780:
664:: the core sovereign authority of U.S. states to pass laws on matters of "health, safety, and morals". It held that as long as a law that classified and separated people by their race was a reasonable and good faith exercise of a state's police power and was not designed to oppress a particular class, the law did not violate the Equal Protection Clause. According to the Court, the question in any case that involved a racial segregation law was whether the law was reasonable, and the Court gave State legislatures broad discretion to determine the reasonableness of the laws they passed.
77:
611:
579:, which states "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Tourgée argued that the reputation of being a black man was "property", which, by the law, implied the inferiority of African Americans as compared to whites. The state legal brief was prepared by
9639:
2639:
695:
5201:
743:
here. Our constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law. The humblest is the peer of the most powerful. The law regards man as man, and takes no account of his surroundings or of his color when his civil rights as guaranteed by the supreme law of the land are involved.
642:, which reads: "nor shall any State ... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." The Court said that although the Fourteenth Amendment was meant to guarantee the legal equality of all races in the United States, it was not intended to prevent social or other types of discrimination.
931:
administered by white staff at poll stations. African-American community leaders, who had achieved brief political success during the
Reconstruction era and even into the 1880s, lost gains made when their voters were excluded from the political system. Historian Rogers Smith noted on the subject that
742:
The white race deems itself to be the dominant race in this country. And so it is in prestige, in achievements, in education, in wealth and in power. ... But in view of the constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, ruling class of citizens. There is no caste
646:
The object of the
Amendment was undoubtedly to enforce the absolute equality of the two races before the law, but in the nature of things, it could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from political equality, or a commingling of the
553:
In a
Pennsylvania law mandating separate railcars for different races the Pennsylvania Supreme Court stated: "To assert separateness is not to declare inferiority ... It is simply to say that following the order of Divine Providence, human authority ought not to compel these widely separated races to
858:
There is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the
Chinese race. But, by the statute in question, a Chinaman can ride in
504:
whites-only railway car, he was asked to vacate it, and sit instead in the blacks-only car. Plessy refused and was arrested immediately by the detective. As planned, the train was stopped, and Plessy was taken off the train at Press and Royal streets. Plessy was remanded for trial in
Orleans Parish.
829:
dissent, "we shall enter upon an era of constitutional law, when the rights of freedom and
American citizenship cannot receive from the nation that efficient protection which heretofore was unhesitatingly accorded to slavery and the rights of the master." Harlan's concerns about the encroachment on
715:
Every one knows that the statute in question had its origin in the purpose, not so much to exclude white people from railroad cars occupied by blacks, as to exclude colored people from coaches occupied by or assigned to white persons. ... The thing to accomplish was, under the guise of giving equal
672:
We consider the underlying fallacy of the plaintiff's argument to consist in the assumption that the enforced separation of the two races stamps the colored race with a badge of inferiority. If this be so, it is not by reason of anything found in the act, but solely because the colored race chooses
402:
and stating that although the
Fourteenth Amendment established the legal equality of whites and blacks, it did not and could not require the elimination of all "distinctions based upon color". The Court rejected Plessy's lawyers' arguments that the Louisiana law inherently implied that black people
987:
In 2009, Keith Plessy and Phoebe
Ferguson, descendants of participants on both sides of the 1896 Supreme Court case, announced the establishment of the Plessy and Ferguson Foundation for Education and Reconciliation. The foundation would work to create new ways to teach the history of civil rights
849:
dissent in a more critical light, and suggested it be viewed in context with his other decisions. Maltz has argued that "modern commentators have often overstated Harlan's distaste for race-based classifications", pointing to other aspects of decisions in which Harlan was involved. Both point to a
770:
After the
Supreme Court ruling, Plessy's criminal trial went ahead in Ferguson's court in Louisiana on February 11, 1897. Plessy changed his plea to "guilty" of violating the Separate Car Act, which carried a $ 25 fine or 20 days in jail. He opted to pay the fine. The Comité des Citoyens disbanded
549:
cited a number of precedents, including two key cases from
Northern states. The Massachusetts Supreme Court had ruled in 1849—before the 14th amendment—that segregated schools were constitutional. In answering the charge that segregation perpetuated race prejudice, the Massachusetts court famously
544:
The Louisiana Supreme Court issued a temporary writ of prohibition while it reviewed Plessy's case. In December 1892, the court upheld Judge Ferguson's ruling, and denied Plessy's attorneys' subsequent request for a rehearing. In speaking for the court's decision that Ferguson's judgment did not
503:
lineage, and the intent to challenge the law. Additionally, the Comité des Citoyens hired a private detective with arrest powers to detain Plessy, to ensure that he would be charged for violating the Separate Car Act, as opposed to vagrancy or some other offense. After Plessy took a seat in the
803:
were erased through means of the "separate but equal" doctrine. The doctrine had been strengthened also by an 1875 Supreme Court decision that limited the federal government's ability to intervene in state affairs, guaranteeing to Congress only the power "to restrain states from acts of racial
878:
ruling was immediate; there were already significant differences in funding for the segregated school system, which continued into the 20th century; states consistently underfunded black schools, providing them with substandard buildings, textbooks, and supplies. States which had successfully
922:
decision. Since no state wrote the "separate but equal" doctrine into a statute, there was no remedy, other than going back to the U.S. Supreme Court, if the separate facilities were not equal, and states faced no consequences if they underfunded services and facilities for non-whites.
