argued, could only be used against large civilian populations, and could thus only be used as a weapon of genocide.

5369: 2549:, which had less range but could be launched from submarines very close to the target without any radar warning. This made any national protection from nuclear missiles increasingly impractical. 2665:

into the American early-warning computers; a computer chip failure that appeared to show a random number of attacking missiles; a rare alignment of the Sun, the U.S. missile fields and a Soviet

1451:, which had broad legislative and executive oversight jurisdiction over nuclear matters and became one of the powerful congressional committees in U.S. history. Its two early chairmen, Senator 1370:. The sanitized summary of the wartime effort focused primarily on the production facilities and scale of investment, written in part to justify the wartime expenditure to the American public. 845:. To separate the fissile uranium-235 isotope from the non-fissile uranium-238, two methods were developed which took advantage of the fact that uranium-238 has a slightly greater atomic mass: 2149:

or launched while the attack was ongoing, would be able to serve their own form of nuclear retaliation against the U.S. Recognizing that this was an undesirable outcome, military officers and

3119:

We can neither confirm nor deny the existence of the information requested but, hypothetically, if such data were to exist, the subject matter would be classified, and could not be disclosed.

8557: 5911:

Schwartz, Stephen I.; Blair, Bruce G.; Blanton, Thomas S.; Burr, William; Kosiak, Steven M.; Makhijani, Arjun; Norris, Robert S.; O'Neill, Kevin; Pike, John E.; Weida, William J. (1998).

2556:

led leaders to exclaim their willingness to participate in a nuclear war rather than concede any advantage to their opponents, feeding public fears that their generation may be the last.

2322:. Radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing was first drawn to public attention in 1954 when a Hydrogen bomb test in the Pacific contaminated the crew of the Japanese fishing boat 2388:, England, to demonstrate their opposition to nuclear weapons. The Aldermaston marches continued into the late 1960s when tens of thousands of people took part in the four-day marches. 3263:

in 1986). Key US scientists involved in the American bomb program, clandestinely helped the Israelis and thus played an important role in nuclear proliferation, one was Edward Teller.

6712: 3249:, it was speculated to have been a South African or possibly Israeli nuclear weapons test, though some feel that it may have been caused by natural events or a detector malfunction. 5285:

The peak U.S. inventory was around 35,000 nuclear weapons. The United States spent more than $ 5.5 trillion on the nuclear arms race, an amount equal to its national debt in 1998...

1592:

Many scientists, such as Bethe, urged that the United States should not develop such weapons and set an example towards the Soviet Union. Promoters of the weapon, including Teller,

700:

For 18 months British research outpaced the American but by mid-1942, it became apparent that the industrial effort required was beyond Britain's already stretched wartime economy.

475:. This work of Szilard's was ahead of the time, five years before the public discovery of nuclear fission and eight years before a working nuclear reactor. When he coined the term 1120:

that specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent, the atomic bombing of Japan was recorded as a decision of the Anglo-American

2661:

There have been at least four major false alarms, the most recent in 1995, that resulted in the activation of nuclear attack early warning protocols. They include the accidental

1632:

showed that the fission bomb and the fusion fuel could be in separate parts of the bomb, and that radiation of the fission could compress the fusion material before igniting it.

681:

who calculated uranium-235's critical mass and found it to be much smaller than previously thought which meant that a deliverable bomb should be possible. In the February 1940

7298: 2295:, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people. Subsequently, the world's nuclear weapons stockpiles grew. 2242:

systems could not adequately react to a nuclear attack, so great lengths were taken to develop computer systems that could look for enemy attacks and direct rapid responses.

2842: 2830:

to the French presidency in 1958, final decisions to build a bomb were made, which led to a successful test in 1960. Since then, France has developed and maintained its own

2414:

In 1958, Linus Pauling and his wife presented the United Nations with the petition signed by more than 11,000 scientists calling for an end to nuclear-weapon testing. The "

368:) absorbs a thermal neutron, becomes unstable and splits into two new atoms, releasing some energy and between one and three new neutrons, which can perpetuate the process. 2767:, determined that a British Bomb was essential. Because of British involvement in the Manhattan Project, Britain had extensive knowledge in some areas, but not in others. 2763:

by the United States in 1946 unilaterally broke this partnership and prevented the passage of any further information to the United Kingdom. The British Government, under

1038:

assumed the presidency. At the time of the unconditional surrender of Germany on May 8, 1945, the Manhattan Project was still months away from producing a working weapon.

3255:

is widely believed to possess an arsenal of up to several hundred nuclear warheads, but this has never been officially confirmed or denied (though the existence of their

8619: 1585:

rebelled against the notion of creating a weapon thousands of times more powerful than the first atomic bombs. For the scientists the question was in part technical—the

4444: 311:

were conducted by the United States, with British consent, against Japan at the close of that war, standing to date as the only use of nuclear weapons in hostilities.

4416: 1752:

This fission stage made fusion weapons considerably dirtier than they were made out to be. This was evident in the towering cloud of deadly fallout that followed the

7492: 5332: 2770:

An improved version of 'Fat Man' was developed, and on 26 February 1952, Prime Minister Winston Churchill announced that the United Kingdom had an atomic bomb and a

1029: 1211:. Truman promised a "rain of ruin" if Japan did not surrender immediately, threatening to systematically eliminate their ability to wage war. On August 15, Emperor 3154:

in 1998 was therefore equal to the cost of research, development, and deployment of U.S. nuclear weapons and nuclear weapons-related programs during the Cold War.

1041:

Because of the difficulties in making a working plutonium bomb, it was decided that there should be a test of the weapon. On July 16, 1945, in the desert north of

1741:

of German and Japanese cities during World War II. Proponents brushed aside as grave exaggeration claims that such weapons could lead to worldwide death or harm.

1643:

test. Many scientists, initially against the weapon, such as Oppenheimer and Bethe, changed their previous opinions, seeing the development as being unstoppable.

5896: 1448: 472: 5410: 9294: 6900: 3091:

discovered that at least 700 "significant" accidents and incidents involving 1,250 nuclear weapons were recorded in the United States between 1950 and 1968.

2826:

In 1956, France formed a secret Committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy and a development program for delivery vehicles. With the return of

1362:

Two days after the bombing of Nagasaki, the U.S. government released an official technical history of the Manhattan Project, authored by Princeton physicist

5714:

Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb Under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940-1945

5114: 8782: 6089: 3312:

surrendered its nuclear arsenal, left over from the USSR, in part on the promise that its borders would remain respected if it did so. In 2022 during the

1324:. The information was kept but not acted upon, as the Soviet Union was still too busy fighting the war in Europe to devote resources to this new project. 871:

U separation plant at Oak Ridge, Tenn. Massive new physics machines were assembled at secret installations around the United States for the production of

6427: 3436: 3238:

All the non-Russian former Soviet bloc countries with nuclear weapons - Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan - transferred their warheads to Russia by 1996.

2612:

have to be cut. What that would mean I need not explain to you, because you yourself understand perfectly what dreaded forces our two countries possess.

295:

Building on major scientific breakthroughs made during the 1930s, the United Kingdom began the world's first nuclear weapons research project, codenamed

5377: 2890:

notes a 2018 estimate of approximately 260 nuclear warheads, including between 50 and 60 ICBMs and four nuclear submarines. China declared a policy of "

1080:

was issued containing an ultimatum for Japan: either surrender or suffer "complete and utter destruction", although nuclear weapons were not mentioned.

9358: 6722: 4556: 4328: 1857:, with a yield of 21 kilotons. It was the first U.S. nuclear field exercise conducted on land; troops shown are 6 mi (9.7 km) from the blast. 174: 1915:

at a distance of 62 mi (100 km) away. In its full, dirty, design it would have increased the amount of worldwide fallout since 1945 by 25%.

9031: 895:, which is fissile like uranium-235. After Fermi achieved the world's first sustained and controlled nuclear chain reaction with the creation of the 864: 9393: 4778:"Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations" 1004:

Historians claim to have found a rough schematic showing a Nazi nuclear bomb. In March 1945, a German scientific team was directed by the physicist

576:

decided to replicate the experiment and on January 25, 1939, conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States in the basement of

9075: 7603: 3172:

Large stockpile with global range (dark blue), smaller stockpile with global range (medium blue), small stockpile with regional range (light blue).

3994: 3032:), restricted deployment of these systems until, after the fall of the Soviet Union, system development essentially halted, and many weapons were 553:, pictured in about 1960, invented the electron microscope, linear accelerator, cyclotron, nuclear chain reaction and patented the nuclear reactor 9325: 7748: 6005: 5872: 3313: 3282: 2319: 1437: 246: 3848: 2662: 8797: 2056: 1926:

more powerful than the ones created during World War II. The other was a program of miniaturization, reducing the size of the nuclear weapons.

483:

which was later determined to be unnecessary in practice. Szilard joined Enrico Fermi in developing the first uranium-fuelled nuclear reactor,

1001:

concluded in 1943 that "it would probably be difficult even for the United States to realize the application of atomic power during the war".

8572: 6407: 6130:

For more on the history of nuclear proliferation see the Woodrow Wilson Center's Nuclear Proliferation International History Project website.

1922:, pledging to refrain from testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, underwater, or in outer space. The treaty permitted underground tests. 180: 9109: 8984: 6729: 6160: 3241: 241: 8997: 8792: 8137: 7999: 3274: 2998: 2925: 2716: 2465: 1985: 1796: 1490: 1250: 750: 230: 2823:

and lack of finances. However, in the 1950s, France launched a civil nuclear research program, which produced plutonium as a byproduct.

6495: 3824: 3305: 3204: 2647: 251: 2357:, Eaton's birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, held in July 1957. 9058: 8464: 6998: 6105: 1192: 1088: 883:

Although uranium-238 cannot be used for the initial stage of an atomic bomb, when it absorbs a neutron, it becomes uranium-239 which

308: 282: 7237: 3868: 3148:

For comparison, the total public debt at the end of fiscal year 1998 was $ 5,478,189,000,000 in 1998 dollars or $ 5.3 trillion. The

9368: 9282: 3294: 3220: 2670: 225: 6056: 1628:

of the fission bomb would be used to ignite the fusion material, seemed highly unworkable. An insight by Los Alamos mathematician

9503: 9429: 7448: 7288: 7227: 6076: 4152: 3370: 3340: 7368: 4826: 4803: 1174:

bomb and a post war Mk III nuclear weapon painted to resemble the Fat Man, at the National Museum of the United States Air Force

7193: 5467:

A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics [2 volumes]: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics

4861: 3290: 2981: 2859: 2812: 2752: 1433: 195: 185: 1950:, had endeavored to move German scientists into American hands (and away from Soviet hands) and put them to work for the U.S. 9424: 8716: 6422: 6030: 5985: 5957: 5926: 5879: 5845: 5816: 5781: 5749: 5698: 5677: 5652: 5627: 5592: 5512: 5479: 5454: 5308: 5278: 5063: 4653: 4539: 4493: 4057: 4030: 3901: 3832: 3801: 3764: 3730: 3699: 3656: 3533: 3506: 3475: 3419: 3355: 3187: 1441: 715:

in 1943, it was relocated and amalgamated into the Manhattan Project. Canada provided uranium and plutonium for the project.

211: 200: 190: 5324: 4448: 1566:

It was thought at the time that a fission weapon would be quite simple to develop and that perhaps work on a hydrogen bomb (

977:

which would focus the blast waves inside the imploding sphere, akin to the way in which an optical lens focuses light rays.

948:

that the plutonium-239 produced by the Hanford reactors had too high a level of background neutron radiation, and underwent

857:, for the large-scale production and purification of the rare isotope, which required considerable investment. At the time, 9436: 9181: 9148: 7244: 3190:

embarked relatively early on a program aimed at nuclear weapons capability, but apparently accelerated this after the 1962

3142: 2546: 2529: 2274: 2215:, and thus, after a (literally) mad US General orders a nuclear attack on the USSR, the end of the world is brought about. 2191:

as "the worse things get, the better they are"—the greater the threat of mutual destruction, the safer the world would be.

2072: 115: 4925: 3043:

There have been a number of potential nuclear disasters. Following air accidents U.S. nuclear weapons have been lost near

1405:" by the U.S. The news of the first Soviet bomb was announced to the world first by the United States, which had detected 815:

by separating the two isotopes atom-by-atom using various methods that all require a massive investment in time and money.

