Proto-Indo-European society

4593:, p. 201: "Determining the order in which they diverged from each other, called subgrouping, has proved surprisingly difficult (e.g., Ringe et al. 2002), but a consensus is emerging. It seems clear that the ancestor of the Anatolian subgroup (which includes Hittite) separated from the other dialects of PIE first, so from a cladistic point of view Anatolian is half the IE family (e.g., Jasanoff 2003). Within the non-Anatolian half, it appears that the ancestor of the Tocharian subgroup (whose attested languages were spoken in Xinjiang, today in western China, until approximately the tenth century CE) separated from the other dialects before the latter had diverged much (e.g.,Winter 1998, Ringe 2000). It follows that an item inherited by two or more of the daughter subgroups can be reconstructed for "early" PIE only if it is attested in at least one Anatolian language and at least one non-Anatolian language, and such an item can be reconstructed for the ancestor of the non-Anatolian subgroups only if it is attested in one or both of the Tocharian languages and in some other IE language. This observation is relevant below. For want of better terms, "early" PIE is used here for the last common ancestor of the Anatolian and non-Anatolian IE branches; "post-Anatolian" PIE is used for the last common ancestor of the non-Anatolian PIE languages, including Tocharian. Because it seems clear that there was still a more or less unified group of PIE dialects after Anatolian and Tocharian had split off, "late" PIE is used for the common ancestor of all other IE branches." 3920: 3474: 3483: 2853:) of the universe, with the underlying idea that the cosmic harmony should be maintained, be it in the physical universe or the social world. There was however probably no public enforcement of justice, nor were there formal courts as we know them today. Contractual obligations were protected by private individuals acting as sureties: they pledged to be responsible for payments of debts incurred by someone else if the latter defaulted. In case of litigation, one could either take matter into their own hands, for instance by barring someone from accessing their property to compel payment, or bring the case before judges (perhaps kings) that included witnesses. The word for 'oath', * 2400:

was weakly developed. The Yamnaya funeral sacrifice of wagons, carts, sheep, cattle, and horse was likely related to a cult of ancestors requiring specific rituals and prayers, a connection between language and cult that introduced the Late Proto-Indo-European language to new speakers. Yamnaya chiefdoms had institutionalized differences in prestige and power, and their society was organized along patron-client reciprocity, a mutual exchange of gifts and favors between their patrons, the gods, and human clients. The average life expectancy was fairly high, with many individuals living to 50–60 years old. The language itself appeared as a

2427: 2255: 164: 4543:, p. 2: "This scenario is supported not only by linguistic evidence, but also by a growing body of archeological and genetic evidence. The Indo-Europeans have been identified with several cultural complexes existing in that area between 4,500—3,500 BCE. The literature supporting such a homeland is both extensive and persuasive . Consequently, other scenarios regarding the possible Indo-European homeland, such as Anatolia, have now been mostly abandoned"; 2537:, "one standing below"), indicate that a hierarchy of wealth and poverty was recognized. Some graves, larger than the average and necessitating a considerable number of people to be built, likewise suggest a higher status given to some individuals. These prestigious funerals were not necessarily reserved to the wealthiest person. Smiths in particular were given sumptuous graves, possibly due to the association of smithery with magic during the 3871:, a trade route that introduced the wheeled wagon into the Caspian-Pontic steppes. Wheel-made pottery imported from Mesopotamia were found in the Northern Caucasus, and Maikop chieftain was buried wearing Mesopotamian symbols of power—the lion paired with the bull. The late Khvalynsk and Repin cultures probably traded wool and domesticated horses in exchange, as suggested by the widespread appearance of horses in archeological sites across 3073:. After recovering the wealth of the people, Trito eventually offered the cattle to the priest in order to ensure the continuity of the cycle of giving between gods and humans. The creation myth could have rationalized raiding as the recovery of cattle that the gods had intended for the people who sacrificed properly. Many Indo-European cultures preserved the tradition of cattle raiding, which they often associated with epic myths. 25: 2334: 72: 3818: 2545: 3346:

to master an extensive body of traditional subject matter. He performed against handsome rewards—such as gifts of horses, cattle, wagons and women—and was held in high esteem. In some cases, the poet-singer had a stable relationship with a particular noble prince or family. In other cases, he travelled about with his dependants, attaching himself to one court after another.

4555:, pp. 341–342: "When we add the evidence from ancient DNA, and the additional evidence from recent linguistic work discussed above, the Anatolian hypothesis must be considered largely falsified. Those Indo-European languages that later came to dominate in western Eurasia were those originating in the migrations from the Russian steppe during the third millennium BC." 2192:, with domesticated animals at the root of the Proto-Indo-European conception of the universe. Anthony attributes the first and progressive domestication of horses, from taming to actually working with the animal, to this period. Between 4500 and 4200, copper, exotic ornamental shells and polished stone maces were exchanged across the Pontic–Caspian steppes from 2423:, permitted by two earlier innovations: the introduction of the wheeled wagon and the domestication of the horse. Yamnaya herders likely watched over their cattle and raided on horseback, while they drove wagons for the bulk transport of water or food. Light-framework dwellings could be easily assembled and disassembled to be transported on pack animals. 4154: 3845:. Domesticated cattle, sheep and goats, as well as copper, were introduced eastward from the Danube valley around 4700–4500. Copper objects show an artistic influence from Old Europe, and the appearance of sacrificed animals suggest that a new set of rituals emerged following the introduction of herding from the west. The Old European 4549:, p. 152: "This finding provides yet another line of evidence for the steppe hypothesis, showing that not just Indo-European languages, but also Indo-European culture as reflected in the religion preserved over thousands of years by Brahmin priests, was likely spread by peoples whose ancestors originated in the steppe."; 3358:("praise of the gift") has been identified in early Proto-Indo-European. Such praise poems proclaimed the generosity of the gods (or a patron) and enumerated their gifts, expanding the patron's fame, the path to immortality otherwise only attainable for mortals through conspicuous acts of war or piety. 3254:

Although we know little about the role of magic in Proto-Indo-European society, there is no doubt that it existed as a social phenomenon, as several branches attest the use of similarly worded charms and curses, such as ones against worms. Furthermore, incantations and spells were frequently regarded

2741:

between 4500 and 3500 BCE led to an increase in mobility across the Yamnaya horizon, and eventually to the emergence of a guest-host political structure. As various herding clans began to move across the steppes, especially during harsh seasons, it became necessary to regulate local migrations on the

2719:

Public feasts sponsored by such patrons were a way for them to promote and secure a political hierarchy built on the unequal mobilization of labor and resources, by displaying their generosity towards the rest of the community. Rivals competed publicly through the size and complexity of their feasts,

2611:

Once established, the family lasted as long as the male stock of its founder endured, and clan or tribal founders were often portrayed as mythical beings stemming from a legendary past in Indo-European traditions. In this form of kinship organization, the individual's genetic distance from the clan's

3345:

Poetry and songs were central to Proto-Indo-European society. The poet-singer was the society's highest-paid professional, possibly a member of a hereditary profession that ran in certain families, the art passing from father to son as the poet had to acquire all the technical aspects of the art and

2813:

Because of the archaic nature of traditional legal phraseology—which preserves old forms and meaning for words—and the necessity for legal sentences to be uttered precisely the same way each time to remain binding, it is possible to securely reconstruct some elements of the Proto-Indo-European legal

3437:

alike, were transmitted among poet-singers to fill out traditional verse-lines in epic song lyrics. The task of the Indo-European poet was to preserve over the generations the famous deeds of heroes. He would compose and retell poems based on old and sometimes obscure formulations, reconnecting the

2399:

was introduced to the Pontic-Caspian steppes during this period. Following the Yamnaya expansion, long-distance trade in metals and other valuables, such as salt in the hinterlands, probably brought prestige and power to Proto-Indo-European societies. However, the native tradition of pottery making

3648:

for personal names, typically but not always ascribing some noble or heroic feat to their bearer, is so common in Indo-European languages that it is certainly an inherited feature. These names often belonged in early dialects to the class of compound words that in the Sanskrit tradition are called

2784:

Guests and hosts were indeed involved in a mutual and reciprocal relationship bound by oaths and sacrifices. The giving and receiving of favors was accompanied by a set of ritual actions that indebted the guest to show hospitality to his host at any time in the future. The obligation could even be

2262:

Steppe economies underwent a revolutionary change between 4200 and 3300 BCE, in a shift from a partial reliance on herding, when domesticated animals were probably used principally as a ritual currency for public sacrifices, to a later regular dietary dependence on cattle, and either sheep or goat

3036:

or husbandmen (associated with fertility and craftsmanship), on the basis that many historically known groups speaking Indo-European languages show such a division. Dumézil initially contended that it derived from an actual division in Indo-European societies, but later toned down his approach by

2094:

migrations have been linked to the spread of Indo-Europeans languages in several genetic studies published in recent years. In support of the Anatolian Hypothesis, a study named "Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family" gained widespread media attention in 2012, but

2484:

such as are found in historical India. There was a general distinction between free persons and slaves, typically prisoners of war or debtors unable to repay a debt. The free part of society was composed of an elite class of priests, kings and warriors, along with the commoners, with each tribe

2095:

received scrutiny from historical linguists, who accused the study of abandoning the comparative method and of conflating language with genes. Nonetheless, "Mapping the Origins" has been cited by many since its publication, highlighting an interdisciplinary gap between linguistics and genetics.

3627:

In a mostly patriarchal economy based on bride competition, the escalation of the bride-price in periods of climate change could have resulted in an increase in cattle raiding by unmarried men. Scholars also suggest that, alongside the attractiveness of the patron-client and the guest-host

4706:

Lazaridis, Iosif; Alpaslan-Roodenberg, Songül; Acar, Ayşe; Açıkkol, Ayşen; Agelarakis, Anagnostis; Aghikyan, Levon; Akyüz, Uğur; Andreeva, Desislava; Andrijašević, Gojko; Antonović, Dragana; Armit, Ian; Atmaca, Alper; Avetisyan, Pavel; Aytek, Ahmet İhsan; Bacvarov, Krum (2022-08-26).

2030:: interpretations based on the comparison of Indo-European beliefs to identify shared themes and characteristics. While few divine names can be confidently reconstructed due to foreign influences and considerable evolutions in beliefs, scholars have been able to recover parts of the 2438:

Another climate change that occurred after around 3000 led to a more favourable environment allowing for grassland productivity. Yamnaya new pastoral economy then experienced a third wave of rapid demographic expansion, that time towards Central and Northern Europe. Migrations of

3353:

of the old heroic times, entrusted with telling the praises of heroes, kings, and gods. Composing sacred hymns ensured the gods would in turn bestow favourable fate to the community, and for kings that their memory would live on many generations. A lexeme for a special song, the

2822:- ('to make a circle, complete') designated a type of compensation where the father (or master) had to either pay for the damages caused by his son (or slave), or surrender the perpetrator to the offended party. It is attested by a common legal and linguistic origin in both 4561:, p. 199: "Archaeological evidence and linguistic evidence converge in support of an origin of Indo-European languages on the Pontic-Caspian steppes around 4,000 years BCE. The evidence is so strong that arguments in support of other hypotheses should be reexamined." 2577:-, 'to lead (away)', being the word that denotes a male wedding a female. Rights, possessions, and responsibilities were consequently reckoned to the father, and wives were to reside after marriage near the husband's family, after the payment of a bride-price. 2596:('master of the household'), and could also consist of his children, grandchildren, and perhaps unrelated slaves or servants. His wife probably also played a complementary role: some evidence suggest that she would have kept her position as the mistress (* 7323: 3041:

or general organizing principles. Dumézil's theory has been influential and some scholars continue to operate under its framework, although it has also been criticized as aprioristic and too inclusive, and thus impossible to be proved or disproved.

4623:. As is usual with protolanguages of the distant past, we can’t say with certainty where and when PIE was spoken, but evidence currently available points strongly to river valleys of Ukraine in the fifth millennium BC (the 'steppe hypothesis'). 2267:) Proto-Indo-European language, showed the first traces of cereal cultivation after 4000, in the context of a slow and partial diffusion of farming from the western parts of the steppes to the east. Around 3700–3300, a second migration wave of 2457:

The Proto-Indo-European language probably ceased to be spoken after 2500 as its various dialects had already evolved into non-mutually intelligible languages that began to spread across most of western Eurasia during the third wave of

3508:

Although Proto-Indo-Europeans have been often cast as warlike conquerors, their reconstructed arsenal is not particularly extensive. There is no doubt that they possessed archery, as several words with the meaning of "spear"

3081:

nature of priesthood, while the other is involved in religious sanction to human society (especially contracts), a theory supported by common features in Iranian, Roman, Scandinavian and Celtic traditions. The study of

2612:

founding ancestor determined his social status. But if he was of exceptional prowess or virtue, the same individual could in his turn gain social prestige among the community and eventually found his own descent-group.

2479:

It is generally agreed that Proto-Indo-European society was hierarchical, with some form of social ranking and various degrees of social status. It is unlikely, however, that they had a rigidly stratified structure, or

3906:

across the northern forest zone might have been stimulated by organizational changes within Uralic forager societies, resulting partly from interaction with more complex, hierarchical Proto-Indo-European and (later)

3571:) for a number of years before returning home to adopt more respectable identities as mature men. During their initiation period, the young males wore the skin and bore the names of wild animals, especially wolves (* 3752:

in compound names (the bearers are not 'horses' themselves but 'users of horses' in some way), in contrast to endocentric personal names rather associated with wild animals like the wolf, for instance in the German

2736:

Vertical social inequalities were partly balanced by horizontal mutual obligations of hospitality between guests and hosts. According to Anthony, the domestication of horses and the introduction of the wagon in the

3769:

Proto-Indo-Europeans possessed a Neolithic mixed economy based on livestock and subsidiary agriculture, with a wide range of economic regimes and various degrees of mobility that could be expected across the large

2608:(the inclusion of foreign women through marriage) and the exchange of foster children with other families and clans, as suggested by genetic evidence and later attestations from Indo-European-speaking groups. 7147:

Anthony, David W.; Brown, Dorcas R. (2019). "Late Bronze Age midwinter dog sacrifices and warrior initiations at Krasnosamarskoe, Russia". In Olsen, Birgit A.; Olander, Thomas; Kristiansen, Kristian (eds.).