909:
segregated educational facilities, separate public institutions such as hotels and restaurants, separate beaches among other public facilities, and restrictions on interracial marriage, but in other cases segregation in the North was related to unstated practices and operated on a
6672:
808:
926:
From 1890 to 1908, state legislatures in the South disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites through rejecting them for voter registration and voting: making voter registration more difficult by providing more detailed records, such as proof of land ownership or
798:
and provided an impetus for further segregation laws. It also legitimized laws in the North requiring "racial" segregation, such as in the Boston school segregation case noted by Justice Brown in his majority opinion. Legislative achievements won during the
453:, which required separate accommodations for blacks and whites on Louisiana railroads. The law required passenger train officers to "assign each passenger to the coach or compartment used for the race to which such passenger belongs". It also made it a
710:
was the lone dissenter from the Court's decision. Harlan strongly disagreed with the Court's conclusion that the Louisiana railcar law did not imply that black people were inferior, and he accused the majority of being willfully ignorant on the issue.
570:
and his legal partner F. D. McKenney. Oral arguments were held before the Supreme Court on April 13, 1896. Tourgée and Phillips appeared in the courtroom to speak on behalf of Plessy. Tourgée built his case upon violation of Plessy's rights under the
2759:
737:
In a now-famous passage, Harlan forcefully argued that even though many white Americans of the late 19th century considered themselves superior to those of other races, the U.S. Constitution was "color-blind" regarding the law and civil rights.
667:
Plessy's lawyers had argued that segregation laws inherently implied that black people were inferior, and therefore stigmatized them with a second-class status that violated the Equal Protection Clause. But the Court rejected this argument.
804:
discrimination and segregation". The ruling basically granted states legislative immunity when dealing with questions of "race", guaranteeing the states' right to implement racially separate institutions, requiring them only to be equal.
411:
was the lone dissenter from the Court's decision, writing that the U.S. Constitution "is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens", and so the laws distinguishing races should have been found unconstitutional.
917:
The separate facilities and institutions accorded to the African-American community were consistently inferior to those provided to the White community. This contradicted the vague declaration of "separate but equal" issued after the
733:
to white children to be in the white-only train cars. Harlan said that this showed that the Louisiana law only allowed black people to be in white-only cars if it was obvious that they were "social subordinates" or "domestics".
9664:
594:, who according to a laudatory 1916 obituary "worked so effectively in restoring white supremacy in politics that he finally was arrested, with fifty-one other men of that community, and tried by federal officials."
5662:
7508:
6608:
9011:
9006:
6600:
7311:
863:... and who have all the legal rights that belong to white citizens, are yet declared to be criminals, liable to imprisonment, if they ride in a public coach occupied by citizens of the white race.
6752:
9018:
8759:
6720:
6576:
716:
accommodation for whites and blacks, to compel the latter to keep to themselves while traveling in railroad passenger coaches. No one would be so wanting in candor as to assert the contrary.