9526: 9493: 7965: 7161: 6707: 6672: 3163: 2802: 327: 164: 1929:

Smaller bombs meant that bombers could carry more of them, and also that they could be carried on the new generation of

1559:. At the first major theoretical conference on the development of an atomic bomb hosted by J. Robert Oppenheimer at the 993:, the government had not made a significant investment in the project, and it had been nowhere near success. Similarly, 9299: 7859: 7443: 3853: 2542: 1560: 4735: 2407:

marched in 60 cities in the United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons. It was the largest national women's

2133:'s doctrine of "massive retaliation" in the early years of the Cold War was a message to the USSR, saying that if the 1907:

As a show of political strength, the Soviet Union tested the largest-ever nuclear weapon in October 1961, the massive

1401:

On August 29, 1949, the effort brought its results, when the USSR successfully tested its first fission bomb, dubbed "

1127:

Truman hoped it would send a strong message that would end in the capitulation of the Japanese leadership and avoid a

1058: 9196: 9171: 9046: 9036: 9026: 8807: 8017: 6523: 6402: 5179: 5094: 4971: 3096: 2947: 2738: 2487: 2246: 2011: 1818: 1526: 1512: 1272: 1162: 772: 5401: 2211:, in which the Soviets, unable to keep up with the US's first strike capability, instead plan for MAD by building a 1993: 618:. Uranium-238, on the other hand, is not fissile as it does not normally undergo fission when it absorbs a neutron. 9376: 9087: 8977: 7753: 7618: 6153: 3591:

Anderson, H.L.; Booth, E.T.; Dunning, J.R.; Fermi, E.; Glasoe, G.N.; Slack, F.G. (1839). "The Fission of Uranium".

3321: 2365: 467:, as the possibility of chain reaction was still very speculative. Szilard subsequently assigned the patent to the 5615:

Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller

4201:"First Atomic Bomb Dropped on Japan; Missile Is Equal to 20,000 Tons of TNT; Truman Warns Foe of a 'Rain of Ruin'" 3687:

Technology and International Transformation: The Railroad, the Atom Bomb, and the Politics of Technological Change

1312:

The Soviet spies in the U.S. project were all volunteers and none were Soviet citizens. One of the most valuable,

997:

at developing a nuclear weapon were starved of resources. The Japanese navy lost interest when a committee led by

307:

the following year to build a weapon using nuclear fission. The project also involved Canada. In August 1945, the

9332: 9270: 9104: 9070: 7992: 7696: 7530: 7132: 7010: 6667: 6528: 4185: 2593: 2315: 1065:, far more powerful than any weapon ever used before. The news of the test's success was rushed to Truman at the 994: 6086: 3227:

conducted successful espionage operations in the Netherlands, while also developing the programme indigenously.

3009:

Early delivery systems for nuclear devices were primarily bombers like the United States B-29 Superfortress and

2183:

object of a country operating by the MAD doctrine is to deny the opposing country this first strike capability.

459:

to describe the minimum amount of material required to sustain the chain reaction and its potential to cause an

9201: 9099: 7686: 7535: 6993: 5270: 3298: 3278: 3076: 2929: 2798: 2720: 2469: 2333: 2239: 1989: 1800: 1725:, who had been fishing just outside the exclusion zone, returned to port suffering from radiation sickness and 1582: 1494: 1254: 969: 835: 800: 754: 623: 820: 631: 9508: 9289: 9255: 9208: 8802: 7460: 7293: 6717: 6645: 4470:

Hargitai, Henrik; Naß, Andrea (2019). "Planetary Mapping: A Historical Overview". In Hargitai, Henrik (ed.).

4232: 3350: 3256: 3003: 1707:, Marshall Islands. The device yielded 15 megatons, more than twice its expected yield, and became the worst 682: 275: 93: 4567: 2866:, it conducted its last nuclear test in 1996. In the 1980s, China's nuclear weapons program was a source of 9277: 9250: 9228: 9186: 9082: 8624: 7803: 7540: 7249: 7003: 6500: 5260: 4200: 2617:

neared the quarantine zone. Kennedy responded by accepting the first deal publicly and sending his brother

2377: 2349:, who signed it just days before his death on April 18, 1955. A few days after the release, philanthropist 2161: 1563:

in the summer of 1942, Teller directed the majority of the discussion towards this idea of a "Super" bomb.

637: 2545:, which could be launched from extremely remote areas far away from their target. They had also developed 841:

For a fission weapon to operate, there must be sufficient fissile material to support a chain reaction, a

9551: 9521: 9304: 9265: 9213: 8970: 8894: 8812: 8592: 7953: 7866: 7838: 7795: 7760: 7598: 7425: 7363: 7188: 7092: 6978: 6446: 6146: 3360: 1359:—now an area under their control—and searched for other domestic deposits (which were eventually found). 256: 6122:

Time-Lapse Map of All 2053 Nuclear Explosions on Planet Earth (7 Countries, 1945 – 1998) – Video (14:25)

9381: 9133: 9053: 8787: 8685: 7985: 7787: 7646: 7325: 6843: 6800: 6070:. Comparative table of the histories and arsenals of the five NPT-designated nuclear powers as of 1993. 5741: 5718: 4947: 3990: 3893: 3395: 3375: 3252: 3212: 2887: 2816: 2169: 2076: 1676:

Not to be outdone, the Soviet Union exploded its first thermonuclear device, designed by the physicist

1286: 846: 588: 495: 319: 216: 819:

The beginning of the American research about nuclear weapons (The Manhattan Project) started with the

9488: 9457: 9337: 9233: 9128: 8953: 8709: 8567: 8562: 7941: 7623: 7232: 7015: 4889: 4160: 3286: 3208: 3150: 3138: 3068: 3056: 3044: 2674: 2049: 1708: 1429: 1121: 5080: 3886:

Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (February 12, 2004).

2886:(NSG) in 2004. As of 2017, the number of Chinese warheads is thought to be in the low hundreds, The 9582: 9577: 9572: 9513: 9386: 9342: 9260: 9238: 9092: 8649: 8182: 8041: 7871: 7713: 7613: 7525: 6734: 6620: 6580: 6392: 5977: 5808: 5773: 4112: 3573: 2875: 2655: 2098: 1974: 1896:

In the beginning, almost all nuclear tests were either atmospheric (conducted above ground, in the

1208: 499: 268: 81: 4704: 3281:, conducted on October 9, 2006. On May 25, 2009, North Korea continued nuclear testing, violating 9419: 9121: 9063: 9041: 8934: 8929: 8644: 8541: 8096: 7776: 7743: 7718: 7332: 7109: 6915: 6838: 6795: 6778: 6739: 6662: 6001: 5546: 5504: 5033: 4884: 4531: 3345: 3079:). Most of the lost weapons were recovered, the Spanish device after three months' effort by the 2918: 2883: 2863: 2854:); and tested a nuclear missile on October 25, 1966; and tested a thermonuclear (hydrogen) bomb ( 2806: 2709: 2666: 2599:

The leaders of the two superpowers stood nose to nose, seemingly poised over the beginnings of a

2564:

and urging civilians about the survivability of nuclear war, did little to ease public concerns.

2553: 2552:

The military realities made for a precarious diplomatic situation. The international politics of

2458: 2423: 1978: 1919: 1854: 1845: 1789: 1483: 1410: 1302: 1243: 1203:

outright, with the heat, radiation, and blast effects. Many tens of thousands would later die of

907: 842: 743: 110: 76: 7701: 4521: 4073: 3718:

Elemental Germans: Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls and the Making of British Nuclear Culture 1939–59

2587:. On October 22, Kennedy announced the discoveries in a televised address. He announced a naval 2121:, SAC kept nuclear-armed planes in the air 24 hours a day, ready for an order to attack Moscow. 1866:. As one instance of this mindset, in the early 1950s it was proposed to drop a nuclear bomb on 580:. The following year, they identified the active component of uranium as being the rare isotope 441:

In January 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany and suppressed Jewish scientists. Physicist

322:, and not long after, both countries were developing even more powerful fusion weapons known as 8423: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8056: 7608: 6895: 6439: 5619: 5240: 3277:

announced in 2003 that it had several nuclear explosives. The first claimed detonation was the

3235:

fission devices that same year, raising concerns they would use nuclear weapons on each other.

3105: 2985:

On 12 December 1982, 30,000 women held hands around the 6 miles (9.7 km) perimeter of the

2820: 2404: 2145:), nuclear weapons would be used against the Soviet troops and potentially the Soviet leaders. 2065: 811:

Proportions of uranium-238 (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found naturally versus grades that are

650: 540: 446: 23: 4228: 3887: 3791: 3685: 3523: 3492: 3465: 3113:, the CIA would coin a favorite phrase for refusing to disclose sensitive information, called 2249:, a system that could track and intercept enemy bomber aircraft using information from remote 968:

As a result, development of Fat Man was given high priority. Chemical explosives were used to

9414: 9409: 9363: 9220: 9019: 8904: 8884: 8664: 8489: 8232: 8177: 7902: 7638: 7593: 7055: 6983: 6910: 6905: 6870: 6657: 6625: 6412: 6339: 6067: 5918: 5644: 5325:"CNS Resources on South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Program: An Annotated Chronology, 1969–1994" 5264: 5174: 4098: 4047: 4020: 3818: 3750: 3716: 3409: 3181: 3134: 2867: 2403:. On November 1, 1961, at the height of the Cold War, about 50,000 women brought together by 2118: 2102: 1897: 1586: 962: 915: 827: 796: 150: 135: 71: 5728: 4991: 3889:

Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945

3064: 2513:

photographs revealed that the Soviet Union was stationing nuclear missiles on the island of

2324: 2265:. It was the first general computing machine, and a direct predecessor of modern computers. 491: 9014: 8939: 8838: 8702: 8474: 8469: 8328: 8202: 7813: 7588: 7573: 6890: 6848: 6684: 6590: 6518: 5188: 4639: 4471: 3137:

study published in 1998 by the Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Committee (formed in 1993 by the

3124:

announced that Russia planned to stop targeting United States cities with nuclear weapons.

2879: 2774:

took place on 3 October 1952. At first these were free-fall bombs, intended for use by the

2604: 2580: 2518: 2501: 2354: 2298: 2284: 2235: 2222:

With early warning systems, it was thought that the strikes of nuclear war would come from

2130: 1636: 1567: 1216: 958: 854: 98: 86: 5049: 5017: 4777: 2815:

had been heavily involved in nuclear research before World War II through the work of the

1756:

test. When the Soviet Union tested its first megaton device in 1955, the possibility of a

1695:

On March 1, 1954, the U.S. detonated its first practical thermonuclear weapon (which used

1155:

as possible targets. Concerns about Kyoto's cultural heritage led to it being replaced by

8: 9467: 8909: 8833: 8828: 8333: 8288: 8248: 8071: 7912: 7723: 7508: 7102: 6970: 6948: 6773: 6630: 6397: 6359: 6192: 5763: 5669: 5351: 3872: 3615: 3216: 3033: 3014: 2986: 2795: 2771: 2361: 2254: 2045: 1696: 1597: 1556: 1456: 1416:

The loss of the American monopoly on nuclear weapons marked the first tit-for-tat of the

1077: 949: 569: 140: 18: 5192: 3931: 2977:, allowed nations to deliver nuclear weapons thousands of miles away with relative ease. 9462: 9143: 8993: 8924: 8398: 8222: 8192: 8132: 7892: 7628: 7465: 7392: 7203: 6853: 6823: 6807: 6790: 6434: 6324: 6272: 6222: 6169: 6046: 6018:

Command and Control: Nuclear Weapons, the Damascus Accident, and the Illusion of Safety

5708: 5542: 4906: 4708: 4499: 4312: 4206: 3722: 3037: 2791: 2626:

was moved to comment, "We went eyeball to eyeball, and the other fellow just blinked."

2579:, just off the coast of the southern United States, beginning what became known as the 2572: 2114: 1875: 1640: 1363: 1204: 1200: 1132: 1128: 1066: 1009: 662: 646: 530: 429: 6073: 4757: 4164: 1309:. In alarm at this monopoly, the Soviets urgently undertook their own atomic program. 427:

was inspired by the work of Rutherford to write about an "atom bomb" in a 1914 novel,

9533: 9452: 9138: 9116: 9006: 8899: 8874: 8848: 8749: 8613: 8602: 8509: 8368: 8363: 8313: 8162: 8157: 8147: 8008: 6960: 6753: 6640: 6615: 6553: 6510: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6187: 6026: 5981: 5953: 5922: 5875: 5841: 5812: 5777: 5745: 5694: 5673: 5648: 5623: 5588: 5555: 5530: 5508: 5475: 5450: 5304: 5274: 5204: 5059: 4910: 4740: 4649: 4535: 4489: 4053: 4026: 3897: 3828: 3797: 3760: 3726: 3695: 3652: 3529: 3502: 3471: 3415: 3267: 3048: 2974: 2827: 2618: 2431: 2415: 2396: 2188: 2084: 2029: 1947: 1935: 1912: 1417: 990: 850: 786: 708: 658: 595:

covering different use cases of atomic energy, one (case III, in patent FR 971,324 -

535: 468: 460: 434: 413: 304: 145: 130: 125: 120: 56: 8413: 6127: 6096:

A comprehensive history of nuclear weapons, including Pre, During, and Post Cold War

4503: 3184:

among lesser powers and for reasons other than the American-Soviet-Chinese rivalry.