5354:

Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Olalde, Iñigo; Carver, Sophie; Allentoft, Morten E.; Knowles, Tim; Kroonen, Guus; Pike, Alistair W. G.; Schröter, Peter; Brown, Keri A.; Brown, Kate Robson; Harrison, Richard J. (2020).

4109:

in particular) are fairly abundant in the reconstructed lexicon. We can ascribe about seventy-five names to various animal species, but it hardly recovers all the animals to have been distinguished in the

3809:, the "livestock"). As for the rest of society, economy was founded on reciprocity. A gift always entailed a counter-gift, and each party was bound to the other in a mutual relationship cemented by trust. 3659:(literally "much-rice", meaning "one who has much rice"), those compounds are formed as active structures indicating possession and do not require a verbal root. From the Proto-Indo-European personal name 2668:('noble, distinguished'). It is unlikely however that the term had an ethnic connotation, and we do not know if Proto-Indo-European speakers had a term to designate themselves as a group. Another word, * 2297:, had notable social effects on the Proto-Indo-European way of life. Meanwhile, the Khvalynsk-influenced cultures that had emerged in the Danube-Donets region after the first migration gave way to the 7866: 4297:

was named the "dog", and the best throw was known as the "dog-killer". Canine teeth of dogs were frequently worn as pendants in Yamnaya graves in the western Pontic steppes, particularly in the

2604:) of the household in the event her husband dies, while the eldest son would have become the new master. The Proto-Indo-European expansionist kinship system was likely supported by both marital 7446:; Allentoft, Morten E.; Frei, Karin M.; Iversen, Rune; Johannsen, Niels N.; Kroonen, Guus; Pospieszny, Łukasz; Price, T. Douglas; Rasmussen, Simon; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Sikora, Martin (2017). 4426:

In Indo-European culture, the term "wolf" is generally applied to brigands and outlaws who live in the wild. Ritual and mythological concepts connected with wolves, in some cases similar with

4229: 3255:

as one of the three categories of medicine, along with the use of surgical instruments and herbs or drugs. Since the earliest evidence for the burning of the plant was found in Romanian

2204:. Around 4500, a minority of richly decorated single graves, partly enriched by imported copper items, began to appear in the steppes, contrasting with the remaining outfitted graves. 3251:

for the renewal of kinship involving the ritual mating of a queen or king with a horse, which was then sacrificed and cut up for distribution to the other participants in the ritual.

3247:, associated with early Proto-Indo-European, had already shown archeological evidence for the sacrifice of domesticated animals. Proto-Indo-Europeans also had a sacred tradition of 5126: 4333: 7925:. Edited by FRAGNER BERT G., KAUZ RALPH, PTAK RODERICH, and SCHOTTENHAMMER ANGELA, 111–28. Wien: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2009. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvmd83w6.17. 4368: 3919: 8271: 3598:. A continuity of an "animal-shaped raid culture" has been also postulated based on various elements attested in later Indo-European-speaking cultures, such as the Germanic 3567:. They were led by a senior male and lived off the country by hunting and engaging in raiding and pillaging foreign communities. Kóryos members served in such brotherhoods ( 7862:, edited by Olsen Birgit Anette, Olander, Thomas; and Kristiansen, Kristian. Oxford; Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2019. pp. 165–184. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvmx3k2h.14. 4246: 3732: 3557:

might have referred to the "adult male with possession" who would mobilize during warfare, perhaps originally a Proto-Indo-European term meaning "the people under arms".

4567:, p. 185: "The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the 7497:

Problems of chronological and social stratification in the historical anthroponomastics: The case of "lupine" and "equine" proper names among the Indo-European peoples

3590:

feature a man wearing a belt and weapons carved on the stone. In later Indo-European traditions, notably the (half-)naked warrior figures of Germanic and Celtic art,

3560:

A number of scholars propose that Proto-Indo-European rituals included the requirement that young unmarried men initiate into manhood by joining a warrior-band named

5357:"Kinship and social organization in Copper Age Europe. A cross-disciplinary analysis of archaeology, DNA, isotopes, and anthropology from two Bell Beaker cemeteries" 4323: 3998:

The vocabulary associated with metallurgy is very restricted and at best we can attest the existence of copper/bronze, gold, and silver. The basic word for "metal" (

4355: 2805:, refusing hospitality was deemed a crime as serious as murder. The killing of a guest was also greeted with a singular revulsion, as was the abuse of hospitality. 7971:. Edited by Cardona George, Hoenigswald Henry M., and Senn Alfred, 49–54. PHILADELPHIA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4v31xt.7. 4218: 3594:

raiders wore a belt that bound them to their leader and the gods, and little else. The tradition of kurgan stelae featuring warriors with a belt is also common in

2892:, that is which is 'fitting, right, ordered'. It is one of the most securely reconstructed Proto-Indo-European words, with cognates attested in most sub-families: 2207:

The Anatolian distinctive sub-family may have emerged from a first wave of Indo-European migration into southeastern Europe around 4200–4000, coinciding with the

7904:, edited by Olsen, Birgit Anette; Olander Thomas, and Kristiansen Kristian, 145–64. Oxford; Philadelphia: Oxbow Books, 2019. www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvmx3k2h.13. 4198: 4176: 2541:. In general, such graves were mostly occupied by males in the eastern Don-Volga steppes, while they were more egalitarian in the western Dnieper-Donets region. 3263:

was first used as a psychoactive drug by Proto-Indo-Europeans during ritual ceremonies, a custom they eventually spread throughout western Eurasia during their

7996: 4254:

species, probably originated with these peoples, and scholars invoke this innovation as a factor contributing to their increased mobility and rapid expansion.

4170: 4208: 4132: 3243:) in the hope of winning their favor. The king as the high priest would have been the central figure in establishing good relations with the other world. The 3065:

shows that the ritual sacrifice of cattle, cows in particular, was at the root of their beliefs, as the primordial condition of the world order. The myth of *

46: 8071: 4139: 2419:

between 3500 and 3000, herds needed to be moved more frequently in order to feed them sufficiently. Yamnaya distinctive identity was thus founded on mobile

1989:

debate about the precise origins of the language itself. There are four main approaches researchers have employed in their attempts to study this culture:

2010:

on this page, with a preceding asterisk) which formed part of the vocabulary of the Proto-Indo-European language. These are reconstructed on the basis of

7023:

Lane, George S. (1970). "Tocharian. Indo-European and Non-Indo-European Relationships.". In Cardona, George; Hoenigswald, Henry M.; Senn, Alfred (eds.).

3698:

A second type of compound consists of a noun followed by a verbal root or stem, describing an individual performing an action. Compounds more similar to

4765: 2188:. Cattle and sheep were more important in ritual sacrifices than in diet, suggesting that a new set of cults and rituals had spread eastward across the 7876:

Fortunato, Laura (2011). "Reconstructing the History of Residence Strategies in Indo-European–Speaking Societies: Neo-, Uxori-, and Virilocality." In:

4362: 4236: 3898:. Words for "sell" and "wash" were borrowed in Proto-Uralic, and words for "price" and "draw, lead" were introduced in the Proto-Finno-Ugric language. 118: 4053:) has been proposed, although this remains a debated issue. Proto-Indo-Europeans produced textile, as attested by the reconstructed roots for wool ( 3473: 2557:

Linguistics has allowed for the reliable reconstruction of a large number of words relating to kinship relations. These all agree in exhibiting a

3086:

was not much developed among Proto-Indo-Europeans, and they probably had established names for only a few individual stars and star-groups (e.g.

4191: 3219:

Proto-Indo-Europeans practiced a polytheistic religion centered on sacrificial rites of cattle and horses, probably administered by a class of

1949: 7337: 8255: 4575: 1913: 3935:

From the reconstructable lexicon, it is clear that Proto-Indo-Europeans were familiar with wheeled vehicles—certainly horse-drawn wagons (

1111: 5134: 4897: 3325:

Other linguists suggest that the common linguistic inheritance does not date back to the Indo-European period and contend that the word

7989: 2842:', 'vengeance' or 'guilt' in daughter languages, suggesting that it was specifically applied to the restitution for theft or violence. 33: 3482: 2720:

and alliances were confirmed by gift-giving and promises made during those public gatherings. The host of the feast was called the *

2501:

graves prominently decorated with dress, body ornaments and weaponry, along with well-attested roots for concepts such as "wealth" (

7755:, Journal of Indo-European Studies Monograph Series, vol. 11, Washington D.C., United States: Institute for the Study of Man, 3128:. This suggests a hierarchical conception of the status of mankind regarding the gods, confirmed by the use of the term "mortal" ( 3369:) was central to Proto-Indo-European poetry and culture. Many poetic dictions built on this term can be reconstituted, including 1986: 2801:

had shared a guest-host relationship. Violations of the guest-host obligations were considered immoral, illegal and unholy: in

7960:

Vassilkov, Yaroslav. ""Words and things": An attempt at reconstruction of the earliest Indo-European concept of heroism". In:

8416: 8287: 7982: 7944: 7841: 7679: 7655: 7631: 7573: 7552: 7433: 7312: 7159: 6162: 6120: 6081: 5796: 1920: 1892: 7443: 771: 7969:

Indo-European and Indo-Europeans: Papers Presented at the Third Indo-European Conference at the University of Pennsylvania

2454:

between 3100 and 2800, are interpreted by some scholars as movements of pre-Italic, pre-Celtic and pre-Germanic speakers.

8263: 2623:

means a 'member of one's own group', 'one who belongs to the community' (in contrast to an outsider). It gave way to the

2393:

likewise postulates Proto-Indo-European speakers as a semi-nomadic and pastoral population with subsidiary agriculture.

1877: 3975:

The technology used was a solid wheel made of three planks joined with their outer edges trimmed to a circle. The swift

2728:, the 'lord of the guests', who honoured the immortal gods and his mortal guests with gifts of food, drink, and poetry. 8279: 7813: 7760: 7422:

Kölligan, Daniel (2017). "The lexicon of Proto-Indo-European". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.).

7207: 7181: 7103: 6054: 4829: 3880: 3132:) as a synonym of "human" as opposed to the never-dying gods in Indo-European traditions. The idea is expressed in the 1942: 1899: 830: 4309:

Linguistic evidence suggest that Proto-Indo-European speakers were also in contact with various wild animals, such as

7524: 7495: 7284: 6651: 6624: 5715: 5688: 5470: 4955: 3207:, are probably late innovations since they are attested in a restricted number of traditions, Western (European) and 163: 7304:

Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture

6154:

Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean

1906: 670: 2404:

during this period, meaning that neighbouring dialects differed only slightly between each other, whereas distant

7953:

Testart, Alain. "Reconstructing Social and Cultural Evolution: The Case of Dowry in the Indo-European Area". In:

7298: 3879:

have been proposed, on the ground that the Proto-Indo-European language shows a number of lexical parallels with

181: 4002:) is generally presumed to mean "copper" or a copper-tin alloy of "bronze". "Gold" is reliably reconstructed as 2018:" (the concepts associated with a word that were inherited in the daughter languages), close to their original " 4615:, p. 5: "The earliest ancestor of English that is reconstructable by scientifically acceptable methods is 3846: 2447: 2386: 1762: 1537: 941: 4423:

in a number of branches, suggesting that they were feared as symbols of death in Proto-Indo-European culture.

2995: 2263:

meat and dairy products. The Late Khvalynsk and Repin cultures (3900–3300), associated with the classic (post-

8449: 8439: 8400: 8216: 8013: 4503: 3876: 3062: 3056: 2135:

Classic, or "post-Anatolian" (4000–3500), the last common ancestor of the non-Anatolian languages, including

2031: 1935: 1507: 776: 713: 514: 400: 3979:

with spoked wheels, which made the mode of transport much more rapid and lighter, appeared later within the

8310: 8221: 8211: 8205: 8005: 7096:

The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World

4498: 4493: 3838: 3337:('wandering word'), ultimately borrowed into Ancient Greek and Sanskrit from a non-Indo-European language. 3098: 2346: 2282:

The spoke-less wheeled wagon was introduced to the Pontic-Caspian steppe around 3500 from the neighbouring

2185: 2113: 1970: 1195: 698: 509: 504: 499: 394: 7448:"Re-theorising mobility and the formation of culture and language among the Corded Ware Culture in Europe" 2066:(2007), is the most widely accepted theory on the Indo-European homeland, and postulates an origin in the 7914:

Requena, Miguel, and Díez De Revenga. "Las Representaciones Colectivas De Los Pueblos Indoeuropeos". In:

2624: 1512: 1007: 587: 573: 554: 8159: 8026: 8021: 4241: 3749: 3714: 3386: 2758:

The connotation of an obligatory reciprocity between both guests and hosts has persisted in descendant

850: 808: 408: 8382: 8226: 4396: 3924: 3884: 3883:. Proto-Indo-European also exhibits lexical loans to or from other Caucasian languages, particularly 3771: 3736:) in particular, which expressed both the wealth and nobility of their bearer, including the Avestan 3587: 2839: 2738: 2243: 2189: 2067: 2003: 1552: 1517: 1190: 494: 2742:

territories of tribes which had likely restricted these obligations to their kins or co-residents (*

2014:

and shared grammatical structures; the definitions hereunder given for the roots should be read as "

8305: 8238: 8179: 8046: 7641: 6148: 4427: 4282: 3842: 3264: 3017: 2459: 2444: 2239: 1812: 1702: 1522: 1053: 885: 836: 732: 534: 489: 484: 404: 97: 7833: 4620: 4569: 4010:

designated a "white metal" or "silver". Proto-Indo-Europeans were also familiar with the sickle (

3723: 3633: 3499: 3498:, depicting a naked warrior with a belt, axes, and testicles (mid-3rd mill. BCE); and the Celtic 3290: 3185: 2659: 2235: 1974: 1707: 1434: 544: 539: 529: 173: 38: 5554: 4391:

Some of them were featured in mythological and folkloric motifs. Goats draw the chariots of the

3748:("master of horses"). Since domestic animals also served to sacrifice, there were often used as 3438:

motifs with his own skills and improvisations. Poetry was therefore associated with the acts of

2869:('to go'), after the practice of walking between slaughtered animals as part of taking an oath. 8041: 7858:

Carstens, Anne Marie. "To Bury a Ruler: The Meaning of the Horse in Aristocratic Burials." In:

7823: 7620:

McCone, Kim R. (1987). "Hund, Wolf und Krieger bei den Indogermanen". In Meid, Wolfgang (ed.).