7399:
7215:
859:
the same passenger coach with white citizens of the United States, while citizens of the black race in Louisiana, many of whom, perhaps, risked their lives for the preservation of the Union
6875:
1017:
729:
To support his argument, Harlan pointed out that the Louisiana law contained an exception for "nurses attending children of the other race". This exception allowed black women who were
9023:
5638:
418:
is widely regarded as one of the worst decisions in U.S. Supreme Court history. Despite its infamy, the decision has never been explicitly overruled. However, beginning in 1954 with
7049:
488:
to challenge the Act. Plessy had been born a free man and was fair-skinned. However, under Louisiana law, he was classified as black, and thus required to sit in the "colored" car.
387:, which required "equal, but separate" railroad accommodations for white and non-white passengers. Plessy was charged under the Act, and at his trial his lawyers argued that judge
2318:
6584:
5844:
9689:
8694:
6712:
5898:
762:, in which the Court had ruled that black Americans could not be citizens under the U.S. Constitution and that its legal protections and privileges could never apply to them.
905:. Jim Crow laws and practices spread northward in response to a second wave of African-American migration from the South to northern and midwestern cities. Some established
550:
stated: "This prejudice, if it exists, is not created by law, and probably cannot be changed by law." The law itself was repealed five years later, but the precedent stood.
944:
were designed to produce an electorate confined to a white race that declared itself supreme", notably rejecting the 14th and 15th Amendments to the American Constitution.
9669:
5436:
424:, which held that the "separate but equal" doctrine is unconstitutional in the context of public schools, a series of the Court's later decisions have severely weakened
2227:
825:
The prospect of greater state influence in matters of race worried numerous advocates of civil equality, including Supreme Court Justice John Harlan, who wrote in his
686:
The Court rejected the notion that the law marked black Americans with "a badge of inferiority", and said that racial prejudice could not be overcome by legislation.
7532:
4959:
3244:
457:
for any passenger to "insist on going into a coach or compartment to which by race he does not belong," punishable by either a $ 25 fine or up to 20 days in prison.
9694:
7431:
6329:
4939:
6305:
5742:
9544:
9539:
9088:
7820:
7677:
6544:
6424:
5246:
4983:
633:
626:
576:
572:
521:
517:
499:. The railroad company, which had opposed the law on the grounds that it would require the purchase of more railcars, had been previously informed of Plessy's
399:
297:
293:
9724:
9351:
9223:
7808:
7375:
7025:
6512:
6488:
5686:
5630:
4737:
2656:
2182:
1601:
1360:
779:
338:
121:
7319:
6384:
5710:
5678:
2907:
9719:
9679:
7351:
7263:
7207:
7121:
7113:
7009:
6907:
5031:
4879:
528:, ruled that Louisiana had the right to regulate railroad companies while they operated within state boundaries. Four days later, Plessy petitioned the
7918:
7492:
6867:
6736:
6656:
5590:
5186:
822:
Despite the pretense of "separate but equal", non-whites essentially always received inferior facilities and treatment, if they received them at all.
8507:
7642:
7089:
6688:
6504:
6480:
6181:
1574:
602:
On May 18, 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy that upheld the constitutionality of Louisiana's train car segregation laws.
472:(Committee of Citizens). The group was dedicated to repealing the Separate Car Act and fighting its implementation. The Comité eventually persuaded
9684:
9001:
7391:
7383:
7001:
6803:
6592:
2744:
629:, which, in the majority's opinion, did no more than ensure that black Americans had the basic level of legal equality needed to abolish slavery.
9549:
8789:
7041:
6464:
5758:
5545:
3490:
3381:
2801:
661:
404:
9618:
9593:
5989:
5036:
2537:
403:
were inferior, and gave great deference to American state legislatures' inherent power to make laws regulating health, safety, and morals—the "
2208:
9603:
9598:
8530:
7978:
7540:
6891:
6648:
6496:
6289:
4944:
3282:
3201:
1489:
562:
Undaunted, the Committee appealed to the United States Supreme Court. Two legal briefs were submitted on Plessy's behalf. One was signed by
524:
amendments of the United States Constitution, which provided for equal treatment under the law. However, the judge presiding over his case,
9319:
9155:
8864:
8854:
8512:
8502:
2774:
9714:
9361:
9133:
7343:
7255:
5882:
4914:
4909:
4697:
4679:
3411:
3320:
988:
through film, art, and public programs designed to create understanding of this historic case and its effect on the American conscience.