2801:(later canceled). Anglo-American cooperation on nuclear weapons was restored by the 2395:

was the start of a successful campaign to stop the Atomic Energy Commission dumping

9472: 8869: 8634: 8433: 8418: 8383: 8358: 8212: 8167: 7808: 6863: 6828: 6585: 6575: 6463: 6451: 6292: 6287: 6277: 6267: 6262: 5833: 5798: 5200: 5196: 5055: 4898: 4481: 3622: 3602: 3260: 3072: 2756: 2561: 2373: 2341: 2125: 2092: 1890: 1850: 1836: 1657: 1321: 1117: 872: 812: 712: 565:

would be the element which can realize his 1933 idea about nuclear chain reaction.

518: 365: 345: 5837: 5487: 5144: 5051:

China's Evolving Nuclear Deterrent: Major Drivers and Issues for the United States

8853: 8843: 8744: 8639: 8479: 8443: 8373: 8308: 8298: 8273: 8172: 8152: 8127: 7706: 7666: 7120: 6934: 6858: 6833: 6679: 6472: 6374: 6364: 6329: 6207: 6197: 6093: 6080: 6016: 5971: 5947: 5912: 5890: 5866: 5827: 5802: 5767: 5735: 5712: 5688: 5663: 5638: 5613: 5584: 5578: 5522: 5498: 5465: 5440: 5337: 5298: 4621: 4525: 4477: 4421: 4179: 3991:"Minutes of a Meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, Washington, July 4, 1945" 3593: 3334: 3191: 3100: 2990: 2831: 2787: 2779: 2427: 2346: 2292: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2061: 1943: 1883: 1840: 1832: 1733: 1677: 1593: 1531: 1406: 1135: 1061:." The test, a plutonium implosion-type device, released energy equivalent to 22 1035: 807: 627: 417: 361: 338: 66: 8962: 8388: 7198: 6133: 4485: 3948: 2751:

In the fifties and sixties, three more countries joined the "nuclear club." The

1116:

ordered the use of the weapons on Japanese cities. Under the clause of the 1943

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A half-hearted plan for international control was proposed at the newly formed

1297: 1070: 1062: 998: 974: 896: 678: 674: 503: 484: 342: 334: 155: 103: 33: 7681: 6121: 5402:"Putin Spins a Conspiracy Theory That Ukraine Is on a Path to Nuclear Weapons" 5036:. National Museum of Nuclear Science & History/Atomic Heritage Foundation. 4902: 3414:. Great Discoveries in Science. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. p. 33. 3245:

intense, double flash of light near the southern tip of Africa." Known as the

1635:

Teller pushed the notion further and used the results of the boosted-fission "

9566: 8759: 8739: 8597: 8459: 8428: 8408: 8353: 8343: 8253: 8142: 8117: 8061: 7846: 7137: 6543: 6384: 6022: 5967: 5729:

Atomic Energy for Military Purposes (The Smyth Report) | Historical Documents

5559: 5208: 4686: 3787: 3756: 3618: 3606: 3437:"We have to believe in a world without war – and science should lead the way" 3365: 3246: 3114: 2600: 2557: 2306: 2175: 2079:

with Regulus cruise missiles in the submarine-based strategic deterrent role.

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was set up to deal with contaminated sites left over from these operations.)

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In December 1943 the British mission of 19 scientists arrived in Los Alamos.

892: 704: 689: 642: 592: 573: 455: 381: 323: 303:. The United States, in collaboration with the United Kingdom, initiated the 5769:

Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb

5173:

Schwartz, Stephen I.; Nuclear Weapons Cost Study Committee (November 1995).

5172: 2560:

programs undertaken by both superpowers, exemplified by the construction of

8919: 8889: 8754: 8654: 8536: 8393: 8338: 8318: 8303: 8207: 8031: 7412: 6548: 6490: 6417: 6369: 6239: 5943: 5914:

Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940

5862: 5724: 5609: 5534: 5446: 5099: 3133:

to nuclear weapons and their infrastructure." According to a retrospective

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was revolutionized with developments in the understanding of the nature of

315: 300: 4626:

Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age

1016:. Last ditch research was conducted in an experimental nuclear reactor at 337:, also known as an atomic bomb, possesses enormous destructive power from 22:

A nuclear fireball lights up the night in the United States' nuclear test

8914: 8879: 8725: 8484: 8438: 8403: 8378: 8323: 8227: 8217: 8101: 7823: 7470: 7060: 6567: 6538: 5266:

Disarmament Sketches: Three Decades of Arms Control and International Law

4517: 2851: 2760: 2408: 2381: 2200: 2150: 1738: 1689: 1382: 1340: 1313: 899:, massive reactors were secretly constructed at what is now known as the 693: 670: 611: 607: 581: 558: 550: 442: 424: 393: 385: 296: 6099: 4885:"The Forgotten Years of the World Nuclear Disarmament Movement, 1975–78" 3168: 2819:. This was discontinued after the war because of the instability of the 791: 433:, which appeared shortly before the First World War. In a 1924 article, 8587: 8531: 8268: 8258: 8187: 7176: 5223: 5221: 5095:"US nearly detonated atomic bomb over North Carolina – secret document" 4736:"Dagmar Wilson dies at 94; organizer of women's disarmament protesters" 3691: 3612: 3289:

was conducted on 13 February 2013, two tests were conducted in 2016 in

3228: 3110: 3052: 3025: 2932: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2855: 2723: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2651: 2472: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2196: 2157: 1908: 1803: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1571: 1497: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1257: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1178: 1046: 1042: 1017: 930: 911: 884: 757: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 577: 4641:

Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy

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assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could then be adapted from it.

8629: 8495: 8263: 8066: 7818: 7181: 7171: 6299: 6252: 6217: 6138: 5892:

The Swords of Armageddon: U.S. Nuclear Weapons Development Since 1945

5759: 4316: 3084: 3080: 2783: 2623: 2385: 1665: 1144: 1092: 1013: 888: 876: 514: 480: 409: 397: 7977: 7676: 6118:– located in Albuquerque, New Mexico; a Smithsonian Affiliate Museum 6116:

The National Museum of Nuclear Science & History (United States)

5949:

The Second Nuclear Age: Strategy, Danger, and the New Power Politics

5737:

German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949

5442:

Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years

5218: 4363: 4361: 3099:. The U.S. has tried to recover Soviet devices, notably in the 1974 2907: 2698: 2447: 2218: 1963: 1778: 1472: 1232: 1182:

Hiroshima: burns from the intense thermal effect of the atomic bomb.

732: 669:

Organized research first began in Britain and Canada as part of the

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The Spirit of Hiroshima: An Introduction to the Atomic Bomb Tragedy

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Radioactivity: Introduction and History, From the Quantum to Quarks

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can be dated back to September 1941, when it was first proposed by

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to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning him of the threat.

326:. Britain and France built their own systems in the 1950s, and the 6052:

Federation of American Scientists – Worldwide Nuclear Forces Guide

3971: 1611: 463:(British patent 630,726). The patent was not about an atomic bomb 356: 8659: 8526: 7876: 7828: 7691: 7671: 7070: 7045: 6485: 6316: 6304: 6282: 6247: 5640:

Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy 1939–1956

4645: 4358: 3309: 3223:. The Indian test caused Pakistan to spur its programme, and the 3021: 2847: 2755:

had been an integral part of the Manhattan Project following the

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spy plane photographed a series of launch sites for medium-range

2567:

The climax of brinksmanship came in early 1962, when an American

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was appointed to lead the U.S. project which became known as the

615: 562: 450: 401: 373: 6115: 2160:

developed a nuclear warfare strategy that was eventually called

1539:

toiled for years trying to discover a way to make a fusion bomb.

510:

reported similar results when bombarding uranium with neutrons.

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offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in

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The hydrogen bomb age had a profound effect on the thoughts of

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to raise a Soviet submarine. After news leaked out about this

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1958, when several thousand people marched for four days from

546: 7897: 7854: 7517: 7373: 7166: 7030: 5903: 4397: 2794:, intended for carriage by the V Force bombers, and then the 2250: 2032:, reflected a change in both nuclear technology and strategy. 1681: 1402: 1390: 1140: 981: 41: 4955: 4258: 4151:

Rezelman, David; Gosling, F.G.; Fehner, Terrence R. (2000).

2305:

tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in the

1918:

In 1963, all nuclear and many non-nuclear states signed the

1543:

The notion of using a fission weapon to ignite a process of

502:

could be induced in stable elements by bombarding them with

487:, which was activated at the University of Chicago in 1942. 8607: 8076: 7378: 7267: 7077: 7035: 5187:(6). Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.: 33. 4417:"The Marshall Islands: Tropical idylls scarred like Tohoku" 4294: 4246: 3231:

fission, and perhaps, fusion devices in 1998, and Pakistan

2970: 2862:; although the country has never become a signatory to the 2835: 2576: 2533: 2514: 2154: 1423: 1374: 973:

weapon would fizzle. This problem was solved by the use of

858: 377: 2782:

dropped the first UK nuclear weapon on 11 October 1956 at

1870:

as a globally visible demonstration of American weaponry.

1669:

could not have been dropped from even the largest planes.

952:

to a very small extent, due to the unexpected presence of

7351: 7215: 6064:– includes the nuclear weapon histories of many countries 4996: 4972:"438 Protesters are Arrested at Nevada Nuclear Test Site" 4527:

Nature's Building Blocks: An A to Z Guide to the Elements

4346: 3935: 3796:. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 206. 3665: 3590: 3542: 2268: 2137:

attempted to invade the parts of Europe not given to the

1939: 1699:

as its fusion fuel), known as the "Shrimp" device of the

1646:

The first fusion bomb was tested by the United States in

1373:

The Soviet program, under the suspicious watch of former

1030:

Debate over the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

445:

fled to London where, in 1934, he patented the idea of a

5910: 5227: 4669: 4667: 4665: 4373: 3849:"Canada's historical role in developing nuclear weapons" 3200:, which it described as a "peaceful nuclear explosion." 2234:

The policy also encouraged the development of the first

673:

project: the world's first nuclear weapons project. The

5046: 5031: 4864:. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections 4829:. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections 4806:. Oregon State University Libraries Special Collections 4270: 4046:

Leffler, Melvyn P.; Westad, Odd Arne (March 25, 2010).

3194:. India's first atomic-test explosion was in 1974 with 3036:. On January 27, 1967, more than 60 nations signed the 2989:

base, in protest against the decision to site American

1581:

After the atomic bombings of Japan, many scientists at

1449:

United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy

6134:

Various documents about the US nuclear weapons history

5580:

Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race

4555:

Palevsky, Mary; Futrell, Robert; Kirk, Andrew (2005).

3752:

Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

3396:

Canada's little-known contributions to the atomic bomb

3145:

from 1940 to 1998 was $ 5.5 trillion in 1996 dollars.

3020:

These systems were used to launch satellites, such as

2253:

stations. It was the first computer system to feature

6083:

Timeline- from Atomic Discovery to the 2000s (decade)

5297:

Von Wielligh, Nic; Von Wielligh-Steyn, Lydia (2015).

4662: 4385: 4150: 3959: 3628: 2654:, The American Peace Test, The Western Shoshone, and 1619:" shot in 1952 inaugurated the age of fusion weapons. 1034:

On April 12, after Roosevelt's death, Vice President

606:

Uranium appears in nature primarily in two isotopes:

8783:

Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology

5027: 5025: 4282: 3554: 2245:

The U.S. poured massive funding into development of

2091:

with an immediate strike, and could only be used as

2028:

The introduction of nuclear armed rockets, like the

903:

to transform uranium-238 into plutonium for a bomb.