7331:. The Split: Reconstructing Early Indo-European Language and Culture. University of Copenhagen. 7272: 4431: 4278: 3069:, the first warrior, involves the liberation of cattle stolen by a three-headed serpent named * 2463: 2431: 1994: 1697: 1669: 1453: 1355: 1121: 967: 591: 429: 321: 260: 215: 155: 147: 114: 8126: 7921:

Sadovski, Velizar. "On Horses and Chariots in Ancient Indian and Iranian Personal Names." In:

6641: 6614: 3196:("Twin"), from whom emerged the cosmological elements. Other deities, such as the weather-god 8410: 8331: 7772:(1986). "In the Interstices of Procedure: Indo-European Legal Language and Comparative Law". 7693: 7027:. Third Indo-European Conference at the University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia. p. 83. 4290: 3327: 3319: 2640: 2481: 2409: 2405: 2358: 2231: 2039: 2026: 1844: 1673: 581: 577: 562: 558: 8115: 2377:-based society, with limited crop cultivation in the eastern part of the steppes, while the 8364: 8337: 8231: 8149: 8081: 8059: 7294: 7138: 7121: 5368: 4488: 4286: 2289:(3700–3000), with which Proto-Indo-Europeans traded wool and horses. Interactions with the 2120:

Early (4500–4000), the common ancestor of all attested Indo-European languages, before the

1966: 1790: 1755: 1068: 751: 703: 640: 610: 568: 548: 412: 266: 6046:

Seeking the Sacred with Psychoactive Substances: Chemical Paths to Spirituality and to God

3579:), in order to assume their nature and escape the rules and taboos of their host society. 3116:

is at root of both "earthly" and "human", as it is notably attested in the Latin cognates

3028:

class (encompassing both the religious and social functions of the priests and rulers), a

2298: 2215:

migration, in the context of a progression of the Khvalynsk culture westwards towards the

2212: 2125: 936: 8: 8444: 8369: 8359: 8086: 7674:. A Linguistic History of English. Vol. 1 (2017 ed.). Oxford University Press. 7169: 4616: 4328: 4129:-, "to live". Proto-Indo-European speakers also made a distinction between wild animals ( 3000: 2771: 2306: 2268: 2264: 2224: 2220: 2161: 2136: 2121: 1063: 1058: 954: 878: 843: 766: 756: 615: 316: 311: 280: 7964:. Book 2. Compiled and edited by L. Kulikov, M. Rusanov. Moscow, 2012. pp. 157–187. 7881: 7191: 5372: 4791: 4741: 4708: 2302: 8091: 7737: 7717: 7608: 7375: 7196: 6877: 6834: 5874: 5866: 5550: 5399: 5356: 3699: 3664: 3537:

found across Eurasia around 3300–3000 BCE. Proto-Indo-Europeans certainly did not know

3077:

suggested that the religious function was represented by a duality, one reflecting the

2902: 2636: 2276: 1999: 1769: 1720: 1654: 1638: 1263: 916: 655: 341: 246: 241: 123: 7752:

The Anthropomorphic Stelae of the Ukraine: The Early Iconography of the Indo-Europeans

4947:

The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West

3923:

A horse-drawn, spoke-less, wheeled and wood-made wagon, close to what was used in the

3074: 3021: 2230:

Recent genetic studies have shown that males of the Khvalynsk culture belonged to the

8354: 8076: 7940: 7837: 7809: 7789: 7756: 7729: 7675: 7651: 7627: 7612: 7600: 7569: 7548: 7520: 7513: 7479: 7429: 7410: 7379: 7367: 7308: 7280: 7260: 7203: 7177: 7155: 7099: 6881: 6869: 6838: 6826: 6647: 6620: 6158: 6116: 6077: 6050: 5878: 5858: 5792: 5711: 5684: 5546: 5476: 5466: 5404: 5386: 4951: 4825: 4746: 4728: 4508: 3980: 3826: 3595: 3244: 2940: 2416: 2401: 2328: 2181: 2165: 2156: 2129: 2055: 1783: 1749: 1741: 1685: 1679: 1661: 1632: 1611: 1597: 1589: 1359: 1220: 1160: 1142: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1040: 1035: 864: 727: 376: 369: 362: 348: 334: 294: 273: 210: 202: 7902:

Tracing the Indo-Europeans: New Evidence from Archaeology and Historical Linguistics

7860:

Tracing the Indo-Europeans: New Evidence from Archaeology and Historical Linguistics

7151:

Tracing the Indo-Europeans: New evidence from archaeology and historical linguistics

3143:

substratum, and the few names that can be reconstructed based upon both linguistic (

8111: 8101: 8096: 8036: 8031: 7781: 7705: 7592: 7538: 7534: 7469: 7459: 7405: 7400: 7388: 7357: 7349: 7255: 7250: 7238: 7217: 7133: 7113: 7091: 6861: 6852:

Kuznetsov, P. F. (2006). "The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe".

6818: 5850: 5542: 5394: 5376: 4736: 4720: 4408: 3955:). Although wheels were most likely not invented by Proto-Indo-Europeans, the word 3903: 3168: 3078: 2985: 2790: 2650: 2569:

social fabric. Patrilocality is confirmed by lexical evidence, including the word *

2390: 2310: 2208: 2105: 2063: 2035: 1777: 1727: 1544: 1350: 1238: 1178: 1155: 1098: 1093: 1030: 1017: 1012: 1002: 675: 288: 236: 228: 221: 8051: 7932:

Die Stellung der Frau: Spuren indogermanischer Gesellschaftsordnung in der Sprache

7900:

Olsen, Birgit Anette. "Aspects of Family Structure among the Indo-Europeans." In:

7867:

Crossing the River of Battle: A Heroic Motif in Ancient Indian and Old Norse Texts

6507: 6505: 3991:) is widely attested across the language groups, the means of transport (likely a 2797:, stopped fighting and presented gifts to each other when they learned that their 2466:

were introduced to Central Asia, present-day Iran, and South Asia after 2000 BCE.

7827: 7801: 7769: 7750: 7689: 7669: 7647:

Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past

7645: 7621: 7563: 7542: 7491: 7423: 7302: 7149: 6152: 6110: 6071: 6044: 5705: 5678: 5381: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5078: 5076: 4945: 4513: 4392: 3260: 3248: 2802: 2451: 2440: 2342: 2322: 2193: 2143: 2091: 2087: 2078: 2059: 1858: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1798: 1734: 1713: 1691: 1276: 1165: 1088: 997: 930: 871: 737: 469: 454: 444: 439: 355: 327: 7565:

The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World

4709:"The genetic history of the Southern Arc: A bridge between West Asia and Europe" 3972:, suggesting short contacts with the people who introduced the concept to them. 3857:

region, where the Yamnaya culture was more agricultural and less male-centered.

3161: 3111: 2750:-, whose original meaning must have been "table companion", could either mean a 8377: 8315: 8184: 8169: 8131: 8121: 8106: 7974: 7596: 6502: 5530: 4257:

The dog was perceived as a symbol of death and depicted as the guardian of the

3895: 3868: 3865: 3703: 3181: 3024:, postulates a tripartite ideology reflected in a threefold division between a 2286: 2283: 1603: 1470: 1345: 903: 857: 825: 761: 252: 6865: 5073: 5049: 3032:

class (connected with the concepts of violence and braveness), and a class of

2426: 2054:: interpretations based on archaeological evidence of a material culture. The 8433: 8154: 7793: 7733: 7604: 7508: 7483: 7414: 7371: 7264: 6873: 6830: 5862: 5784: 5458: 5390: 4732: 4318: 3984: 3908: 3899: 3872: 3710: 3645: 3583: 3495: 3283: 2911: 2272: 2169: 1863: 1327: 1243: 960: 818: 680: 434: 87: 7907:

Puhvel, Jaan. "Victimal Hierarchies in Indo-European Animal Sacrifice". In:

7122:"The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives" 5480: 4822:

The Indo-European controversy: facts and fallacies in historical linguistics

4724: 3624:("man-wolf"), found in Greek, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic traditions alike. 650: 7665: 7117: 5408: 4750: 4289:, in which case it might be one of the oldest mythemes recoverable through 3992: 3891: 3208: 3173: 2827: 2716:('king of the sacred') as a heritage of the priestly function of the king. 2711: 2254: 2109: 2071: 2011: 1482: 1320: 794: 665: 464: 459: 449: 107: 7785: 7709: 7031: 4661:"Archaeology, Genetics, and Language in the Steppes: A Comment on Bomhard" 8174: 7464: 7447: 7353: 4381: 3861: 3830: 3795: 3791: 3775: 3719: 3675: 2566: 2558: 2420: 2370: 2354: 2294: 2201: 2173: 2083: 2050: 2015: 1458: 1444: 1408: 1116: 7741: 7362: 7222:"The Origins of Proto-Indo-European: The Caucasian Substrate Hypothesis" 4412: 3805:

Proto-Indo-European distinguished between unmovable and movable wealth (

2905: 645: 8189: 5870: 4705: 4258: 4125:

seems to have been the general term for animals, derived from the root

3928: 3834: 3604: 3333: 3091: 2562: 2538: 2494:) sponsoring feasts and ceremonies, and immortalized in praise poetry. 2349:(following both the Anatolian and Tocharian splits), originated in the 2242:(CHG) ancestry. This admixture appears to have happened on the eastern 2177: 2019: 1421: 1335: 1213: 978: 7918:, no. 25 (1984): 181–95. Accessed June 23, 2020. doi:10.2307/40183059. 7474: 4293:. In various Indo-European traditions, the worst throw at the game of 2022:" (the exact meaning at the time of the Proto-Indo-European language). 7503:. Personal Names and Cultural Reconstruction. University of Helsinki. 4420: 4416: 4162: 4018:) for working leather or drilling wood, and used a primitive plough ( 3787: 3651: 3599: 3199: 3153:) evidence are the cosmic and elemental deities: the 'Daylight-Sky' ( 3109:- ("to shine, be bright"). On the other hand, the word for "earth" (* 3083: 2823: 2350: 2290: 2197: 1624: 1401: 1393: 1386: 1379: 1365: 1233: 7221: 4898:"Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians" 4660: 3561: 3463: 2112:

distinguish three different cultural stages in the evolution of the

6822: 6780: 6778: 6776: 6393: 6391: 6389: 5854: 4964: 4338: 4266: 4262: 4118: 3969: 3689: 3621: 3609: 3385:("having bad repute"). Indo-European poetic tradition was probably 3276: 2970: 2794: 2142:

Late (3500–2500), in its dialectal period due to the spread of the

2043: 1567: 1558: 1449: 1250: 1225: 1129: 620: 196: 6296: 6294: 5945: 5943: 5941: 5939: 5902: 5900: 5325: 5323: 5321: 5319: 4029:) has been reconstructed based on four branches, as for "baking" ( 3911:

pastoral societies at the steppe/forest-steppe ecological border.

3786:

region, where cereal cultivation was practised, while the eastern

3730:

Many Indo-European personal names are associated with the horse (*

3349:

A transmitter of inherited cultural knowledge, the poet sang as a

2615:

In the reconstructed lexicon linking the individual to the clan, *

4454:("knowledge, clairvoyance") designated the wolf in both Hittite ( 4310: 4274: 3976: 3850: 3799: 3779: 3682: 3492: 3268: 3145: 3140: 3029: 2955: 2759: 2605: 2378: 2374: 2366: 2357:

region before spreading westwards after 3300 BCE, establishing a

1617: 1581: 1574: 1372: 992: 625: 7626:(in German). Institut für Sprachwissenschaft. pp. 101–154. 7515:

In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology, and Myth

7425:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

7325:

Reconstructing Indo-European phraseology: Continuity and renewal

7239:"On evidence of ranked status in Indo-European: PIE *wik-pot-i-" 6992: 6888: 6773: 6386: 5841:

Lincoln, Bruce (1976). "The Indo-European Cattle-Raiding Myth".

4766:"Family Tree of Languages Has Roots in Anatolia, Biologists Say" 2450:

from around 3300 BCE, followed by Yamnya migrations towards the

24: 7442: 6958: 6956: 6751: 6749: 6747: 6511: 6496: 6468: 6466: 6291: 6129: 5985: 5936: 5897: 5736: 5335: 5316: 5256: 5202: 5088: 5055: 4925: 4552: 4439: 4404: 4251: 4106: 3890:

Proto-Indo-European probably also had trade relationships with

3854: 3849:

continued to influence the western part of the steppes, in the

3783: 3617: 3613: 3534: 3502:(6th c. BCE), wearing only a helmet, neckband, belt, and sword. 3430: 3256: 3224: 3220: 3087: 3033: 3025: 2889: 2708:

meant a ruler who also had religious functions, with the Roman

2498: 2396: 2382: 2362: 2216: 1340: 1294: 813: 630: 7893:

Galton, Herbert. "The Indo-European Kinship Terminology". In:

6376: 6374: 6372: 6345: 6254: 6252: 5807: 5805: 5566: 5564: 5494: 5492: 5490: 5427: 5231: 5229: 5146: 5144: 5039: 5037: 5035: 5033: 4879: 4877: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4858: 3663:(lit. "good-fame", meaning "possessing good fame") derive the 3541:, which appeared later around 2000–1500. The axe was known as 2258:

Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe.