5370:"Budapest Memorandums on Security Assurances, 1994" 4775: 4554: 4476:. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography. 2167:MAD divided potential nuclear war into two stages: 6901:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 5400: 5300:The Bomb: South Africa's Nuclear Weapons Programme 5081:"Backgrounder: 'No First Use' and Nuclear Weapons" 4970: 4841: 4756: 4715: 4199: 4127:"Survivors of the Atomic Bomb Share Their Stories" 2671:confuse high-altitude clouds with missile launches 2536:made defending against nuclear attack impractical. 1656:Island in the Enewetak (or Eniwetok) Atoll of the 1462: 8992: 5464:Burns, Richard Dean; Siracusa, Joseph M. (2013). 5269:. Donald R. Ellegood International Publications. 5233: 5022: 4952:International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons 3938:.com. Wednesday, 1 June 2005, 13:11 GMT 14:11 UK. 1411:test site in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic 557:After learning about the German fission in 1939, 330:has gradually grown larger in the decades since. 9564: 5344: 4948:"1982 – a million people march in New York City" 4758:"Dagmar Wilson, Anti-Nuclear Leader, Dies at 94" 4022:History for the IB Diploma Paper 2: The Cold War 3521: 3490: 2870:, as China transferred its CHIC-4 technology to 2095:(that is, for small-scale military situations). 1076:was informed of the new weapon. On July 26, the 5541: 4594:"A Short History of the People of Bikini Atoll" 3977: 3649:Histoire secrète de la bombe atomique française 3314:prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine 3283:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1718 2858:) on June 14, 1967. China ultimately conducted 2320:Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs 1438:Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program 722: 364:, the nucleus of a fissile atom (in this case, 8798:Department of Physics, Quaid-e-Azam University 5758: 4403: 4367: 4340: 4300: 4264: 4052:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 69–71. 1768: 1195:killed at least one hundred thousand Japanese 8978: 8710: 7993: 7604:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 6154: 5500:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power 5463: 4157:The Manhattan Project: An Interactive History 4045: 3916: 3744: 3742: 3470:. Associated University Presse. p. 156. 3398:, Tyler Dawson, National Post, July 24, 2023. 1432:, the U.S. Congress established the civilian 1222: 276: 1023: 677:was set up following the work of Frisch and 521:reported that they had detected the element 8793:Defence Science and Technology Organization 5333:Monterey Institute of International Studies 4469: 3927: 3925: 3782: 3780: 3778: 3776: 3407: 1992:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1737:conventional bombing—such as the extensive 1719:The crew of the Japanese tuna-fishing boat 1447:The Atomic Energy Act also established the 853:. Another secret site was erected at rural 8985: 8971: 8717: 8703: 8000: 7986: 6161: 6147: 5168: 5166: 4862:"Notes by Linus Pauling. October 10, 1963" 4727: 4705:"Early defections in march to Aldermaston" 4591: 4025:. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. 3825:United States Government Publishing Office 3739: 3646: 3306:Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances 2124:These technological possibilities enabled 686:probably cover the centre of a big city." 372:In the first decades of the 20th century, 328:number of states with nuclear capabilities 283: 269: 40: 6011: 5690:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 5032:Chinese Nuclear Program (July 19, 2018). 4776:Louise Zibold Reiss (November 24, 1961). 2948:Learn how and when to remove this message 2739:Learn how and when to remove this message 2488:Learn how and when to remove this message 2230:, not the battlefield of the wars of old. 2012:Learn how and when to remove this message 1819:Learn how and when to remove this message 1513:Learn how and when to remove this message 1273:Learn how and when to remove this message 1089:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 1008:to develop a primitive nuclear device in 933:became head of the Theoretical Division. 906:The simplest form of nuclear weapon is a 773:Learn how and when to remove this message 404:, contained a substance—which they named 309:atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 7516: 5868:U.S. Nuclear Weapons: The Secret History 5636: 4616: 4614: 4557:"Recollections of Nevada's Nuclear Past" 4313:"Poisoned Workers & Poisoned Places" 4276: 4252: 3922: 3773: 3167: 2980: 2965: 2688: 2524: 2505: 2278: 2217: 2083:Early nuclear armed rockets—such as the 2055: 2048:, allowed deployment of a wide range of 2035: 2023: 1886:program to improve the nuclear arsenal. 1844: 1610: 1530: 1424:American developments after World War II 1389:At the Soviet equivalent of Los Alamos, 1177: 1161: 1082: 935: 891:-239, and finally the relatively stable 863: 806: 790: 636: 597:Perfectionnements aux charges explosives 545: 525:after bombarding uranium with neutrons. 355: 17: 6068:NDRC Nuclear Notebook: Nuclear pursuits 5942: 5163: 5018:Nuclear Weapons – France Nuclear Forces 4968: 4882: 4859: 4014: 4012: 3997:from the original on September 18, 2017 3820:Manhattan, the Army and the Atomic Bomb 3683: 3494:Radioactivity: Introduction and History 3434: 3371:Timeline of nuclear weapons development 3361:Psychic numbing#Nuclear denial disorder 3341:International Day against Nuclear Tests 2437: 2141:during the Potsdam Conference (such as 318:started development shortly after with 9565: 7531:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 6168: 5888: 5861: 5733: 5686: 5661: 5608: 5573: 5521: 5413:from the original on February 24, 2022 5398: 5259: 4923: 4754: 4516: 4391: 4352: 4288: 3965: 3817:Jones, Vincent C. (December 1, 1985). 3748: 3714: 3671: 3634: 3560: 3548: 3337: – 2015 American documentary film 2269:Emergence of the anti-nuclear movement 1953: 1942:rockets the Nazis launched across the 1381:(a participant and victor in Stalin's 1107:as well as hundreds (or thousands) of 940:The two fission bomb assembly methods. 657:Roosevelt responded by setting up the 453:. The patent also introduced the term 8966: 8698: 8007: 7981: 7773: 7536:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 6945: 6932: 6142: 5825: 5797: 5792:Nuclear weapons and energy in culture 5707: 5435: 5078: 4824: 4801: 4637: 4611: 4379: 4049:The Cambridge History of the Cold War 3993:. United States Department of State. 3816: 3463: 3356:National Response Scenario Number One 3157: 2547:submarine-launched ballistic missiles 2530:Submarine-launched ballistic missiles 2378:Atomic Weapons Research Establishment 961:than expected, in what is known as a 9437:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era 7960: 6933: 6106:"Heading for the Fourth Nuclear Age" 5966: 5493: 5175:"Four Trillion Dollars and Counting" 4969:Lindsey, Robert (February 6, 1987). 4847: 4721: 4673: 4018: 4009: 3786: 3103:using the specialist salvage vessel 3040:, banning nuclear weapons in space. 2930:adding citations to reliable sources 2901: 2721:adding citations to reliable sources 2692: 2470:adding citations to reliable sources 2441: 2275:History of the anti-nuclear movement 1990:adding citations to reliable sources 1957: 1801:adding citations to reliable sources 1772: 1495:adding citations to reliable sources 1466: 1296:), and the Soviet nuclear physicist 1255:adding citations to reliable sources 1226: 799:led the Allied scientific effort at 755:adding citations to reliable sources 726: 568:In the United States, scientists at 7541:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 5527:Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945 5399:Sanger, David (February 23, 2022). 5330:Center for Nonproliferation Studies 5151:. Radiolab, WNYC. February 12, 2014 5115:"The Cold War's Missing Atom Bombs" 4992:"False Alarms on the Nuclear Front" 4860:Pauling, Linus (October 10, 1963). 4825:Hager, Thomas (November 29, 2007). 4802:Hager, Thomas (November 29, 2007). 4755:Hevesi, Dennis (January 23, 2011). 4733: 3297:, followed by test a year later in 3164:List of states with nuclear weapons 2803:1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement 2575:being constructed on the island of 2543:intercontinental ballistic missiles 471:so that it could be covered by the 13: 8465:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 7350: 6501:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 5995: 5376:. December 5, 1994. Archived from 5125:from the original on June 27, 2019 4989: 3854:Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission 3435:Polanyi, John (November 5, 2022). 3242:South Africa had an active program 2283:Women Strike for Peace during the 2113:(who previously presided over the 2071:; prior to the development of the 1849:November 1951 nuclear test at the 1561:University of California, Berkeley 1347:(and high purity) reserves in the 1170:B-29 that was used to deliver the 1069:, where Churchill was briefed and 626:to develop fission-based weapons, 341:, or a combination of fission and 14: 9594: 8808:Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission 6524:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 6423:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 6040: 5856:Nuclear arsenals and capabilities 5804:Nuclear Fear: A History of Images 5180:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 4924:Schell, Jonathan (July 2, 2007). 4628:, Twayne Publishers, pp. 191–192. 4478:Springer International Publishing 4153:"The atomic bombing of Hiroshima" 3949:"Hitler 'tested small atom bomb'" 3522:L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2016). 3491:L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2007). 2393:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2360:In the United Kingdom, the first 2117:during WWII). In operations like 1712:in elevated levels of cancer and 1527:History of the Teller-Ulam design 1091:killed tens of thousand Japanese 601:Improvements in Explosive Charges 9547: 9546: 8681: 8680: 7959: 7948: 7947: 7935: 7624:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 6128:History of Nuclear Proliferation 5585:Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group 4734:Woo, Elaine (January 30, 2011). 4447:. March 18, 2012. Archived from 3932:Drawing uncovered of 'Nazi nuke' 3684:Herrera, Geoffrey Lucas (2006). 3574:"Leo Szilard | Biographies" 3182:proliferation of nuclear weapons 2906: 2697: 2446: 2366:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 1962: 1777: 1471: 1231: 731: 8724: 6713:Historical stockpiles and tests 6002:"Presidency in the Nuclear Age" 5429: 5392: 5362: 5317: 5290: 5253: 5137: 5107: 5087: 5083:. Council on Foreign Relations. 5072: 5040: 5011: 4983: 4962: 4954:. June 12, 1982. Archived from 4940: 4917: 4876: 4853: 4818: 4795: 4769: 4748: 4697: 4679: 4631: 4585: 4548: 4510: 4463: 4437: 4409: 4322: 4306: 4221: 4192: 4186:Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum 4172: 4144: 4119: 4105: 4091: 4066: 4039: 3983: 3941: 3879: 3871:. June 30, 2023. Archived from 3861: 3841: 3810: 3708: 3677: 3640: 3584: 3467:Winston Churchill's Imagination 2917:needs additional citations for 2708:needs additional citations for 2457:needs additional citations for 2316:Federation of Atomic Scientists 1788:needs additional citations for 1680:, on August 12, 1953, labeled " 1482:needs additional citations for 1463:The first thermonuclear weapons 1242:needs additional citations for 1131:of the islands. Truman and his 742:needs additional citations for 477:neutron inducted chain reaction 408:—that emitted large amounts of 7614:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 6496:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 6057:The Genesis of the Atomic Bomb 6004:, conference and forum at the 5271:University of Washington Press 5201:10.1080/00963402.1995.11658102 5079:Panda, Ankit (July 17, 2018). 3869:"Leo Szilard - Nuclear Museum" 3566: 3515: 3484: 3457: 3428: 3401: 3389: 3279:2006 North Korean nuclear test 3141:), the total expenditures for 3077:1968 Thule Air Base B-52 crash 2874:. China became a party to the 2805:. As a result of this and the 2799:medium-range ballistic missile 2399:in the sea 19 kilometres from 1407:atmospheric radioactive traces 944:In April 1944 it was found by 826:With a scientific team led by 1: 8803:Pakistan Institute of Physics 7942:Nuclear technology portal 6047:Timeline of atomic age events 5838:10.4159/harvard.9780674065062 5665:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 5545:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). 4883:Wittner, Lawrence S. (2003). 4473:Planetary Cartography and GIS 4445:"Lucky Dragon's lethal catch" 4169:page on Hiroshima casualties. 3651:. Cherche Midi. p. 403. 3625:(Received: February 16, 1939) 3382: 3351:List of nuclear weapons tests 3205:Eastern Military High Command 3004:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty 3002:stability that a treaty, the 2075:, the United States employed 1057:", using a device nicknamed " 380:including the discoveries in 351: 320:their own atomic bomb project 8625:Oppenheimer security hearing 7804:Field-reversed configuration 7414:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 5832:. Harvard University Press. 