2184:(4900–3900) had emerged, associated by Anthony with the Early 2074:. What follows are interpretations based upon this hypothesis. 7720:(2002). "Berserks: A History of Indo-European Mad Warriors". 7694:"Les troupes de jeunes hommes et l'expansion indo-européenne" 5824: 5822: 5820: 5008: 5006: 4981: 4979: 4845: 4843: 4841: 4447: 4346: 4298: 4270: 3860:

Proto-Indo-European speakers also had indirect contacts with

3538: 3434: 3156: 3133: 3118: 2934: 2928: 2926: 2920: 2914: 2893: 2786: 2630: 2588:) was generally ruled by the senior male of the family, the * 2365:

funerals that stretched over a vast steppic area between the

2090:

and "mating networks". In support for the Kurgan hypothesis,

1985:

Many of the modern ideas in this field involve the unsettled

1439: 1313: 1307: 1289: 660: 635: 7967:

Winter, Werner. "Some Widespread Indo-European Titles". In:

7004: 6980: 6968: 6953: 6929: 6900: 6790: 6761: 6744: 6696: 6463: 6451: 5353: 3136:

phrase "of the immortal gods and of men who walk on earth".

8272:

Lexikon der indogermanischen Partikeln und Pronominalstämme

6541: 6369: 6249: 6239: 6237: 6235: 6090: 6012: 6002: 6000: 5960: 5958: 5802: 5724: 5658: 5646: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5595: 5593: 5591: 5561: 5487: 5292: 5226: 5175: 5173: 5171: 5141: 5106: 5094: 5030: 4874: 4855: 4400: 4294: 4223: 4058: 4042: 3302: 3188:

tells of a primordial sacrifice performed by the first man

3139:

Proto-Indo-European beliefs were influenced by a resistant

3124: 2333: 1831: 6809:

Kuzmina, E. (2002). "On the Origin of the Indo-Iranians".

6672: 6577: 5885: 5817: 5415: 5268: 5214: 5018: 5003: 4976: 4838: 4635: 4633: 4631: 4629: 4165:

economy with extensive references to domesticated animals.

3817: 2544: 6941: 6919: 6917: 6915: 6335: 6333: 5513: 5511: 5509: 5507: 5192: 5190: 5188: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4153: 2443:

people towards southeastern Poland, crossing through the

7897:

82, no. 1 (1957): 121–38. www.jstor.org/stable/25840433.

6517: 6232: 6207: 6205: 6203: 6190: 6188: 6186: 5997: 5955: 5707:

Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon

5617: 5588: 5576: 5280: 5246: 5244: 5168: 4233:) and woollen textiles, agriculture, wagons, and honey ( 2627: 2139:; associated with the late Khvalynsk and Repin cultures, 6720: 6357: 6269: 6267: 5791:, p. 260 n. 17. University of Chicago Press, 4626: 7806:

How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics

7174:

Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction

7043: 6912: 6732: 6708: 6589: 6439: 6415: 6330: 6279: 6171: 6024: 5975: 5973: 5504: 5439: 5304: 5185: 4908: 2845:

Law was apparently designed to preserve the 'order' (*

2313:(3700–2200) cultures, from west to east respectively. 2293:

Maykop culture, itself influenced by the Mesopotamian

2006:

and identification of words and formulae (those cited

7882:

https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol83/iss1/7

6318: 6306: 6222: 6220: 6200: 6183: 5789:

Theorizing myth: Narrative, ideology, and scholarship

5634: 5241: 5156: 5061: 4419:. The words for both the wolf and the bear underwent 2684:

Proto-Indo-European had several words for 'leader': *

8160: 8061: 7886:

Friedrich, Paul. "Proto-Indo-European Kinship". In:

7055: 6660: 6427: 6264: 5768: 5766: 5764: 3960: 3236: 3228: 3180:) and the Sun-Maiden, and deities of winds, waters, 2882: 2874: 2863: 2855: 2847: 2832: 2816: 2722: 2702: 2694: 2686: 2670: 2662: 2617: 2598: 2590: 2582: 2571: 2531: 2522: 2513: 2504: 2488: 2412:

due to accumulated divergences over space and time.

6553: 5970: 5924: 5912: 5605: 4991: 4687: 2676:, means 'people', 'freemen' in a more general way. 2249: 7512: 7195: 7067: 6684: 6565: 6529: 6217: 4675: 3553:meant "military unit" or "military action", while 2643: 7293: 6403: 5761: 5127:"The first Europeans weren't who you might think" 4606: 4462:), and a "werewolf" in Slavic languages (Serbian 3003: 113:for phonetic transcriptions, with an appropriate 8431: 8004: 7583:Mallory, J. P. (2006). "Indo-European Warfare". 4819: 3549:designated a wooden or leather shield. The term 3529:meant a "cutting weapon", probably a knife, and 2888:, 'to fit') is associated with the concept of a 2746:) until then. In Proto-Indo-European, the term * 7962:Indologica. T. Ya. Elizarenkova Memorial Volume 7748: 6351: 6112:Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache 5778: 5677:Beekes, Robert S. P.; Beek, Lucien van (2009). 3995:) was certainly known by Proto-Indo-Europeans. 2385:region was more influenced by the agricultural 7923:Pferde in Asien: Geschichte, Handel Und Kultur 6616:Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics 6157:. Princeton University Press. pp. 36–38. 5748: 4584: 2979: 2973: 2949: 2943: 2150: 2042:due to the difficulty of dating the origin of 7990: 7911:99, no. 3 (1978): 354–62. doi:10.2307/293746. 6115:(in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 288. 3875:after 3300. Socio-cultural interactions with 3533:a "large offensive knife", likely similar to 2988: 2964: 2958: 2653: 2316: 1943: 16:Reconstructed culture of Proto-Indo-Europeans 7957:54, no. 1 (2013): 23–50. doi:10.1086/668679. 7930: 7880:: Vol. 83: Iss. 1, Article 7. Available at: 7749:Telegrin, D. Ya.; Mallory, James P. (1994), 7561: 7533: 7321: 7146: 7112: 7037: 7010: 6998: 6986: 6974: 6962: 6947: 6935: 6906: 6894: 6796: 6784: 6767: 6755: 6702: 6678: 6547: 6488: 6472: 6457: 6397: 6300: 6258: 6135: 6096: 6018: 5991: 5949: 5906: 5811: 5742: 5730: 5664: 5652: 5570: 5498: 5341: 5329: 5298: 5262: 5235: 5208: 5150: 5100: 5043: 4883: 4868: 4820:Pereltsvaig, Asya; Lewis, Martin W. (2015). 4590: 4558: 3718:(Ἀρχέλαος, "one who rules people"), and the 3259:dated 3,500 BCE, some scholars suggest that 7890:5, no. 1 (1966): 1-36. doi:10.2307/3772899. 7236: 5433: 5421: 5220: 5024: 4943: 3794:steppes were inhabited by semi-nomadic and 3774:. Tribes were typically more influenced by 3709:("one who causes enemies to tremble"), the 3011: 2896: 2709: 2528:, "one who moves about on both sides"; and 8256:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 7997: 7983: 7671:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 7190: 6646:. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 375. 5703: 5676: 5533:(2013). "Le nom indo-européen de l'hôte". 4576:Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse 4281:belief, as evidenced by similar motifs in 3744:("winning by his horses"), or the Gaulish 3632:could have played a key role in diffusing 1950: 1936: 1914:Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 7473: 7463: 7404: 7389:"Early Indo-European weapons terminology" 7361: 7254: 7137: 6851: 6073:Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic 5398: 5380: 4824:. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. 4792:"English language 'originated in Turkey'" 4740: 4025:The term for "oven" or "cooking vessel" ( 2830:. Another root denoting a compensation, * 7421: 5964: 5582: 5535:Journal of the American Oriental Society 5286: 4944:Mallory, J. P.; Mair, Victor H. (2008). 4152: 3918: 3816: 3381:("the famous deeds of men, heroes"), or 3331:likely spread later across Eurasia as a 2766:("foreigner, guest; host"), Old English 2543: 2425: 2332: 2253: 2082:: interpretations based on the study of 1980: 49:of all important aspects of the article. 7939:(in German). Chronos. pp. 97–115. 7800: 7768: 7716: 7688: 7623:Studien zum indogermanischen Wortschatz 7582: 7507: 7271: 7216: 7090: 7049: 6923: 6808: 6738: 6726: 6714: 6612: 6595: 6583: 6523: 6492: 6445: 6421: 6380: 6363: 6339: 6324: 6312: 6285: 6243: 6211: 6177: 6069: 6030: 6006: 5891: 5840: 5828: 5640: 5628: 5611: 5599: 5529: 5517: 5445: 5310: 5274: 5250: 5196: 5179: 5162: 5112: 5067: 5012: 4997: 4985: 4970: 4931: 4919: 4895: 4849: 4658: 4639: 4564: 4540: 4148: 4089:). They were also familiar with combs ( 3105:("celestial"), itself a derivative of * 2128:; 4000 BCE); associated with the early 8432: 7928: 7619: 7168: 7139:10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812 6608: 6606: 6604: 6559: 6484: 6273: 6147: 6042: 4022:) made of a curved and forked branch. 3203:and the guardian of roads and herds, * 2219:area, from which had also emerged the 45:Please consider expanding the lead to 8417:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 8288:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 7978: 7664: 7640: 7562:Mallory, J. P.; Adams, D. Q. (2006). 7544:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 6108: 5124: 4815: 4813: 4693: 4612: 4546: 4531: 4450:, while the Proto-Indo-European root 4161:The reconstructed lexicon suggests a 3063:cosmology of the proto-Indo-Europeans 2910:('innate feature, nature, fashion'); 2234:(WSH) cluster, which is a mixture of 1921:Indo-European Etymological Dictionary 1893:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 7822: 7490: 7386: 7335: 7073: 7061: 7022: 6690: 6666: 6639: 6571: 6535: 6433: 6409: 6226: 6194: 5979: 5930: 5918: 5772: 5457: 4789: 4763: 4681: 4654: 4652: 4650: 4648: 4438:meant both "wolf" and "witch" among 3902:suggested that the expansion of the 3612:, as well as in the mythical Celtic 2086:to understand the nature of ancient 65: 18: 8264:Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben 6601: 4407:, and they are associated with the 3959:is a native derivation of the root 3821:Yamnaya bone and bronze arrowheads. 3275:("cannabis") have been proposed in 2469: 1878:Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European 13: 8280:Nomina im Indogermanischen Lexikon 7852: 7428:. Vol. 3. Walter de Gruyter. 7277:Indo-European Language and Culture 7198:Indo-European Language and Society 6036: 4810: 4446:a "doglike powerful spirit" among 3837:steppes and associated with early 3740:("owning good horses"), the Greek 2548:Yamnaya bone and canine ornaments. 2474: 1900:The Horse, the Wheel, and Language 103:for transliterated languages, and 83:of its non-English content, using 14: 8461: 7909:The American Journal of Philology 6619:. Psychology Press. p. 149. 6613:Lehmann, Winfred Philipp (1996). 4790:Ball, Jonathan (24 August 2012). 4764:Wade, Nicholas (23 August 2012). 4645: 4261:in Indo-European cultures (Greek 4117:designated a four-footed animal ( 3983:(2100–1800), associated with the 3757:("a famous wolf") or the Serbian 3639: 3186:Proto-Indo-European creation myth 2692:was a general term derived from * 7871:Journal of Indo-European Studies 7232:(1 & 2, Spring/Summer 2019). 7226:Journal of Indo-European Studies 7025:Indo-European and Indo-Europeans 7016: 6845: 6802: 6633: 6478: 5680:Etymological Dictionary of Greek 5555:10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0057 5547:10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0057 5463:A handbook of Germanic etymology 4665:Journal of Indo-European Studies 3481: 3472: 3008:('to praise, be pleased with'). 2814:system. For instance, the word * 2679: 2250:Late Khvalynsk/Repin (3900–3300) 2002:): interpretations based on the 1965:is the reconstructed culture of 1907:Journal of Indo-European Studies 671:Bible translations into Armenian 162: 70: 23: 7585:Journal of Conflict Archaeology 7083: 6141: 6102: 6063: 5834: 5697: 5670: 5523: 5451: 5347: 5118: 4937: 4889: 4304: 4168:They were familiar with cows (* 2808: 182:List of Indo-European languages 37:may be too short to adequately 7406:10.1080/00437956.1993.11435901 7322:García Ramón, José L. (2017). 7256:10.1080/00437956.1993.11435903 7098:. Princeton University Press. 4783: 4757: 4699: 4222:, "to milk") and dairy foods, 4037:). They certainly drank beer ( 3841:, had trade relationship with 3798:populations mostly relying on 3389:: stock formulas, such as the 2984:, 'right time, order, rule'); 1969:, the ancient speakers of the 119:multilingual support templates 47:provide an accessible overview 1: 8401:Proto-Indo-European mythology 7829:Indo-European Poetry and Myth 7698:Dialogues d'Histoire Ancienne 7202:. University of Miami Press. 7176:. John Benjamins Publishing. 5465:. Leiden: Brill. p. 23. 5125:Curry, Andrew (August 2019). 4896:Gibbons, Ann (10 June 2015). 4520: 4504:Proto-Indo-European mythology 4277:possibly stems from an older 4049:), and the word for "wine" (* 3927:around 3500–2500 BC. Here in 3914: 3864:around 3700–3500 through the 3235:) and dedicated to the gods ( 3166:), his daughter the 'Dawn' (* 3057:Proto-Indo-European mythology 2731: 2658:('peer, companion'), and the 2430:Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya 2196:, in the eastern Balkans, to 2099: 2032:Proto-Indo-European mythology 1508:Proto-Indo-European mythology 777:Paleolithic continuity theory 8311:Proto-Indo-European homeland 8006:Proto-Indo-European language 7237:Della Volpe, Angela (1993). 7126:Annual Review of Linguistics 7040:, p. 135–136, 144, 147. 5382:10.1371/journal.pone.0241278 4599: 4499:Proto-Indo-European language 4494:Proto-Indo-European homeland 4250:), thought to be an extinct 4093:) and ointments with salve ( 3227:. Animals were slaughtered ( 3192:("Man") on his twin brother 3097:The basic word for "god" in 3004: 2989: 2927: 2915: 2700:('set in place, arrange'); * 2654: 2347:Proto-Indo-European language 2275:led to the emergence of the 2186:Proto-Indo-European language 2114:Proto-Indo-European language 2058:, proposed by archeologists 1971:Proto-Indo-European language 1196:Northern Black Polished Ware 395:Proto-Indo-European language 7: 8406:Proto-Indo-European society 7808:. Oxford University Press. 7774:Historiographia Linguistica 7650:. Oxford University Press. 7568:. Oxford University Press. 6352:Telegrin & Mallory 1994 4973:, p. 289–290, 330–335. 4481: 4157:Tarpan horse (1841 drawing) 3620:, and in the legend of the 3037:representing the system as 2974: 2965: 2959: 2944: 2925:, 'arrangement'), possibly 2373:rivers. It was initially a 2345:, associated with the Late 2151:Early Khvalynsk (4900–3900) 1963:Proto-Indo-European society 1513:Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism 10: 8466: 8161: 8062: 7895:Zeitschrift Für Ethnologie 7873:(JIES) 49 (2021), 231–250. 7597:10.1163/157407706778942312 6640:Ball, Martin John (1990). 6043:Ellens, J. Harold (2014). 5704:Kloekhorst, Alwin (2008). 4659:Anthony, David W. (2019). 4619:, the ancestor of all the 4591:Anthony & Ringe (2015) 4559:Anthony & Ringe (2015) 4242:domestication of the horse 4100: 3987:. As the word for "boat" ( 3968:("to turn") rather than a 3961: 3939:)—as they knew the wheel ( 3764: 3461: 3457: 3237: 3229: 3214: 3184:, rivers and springs. The 3054: 3050: 3045: 2994: 2935: 2921: 2883: 2875: 2864: 2856: 2848: 2833: 2817: 2723: 2703: 2695: 2687: 2671: 2618: 2599: 2591: 2583: 2572: 2552: 2532: 2523: 2514: 2505: 2489: 2326: 2320: 2317:Yamnaya period (3300–2600) 2246:starting around 5,000 BC. 2154: 809:Domestication of the horse 8393: 8383:North European hypothesis 8347: 8324: 8298: 8247: 8198: 8142: 8012: 7935:". In Schärer, K. (ed.). 6866:10.1017/S0003598X00094096 6109:Kluge, Friedrich (2013). 5754:Dumézil, Georges (1929). 4553:Kristiansen et al. (2017) 4430:, may represent a common 3881:Proto-Northwest Caucasian 3525:) are attested. The term 3340: 2980: 2950: 2861:, derives from the verb * 1973:, ancestor of all modern 1518:Historical Vedic religion 795:Chalcolithic (Copper Age) 8306:Indo-European migrations 7865:Edholm, Kristoffer af. " 7722:Journal of World History 7387:Huld, Martin E. (1993). 7279:. Blackwell Publishing. 7038:Mallory & Adams 2006 7011:Mallory & Adams 1997 6999:Anthony & Brown 2019 6987:Mallory & Adams 2006 6975:Mallory & Adams 1997 6963:Mallory & Adams 2006 6948:Mallory & Adams 2006 6936:Mallory & Adams 2006 6907:Mallory & Adams 2006 6895:Mallory & Adams 2006 6797:Anthony & Ringe 2015 6785:Mallory & Adams 2006 6768:Anthony & Ringe 2015 6756:Anthony & Ringe 2015 6703:Mallory & Adams 2006 6548:Mallory & Adams 1997 6489:Mallory & Adams 1997 6473:Anthony & Brown 2019 6458:Mallory & Adams 2006 6398:Mallory & Adams 2006 6301:Mallory & Adams 2006 6259:Mallory & Adams 2006 6136:Mallory & Adams 1997 6097:Mallory & Adams 1997 6049:. ABC-CLIO. p. 24. 6019:Mallory & Adams 2006 5992:Mallory & Adams 2006 5950:Mallory & Adams 2006 5907:Mallory & Adams 1997 5812:Mallory & Adams 1997 5743:Mallory & Adams 2006 5731:Mallory & Adams 2006 5665:Mallory & Adams 2006 5653:Mallory & Adams 1997 5571:Mallory & Adams 2006 5499:Anthony & Ringe 2015 5342:Mallory & Adams 2006 5330:Mallory & Adams 2006 5299:Mallory & Adams 2006 5263:Mallory & Adams 2006 5236:Mallory & Adams 2006 5209:Mallory & Adams 2006 5151:Anthony & Ringe 2015 5101:Anthony & Ringe 2015 5044:Anthony & Ringe 2015 4884:Anthony & Ringe 2015 4869:Anthony & Ringe 2015 4525: 3812: 3636:across most of Eurasia. 3160:), his partner 'Earth' ( 3018:trifunctional hypothesis 3012:Trifunctional hypothesis 2770:("stranger, guest"), or 2649:('noble, freeman'), the 2460:Indo-European migrations 2408:were probably no longer 2240:Caucasus Hunter-Gatherer 2180:steppes where the Early 1523:Ancient Iranian religion 886:Novotitarovskaya culture 733:Indo-European migrations 8325:Artificial compositions 7929:Stüber, Karin (2007). " 7834:Oxford University Press 6512:Kristiansen et al. 2017 6497:Kristiansen et al. 2017 5089:Kristiansen et al. 2017 5056:Kristiansen et al. 2017 4950:. Thames & Hudson. 4934:, p. 264–265, 308. 4725:10.1126/science.abm4247 4621:Indo-European languages 4570:Encyclopedia Britannica 4428:Native American beliefs 3727:("one who rules men"). 3634:Indo-European languages 3521:) or "throwing spear" ( 3500:Warrior of Hirschlanden 3413:), the metaphor of the 2906: 2838:, had the meanings of ' 2664: 2645: 2639:), and probably to the 2629: 2417:became dryer and colder 2236:Eastern Hunter-Gatherer 2164:were introduced around 2038:is often overlooked in 2000:comparative linguistics 1975:Indo-European languages 1024:Northern/Eastern Steppe 8208:(nouns and adjectives) 8072:Glossary of sound laws 7931: 6076:. Brill. p. 209. 6070:Kroonen, Guus (2013). 5710:. Brill. p. 198. 5683:. Brill. p. 128. 