5374:Council on Foreign Relations 2759:in 1943. The passing of the 2162:Mutually Assured Destruction 1938:, who had helped design the 1366:, known colloquially as the 1355:to mine the old deposits in 723:From Los Alamos to Hiroshima 7: 9359:Cosmic microwave background 8895:Muhammad Raziuddin Siddiqui 8813:National Centre for Physics 7761:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 6946: 6708:States with nuclear weapons 4486:10.1007/978-3-319-62849-3_2 3978:Hewlett & Anderson 1962 3327: 3221:research on nuclear weapons 3087:. Investigative journalist 2897: 2860:a total of 45 nuclear tests 1769:Deterrence and brinkmanship 703:In September 1942, General 10: 9599: 8788:Khan Research Laboratories 7774: 7599:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 6723:Tests in the United States 6112:, Paris, Ifri, Winter 2009 5952:. Henry Holt and Company. 5826:Weart, Spencer R. (2012). 5742:Cambridge University Press 5719:Princeton University Press 5603:The first nuclear programs 5241:"Historical Budget Tables" 5145:"Neither Confirm Nor Deny" 4404:Young & Schilling 2019 4368:Young & Schilling 2019 4341:Young & Schilling 2019 4301:Young & Schilling 2019 4265:Young & Schilling 2019 4078:Atomic Heritage Foundation 3894:Cambridge University Press 3749:Groves, Leslie R. (1983). 3715:Laucht, Christoph (2012). 3613:Pupin Physics Laboratories 3411:Nuclear Fusion and Fission 3376:Weapon of mass destruction 3209:disintegration of Pakistan 3161: 2959: 2888:Atomic Heritage Foundation 2663:loading of a training tape 2499: 2334:Russell–Einstein Manifesto 2272: 1830: 1524: 1287:Soviet atomic bomb project 1284: 1223:Soviet atomic bomb project 1027: 922:plutonium implosion bomb. 847:electromagnetic separation 784: 9542: 9481: 9445: 9402: 9351: 9315: 9159: 9005: 8954:Nuclear power in Pakistan 8948: 8862: 8821: 8773: 8732: 8678: 8568:Bismuth phosphate process 8563:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 8550: 8519: 8452: 8241: 8110: 8024: 8015: 7929: 7885: 7837: 7794: 7784: 7736: 7724:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 7637: 7619:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 7584: 7567: 7507: 7434: 7426:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 7400: 7391: 7343: 7323: 7276: 7258: 7214: 7119: 7101: 6969: 6956: 6941: 6928: 6883: 6816: 6761: 6752: 6700: 6608: 6599: 6566: 6509: 6471: 6462: 6383: 6315: 6238: 6180: 6176: 6092:December 8, 2009, at the 5034:"Chinese Nuclear Program" 4903:10.1177/00223433030404005 4890:Journal of Peace Research 4592:Niedenthal, Jack (2008). 4161:U.S. Department of Energy 3917:Burns & Siracusa 2013 3528:. Elsevier. p. 324. 3464:Alkon, Paul Kent (2006). 3139:W. Alton Jones Foundation 3069:1966 Palomares B-52 crash 3059:(1961); off the coast of 3057:Goldsboro, North Carolina 3045:Atlantic City, New Jersey 2675:Norwegian research rocket 2391:In 1959, a letter in the 2050:strategic nuclear weapons 1641:Teller-Ulam hydrogen bomb 1430:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 1303:outraged by the situation 1122:Combined Policy Committee 1024:Decision to drop the bomb 984:, General Groves ordered 683:Frisch–Peierls memorandum 7629:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 7245:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 6581:Electron-beam processing 6100:Nevada Desert Experience 5978:Lynne Rienner Publishers 5829:The Rise of Nuclear Fear 5809:Harvard University Press 5774:Cornell University Press 5764:Schilling, Warner Roller 5693:. Simon & Schuster. 5687:Rhodes, Richard (1995). 5662:Rhodes, Richard (1986). 5637:Holloway, David (1995). 5548:The New World, 1939–1946 4687:"A brief history of CND" 4638:Rudig, Wolfgang (1990). 3611:Institutional citation: 3607:10.1103/PhysRev.55.511.2 3408:Young-Brown, F. (2016). 3308:in 1994, the country of 3063:(1965); in the sea near 2997:After World War II, the 2876:Non-Proliferation Treaty 2790:. Later came a missile, 2656:Nevada Desert Experience 2596:if a nuclear war began. 1652:on November 1, 1952, on 1434:Atomic Energy Commission 1099:and destroyed dozens of 1053:took place, code-named " 622:that Germany might have 539:up the possibility of a 500:artificial radioactivity 9494:Chandrasekhar–Eddington 9420:Golden age of cosmology 9352:On specific discoveries 9300:Lorentz transformations 8930:Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi 8645:S-1 Executive Committee 8593:Einstein–Szilard letter 7744:Organic nuclear reactor 6916:Nuclear power phase-out 6839:Nuclear decommissioning 6779:Reactor-grade plutonium 6529:Targeted alpha-particle 6408:Accidents and incidents 6079:March 29, 2013, at the 6062:Nuclear Weapons Archive 5505:Oxford University Press 5303:. Litera Publications. 4926:"The Spirit of June 12" 4827:"The Right to Petition" 4532:Oxford University Press 4113:"The Hiroshima leaflet" 3346:List of nuclear weapons 3257:Dimona nuclear facility 3127: 2884:Nuclear Suppliers Group 2864:Limited Test Ban Treaty 2807:Polaris Sales Agreement 2667:early warning satellite 2517:in 1962, beginning the 2424:Partial Test Ban Treaty 1946:. An American program, 1920:Limited Test Ban Treaty 1745:annihilation possible. 1555:during a discussion at 1442:Army Corps of Engineers 908:gun-type fission weapon 821:Einstein–Szilárd letter 587:Between 1939 and 1940, 9425:Medieval Islamic world 9168:Computational physics 9110:Variational principles 9037:Electrical engineering 8087:Salt Wells Pilot Plant 5973:The Second Nuclear Age 5889:Hansen, Chuck (1995). 5620:Henry Holt and Company 5340:on September 27, 2001. 4167:on September 11, 2007. 3203:After the collapse of 3173: 3106:Hughes Glomar Explorer 3034:disabled and destroyed 2994: 2978: 2677:resulted in President 2614: 2537: 2522: 2405:Women Strike for Peace 2287: 2231: 2080: 2053: 2044:aircraft, such as the 2033: 1889:Starting in 1951, the 1858: 1716:in the years to come. 1620: 1540: 1183: 1175: 1112: 941: 880: 816: 804: 654: 591:'s team applied for a 554: 541:nuclear chain reaction 447:nuclear chain reaction 369: 27: 24:Upshot-Knothole Badger 9415:Golden age of physics 9410:Copernican Revolution 8905:Iqbal Hussain Qureshi 8665:X-10 Graphite Reactor 8620:Nobel Prize laureates 8490:509th Composite Group 6906:Anti-nuclear movement 5919:Brookings Institution 5897:Chukelea Publications 5734:Walker, Mark (1990). 5645:Yale University Press 5529:. London: Macmillan. 5121:. November 14, 2008. 5103:. September 20, 2013. 3790:(November 15, 2006). 3578:www.atomicarchive.com 3171: 3135:Brookings Institution 2984: 2969: 2868:nuclear proliferation 2850:on October 16, 1964 ( 2689:Initial proliferation 2648:anti-nuclear activism 2609: 2528: 2509: 2411:of the 20th century. 2282: 2236:early warning systems 2221: 2103:Strategic Air Command 2059: 2039: 2027: 1848: 1709:radiological disaster 1614: 1578:more powerful Super. 1534: 1181: 1165: 1086: 939: 918:(plutonium), and the 867: 828:J. Robert Oppenheimer 810: 797:J. Robert Oppenheimer 794: 640: 549: 496:Frédéric Joliot-Curie 359: 21: 9518:Relativity priority 9373:Subatomic particles 9333:Loop quantum gravity 9322:Quantum information 9271:Quantum field theory 9071:Gravitational theory 8940:Ghulam Dastagir Alam 8839:Zahid Ali Akbar Khan 8573:British contribution 8475:Operation Peppermint 8470:Operation Crossroads 8329:Maria Goeppert Mayer 7814:Reversed field pinch 7609:Traveling-wave (TWR) 7093:Supercritical (SCWR) 6591:Gemstone irradiation 6110:Proliferation Papers 5670:Simon & Schuster 5352:"I seek your pardon" 5228:Schwartz et al. 1998 4566:: 20. Archived from 4331:at Internet Archive. 4019:Todd, Allan (2015). 3551:, pp. 263, 268. 3316:, Russian President 3219:launched scientific 3143:U.S. nuclear weapons 3067:, Spain (1966) (see 3024:, and to propel the 2973:, like the American 2926:improve this article 2880:nuclear weapon state 2717:improve this article 2685:for the first time. 2605:Bay of Pigs Invasion 2581:Cuban Missile Crisis 2519:Cuban Missile Crisis 2502:Cuban Missile Crisis 2466:improve this article 2438:Cuban Missile Crisis 2426:, signed in 1963 by 2355:Pugwash, Nova Scotia 2340:on July 9, 1955, by 2299:Operation Crossroads 2285:Cuban Missile Crisis 2131:Dwight D. Eisenhower 2115:firebombing of Japan 1986:improve this section 1797:improve this article 1664:." Mike used liquid 1568:thermonuclear weapon 1535:Hungarian physicist 1491:improve this article 1251:improve this article 986:a team of scientists 855:Oak Ridge, Tennessee 751:improve this article 473:Official Secrets Act 165:Nuclear-armed states 9482:Scientific disputes 9468:Via Panisperna boys 9369:Gravitational waves 9316:Recent developments 9047:Maxwell's equations 8910:Muneer Ahmad Rashid 8834:Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq 8829:Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 8334:George Kistiakowsky 8289:Charles Critchfield 6979:Aqueous homogeneous 6774:Reprocessed uranium 6447:Safety and security 5709:Smyth, Henry DeWolf 5543:Hewlett, Richard G. 5358:. February 5, 2004. 5193:1995BuAtS..51f..32S 4382:, pp. 199–201. 4370:, pp. 156–157. 4355:, pp. 279–280. 4255:, pp. 215–218. 3980:, pp. 372–373. 3857:. February 3, 2014. 3694:. pp. 179–80. 3674:, pp. 305–312. 3647:Bendjebbar (2000). 3616:Columbia University 3322:invasion of Ukraine 3233:successfully tested 3211:as a result of the 3180:can be regarded as 3097:submarine disasters 3015:B-52 Stratofortress 2987:RAF Greenham Common 2240:command and control 2046:B-52 Stratofortress 1954:Weapons improvement 1697:isotopes of lithium 1557:Columbia University 1457:Bourke Hickenlooper 1409:generated from its 1078:Potsdam Declaration 950:spontaneous fission 570:Columbia University 536:splitting of a cell 9527:General relativity 9522:Special relativity 9463:Oxford Calculators 9290:Special relativity 9209:General relativity 8994:History of physics 8935:Władysław Turowicz 8925:Noor Muhammad Butt 8399:Henry DeWolf Smyth 8178:Robert Oppenheimer 8133:Priscilla Duffield 7893:Dense plasma focus 6808:Actinide chemistry 6273:Isotope separation 6170:Nuclear technology 5937:Second nuclear age 5407:The New York Times 5261:Graham, Thomas Jr. 4990:Forden, Geoffrey. 4977:The New York Times 4763:The New York Times 4709:Guardian Unlimited 4648:. pp. 54–55. 4573:on October 3, 2011 4522:"Chapter: Uranium" 4480:. pp. 27–64. 4451:on October 5, 2013 4229:"Japan surrenders" 4207:The New York Times 4074:"Warning Leaflets" 3725:. pp. 31–33. 3723:Palgrave Macmillan 3441:The Globe and Mail 3178:second nuclear age 3174: 3158:Second nuclear age 3151:entire public debt 3038:Outer Space Treaty 2995: 2979: 2778:of jet bombers. A 2673:; the launch of a 2669:that caused it to 2573:ballistic missiles 2538: 2523: 2288: 2232: 2109:headed by General 2081: 2054: 2034: 1913:third-degree burns 1876:B-29 Superfortress 1859: 1621: 1541: 1364:Henry DeWolf Smyth 1205:radiation sickness 1201:military personnel 1184: 1176: 1133:Secretary of State 1113: 1067:Potsdam Conference 942: 881: 817: 805: 663:Lyman James Briggs 655: 647:Robert Oppenheimer 555: 531:Otto Robert Frisch 513:In December 1938, 490:In Paris in 1934, 430:The World Set Free 370: 299:, in 1941, during 28: 26:on April 18, 1953. 9560: 9559: 9534:Transfermium Wars 9453:Harvard Computers 9278:Subatomic physics 9251:Quantum mechanics 9187:Superconductivity 9178:Condensed matter 9007:Classical physics 8960: 8959: 8900:Samar Mubarakmand 8875:Abdul Qadeer Khan 8849:Ghulam Ishaq Khan 8750:Kala Chitta Range 8692: 8691: 8614:Los Alamos Primer 8603:Interim Committee 8558:African Americans 8510:The Great Artiste 8369:Isidor Isaac Rabi 8364:Norman Ramsey Jr. 8163:Franklin Matthias 8102:Heavy water sites 8009:Manhattan Project 7975: 7974: 7925: 7924: 7921: 7920: 7872:Magnetized-target 7769: 7768: 7732: 7731: 7563: 7562: 7559: 7558: 7503: 7502: 7387: 7386: 7319: 7318: 6924: 6923: 6879: 6878: 6748: 6747: 6735:Weapon-free zones 6562: 6561: 6554:Radiopharmacology 6104:Ariel E. Levite, 6032:978-1-594-20227-8 5987:978-1-555-87331-8 5959:978-0-805-09430-5 5928:978-0-815-77774-8 5904:table of contents 5881:978-0-517-56740-1 5847:978-0-674-05233-8 5818:978-0-674-62835-9 5799:Weart, Spencer R. 5783:978-1-501-74516-4 5751:978-0-521-36413-3 5700:978-0-684-80400-2 5679:978-0-671-44133-3 5654:978-0-300-06056-0 5629:978-0-805-06588-6 5594:978-0-307-26786-3 5514:978-0-195-54315-5 5488:table of contents 5481:978-1-440-80095-5 5456:978-0-394-52278-4 5380:on March 17, 2014 5310:978-1-920-18848-1 5280:978-0-295-98212-0 5065:978-0-833-09646-3 4958:on June 15, 2012. 4936:on June 24, 2007. 4741:Los Angeles Times 4676:, pp. 96–97. 4655:978-0-582-90269-5 4541:978-0-198-50340-8 4495:978-3-319-62849-3 4343:, pp. 4, 33. 4329:FUSRAP Chronology 4059:978-0-521-83719-4 4032:978-1-107-55632-4 3955:. March 14, 2005. 3919:, pp. 22–24. 3903:978-0-521-54117-6 3875:on June 30, 2023. 3834:978-0-16-087288-4 3803:978-1-85285-541-3 3793:Churchill and War 3766:978-0-786-74822-8 3732:978-1-137-22295-4 3701:978-0-7914-6868-5 3658:978-2-86274-794-1 3535:978-0-444-63496-2 3508:978-0-080-54888-3 3477:978-0-838-75632-4 3421:978-1-502-61949-5 3266:In January 2004, 3259:was confirmed by 3049:Savannah, Georgia 2975:Minuteman missile 2958: 2957: 2950: 2882:in 1992, and the 2832:nuclear deterrent 2828:Charles de Gaulle 2749: 2748: 2741: 2683:nuclear briefcase 2534:multiple warheads 2498: 2497: 2490: 2432:Nikita Khrushchev 2416:Baby Tooth Survey 2397:radioactive waste 2376:, London, to the 2364:organised by the 2362:Aldermaston March 2189:Winston Churchill 2099:Strategic weapons 2085:MGR-1 Honest John 2064:is launched from 2030:MGR-1 Honest John 2022: 2021: 2014: 1948:Project Paperclip 1936:Wernher von Braun 1829: 1828: 1821: 1551:to his colleague 1523: 1522: 1515: 1418:nuclear arms race 1283: 1282: 1275: 1217:Japan's surrender 991:Werner Heisenberg 897:first atomic pile 851:gaseous diffusion 787:Manhattan Project 783: 782: 775: 709:Manhattan Project 659:Uranium Committee 469:British Admiralty 435:Winston Churchill 414:Ernest Rutherford 305:Manhattan Project 293: 292: 57:Nuclear explosion 9590: 9550: 9549: 9473:Women in physics 9225:Nuclear physics 9149:Perpetual motion 9083:Material science 9027:Electromagnetism 8987: 8980: 8973: 8964: 8963: 8870:Munir Ahmad Khan 8719: 8712: 8705: 8696: 8695: 8684: 8683: 8635:Quebec Agreement 8419:John von Neumann 8359:George B. Pegram 8168:Dorothy McKibbin 8002: 7995: 7988: 7979: 7978: 7963: 7962: 7951: 7950: 7940: 7939: 7938: 7850: 7809:Levitated dipole 7779: 7771: 7770: 7719:Helium gas (GFR) 7582: 7581: 7577: 7514: 7513: 7398: 7397: 7348: 7347: 7341: 7340: 7336: 7335: 7117: 7116: 7113: 7112: 6951: 6943: 6942: 6935:Nuclear reactors 6930: 6929: 6829:High-level (HLW) 6759: 6758: 6606: 6605: 6586:Food irradiation 6576:Atomic gardening 6469: 6468: 6452:Nuclear meltdown 6278:Nuclear material 6268:Fissile material 6263:Fertile material 6178: 6177: 6163: 6156: 6149: 6140: 6139: 6087:NuclearFiles.org 6074:NuclearFiles.org 6036: 5991: 5963: 5932: 5907: 5900: 5885: 5851: 5822: 5787: 5755: 5722: 5704: 5683: 5658: 5633: 5598: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5553: 5538: 5523:Gowing, Margaret 5518: 5490: 5485: 5460: 5423: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5404: 5396: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5385: 5366: 5360: 5359: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5336:. Archived from 5321: 5315: 5314: 5294: 5288: 5287: 5257: 5251: 5250: 5237: 5231: 5225: 5216: 5215: 5170: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5156: 5141: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5130: 5111: 5105: 5104: 5091: 5085: 5084: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5056:Rand Corporation 5044: 5038: 5037: 5029: 5020: 5015: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5004: 4987: 4981: 4980: 4974: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4944: 4938: 4937: 4932:. Archived from 4921: 4915: 4914: 4880: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4857: 4851: 4845: 4839: 4838: 4836: 4834: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4811: 4799: 4793: 4792: 4790: 4788: 4782: 4773: 4767: 4766: 4760: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4731: 4725: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4711:. April 5, 1958. 4701: 4695: 4694: 4683: 4677: 4671: 4660: 4659: 4635: 4629: 4620:Jerry Brown and 4618: 4609: 4608: 4606: 4604: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4580: 4578: 4572: 4561: 4552: 4546: 4545: 4514: 4508: 4507: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4456: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4432: 4430: 4413: 4407: 4401: 4395: 4389: 4383: 4377: 4371: 4365: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4319:, June 24, 2001. 4310: 4304: 4298: 4292: 4286: 4280: 4274: 4268: 4262: 4256: 4250: 4244: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4225: 4219: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4203: 4196: 4190: 4189: 4176: 4170: 4168: 4163:. Archived from 4148: 4142: 4141: 4139: 4137: 4123: 4117: 4116: 4109: 4103: 4102: 4099:"A Day Too Late" 4095: 4089: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4070: 4064: 4063: 4043: 4037: 4036: 4016: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3987: 3981: 3975: 3969: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3945: 3939: 3929: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3907: 3883: 3877: 3876: 3865: 3859: 3858: 3845: 3839: 3838: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3784: 3771: 3770: 3746: 3737: 3736: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3681: 3675: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3644: 3638: 3632: 3626: 3610: 3588: 3582: 3581: 3570: 3564: 3558: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3539: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3488: 3482: 3481: 3461: 3455: 3454: 3449: 3447: 3432: 3426: 3425: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3261:Mordechai Vanunu 3073:Thule, Greenland 3013:, and later the 2999:balance of power 2953: 2946: 2942: 2939: 2933: 2910: 2902: 2757:Quebec Agreement 2744: 2737: 2733: 2730: 2724: 2701: 2693: 2594:Eastern Seaboard 2562:fallout shelters 2493: 2486: 2482: 2479: 2473: 2450: 2442: 2418:," headed by Dr 2374:Trafalgar Square 2342:Bertrand Russell 2301:was a series of 2213:Doomsday Machine 2126:nuclear strategy 2093:tactical weapons 2017: 2010: 2006: 2003: 1997: 1966: 1958: 1891:Nevada Test Site 1855:Operation Buster 1851:Nevada Test Site 1837:Nuclear strategy 1824: 1817: 1813: 1810: 1804: 1781: 1773: 1658:Marshall Islands 1518: 1511: 1507: 1504: 1498: 1475: 1467: 1440:(FUSRAP) of the 1351:. The USSR used 1322:David Greenglass 1278: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1258: 1235: 1227: 1129:lengthy invasion 1118:Quebec Agreement 975:explosive lenses 873:enriched uranium 778: 771: 767: 764: 758: 735: 727: 713:Quebec Agreement 694:Shinkolobwe Mine 692:, a director of 519:Fritz Strassmann 498:discovered that 396:discovered that 366:enriched uranium 285: 278: 271: 222: 116:Target selection 44: 30: 29: 9598: 9597: 9593: 9592: 9591: 9589: 9588: 9587: 9583:Nuclear warfare 9578:Nuclear history 9573:Nuclear weapons 9563: 9562: 9561: 9556: 9538: 9509:Joule–von Mayer 9477: 9441: 9398: 9347: 9311: 9202:Big Bang theory 9155: 9054:Fluid mechanics 9001: 8991: 8961: 8956: 8944: 8858: 8854:Mubashir Hassan 8844:Rahimuddin Khan 8817: 8775: 8769: 8745:Chagai District 8728: 8723: 8693: 8688: 8674: 8640:RaLa Experiment 8546: 8515: 8480:Project Alberta 8448: 8444:Chien-Shiung Wu 8374:James Rainwater 8309:Richard Feynman 8299:John R. Dunning 8274:Norris Bradbury 8237: 8223:Stafford Warren 8193:William Purnell 8173:Kenneth Nichols 8153:Ernest Lawrence 8128:James B. Conant 8106: 8020: 8011: 8006: 7976: 7971: 7936: 7934: 7917: 7881: 7848: 7833: 7790: 7780: 7775: 7765: 7728: 7633: 7578: 7571: 7570: 7555: 7499: 7430: 7405: 7383: 7355: 7337: 7330: 7329: 7328: 7315: 7281: 7272: 7254: 7219: 7210: 7124: 7107: 7106: 7105: 7097: 7011:Natural fission 6965: 6964: 6952: 6947: 6937: 6920: 6896:Nuclear weapons 6875: 6834:Low-level (LLW) 6812: 6744: 6696: 6595: 6558: 6505: 6458: 6379: 6311: 6234: 6172: 6167: 6094:Wayback Machine 6081:Wayback Machine 6043: 6033: 6013:Schlosser, Eric 5998: 5996:Further reading 5988: 5960: 5929: 5901: 5882: 5848: 5819: 5784: 5752: 5701: 5680: 5655: 5630: 5595: 5575:Rhodes, Richard 5564: 5562: 5551: 5515: 5486: 5482: 5457: 5437:Bundy, McGeorge 5432: 5427: 5426: 5416: 5414: 5397: 5393: 5383: 5381: 5368: 5367: 5363: 5350: 5349: 5345: 5323: 5322: 5318: 5311: 5295: 5291: 5281: 5258: 5254: 5239: 5238: 5234: 5226: 5219: 5171: 5164: 5154: 5152: 5143: 5142: 5138: 5128: 5126: 5113: 5112: 5108: 5093: 5092: 5088: 5077: 5073: 5066: 5045: 5041: 5030: 5023: 5016: 5012: 5002: 5000: 4988: 4984: 4967: 4963: 4946: 4945: 4941: 4922: 4918: 4881: 4877: 4867: 4865: 4858: 4854: 4846: 4842: 4832: 4830: 4823: 4819: 4809: 4807: 4800: 4796: 4786: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4770: 4753: 4749: 4732: 4728: 4720: 4716: 4703: 4702: 4698: 4685: 4684: 4680: 4672: 4663: 4656: 4636: 4632: 4622:Rinaldo Brutoco 4619: 4612: 4602: 4600: 4598:BikiniAtoll.com 4590: 4586: 4576: 4574: 4570: 4559: 4553: 4549: 4542: 4534:. p. 476. 4515: 4511: 4496: 4468: 4464: 4454: 4452: 4443: 4442: 4438: 4428: 4426: 4425:. June 10, 2012 4422:The Japan Times 4415: 4414: 4410: 4406:, pp. 1–2. 4402: 4398: 4390: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4366: 4359: 4351: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4311: 4307: 4299: 4295: 4287: 4283: 4275: 4271: 4263: 4259: 4251: 4247: 4237: 4235: 4233:History channel 4227: 4226: 4222: 4212: 4210: 4198: 4197: 4193: 4178: 4177: 4173: 4149: 4145: 4135: 4133: 4125: 4124: 4120: 4111: 4110: 4106: 4097: 4096: 4092: 4082: 4080: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4044: 4040: 4033: 4017: 4010: 4000: 3998: 3989: 3988: 3984: 3976: 3972: 3964: 3960: 3947: 3946: 3942: 3930: 3923: 3915: 3911: 3904: 3896:. p. 168. 3884: 3880: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3847: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3815: 3811: 3804: 3785: 3774: 3767: 3747: 3740: 3733: 3713: 3709: 3702: 3682: 3678: 3670: 3666: 3659: 3645: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3594:Physical Review 3589: 3585: 3572: 3571: 3567: 3559: 3555: 3547: 3543: 3536: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3501:. p. 240. 3489: 3485: 3478: 3462: 3458: 3445: 3443: 3433: 3429: 3422: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3385: 3380: 3335:The Bomb (film) 3330: 3304:As part of the 3213:1971 Winter war 3192:Sino-Indian War 3166: 3160: 3130: 3101:Project Azorian 2991:cruise missiles 2964: 2954: 2943: 2937: 2934: 2923: 2911: 2900: 2834:independent of 2821:Fourth Republic 2788:South Australia 2780:Vickers Valiant 2772:successful test 2745: 2734: 2728: 2725: 2714: 2702: 2691: 2681:activating his 2601:third world war 2504: 2494: 2483: 2477: 2474: 2463: 2451: 2440: 2428:John F. Kennedy 2347:Albert Einstein 2277: 2271: 2263:display devices 2209:Dr. Strangelove 2205:Stanley Kubrick 2062:SSM-N-8 Regulus 2018: 2007: 2001: 1998: 1983: 1967: 1956: 1944:English Channel 1884:nuclear testing 1843: 1841:Nuclear warfare 1833:Nuclear testing 1831:Main articles: 1825: 1814: 1808: 1805: 1794: 1782: 1771: 1678:Andrei Sakharov 1594:Ernest Lawrence 1529: 1519: 1508: 1502: 1499: 1488: 1476: 1465: 1426: 1289: 1279: 1268: 1262: 1259: 1248: 1236: 1225: 1209:related cancers 1136:James F. Byrnes 1063:kilotons of TNT 1036:Harry S. Truman 1032: 1026: 995:Japan's efforts 869:Electromagnetic 789: 779: 768: 762: 759: 748: 736: 725: 628:Albert Einstein 624:its own project 561:concluded that 504:alpha particles 418:Frederick Soddy 362:nuclear fission 354: 339:nuclear fission 289: 240: 220: 210: 179: 34:Nuclear weapons 12: 11: 5: 9596: 9586: 9585: 9580: 9575: 9558: 9557: 9555: 9554: 9543: 9540: 9539: 9537: 9536: 9531: 9530: 9529: 9524: 9516: 9514:Shapley–Curtis 9511: 9506: 9504:Leibniz–Newton 9501: 9499:Galileo affair 9496: 9491: 9485: 9483: 9479: 9478: 9476: 9475: 9470: 9465: 9460: 9455: 9449: 9447: 9443: 9442: 9440: 9439: 9434: 9433: 9432: 9422: 9417: 9412: 9406: 9404: 9400: 9399: 9397: 9396: 9394:Speed of light 9391: 9390: 9389: 9384: 9379: 9371: 9366: 9361: 9355: 9353: 9349: 9348: 9346: 9345: 9340: 9338:Nanotechnology 9335: 9330: 9329: 9328: 9319: 9317: 9313: 9312: 9310: 9309: 9308: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9287: 9286: 9285: 9275: 9274: 9273: 9268: 9263: 9258: 9248: 9247: 9246: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9223: 9218: 9217: 9216: 9206: 9205: 9204: 9199: 9191: 9190: 9189: 9184: 9176: 9175: 9174: 9165: 9163: 9161:Modern physics 9157: 9156: 9154: 9153: 9152: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9136: 9129:Thermodynamics 9126: 9125: 9124: 9114: 9113: 9112: 9107: 9097: 9096: 9095: 9090: 9080: 9079: 9078: 9068: 9067: 9066: 9061: 9051: 9050: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9024: 9023: 9022: 9011: 9009: 9003: 9002: 8990: 8989: 8982: 8975: 8967: 8958: 8957: 8949: 8946: 8945: 8943: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8866: 8864: 8860: 8859: 8857: 8856: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8831: 8825: 8823: 8822:Administrators 8819: 8818: 8816: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8800: 8795: 8790: 8785: 8779: 8777: 8771: 8770: 8768: 8767: 8762: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8736: 8734: 8730: 8729: 8722: 8721: 8714: 8707: 8699: 8690: 8689: 8679: 8676: 8675: 8673: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8627: 8622: 8617: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8583:Chicago Pile-1 8580: 8578:Calutron Girls 8575: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8554: 8552: 8551:Related topics 8548: 8547: 8545: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8523: 8521: 8517: 8516: 8514: 8513: 8506: 8499: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8456: 8454: 8450: 8449: 8447: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8414:Stanisław Ulam 8411: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8391: 8386: 8381: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8361: 8356: 8351: 8349:Edwin McMillan 8346: 8341: 8336: 8331: 8326: 8321: 8316: 8311: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8294:Harry Daghlian 8291: 8286: 8284:John Cockcroft 8281: 8279:James Chadwick 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8245: 8243: 8239: 8238: 8236: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8205: 8203:Charles Thomas 8200: 8198:Frank Spedding 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8158:James Marshall 8155: 