4432:Ancient North Eurasian 4279:Ancient North Eurasian 4158: 4081:), as well as needle ( 3932: 3822: 2954:, 'ornament, shape'); 2897: 2710: 2549: 2464:Indo-Iranian languages 2435: 2338: 2259: 2227:(4000–3500) cultures. 2190:Pontic-Caspian steppes 2068:Pontic-Caspian steppes 1995:Historical linguistics 1987:Indo-European homeland 1495:Religion and mythology 1454:Medieval Scandinavians 745:Alternative and fringe 8411:Indo-European studies 7786:10.1075/hl.13.1.05wat 7710:10.3406/dha.2003.1560 7519:. Thames and Hudson. 7444:Kristiansen, Kristian 7336:Heyd, Volker (2017). 7307:. Walter de Gruyter. 7295:Gamkrelidze, Tamaz V. 4291:comparative mythology 4156: 4136:) and the livestock ( 3925:Pontic-Caspian steppe 3922: 3843:Old European cultures 3820: 3772:Pontic-Caspian steppe 3750:exocentric structures 3588:Pontic-Caspian steppe 2739:Pontic-Caspian steppe 2547: 2429: 2410:mutually intelligible 2336: 2257: 2244:Pontic–Caspian steppe 2232:Western Steppe Herder 2040:Indo-European studies 2027:Comparative mythology 1981:Scientific approaches 1845:Indo-European studies 1208:Peoples and societies 8450:Society by ethnicity 8440:Proto-Indo-Europeans 8365:Anatolian hypothesis 8338:The king and the god 7955:Current Anthropology 7547:. Fitzroy Dearborn. 7465:10.15184/aqy.2017.17 7354:10.15184/aqy.2017.21 7299:Ivanov, Vjaceslav V. 7273:Fortson, Benjamin W. 7170:Beekes, Robert S. P. 6811:Current Anthropology 6487:, pp. 107–108; 5843:History of Religions 5115:, pp. 300, 336. 4489:Proto-Indo-Europeans 4149:Domesticated animals 3894:speakers around the 3877:Northwest Caucasians 3644:The use of two-word 3628:relationships, the * 3517:), "pointed stick" ( 2999:, 'right, proper'); 2510:), "to be in need" ( 2036:Comparative folklore 1967:Proto-Indo-Europeans 752:Anatolian hypothesis 704:Proto-Indo-Europeans 611:Hittite inscriptions 156:Indo-European topics 81:specify the language 79:This article should 8374:Outdated theories: 8370:Armenian hypothesis 8360:Schleicher theories 8116:Edgerton's converse 7718:Speidel, Michael P. 7001:, pp. 104–105. 5745:, pp. 429–430. 5436:, pp. 257–258. 5373:2020PLoSO..1541278S 5344:, pp. 206–207. 5265:, pp. 268–269. 5131:National Geographic 4617:Proto-Indo-European 3839:Proto-Indo-European 3395:*ḱléwos ń̥dʰgʷʰitom 3099:proto-Indo-European 2772:Old Church Slavonic 2485:following a chief ( 2162:Domesticated cattle 2072:Chalcolithic period 1008:Multi-cordoned ware 879:Mikhaylovka culture 767:Indigenous Aryanism 757:Armenian hypothesis 616:Hieroglyphic Luwian 8332:Schleicher's fable 7338:"Kossinna's smile" 6897:, p. 241–244. 6787:, p. 247–249. 6643:Celtic Linguistics 6495:, pp. 11–12; 6400:, p. 245–246. 6383:, p. 364–365. 6303:, p. 365–366. 6138:, p. 266–267. 5994:, p. 435–436. 5952:, p. 135–136. 5909:, p. 452–453. 5894:, p. 134-135. 5831:, p. 134–135. 5332:, p. 266–269. 5277:, p. 331–334. 5211:, p. 284–285. 5137:on March 19, 2021. 5015:, p. 330–335. 4988:, p. 289–290. 4852:, p. 185–186. 4770:The New York Times 4719:(6609): eabm4247. 4444:shunk manita tanka 4415:and the Greek god 4380:, "to steal"), or 4287:Siberian mythology 4159: 3933: 3823: 3608:, and the Spartan 3421:), or the epithet 3061:The reconstructed 2903:Middle High German 2550: 2436: 2432:Steppe pastoralist 2406:language varieties 2339: 2277:Afanasievo culture 2260: 2146:over a large area. 588:Proto-Indo-Iranian 574:Proto-Balto-Slavic 555:Proto-Italo-Celtic 8427: 8426: 8355:Kurgan hypothesis 7946:978-3-0340-0879-2 7843:978-0-19-928075-9 7681:978-0-19-153633-5 7657:978-0-19-255438-3 7633:978-3-85124-591-2 7575:978-0-19-929668-2 7554:978-1-884964-98-5 7539:Adams, Douglas Q. 7535:Mallory, James P. 7509:Mallory, James P. 7435:978-3-11-054243-1 7314:978-3-11-081503-0 7218:Bomhard, Allan R. 7192:Benveniste, Émile 7161:978-1-78925-273-6 7114:Anthony, David W. 7092:Anthony, David W. 6679:García Ramón 2017 6586:, p. 134–35. 6164:978-0-691-00224-8 6122:978-3-11-148859-2 6083:978-90-04-18340-7 5797:978-0-226-48202-6 5459:Orel, Vladimir E. 4509:Khvalynsk culture 4458:) and Old Norse ( 4421:taboo deformation 4033:) and "boiling" ( 3981:Sintashta culture 3951:), and the yoke ( 3829:, located in the 3827:Khvalynsk culture 3761:("a good wolf"). 3702:are found in the 3596:Scythian cultures 3545:, while the word 3496:Kernosovskiy idol 3419:*sh₂uens kʷekʷlos 3403:*h₁ōḱéwes h₁éḱwōs 3391:imperishable fame 3377:("great fame"), * 3245:Khvalynsk culture 2939:, 'excellence'); 2402:dialect continuum 2329:Piora Oscillation 2271:speakers towards 2182:Khvalynsk culture 2157:Khvalynsk culture 2130:Khvalynsk culture 2126:Cernavodă culture 2056:Kurgan hypothesis 1960: 1959: 1221:Anatolian peoples 1191:Painted Grey Ware 1079:Nordic Bronze Age 728:Kurgan hypothesis 681:Old Irish glosses 646:Gaulish epigraphy 141: 140: 121:may also be used. 64: 63: 8457: 8164: 8163: 8065: 8064: 8037:Laryngeal theory 8032:Glottalic theory 8027:Centum and satem 7999: 7992: 7985: 7976: 7975: 7950: 7934: 7847: 7819: 7802:Watkins, Calvert 7797: 7770:Watkins, Calvert 7765: 7745: 7713: 7690:Sergent, Bernard 7685: 7661: 7637: 7616: 7579: 7558: 7530: 7518: 7504: 7502: 7492:Loma, Aleksandar 7487: 7477: 7467: 7458:(356): 334–347. 7439: 7418: 7408: 7383: 7365: 7348:(356): 348–359. 7332: 7330: 7318: 7290: 7268: 7258: 7233: 7213: 7201: 7187: 7165: 7143: 7141: 7109: 7077: 7071: 7065: 7059: 7053: 7047: 7041: 7035: 7029: 7028: 7020: 7014: 7008: 7002: 6996: 6990: 6984: 6978: 6972: 6966: 6960: 6951: 6945: 6939: 6933: 6927: 6921: 6910: 6904: 6898: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6860:(309): 638–645. 6849: 6843: 6842: 6806: 6800: 6794: 6788: 6782: 6771: 6765: 6759: 6753: 6742: 6736: 6730: 6724: 6718: 6712: 6706: 6700: 6694: 6688: 6682: 6676: 6670: 6664: 6658: 6657: 6637: 6631: 6630: 6610: 6599: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6575: 6569: 6563: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6527: 6526:, pp. 9–10. 6521: 6515: 6509: 6500: 6482: 6476: 6470: 6461: 6455: 6449: 6443: 6437: 6431: 6425: 6419: 6413: 6407: 6401: 6395: 6384: 6378: 6367: 6361: 6355: 6349: 6343: 6337: 6328: 6322: 6316: 6310: 6304: 6298: 6289: 6283: 6277: 6271: 6262: 6256: 6247: 6246:, p. 29–30. 6241: 6230: 6224: 6215: 6209: 6198: 6197:, p. 26–31. 6192: 6181: 6175: 6169: 6168: 6149:Barber, E. J. W. 6145: 6139: 6133: 6127: 6126: 6106: 6100: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6067: 6061: 6060: 6040: 6034: 6028: 6022: 6016: 6010: 6009:, p. 25–26. 6004: 5995: 5989: 5983: 5977: 5968: 5962: 5953: 5947: 5934: 5928: 5922: 5916: 5910: 5904: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5882: 5838: 5832: 5826: 5815: 5809: 5800: 5782: 5776: 5770: 5759: 5752: 5746: 5740: 5734: 5728: 5722: 5721: 5701: 5695: 5694: 5674: 5668: 5662: 5656: 5650: 5644: 5638: 5632: 5631:, p. 21–22. 5626: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5602:, p. 19–20. 5597: 5586: 5580: 5574: 5568: 5559: 5558: 5527: 5521: 5515: 5502: 5496: 5485: 5484: 5455: 5449: 5443: 5437: 5434:Della Volpe 1993 5431: 5425: 5422:Della Volpe 1993 5419: 5413: 5412: 5402: 5384: 5367:(11): e0241278. 5351: 5345: 5339: 5333: 5327: 5314: 5308: 5302: 5296: 5290: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5254: 5248: 5239: 5233: 5224: 5221:Della Volpe 1993 5218: 5212: 5206: 5200: 5194: 5183: 5182:, p. 17–19. 5177: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5148: 5139: 5138: 5133:. Archived from 5122: 5116: 5110: 5104: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5071: 5065: 5059: 5053: 5047: 5041: 5028: 5025:Della Volpe 1993 5022: 5016: 5010: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4974: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4941: 4935: 4929: 4923: 4917: 4906: 4905: 4893: 4887: 4881: 4872: 4866: 4853: 4847: 4836: 4835: 4817: 4808: 4807: 4805: 4803: 4787: 4781: 4780: 4778: 4776: 4761: 4755: 4754: 4744: 4703: 4697: 4691: 4685: 4679: 4673: 4672: 4656: 4643: 4642:, p. 22–24. 4637: 4624: 4610: 4594: 4588: 4582: 4535: 4205:They knew dogs ( 4077:) and plaiting ( 3967: 3966: 3904:Uralic languages 3900:James P. Mallory 3885:Proto-Kartvelian 3847:Tripolye culture 3485: 3476: 3415:wheel of the sun 3242: 3241: 3234: 3233: 3211:, respectively. 3149:) and thematic ( 3079:magico-religious 3007: 2998: 2992: 2983: 2982: 2977: 2968: 2962: 2953: 2952: 2947: 2938: 2937: 2932: 2924: 2923: 2918: 2909: 2900: 2886: 2885: 2878: 2877: 2867: 2866: 2859: 2858: 2851: 2850: 2836: 2835: 2820: 2819: 2762:, such as Latin 2726: 2725: 2715: 2706: 2705: 2698: 2697: 2690: 2689: 2674: 2673: 2667: 2657: 2648: 2634: 2621: 2620: 2602: 2601: 2594: 2593: 2586: 2585: 2580:The household (* 2575: 2574: 2539:early Bronze Age 2535: 2534: 2526: 2525: 2519:) or "servant" ( 2517: 2516: 2508: 2507: 2497:The presence of 2492: 2491: 2470:Social structure 2448:Tripolye culture 2391:Paleolinguistics 2387:Tripolye culture 2359:cultural horizon 2337:Yamnaya horizon. 2309:(3600–3000) and 2225:Late Sredny Stog 2223:(4400–3800) and 2106:David W. Anthony 2088:human migrations 2064:David W. Anthony 1952: 1945: 1938: 1793: 1786: 1772: 1765: 1758: 1744: 1737: 1730: 1723: 1716: 1641: 1627: 1620: 1606: 1584: 1577: 1570: 1561: 1396: 1389: 1382: 1375: 1368: 1351:Germanic peoples 1341:Hellenic peoples 1330: 1323: 1316: 1239:Mycenaean Greeks 1228: 1156:Thraco-Cimmerian 1054:Globular Amphora 1031:Abashevo culture 970: 963: 933: 888: 881: 874: 867: 860: 853: 846: 839: 676:Tocharian script 379: 372: 365: 358: 351: 344: 337: 330: 297: 283: 276: 269: 255: 231: 224: 205: 166: 143: 142: 136: 133: 127: 112: 106: 102: 96: 92: 86: 74: 73: 66: 59: 56: 50: 27: 19: 8465: 8464: 8460: 8459: 8458: 8456: 8455: 8454: 8430: 8429: 8428: 8423: 8389: 8343: 8320: 8294: 8243: 8199:Parts of speech 8194: 8138: 8008: 8003: 7947: 7855: 7853:Further reading 7850: 7844: 7824:West, Martin L. 7816: 7763: 7682: 7658: 7634: 7576: 7555: 7527: 7500: 7436: 7328: 7315: 7287: 7210: 7184: 7162: 7154:. Oxbow Books. 7106: 7086: 7081: 7080: 7072: 7068: 7060: 7056: 7048: 7044: 7036: 7032: 7021: 7017: 7009: 7005: 6997: 6993: 6985: 6981: 6973: 6969: 6961: 6954: 6946: 6942: 6934: 6930: 6922: 6913: 6905: 6901: 6893: 6889: 6850: 6846: 6807: 6803: 6795: 6791: 6783: 6774: 6766: 6762: 6754: 6745: 6737: 6733: 6725: 6721: 6713: 6709: 6701: 6697: 6689: 6685: 6677: 6673: 6665: 6661: 6654: 6638: 6634: 6627: 6611: 6602: 6594: 6590: 6582: 6578: 6570: 6566: 6558: 6554: 6546: 6542: 6534: 6530: 6522: 6518: 6510: 6503: 6483: 6479: 6471: 6464: 6456: 6452: 6444: 6440: 6432: 6428: 6420: 6416: 6408: 6404: 6396: 6387: 6379: 6370: 6362: 6358: 6350: 6346: 6338: 6331: 6323: 6319: 6311: 6307: 6299: 6292: 6284: 6280: 6272: 6265: 6257: 6250: 6242: 6233: 6225: 6218: 6210: 6201: 6193: 6184: 6176: 6172: 6165: 6146: 6142: 6134: 6130: 6123: 6107: 6103: 6095: 6091: 6084: 6068: 6064: 6057: 6041: 6037: 6029: 6025: 6017: 6013: 6005: 5998: 5990: 5986: 5978: 5971: 5967:, p. 2232. 5963: 5956: 5948: 5937: 5929: 5925: 5917: 5913: 5905: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5839: 5835: 5827: 5818: 5810: 5803: 5783: 5779: 5771: 5762: 5753: 5749: 5741: 5737: 5729: 5725: 5718: 5702: 5698: 5691: 5675: 5671: 5663: 5659: 5651: 5647: 5639: 5635: 5627: 5618: 5610: 5606: 5598: 5589: 5585:, p. 2234. 5581: 5577: 5569: 5562: 5531:Garnier, Romain 5528: 5524: 5516: 5505: 5497: 5488: 5473: 5456: 5452: 5444: 5440: 5432: 5428: 5420: 5416: 5352: 5348: 5340: 5336: 5328: 5317: 5309: 5305: 5297: 5293: 5289:, p. 2233. 5285: 5281: 5273: 5269: 5261: 5257: 5249: 5242: 5234: 5227: 5219: 5215: 5207: 5203: 5195: 5186: 5178: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5149: 5142: 5123: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5099: 5095: 5087: 5074: 5066: 5062: 5054: 5050: 5042: 5031: 5023: 5019: 5011: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4984: 4977: 4969: 4965: 4958: 4942: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4918: 4909: 4894: 4890: 4882: 4875: 4867: 4856: 4848: 4839: 4832: 4818: 4811: 4801: 4799: 4788: 4784: 4774: 4772: 4762: 4758: 4704: 4700: 4692: 4688: 4680: 4676: 4657: 4646: 4638: 4627: 4611: 4607: 4602: 4597: 4589: 4585: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4523: 4518: 4514:Yamnaya horizon 4484: 4448:Očhéthi Šakówiŋ 4307: 4283:Native American 4151: 4110:proto-language. 4103: 3917: 3866:North Caucasian 3815: 3778:in the western 3767: 3674:(Εὐκλεής), the 3642: 3506: 3505: 3504: 3503: 3488: 3487: 3486: 3478: 3477: 3466: 3460: 3448:crafting speech 3429:), attached to 3379:ḱléuesh₂ h₂nróm 3373:("wide fame"), 3361:The concept of 3343: 3249:horse sacrifice 3217: 3075:Georges Dumézil 3059: 3053: 3048: 3022:Georges Dumézil 3014: 2811: 2734: 2682: 2555: 2533:h₂upo-sth₂-i/o- 2524:h₂entbʰi-kʷolos 2477: 2475:Class structure 2472: 2452:Pannonian Basin 2343:Yamnaya horizon 2331: 2325: 2323:Yamnaya horizon 2319: 2284:North Caucasian 2269:proto-Tocharian 2252: 2159: 2153: 2144:Yamnaya horizon 2122:Anatolian split 2102: 2079:Archaeogenetics 2060:Marija Gimbutas 1983: 1956: 1927: 1926: 1859:Marija Gimbutas 1847: 1837: 1836: 1828:Winter solstice 1818:Horse sacrifice 1789: 1782: 1768: 1761: 1754: 1740: 1733: 1726: 1719: 1712: 1665: 1650: 1637: 1623: 1616: 1602: 1593: 1580: 1573: 1566: 1557: 1548: 1527: 1496: 1488: 1487: 1430: 1417: 1392: 1385: 1378: 1371: 1364: 1326: 1319: 1312: 1303: 1285: 1272: 1259: 1230: 1224: 1209: 1201: 1200: 1174: 1151: 1138: 1126: 1107: 1049: 1026: 988: 981: 975: 966: 959: 950: 948:Northern Europe 929: 925: 912: 899: 884: 877: 870: 863: 856: 849: 842: 835: 831:Steppe cultures 804: 797: 790: 782: 781: 772:Baltic homeland 746: 742: 738:Eurasian nomads 722: 718: 694: 686: 685: 656:Runic epigraphy 651:Latin epigraphy 606: 598: 597: 535:Proto-Anatolian 519: 474: 470:Thraco-Illyrian 455:Graeco-Phrygian 445:Graeco-Armenian 440:Graeco-Albanian 419: 397: 384: 375: 368: 361: 354: 347: 340: 333: 326: 293: 279: 272: 265: 251: 227: 220: 201: 186: 178: 176: 137: 131: 128: 122: 110: 104: 100: 98:transliteration 94: 90: 84: 75: 71: 60: 54: 51: 44: 32:This article's 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8463: 8453: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8425: 8424: 8422: 8421: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8397: 8395: 8391: 8390: 8388: 8387: 8386: 8385: 8380: 8378:Beech argument 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8351: 8349: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8341: 8334: 8328: 8326: 8322: 8321: 8319: 8318: 8316:Salmon problem 8313: 8308: 8302: 8300: 8296: 8295: 8293: 8292: 8284: 8276: 8268: 8260: 8251: 8249: 8245: 8244: 8242: 8241: 8236: 8235: 8234: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8202: 8200: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8192: 8187: 8185:Thematic vowel 8182: 8177: 8172: 8170:Narten present 8167: 8157: 8152: 8146: 8144: 8140: 8139: 8137: 8136: 8135: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8079: 8074: 8069: 8057: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8024: 8018: 8016: 8010: 8009: 8002: 8001: 7994: 7987: 7979: 7973: 7972: 7965: 7958: 7951: 7945: 7926: 7919: 7912: 7905: 7898: 7891: 7884: 7874: 7863: 7854: 7851: 7849: 7848: 7842: 7820: 7815:978-0198024712 7814: 7798: 7766: 7762:978-0941694452 7761: 7746: 7728:(2): 253–290. 7714: 7686: 7680: 7662: 7656: 7638: 7632: 7617: 7580: 7574: 7559: 7553: 7531: 7525: 7505: 7488: 7440: 7434: 7419: 7399:(2): 223–234. 7384: 7333: 7319: 7313: 7291: 7285: 7269: 7249:(2): 255–271. 7234: 7214: 7209:978-0870242502 7208: 7188: 7183:978-9027211859 7182: 7166: 7160: 7144: 7132:(1): 199–219. 7110: 7105:978-0691058870 7104: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7079: 7078: 7066: 7064:, p. 450. 7054: 7042: 7030: 7015: 7013:, p. 266. 7003: 6991: 6989:, p. 439. 6979: 6977:, p. 275. 6967: 6965:, p. 151. 6952: 6940: 6938:, p. 166. 6928: 6911: 6909:, p. 240. 6899: 6887: 6844: 6823:10.1086/339377 6817:(2): 303–304. 6801: 6799:, p. 205. 6789: 6772: 6770:, p. 206. 6760: 6758:, p. 207. 6743: 6731: 6729:, p. 305. 6719: 6707: 6705:, p. 153. 6695: 6683: 6671: 6669:, p. 400. 6659: 6652: 6632: 6625: 6600: 6588: 6576: 6564: 6552: 6540: 6528: 6516: 6514:, p. 339. 6501: 6491:, p. 31; 6477: 6475:, p. 115. 6462: 6460:, p. 282. 6450: 6438: 6436:, p. 225. 6426: 6414: 6402: 6385: 6368: 6366:, p. 262. 6356: 6344: 6329: 6317: 6305: 6290: 6288:, p. 173. 6278: 6263: 6261:, p. 118. 6248: 6231: 6216: 6199: 6182: 6180:, p. 265. 6170: 6163: 6140: 6128: 6121: 6101: 6099:, p. 293. 6089: 6082: 6062: 6056:978-1440830884 6055: 6035: 6033:, p. 362. 6023: 6021:, p. 437. 6011: 5996: 5984: 5982:, p. 141. 5969: 5954: 5935: 5933:, p. 167. 5923: 5921:, p. 351. 5911: 5896: 5884: 5855:10.1086/462755 5833: 5816: 5814:, p. 138. 5801: 5785:Lincoln, Bruce 5777: 5760: 5756:Flamen-Brahman 5747: 5735: 5733:, p. 276. 5723: 5716: 5696: 5689: 5669: 5667:, p. 277. 5657: 5655:, p. 345. 5645: 5633: 5616: 5604: 5587: 5575: 5573:, p. 269. 5560: 5522: 5520:, p. 303. 5503: 5501:, p. 213. 5486: 5471: 5450: 5448:, p. 209. 5438: 5426: 5424:, p. 261. 5414: 5346: 5334: 5315: 5313:, p. 328. 5303: 5301:, p. 207. 5291: 5279: 5267: 5255: 5240: 5238:, p. 430. 5225: 5223:, p. 257. 5213: 5201: 5199:, p. 336. 5184: 5167: 5155: 5153:, p. 208. 5140: 5117: 5105: 5103:, p. 209. 5093: 5091:, p. 337. 5072: 5060: 5058:, p. 336. 5048: 5046:, p. 214. 5029: 5027:, p. 258. 5017: 5002: 4990: 4975: 4963: 4956: 4936: 4924: 4922:, p. 304. 4907: 4888: 4886:, p. 211. 4873: 4871:, p. 212. 4854: 4837: 4831:978-1107054530 4830: 4809: 4782: 4756: 4698: 4696:, p. 152. 4686: 4684:, p. 349. 4674: 4644: 4625: 4604: 4603: 4601: 4598: 4596: 4595: 4583: 4581: 4580: 4565:Mallory (1989) 4562: 4556: 4550: 4544: 4541:Bomhard (2019) 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4306: 4303: 4150: 4147: 4102: 4099: 4085:) and thread ( 3947:), the shaft ( 3916: 3913: 3896:Ural Mountains 3869:Maikop culture 3814: 3811: 3766: 3763: 3655:. As in Vedic 3646:compound words 3641: 3640:Personal names 3638: 3535:bronze daggers 3490: 3489: 3480: 3479: 3471: 3470: 3469: 3468: 3467: 3459: 3456: 3387:oral-formulaic 3342: 3339: 3216: 3213: 3055:Main article: 3052: 3049: 3047: 3044: 3020:, proposed by 3013: 3010: 2963:('order') and 2810: 2807: 2777:("guest") and 2733: 2730: 2681: 2678: 2554: 2551: 2476: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2415:As the steppe 2321:Main article: 2318: 2315: 2287:Maykop culture 2251: 2248: 2155:Main article: 2152: 2149: 2148: 2147: 2140: 2133: 2104:Archaeologist 2101: 2098: 2097: 2096: 2075: 2047: 2023: 2004:reconstruction 1982: 1979: 1958: 1957: 1955: 1954: 1947: 1940: 1932: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1917: 1910: 1903: 1896: 1888: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1874: 1873: 1867: 1866: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1848: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1838: 1835: 1834: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1813:Fire sacrifice 1809: 1808: 1802: 1801: 1796: 1795: 1794: 1787: 1775: 1774: 1773: 1766: 1759: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1738: 1731: 1724: 1717: 1705: 1700: 1695: 1658: 1657: 1645: 1644: 1643: 1642: 1630: 1629: 1628: 1621: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1604:Zoroastrianism 1586: 1585: 1578: 1571: 1564: 1563: 1562: 1541: 1540: 1534: 1533: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1485: 1474: 1473: 1471:Medieval India 1462: 1461: 1456: 1447: 1442: 1437: 1425: 1424: 1412: 1411: 1405: 1404: 1399: 1398: 1397: 1390: 1383: 1376: 1369: 1353: 1348: 1346:Italic peoples 1343: 1338: 1333: 1332: 1331: 1324: 1317: 1298: 1297: 1292: 1280: 1279: 1267: 1266: 1254: 1253: 1247: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1217: 1216: 1210: 1207: 1206: 1203: 1202: 1199: 1198: 1193: 1182: 1181: 1169: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1146: 1145: 1133: 1132: 1125: 1124: 1122:Gandhara grave 1119: 1114: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1044: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1021: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1005: 1000: 995: 983: 982: 974: 973: 972: 971: 968:Middle Dnieper 964: 945: 944: 939: 934: 923:Eastern Europe 920: 919: 907: 906: 894: 893: 892: 891: 890: 889: 882: 868: 861: 854: 851:Dnieper–Donets 847: 840: 828: 826:Kurgan culture 823: 822: 821: 811: 799: 798: 791: 788: 787: 784: 783: 780: 779: 774: 769: 764: 762:Beech argument 759: 754: 748: 747: 741: 740: 735: 730: 724: 723: 717: 716: 711: 706: 701: 695: 692: 691: 688: 687: 684: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 607: 604: 603: 600: 599: 596: 595: 585: 571: 566: 552: 545:Proto-Germanic 542: 540:Proto-Armenian 537: 532: 530:Proto-Albanian 526: 525: 518: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 481: 480: 473: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 426: 425: 418: 417: 416: 415: 391: 390: 383: 382: 381: 380: 373: 366: 359: 352: 345: 338: 331: 319: 314: 308: 307: 301: 300: 299: 298: 286: 285: 284: 277: 270: 258: 257: 256: 244: 239: 234: 233: 232: 225: 213: 208: 207: 206: 193: 192: 185: 184: 177: 172: 171: 168: 167: 159: 158: 152: 151: 139: 138: 117:. Knowledge's 78: 76: 69: 62: 61: 41:the key points 31: 29: 22: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8462: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8435: 8420: 8418: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8398: 8396: 8392: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8375: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8352: 8350: 8346: 8340: 8339: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8329: 8327: 8323: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8297: 8291: 8289: 8285: 8283: 8281: 8277: 8275: 8273: 8269: 8267: 8265: 8261: 8259: 8257: 8253: 8252: 8250: 8246: 8240: 8237: 8233: 8230: 8229: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8207: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8197: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8158: 8156: 8155:Caland system 8153: 8151: 8148: 8147: 8145: 8141: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8117: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8082:Bartholomae's 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8066: 8058: 8056: 8054: 8050: 8049: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8023: 8020: 8019: 8017: 8015: 8011: 8007: 8000: 7995: 7993: 7988: 7986: 7981: 7980: 7977: 7970: 7966: 7963: 7959: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7942: 7938: 7933: 7927: 7924: 7920: 7917: 7913: 7910: 7906: 7903: 7899: 7896: 7892: 7889: 7885: 7883: 7879: 7878:Human Biology 7875: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7861: 7857: 7856: 7845: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7830: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7775: 7771: 7767: 7764: 7758: 7754: 7753: 7747: 7743: 7739: 7735: 7731: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7683: 7677: 7673: 7672: 7667: 7666:Ringe, Donald 7663: 7659: 7653: 7649: 7648: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7629: 7625: 7624: 7618: 7614: 7610: 7606: 7602: 7598: 7594: 7590: 7586: 7581: 7577: 7571: 7567: 7566: 7560: 7556: 7550: 7546: 7545: 7540: 7536: 7532: 7528: 7526:9780500050521 7522: 7517: 7516: 7510: 7506: 7499: 7498: 7493: 7489: 7485: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7437: 7431: 7427: 7426: 7420: 7416: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7343: 7339: 7334: 7327: 7326: 7320: 7316: 7310: 7306: 7305: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7286:1-4051-0316-7 7282: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7248: 7244: 7240: 7235: 7231: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7205: 7200: 7199: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7179: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7157: 7153: 7152: 7145: 7140: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7123: 7119: 7118:Ringe, Donald 7115: 7111: 7107: 7101: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7088: 7075: 7070: 7063: 7058: 7052:, p. 28. 7051: 7046: 7039: 7034: 7026: 7019: 7012: 7007: 7000: 6995: 6988: 6983: 6976: 6971: 6964: 6959: 6957: 6949: 6944: 6937: 6932: 6926:, p. 38. 6925: 6920: 6918: 6916: 6908: 6903: 6896: 6891: 6883: 6879: 6875: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6859: 6855: 6848: 6840: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6816: 6812: 6805: 6798: 6793: 6786: 6781: 6779: 6777: 6769: 6764: 6757: 6752: 6750: 6748: 6741:, p. 11. 6740: 6735: 6728: 6723: 6717:, p. 48. 6716: 6711: 6704: 6699: 6692: 6687: 6680: 6675: 6668: 6663: 6655: 6653:9789027235657 6649: 6645: 6644: 6636: 6628: 6626:9780415138505 6622: 6618: 6617: 6609: 6607: 6605: 6598:, p. 24. 6597: 6592: 6585: 6580: 6573: 6568: 6561: 6556: 6550:, p. 31. 6549: 6544: 6537: 6532: 6525: 6520: 6513: 6508: 6506: 6499:, p. 339 6498: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6481: 6474: 6469: 6467: 6459: 6454: 6448:, p. 82. 6447: 6442: 6435: 6430: 6424:, p. 81. 6423: 6418: 6411: 6406: 6399: 6394: 6392: 6390: 6382: 6377: 6375: 6373: 6365: 6360: 6354:, p. 54. 6353: 6348: 6342:, p. 92. 6341: 6336: 6334: 6327:, p. 16. 6326: 6321: 6315:, p. 12. 6314: 6309: 6302: 6297: 6295: 6287: 6282: 6276:, p. 42. 6275: 6270: 6268: 6260: 6255: 6253: 6245: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6229:, p. 30. 6228: 6223: 6221: 6214:, p. 29. 6213: 6208: 6206: 6204: 6196: 6191: 6189: 6187: 6179: 6174: 6166: 6160: 6156: 6155: 6150: 6144: 6137: 6132: 6124: 6118: 6114: 6113: 6105: 6098: 6093: 6085: 6079: 6075: 6074: 6066: 6058: 6052: 6048: 6047: 6039: 6032: 6027: 6020: 6015: 6008: 6003: 6001: 5993: 5988: 5981: 5976: 5974: 5966: 5965:Kölligan 2017 5961: 5959: 5951: 5946: 5944: 5942: 5940: 5932: 5927: 5920: 5915: 5908: 5903: 5901: 5893: 5888: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5837: 5830: 5825: 5823: 5821: 5813: 5808: 5806: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5781: 5774: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5757: 5751: 5744: 5739: 5732: 5727: 5719: 5717:9789004160927 5713: 5709: 5708: 5700: 5692: 5690:9789004174184 5686: 5682: 5681: 5673: 5666: 5661: 5654: 5649: 5643:, p. 86. 5642: 5637: 5630: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5613: 5608: 5601: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5584: 5583:Kölligan 2017 5579: 5572: 5567: 5565: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5526: 5519: 5514: 5512: 5510: 5508: 5500: 5495: 5493: 5491: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5472:1-4175-3642-X 5468: 5464: 5460: 5454: 5447: 5442: 5435: 5430: 5423: 5418: 5410: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5350: 5343: 5338: 5331: 5326: 5324: 5322: 5320: 5312: 5307: 5300: 5295: 5288: 5287:Kölligan 2017 5283: 5276: 5271: 5264: 5259: 5253:, p. 17. 5252: 5247: 5245: 5237: 5232: 5230: 5222: 5217: 5210: 5205: 5198: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5181: 5176: 5174: 5172: 5165:, p. 51. 5164: 5159: 5152: 5147: 5145: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5121: 5114: 5109: 5102: 5097: 5090: 5085: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5077: 5070:, p. 99. 5069: 5064: 5057: 5052: 5045: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5034: 5026: 5021: 5014: 5009: 5007: 4999: 4994: 4987: 4982: 4980: 4972: 4967: 4959: 4957:9780500283721 4953: 4949: 4948: 4940: 4933: 4928: 4921: 4916: 4914: 4912: 4903: 4899: 4892: 4885: 4880: 4878: 4870: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4859: 4851: 4846: 4844: 4842: 4833: 4827: 4823: 4816: 4814: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4752: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4702: 4695: 4690: 4683: 4678: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4655: 4653: 4651: 4649: 4641: 4636: 4634: 4632: 4630: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4592: 4587: 4578: 4577: 4572: 4571: 4566: 4563: 4560: 4557: 4554: 4551: 4548: 4545: 4542: 4539: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4486: 4479: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4424: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4376: ; from 4375: 4371: 4370: 4365: 4364: 4359: 4357: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4335: 4330: 4326: 4325: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4255: 4253: 4249: 4248: 4243: 4239: 4238: 4232: 4231: 4225: 4221: 4220: 4215: 4211: 4210: 4203: 4202:, "piglet"). 