8150: 8145: 8140: 8138:Thomas Farrell 8135: 8130: 8125: 8123:Arthur Compton 8120: 8114: 8112: 8111:Administrators 8108: 8107: 8105: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8064: 8059: 8054: 8049: 8039: 8034: 8028: 8026: 8022: 8021: 8016: 8013: 8012: 8005: 8004: 7997: 7990: 7982: 7973: 7972: 7970: 7969: 7957: 7945: 7930: 7927: 7926: 7923: 7922: 7919: 7918: 7916: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7903:Muon-catalyzed 7900: 7895: 7889: 7887: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7863: 7862: 7852: 7843: 7841: 7835: 7834: 7832: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7800: 7798: 7792: 7791: 7785: 7782: 7781: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7763: 7758: 7757: 7756: 7751: 7740: 7738: 7734: 7733: 7730: 7729: 7727: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7710: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7643: 7641: 7635: 7634: 7632: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7594:Integral (IFR) 7591: 7585: 7579: 7568: 7565: 7564: 7561: 7560: 7557: 7556: 7554: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7522: 7520: 7511: 7505: 7504: 7501: 7500: 7498: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7490: 7489: 7488: 7483: 7478: 7473: 7458: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7440: 7438: 7432: 7431: 7429: 7428: 7423: 7418: 7409: 7407: 7403: 7395: 7389: 7388: 7385: 7384: 7382: 7381: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7360: 7358: 7353: 7345: 7338: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7317: 7316: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7285: 7283: 7279: 7274: 7273: 7271: 7270: 7264: 7262: 7256: 7255: 7253: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7241: 7240: 7235: 7224: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7211: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7164: 7159: 7158: 7157: 7152: 7149: 7146: 7143: 7129: 7127: 7122: 7114: 7099: 7098: 7096: 7095: 7090: 7089: 7088: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7074: 7073: 7068: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7013: 7008: 7007: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6981: 6975: 6973: 6967: 6966: 6958: 6957: 6954: 6953: 6939: 6938: 6926: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6913: 6911:Uranium mining 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6887: 6885: 6881: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6873: 6868: 6867: 6866: 6861: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6820: 6818: 6814: 6813: 6811: 6810: 6805: 6804: 6803: 6793: 6788: 6787: 6786: 6784:Minor actinide 6781: 6776: 6765: 6763: 6756: 6750: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6743: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6726: 6725: 6720: 6710: 6704: 6702: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6694: 6693: 6692: 6682: 6677: 6676: 6675: 6670: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6649: 6648: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6612: 6610: 6603: 6597: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6572: 6570: 6564: 6563: 6560: 6559: 6557: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6515: 6513: 6507: 6506: 6504: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6483: 6481:Autoradiograph 6477: 6475: 6466: 6460: 6459: 6457: 6456: 6455: 6454: 6444: 6443: 6442: 6432: 6431: 6430: 6420: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6389: 6387: 6381: 6380: 6378: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6321: 6319: 6313: 6312: 6310: 6309: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6296: 6295: 6290: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6244: 6242: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6232: 6231: 6230: 6225: 6215: 6210: 6205: 6203:Atomic nucleus 6200: 6195: 6190: 6184: 6182: 6174: 6173: 6166: 6165: 6158: 6151: 6143: 6137: 6136: 6131: 6125: 6119: 6113: 6102: 6097: 6084: 6071: 6065: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6042: 6041:External links 6039: 6038: 6037: 6031: 6009: 5997: 5994: 5993: 5992: 5986: 5968:Gray, Colin S. 5964: 5958: 5939: 5938: 5934: 5933: 5927: 5908: 5886: 5880: 5858: 5857: 5853: 5852: 5846: 5823: 5817: 5794: 5793: 5789: 5788: 5782: 5756: 5750: 5731: 5705: 5699: 5684: 5678: 5659: 5653: 5634: 5628: 5605: 5604: 5600: 5599: 5593: 5571: 5539: 5519: 5513: 5491: 5480: 5461: 5455: 5431: 5428: 5425: 5424: 5391: 5361: 5343: 5316: 5309: 5289: 5279: 5273:. p. 35. 5252: 5246:whitehouse.gov 5232: 5217: 5162: 5136: 5106: 5086: 5071: 5064: 5039: 5021: 5010: 4982: 4961: 4939: 4916: 4897:(4): 435–456. 4875: 4852: 4840: 4817: 4804:"Strontium-90" 4794: 4768: 4747: 4726: 4714: 4696: 4678: 4661: 4654: 4630: 4610: 4584: 4547: 4540: 4509: 4494: 4462: 4436: 4408: 4396: 4394:, p. 207. 4384: 4372: 4357: 4345: 4333: 4321: 4305: 4293: 4281: 4279:, p. 213. 4269: 4257: 4245: 4220: 4191: 4171: 4143: 4118: 4104: 4090: 4065: 4058: 4038: 4031: 4008: 3982: 3970: 3968:, p. 372. 3958: 3940: 3921: 3909: 3902: 3878: 3860: 3840: 3833: 3827:. p. 82. 3809: 3802: 3788:Best, Geoffrey 3772: 3765: 3759:. p. 33. 3738: 3731: 3707: 3700: 3676: 3664: 3657: 3639: 3637:, p. 267. 3627: 3601:(5): 511–512. 3583: 3565: 3563:, p. 268. 3553: 3541: 3534: 3514: 3507: 3483: 3476: 3456: 3427: 3420: 3400: 3387: 3386: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3358: 3353: 3348: 3343: 3338: 3331: 3329: 3326: 3318:Vladimir Putin 3299:September 2017 3197:Smiling Buddha 3159: 3156: 3129: 3126: 3089:Eric Schlosser 2960:Main article: 2956: 2955: 2914: 2912: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2765:Clement Attlee 2753:United Kingdom 2747: 2746: 2705: 2703: 2696: 2690: 2687: 2640:saber rattling 2500:Main article: 2496: 2495: 2454: 2452: 2445: 2439: 2436: 2368:took place at 2351:Cyrus S. Eaton 2336:was issued in 2332:weapons". The 2303:nuclear weapon 2273:Main article: 2270: 2267: 2151:game theorists 2020: 2019: 1970: 1968: 1961: 1955: 1952: 1827: 1826: 1785: 1783: 1776: 1770: 1767: 1722:Lucky Dragon 5 1660:, code-named " 1630:Stanislaw Ulam 1545:nuclear fusion 1525:Main article: 1521: 1520: 1479: 1477: 1470: 1464: 1461: 1425: 1422: 1379:Lavrenty Beria 1357:Czechoslovakia 1337:Bernard Baruch 1333:United Nations 1298:Igor Kurchatov 1285:Main article: 1281: 1280: 1239: 1237: 1230: 1224: 1221: 1101:military bases 1097:non-combatants 1071:Soviet Premier 1028:Main article: 1025: 1022: 999:Yoshio Nishina 914:(uranium) and 785:Main article: 781: 780: 739: 737: 730: 724: 721: 679:Rudolf Peierls 675:Maud Committee 641:Major General 485:Chicago Pile-1 353: 350: 335:nuclear weapon 324:hydrogen bombs 291: 290: 288: 287: 280: 273: 265: 262: 261: 260: 259: 254: 249: 244: 234: 233: 228: 223: 214: 204: 203: 198: 193: 191:United Kingdom 188: 183: 168: 167: 161: 160: 159: 158: 153: 148: 143: 138: 133: 128: 123: 118: 113: 107: 106: 101: 96: 90: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 51: 50: 46: 45: 37: 36: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9595: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9574: 9571: 9570: 9568: 9553: 9545: 9544: 9541: 9535: 9532: 9528: 9525: 9523: 9520: 9519: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9502: 9500: 9497: 9495: 9492: 9490: 9489:Bohr–Einstein 9487: 9486: 9484: 9480: 9474: 9471: 9469: 9466: 9464: 9461: 9459: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9450: 9448: 9444: 9438: 9435: 9431: 9428: 9427: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9418: 9416: 9413: 9411: 9408: 9407: 9405: 9401: 9395: 9392: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9378: 9375: 9374: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9356: 9354: 9350: 9344: 9343:String theory 9341: 9339: 9336: 9334: 9331: 9327: 9324: 9323: 9321: 9320: 9318: 9314: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9292: 9291: 9288: 9284: 9281: 9280: 9279: 9276: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9253: 9252: 9249: 9245: 9242: 9240: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9226: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9215: 9212: 9211: 9210: 9207: 9203: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9194: 9192: 9188: 9185: 9183: 9180: 9179: 9177: 9173: 9170: 9169: 9167: 9166: 9164: 9162: 9158: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9131: 9130: 9127: 9123: 9120: 9119: 9118: 9115: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9102: 9101: 9098: 9094: 9093:Metamaterials 9091: 9089: 9086: 9085: 9084: 9081: 9077: 9074: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9056: 9055: 9052: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9029: 9028: 9025: 9021: 9018: 9017: 9016: 9013: 9012: 9010: 9008: 9004: 8999: 8995: 8988: 8983: 8981: 8976: 8974: 8969: 8968: 8965: 8955: 8952: 8947: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8861: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8835: 8832: 8830: 8827: 8826: 8824: 8820: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8804: 8801: 8799: 8796: 8794: 8791: 8789: 8786: 8784: 8781: 8780: 8778: 8772: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8760:Kharan Desert 8758: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8740:Ras Koh Hills 8738: 8737: 8735: 8731: 8727: 8720: 8715: 8713: 8708: 8706: 8701: 8700: 8697: 8687: 8677: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8631: 8628: 8626: 8623: 8621: 8618: 8616: 8615: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8598:Franck Report 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8555: 8553: 8549: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8524: 8522: 8518: 8512: 8511: 8507: 8505: 8504: 8500: 8498: 8497: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8460:Alsos Mission 8458: 8457: 8455: 8451: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8434:Robert Wilson 8432: 8430: 8429:Eugene Wigner 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8409:Edward Teller 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8387: 8385: 8384:Glenn Seaborg 8382: 8380: 8377: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8367: 8365: 8362: 8360: 8357: 8355: 8354:Mark Oliphant 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8344:Willard Libby 8342: 8340: 8337: 8335: 8332: 8330: 8327: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8254:Robert Bacher 8252: 8250: 8247: 8246: 8244: 8240: 8234: 8233:Roscoe Wilson 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8148:John Lansdale 8146: 8144: 8143:Leslie Groves 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8119: 8118:Vannevar Bush 8116: 8115: 8113: 8109: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8047: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8029: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8014: 8010: 8003: 7998: 7996: 7991: 7989: 7984: 7983: 7980: 7968: 7967: 7958: 7956: 7955: 7946: 7944: 7943: 7932: 7931: 7928: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7890: 7888: 7884: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7865: 7861: 7860:electrostatic 7858: 7857: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7840: 7836: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7801: 7799: 7797: 7793: 7789: 7783: 7778: 7772: 7762: 7759: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7746: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7735: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7649: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7640: 7639:Generation IV 7636: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7589:Breeder (FBR) 7587: 7586: 7583: 7580: 7575: 7566: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7519: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7506: 7494: 7491: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7439: 7437: 7433: 7427: 7424: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7415: 7411: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7390: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7361: 7359: 7357: 7349: 7346: 7342: 7339: 7334: 7327: 7322: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7291: 7290: 7287: 7286: 7284: 7282: 7275: 7269: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7261: 7257: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7230: 7229: 7226: 7225: 7223: 7221: 7213: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7169: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7156: 7153: 7150: 7147: 7144: 7141: 7140: 7139: 7136: 7135: 7134: 7131: 7130: 7128: 7126: 7118: 7115: 7111: 7104: 7100: 7094: 7091: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7063: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7018: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6986: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6976: 6974: 6972: 6968: 6963: 6962: 6955: 6950: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6931: 6927: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6891:Nuclear power 6889: 6888: 6886: 6882: 6872: 6871:Transmutation 6869: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6821: 6819: 6815: 6809: 6806: 6802: 6799: 6798: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6785: 6782: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6771: 6770: 6767: 6766: 6764: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6751: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6715: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6705: 6703: 6699: 6691: 6688: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6668:high-altitude 6666: 6665: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6658:Proliferation 6656: 6654: 6651: 6647: 6644: 6643: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6611: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6598: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6571: 6569: 6565: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6544:Brachytherapy 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6516: 6514: 6512: 6508: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6476: 6474: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6461: 6453: 6450: 6449: 6448: 6445: 6441: 6438: 6437: 6436: 6433: 6429: 6426: 6425: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6390: 6388: 6386: 6382: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6340:Cross section 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6322: 6320: 6318: 6314: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6281: 6280: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6243: 6241: 6237: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6220: 6219: 6216: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6164: 6159: 6157: 6152: 6150: 6145: 6144: 6141: 6135: 6132: 6129: 6126: 6123: 6120: 6117: 6114: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6095: 6091: 6088: 6085: 6082: 6078: 6075: 6072: 6069: 6066: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6044: 6034: 6028: 6024: 6023:Penguin Group 6020: 6019: 6014: 6010: 6007: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5989: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5974: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5951: 5950: 5945: 5944:Bracken, Paul 5941: 5940: 5936: 5935: 5930: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5915: 5909: 5905: 5898: 5894: 5893: 5887: 5883: 5877: 5874: 5873:Aerofax, Inc. 5870: 5869: 5864: 5863:Hansen, Chuck 5860: 5859: 5855: 5854: 5849: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5831: 5830: 5824: 5820: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5805: 5800: 5796: 5795: 5791: 5790: 5785: 5779: 5775: 5771: 5770: 5765: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5732: 5730: 5726: 5720: 5716: 5715: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5696: 5692: 5691: 5685: 5681: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5666: 5660: 5656: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5641: 5635: 5631: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5616: 5611: 5610:Herken, Gregg 5607: 5606: 5602: 5601: 5596: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5581: 5576: 5572: 5561: 5557: 5550: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5524: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5501: 5496: 5492: 5489: 5483: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5468: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5448: 5444: 5443: 5438: 5434: 5433: 5412: 5408: 5403: 5395: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5365: 5357: 5353: 5347: 5339: 5335: 5334: 5331: 5326: 5320: 5312: 5306: 5302: 5301: 5293: 5286: 5282: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5267: 5262: 5256: 5248: 5247: 5242: 5236: 5229: 5224: 5222: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5176: 5169: 5167: 5150: 5146: 5140: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5110: 5102: 5101: 5096: 5090: 5082: 5075: 5067: 5061: 5058:. p. 2. 5057: 5053: 5052: 5043: 5035: 5028: 5026: 5019: 5014: 4999: 4998: 4993: 4986: 4978: 4973: 4965: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4943: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4920: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4891: 4886: 4879: 4863: 4856: 4850:, p. 98. 4849: 4844: 4828: 4821: 4805: 4798: 4779: 4772: 4764: 4759: 4751: 4743: 4742: 4737: 4730: 4724:, p. 93. 4723: 4718: 4710: 4706: 4700: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4675: 4670: 4668: 4666: 4657: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4642: 4634: 4627: 4623: 4617: 4615: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4569: 4565: 4558: 4551: 4543: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4528: 4523: 4519: 4513: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4474: 4466: 4450: 4446: 4440: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4412: 4405: 4400: 4393: 4388: 4381: 4376: 4369: 4364: 4362: 4354: 4349: 4342: 4337: 4330: 4325: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4302: 4297: 4291:, p. 24. 4290: 4285: 4278: 4277:Holloway 1995 4273: 4267:, p. 21. 4266: 4261: 4254: 4253:Holloway 1995 4249: 4234: 4230: 4224: 4209: 4208: 4202: 4195: 4187: 4183: 4182: 4175: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4132: 4128: 4122: 4114: 4108: 4100: 4094: 4083:September 23, 4079: 4075: 4069: 4061: 4055: 4051: 4050: 4042: 4034: 4028: 4024: 4023: 4015: 4013: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3979: 3974: 3967: 3962: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3926: 3918: 3913: 3905: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3890: 3882: 3874: 3870: 3864: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3844: 3836: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3821: 3813: 3805: 3799: 3795: 3794: 3789: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3777: 3768: 3762: 3758: 3757:Da Capo Press 3754: 3753: 3745: 3743: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3719: 3711: 3703: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3688: 3680: 3673: 3668: 3660: 3654: 3650: 3643: 3636: 3631: 3624: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3595: 3587: 3579: 3575: 3569: 3562: 3557: 3550: 3545: 3537: 3531: 3527: 3526: 3518: 3510: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3495: 3487: 3479: 3473: 3469: 3468: 3460: 3453: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3423: 3417: 3413: 3412: 3404: 3397: 3392: 3388: 3377: 3374: 3372: 3369: 3367: 3366:Ranged weapon 3364: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3354: 3352: 3349: 3347: 3344: 3342: 3339: 3336: 3333: 3332: 3325: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3302: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3269: 3268:Dr A. Q. Khan 3264: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3248: 3247:Vela incident 3243: 3239: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3215:, Pakistan's 3214: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3199: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3183: 3179: 3170: 3165: 3155: 3153: 3152: 3146: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3125: 3121: 3120: 3116: 3115:glomarization 3112: 3108: 3107: 3102: 3098: 3092: 3090: 3086: 3085:DSV Aluminaut 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3005: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2983: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2963: 2952: 2949: 2941: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2920: 2915:This section 2913: 2909: 2904: 2903: 2895: 2893: 2889: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2844: 2839: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2822: 2818: 2817:Joliot-Curies 2814: 2810: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2743: 2740: 2732: 2722: 2718: 2712: 2711: 2706:This section 2704: 2700: 2695: 2694: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2643: 2641: 2635: 2633: 2627: 2625: 2620: 2613: 2608: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2595: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2563: 2559: 2558:Civil defense 2555: 2550: 2548: 2544: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2503: 2492: 2489: 2481: 2471: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2455:This section 2453: 2449: 2444: 2443: 2435: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2409:peace protest 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2329: 2327: 2326: 2321: 2317: 2311: 2308: 2307:Pacific Ocean 2304: 2300: 2296: 2294: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2216: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2192: 2190: 2184: 2180: 2178: 2177: 2176:second strike 2172: 2171: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2156: 2152: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2127: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2105:—a system of 2104: 2100: 2096: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2069: 2063: 2058: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2031: 2026: 2016: 2013: 2005: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1981: 1980: 1976: 1971:This section 1969: 1965: 1960: 1959: 1951: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1927: 1923: 1921: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1905: 1901: 1899: 1894: 1892: 1887: 1885: 1879: 1877: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1823: 1820: 1812: 1802: 1798: 1792: 1791: 1786:This section 1784: 1780: 1775: 1774: 1766: 1762: 1759: 1755: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1723: 1717: 1715: 1714:birth defects 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1693: 1691: 1685: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1670: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1650: 1649:Operation Ivy 1644: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1599: 1595: 1590: 1588: 1587:weapon design 1584: 1579: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1553:Edward Teller 1550: 1546: 1538: 1537:Edward Teller 1533: 1528: 1517: 1514: 1506: 1496: 1492: 1486: 1485: 1480:This section 1478: 1474: 1469: 1468: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1453:Brien McMahon 1450: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1421: 1419: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1396: 1395:Yuli Khariton 1392: 1387: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1369: 1365: 1360: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1349:Belgian Congo 1344: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1329: 1325: 1323: 1319: 1318:Theodore Hall 1315: 1310: 1308: 1304: 1299: 1295: 1288: 1277: 1274: 1266: 1256: 1252: 1246: 1245: 1240:This section 1238: 1234: 1229: 1228: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1180: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1137: 1134: 1130: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1110: 1106: 1105:supply depots 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1085: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1074:Joseph Stalin 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1037: 1031: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1002: 1000: 996: 992: 987: 983: 978: 976: 971: 966: 964: 960: 955: 954:plutonium-240 951: 947: 938: 934: 932: 927: 923: 921: 917: 913: 909: 904: 902: 898: 894: 893:plutonium-239 890: 886: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 843:critical mass 839: 837: 833: 829: 824: 822: 814: 809: 802: 798: 793: 788: 777: 774: 766: 756: 752: 746: 745: 740:This section 738: 734: 729: 728: 720: 716: 714: 710: 706: 705:Leslie Groves 701: 698: 695: 691: 690:Edgar Sengier 687: 684: 680: 676: 672: 667: 664: 660: 652: 648: 644: 643:Leslie Groves 639: 635: 633: 629: 625: 619: 617: 613: 609: 604: 602: 598: 594: 593:patent family 590: 585: 583: 579: 575: 574:New York City 571: 566: 564: 560: 552: 548: 544: 542: 537: 532: 528: 524: 520: 516: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 488: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 462: 458: 457: 456:critical mass 452: 448: 444: 439: 436: 432: 431: 426: 422: 419: 415: 411: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 382:atomic theory 379: 375: 367: 363: 358: 349: 347: 344: 340: 336: 331: 329: 325: 321: 317: 312: 310: 306: 302: 298: 286: 281: 279: 274: 272: 267: 266: 264: 263: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 243: 239: 236: 235: 232: 229: 227: 224: 218: 215: 213: 209: 206: 205: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 181:United States 178: 176: 172: 171: 170: 169: 166: 163: 162: 157: 154: 152: 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 136:Proliferation 134: 132: 129: 127: 124: 122: 119: 117: 114: 112: 109: 108: 105: 102: 100: 97: 95: 92: 91: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 63: 60: 58: 55: 54: 53: 52: 48: 47: 43: 39: 38: 35: 32: 31: 25: 20: 16: 9458:The Martians 9243: 9122:Spectroscopy 9064:Aerodynamics 9042:Field theory 8950: 8920:Asghar Qadir 8890:Ishfaq Ahmad 8776:institutions 8755:Kirana Hills 8670:Y-12 Project 8655:Smyth Report 8650:S-50 Project 8612: 8608:K-25 Project 8537:Pumpkin bomb 8508: 8501: 8494: 8424:John Wheeler 8394:Louis Slotin 8389:Emilio Segrè 8339:George Koval 8319:James Franck 8304:Enrico Fermi 8249:Luis Alvarez 8208:Paul Tibbets 8183:Deak Parsons 7964: 7952: 7933: 7913:Pyroelectric 7867:Laser-driven 7647:Sodium (SFR) 7574:fast-neutron 7413: 6959: 6849:Reprocessing 6730:WMD treaties 6652: 6549:Radiosurgery 6519:Fast-neutron 6491:Scintigraphy 6109: 6017: 5972: 5948: 5913: 5891: 5867: 5828: 5803: 5768: 5736: 5725:Smyth Report 5713: 5689: 5664: 5639: 5614: 5579: 5563:. 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