4201: 4200: 4195: ; also 4194: 4193: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4178: 4173: 4172: 4167: 4164: 4155: 4146: 4145: 4142: 4141: 4135: 4134: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4098: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4069:), spinning ( 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4008:*h₂erǵ-n̩t-om 4005: 4001: 3996: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3985:Indo-Iranians 3982: 3978: 3973: 3971: 3964: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3943:), the axle ( 3942: 3938: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3912: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3873:Transcaucasia 3870: 3867: 3863: 3858: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3819: 3810: 3808: 3803: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3734: 3728: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3705: 3701: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3687: 3684: 3680: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3653: 3647: 3637: 3635: 3631: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3606: 3602:, the Italic 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3584:kurgan stelae 3580: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3558: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3501: 3497: 3494: 3484: 3475: 3465: 3455: 3453: 3452:*wékʷos teḱs- 3449: 3445: 3444:*wékʷos webh- 3441: 3440:weaving words 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3375:*ḱléwos meǵh₂ 3372: 3368: 3364: 3359: 3357: 3352: 3347: 3338: 3336: 3335: 3330: 3329: 3324: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3304: 3299: 3295: 3292: 3288: 3285: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3267:. Descendant 3266: 3262: 3258: 3252: 3250: 3246: 3240: 3232: 3226: 3222: 3212: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3201: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3176:, the 'Sun' ( 3175: 3171: 3170: 3165: 3164: 3159: 3158: 3152: 3148: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3126: 3121: 3120: 3115: 3113: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3058: 3043: 3040: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3009: 3006: 3002: 2997: 2991: 2987: 2976: 2972: 2967: 2961: 2957: 2946: 2942: 2931: 2930: 2917: 2913: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2879: 2870: 2868: 2860: 2852: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2806: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2792: 2789:’s warriors, 2788: 2782: 2780: 2776: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2729: 2727: 2717: 2714: 2713: 2707: 2699: 2691: 2680:Patron-client 2677: 2675: 2666: 2661: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2632: 2626: 2622: 2613: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2595: 2587: 2578: 2576: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2546: 2542: 2540: 2536: 2527: 2518: 2509: 2500: 2495: 2493: 2483: 2467: 2465: 2462:(3300–1500). 2461: 2455: 2453: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2422: 2418: 2413: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2368: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2335: 2330: 2324: 2314: 2312: 2308: 2305:(3500–2500), 2304: 2301:(4000–3200), 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2280: 2279:(3300–2500). 2278: 2274: 2273:South Siberia 2270: 2266: 2256: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2228: 2226: 2222: 2221:Novodanilovka 2218: 2214: 2210: 2205: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2170:Danube valley 2167: 2163: 2158: 2145: 2141: 2138: 2134: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2118: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2108:and linguist 2107: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2028: 2024: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1996: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1988: 1978: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1953: 1948: 1946: 1941: 1939: 1934: 1933: 1931: 1930: 1923: 1922: 1918: 1916: 1915: 1911: 1909: 1908: 1904: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1895: 1894: 1890: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1882: 1879: 1876: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1865: 1864:J. P. Mallory 1862: 1860: 1857: 1856: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1841: 1840: 1833: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1810: 1807: 1804: 1803: 1800: 1797: 1792: 1788: 1785: 1781: 1780: 1779: 1776: 1771: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1757: 1753: 1752: 1751: 1748: 1743: 1739: 1736: 1732: 1729: 1725: 1722: 1718: 1715: 1711: 1710: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1701: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1684: 1681: 1678: 1675: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1666: 1664: 1663: 1656: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1649: 1640: 1636: 1635: 1634: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1619: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1605: 1601: 1600: 1599: 1596: 1595: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1560: 1556: 1555: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1549: 1547: 1546: 1539: 1536: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1528: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1505: 1502: 1501:Reconstructed 1499: 1498: 1492: 1491: 1484: 1481: 1480: 1479: 1478: 1472: 1469: 1468: 1467: 1466: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1451: 1448: 1446: 1443: 1441: 1438: 1436: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1429: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1418: 1416: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1403: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1377: 1374: 1370: 1367: 1363: 1362: 1361: 1357: 1354: 1352: 1349: 1347: 1344: 1342: 1339: 1337: 1334: 1329: 1328:Insular Celts 1325: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1311: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1305: 1304: 1302: 1296: 1293: 1291: 1288: 1287: 1286: 1284: 1278: 1275: 1274: 1273: 1271: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1260: 1258: 1252: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1244:Indo-Iranians 1242: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1227: 1222: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1211: 1205: 1204: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1180: 1177: 1176: 1175: 1173: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1152: 1150: 1144: 1141: 1140: 1139: 1137: 1131: 1128: 1127: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1109: 1108: 1106: 1100: 1097: 1095: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1085: 1082: 1080: 1077: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1060: 1057: 1055: 1052: 1051: 1050: 1048: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1028: 1027: 1025: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1009: 1006: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 990: 989: 987: 986:Pontic Steppe 980: 977: 976: 969: 965: 962: 958: 957: 956: 953: 952: 951: 949: 943: 940: 938: 935: 932: 928: 927: 926: 924: 918: 915: 914: 913: 911: 905: 902: 901: 900: 898: 887: 883: 880: 876: 875: 873: 869: 866: 862: 859: 855: 852: 848: 845: 841: 838: 834: 833: 832: 829: 827: 824: 820: 819:Kurgan stelae 817: 816: 815: 812: 810: 807: 806: 805: 803: 802:Pontic Steppe 796: 793: 792: 786: 785: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 765: 763: 760: 758: 755: 753: 750: 749: 744: 743: 739: 736: 734: 731: 729: 726: 725: 720: 719: 715: 712: 710: 707: 705: 702: 700: 697: 696: 690: 689: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 608: 602: 601: 593: 592:Proto-Iranian 589: 586: 583: 579: 575: 572: 570: 567: 564: 560: 556: 553: 550: 546: 543: 541: 538: 536: 533: 531: 528: 527: 524: 521: 520: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 482: 479: 476: 475: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 435:Daco-Thracian 433: 431: 428: 427: 424: 421: 420: 414: 410: 406: 402: 399: 398: 396: 393: 392: 389: 388:Reconstructed 386: 385: 378: 374: 371: 367: 364: 360: 357: 353: 350: 346: 343: 339: 336: 332: 329: 325: 324: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 309: 306: 303: 302: 296: 292: 291: 290: 287: 282: 278: 275: 271: 268: 264: 263: 262: 259: 254: 250: 249: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 230: 226: 223: 219: 218: 217: 214: 212: 209: 204: 200: 199: 198: 195: 194: 191: 188: 187: 183: 180: 179: 175: 170: 169: 165: 161: 160: 157: 154: 153: 149: 145: 144: 135: 125: 120: 116: 109: 99: 89: 82: 77: 68: 67: 58: 48: 42: 40: 35: 30: 26: 21: 20: 8415: 8405: 8336: 8286: 8278: 8270: 8262: 8254: 8248:Main sources 8165:-conjugation 8127:Szemerényi's 8087:Fortunatov's 8060: 8052: 7968: 7961: 7954: 7937:Spuren lesen 7936: 7922: 7915: 7908: 7901: 7894: 7887: 7877: 7870: 7859: 7828: 7805: 7780:(1): 27–42. 7777: 7773: 7751: 7725: 7721: 7701: 7697: 7670: 7646: 7642:Reich, David 7622: 7591:(1): 77–98. 7588: 7584: 7564: 7543: 7514: 7496: 7455: 7451: 7424: 7396: 7392: 7363:10138/255652 7345: 7341: 7324: 7303: 7276: 7246: 7242: 7229: 7225: 7197: 7173: 7150: 7129: 7125: 7095: 7084:Bibliography 7076:, p. 4. 7069: 7057: 7050:Fortson 2004 7045: 7033: 7024: 7018: 7006: 6994: 6982: 6970: 6943: 6931: 6924:Fortson 2004 6902: 6890: 6857: 6853: 6847: 6814: 6810: 6804: 6792: 6763: 6739:Bomhard 2019 6734: 6727:Anthony 2007 6722: 6715:Anthony 2007 6710: 6698: 6693:, p. 1. 6686: 6681:, p. 1. 6674: 6662: 6642: 6635: 6615: 6596:Sergent 2003 6591: 6584:Anthony 2007 6579: 6574:, p. 2. 6567: 6555: 6543: 6538:, p. 3. 6531: 6524:Sergent 2003 6519: 6493:Sergent 2003 6480: 6453: 6446:Mallory 2006 6441: 6429: 6422:Mallory 2006 6417: 6405: 6381:Anthony 2007 6364:Speidel 2002 6359: 6347: 6340:Mallory 2006 6325:Watkins 1995 6320: 6313:Watkins 1995 6308: 6286:Watkins 1995 6281: 6244:Fortson 2004 6212:Fortson 2004 6178:Anthony 2007 6173: 6153: 6143: 6131: 6111: 6104: 6092: 6072: 6065: 6045: 6038: 6031:Anthony 2007 6026: 6014: 6007:Fortson 2004 5987: 5926: 5914: 5892:Anthony 2007 5887: 5849:(1): 42–65. 5846: 5842: 5836: 5829:Anthony 2007 5788: 5780: 5775:, p. 4. 5755: 5750: 5738: 5726: 5706: 5699: 5679: 5672: 5660: 5648: 5641:Mallory 2006 5636: 5629:Fortson 2004 5612:Watkins 1986 5607: 5600:Fortson 2004 5578: 5541:(1): 57–69. 5538: 5534: 5525: 5518:Anthony 2007 5462: 5453: 5446:Fortson 2004 5441: 5429: 5417: 5364: 5360: 5349: 5337: 5311:Anthony 2007 5306: 5294: 5282: 5275:Anthony 2007 5270: 5258: 5251:Fortson 2004 5216: 5204: 5197:Anthony 2007 5180:Fortson 2004 5163:Anthony 2007 5158: 5135:the original 5130: 5120: 5113:Anthony 2007 5108: 5096: 5068:Anthony 2007 5063: 5051: 5020: 5013:Anthony 2007 4998:Anthony 2007 4993: 4986:Anthony 2007 4971:Anthony 2007 4966: 4946: 4939: 4932:Anthony 2007 4927: 4920:Anthony 2007 4901: 4891: 4850:Anthony 2007 4821: 4800:. Retrieved 4795: 4785: 4773:. Retrieved 4769: 4759: 4716: 4712: 4701: 4689: 4677: 4668: 4664: 4640:Fortson 2004 4608: 4586: 4574: 4568: 4547:Reich (2018) 4533: 4475: 4474:, Ukrainian 4471: 4470:, Slovenian 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4443: 4435: 4425: 4390: 4385: 4377: 4373: 4367: 4366:), snakes (* 4361: 4354: 4353:), eagles (* 4350: 4347:elks (moose) 4342: 4332: 4322: 4314: 4308: 4305:Wild animals 4299:Ingul valley 4256: 4245: 4234: 4227: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4204: 4196: 4189: 4188:) and pigs ( 4185: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4166: 4160: 4144: 4137: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4115:*kʷetwor-pod 4114: 4111: 4104: 4094: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4073:), weaving ( 4070: 4066: 4062: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4024: 4019: 4015: 4014:), the awl ( 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3997: 3993:dugout canoe 3988: 3974: 3962: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3934: 3909:Indo-Iranian 3892:Proto-Uralic 3889: 3859: 3824: 3806: 3804: 3768: 3758: 3754: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3731: 3729: 3722: 3713: 3707:Trasá-dasyus 3706: 3697: 3692: 3685: 3678: 3671: 3670:, the Greek 3667: 3661:*Ḱléwos-wésu 3660: 3656: 3650: 3643: 3629: 3626: 3603: 3591: 3581: 3576: 3575:) and dogs ( 3572: 3568: 3563: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3507: 3451: 3447: 3443: 3439: 3427:*hₐnr̥-gʷhen 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3407:eternal life 3406: 3402: 3399:swift horses 3398: 3394: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3371:*ḱléwos wéru 3370: 3366: 3362: 3360: 3355: 3350: 3348: 3344: 3332: 3326: 3322: 3320:Old Prussian 3315: 3311: 3307: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289:(κάνναβις), 3286: 3279: 3272: 3271:of the root 3253: 3238: 3230: 3218: 3209:Graeco-Aryan 3204: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3177: 3167: 3162: 3154: 3150: 3144: 3138: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3096: 3070: 3066: 3060: 3038: 3015: 2890:cosmic order 2881: 2873: 2871: 2862: 2854: 2846: 2844: 2831: 2828:Hittite laws 2815: 2812: 2809:Legal system 2799:grandfathers 2798: 2783: 2781:("master"). 2778: 2774: 2767: 2763: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2735: 2724:ghosti-potis 2721: 2718: 2712:rex sacrorum 2701: 2693: 2685: 2683: 2669: 2625:Indo-Iranian 2616: 2614: 2610: 2597: 2589: 2581: 2579: 2570: 2556: 2529: 2520: 2511: 2502: 2496: 2486: 2478: 2456: 2445:Old European 2437: 2414: 2395: 2340: 2295:Uruk culture 2291:hierarchical 2281: 2261: 2229: 2206: 2160: 2110:Donald Ringe 2103: 2077: 2049: 2044:folk stories 2025: 2016:connotations 2007: 1998:(especially 1993: 1984: 1962: 1961: 1919: 1912: 1905: 1898: 1891: 1885:Publications 1884: 1870: 1851: 1805: 1688: 1682: 1676: 1670:Paleo-Balkan 1660: 1659: 1647: 1646: 1588: 1587: 1543: 1542: 1530: 1500: 1483:Greater Iran 1476: 1475: 1464: 1463: 1427: 1426: 1414: 1413: 1356:Paleo-Balkan 1321:Celtiberians 1300: 1299: 1282: 1281: 1269: 1268: 1256: 1255: 1184: 1183: 1171: 1170: 1148: 1147: 1135: 1134: 1104: 1103: 1046: 1045: 1023: 1022: 985: 984: 947: 946: 922: 921: 909: 908: 896: 895: 837:Bug–Dniester 801: 800: 708: 666:Gothic Bible 582:Proto-Baltic 578:Proto-Slavic 563:Proto-Italic 559:Proto-Celtic 522: 477: 465:Italo-Celtic 460:Indo-Hittite 450:Graeco-Aryan 423:Hypothetical 422: 387: 322:Paleo-Balkan 304: 261:Indo-Iranian 216:Balto-Slavic 189: 129: 115:ISO 639 code 111:}} 105:{{ 101:}} 95:{{ 91:}} 85:{{ 80: 55:January 2022 52: 36: 34:lead section 8175:Nasal infix 8092:Grassmann's 8077:Brugmann's 7704:(2): 9–27. 6560:McCone 1987 6485:McCone 1987 6274:Beekes 2011 4174:), sheep (* 4123:*gʷyéh₃wyom 4065:), sewing ( 4020:*h₂érh₃ye/o 3949:*h₂/₃éih₁os 3720:Old Persian 3676:Old Persian 3569:Männerbünde 3411:*h₂iu-gʷih₃ 3383:*dus-ḱlewes 3314:, Armenian 3310:, Albanian 3306:), Russian 3172:), and his 3001:Tocharian A 2969:('truth'); 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