9729:
9581:
8525:
8520:
6141:
3460:
3162:
2101:
Darden, Gary Helm (2009). "The New Empire in the 'New South': Jim Crow in the Global Frontier of High Imperialism and Decolonization".
879:
integrated elements of their society abruptly adopted oppressive legislation that erased reconstruction era efforts. The principles of
1906:
9240:
8744:
7853:
7367:
6899:
5914:
5237:
5016:
3567:
3269:
835:
2305:
Aleinikoff, T. Alexander (1992). "Re-Reading Justice Harlan's Dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson: Freedom, Antiracism, and Citizenship".
2016:
991:
In 2009, a marker was placed at the corner of Press and Royal streets in New Orleans, where Plessy had been removed from his train.
9588:
9218:
8739:
7961:
7793:
5051:
5006:
4674:
3557:
3485:
3211:
3091:
352:
as long as the facilities for people of color were equal in quality to those of white people, a doctrine that came to be known as "
9709:
9699:
9554:
9514:
9356:
9260:
9189:
8794:
7180:
6045:
5646:
5513:
4965:
3353:
2953:
901:, and the lack of public schools for Chinese children in Lum's area, the Supreme Court ruled that she had the choice to attend a
9613:
9608:
9576:
9346:
9250:
9213:
9160:
8994:
6552:
5726:
5537:
3331:
932:"lawmakers frequently admitted, indeed boasted, that such measures as complex registration rules, literacy and property tests,
871:, said the words in Justice Harlan's "Great Dissent" were taken from papers filed with the court by "The Citizen's Committee".
1820:
516:, on the grounds that the state law requiring East Louisiana Railroad to segregate trains had denied him his rights under the
144:
9571:
9529:
9341:
7889:
7755:
7750:
7635:
5906:
4702:
2822:
2620:
2601:
2509:
2369:
2350:
2231:
1542:
1223:
1206:
2254:
834:. In addition, from 1890 to 1908, Southern states passed new or amended constitutions including provisions that effectively
9519:
9504:
9368:
9277:
9272:
9206:
7667:
7057:
6744:
6728:
6632:
5088:
3552:
3500:
3446:
2848:
830:
the 14th Amendment would prove well-founded; states proceeded to institute segregation-based laws that became known as the
9674:
9494:
9331:
9301:
9083:
8662:
7874:
6640:
5750:
5066:
3495:
3431:
2794:
9484:
9378:
9294:
9138:
8919:
8719:
7870:
7848:
7456:
7172:
7097:
6361:
3505:
3480:
3465:
3194:
2862:
2042:
1876:
1514:
398:
In May 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy, ruling that the Louisiana law did not violate the
341:
81:
17:
9631:
8021:
7672:
7516:
5456:
5011:
4884:
3358:
3135:
2530:
2473:
2454:
2432:
491:
On June 7, 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket at the Press Street Depot and boarded a "Whites Only" car of the
349:
9559:
9524:
9509:
9267:
8869:
8113:
8083:
7899:
7628:
7335:
6205:
5046:
4788:
3259:
3146:
1029:
999:
In 2021, the Louisiana Board of Pardons unanimously approved a posthumous pardon of Plessy, sending it to Governor
1605:
391:
should dismiss the charges on the grounds that the Act was unconstitutional. Ferguson denied the request, and the
9566:
9489:
9284:
9128:
8859:
8724:
8429:
8068:
6085:
5930:
5444:
5073:
5061:
3537:
3475:
962:
42:
2275:
9336:
9230:
9145:
8749:
6915:
5773:
2787:
1251:
Koffi N, Maglo (Summer 2010). "GENOMICS AND THE CONUNDRUM OF RACE: some epistemic and ethical considerations".
958:
9373:
9306:
9289:
9235:
9184:
9123:
9028:
8989:
8929:
8729:
8118:
8098:
7905:
7884:
5557:
5296:
5230:
5083:
5026:
4825:
3167:
3140:
2958:
2209:"A Celebration of Progress: Unveiling the long-awaited historical marker for the arrest site of Homer Plessy"
1278:
580:
1939:
Maltz, Eric (1996). "Only Partially Color-Blind: John Marshall Harlan's View of Race and the Constitution".
9196:
9172:
9167:
9150:
9118:
9061:
8174:
8123:
7956:
6313:
6165:
6117:
5858:
5473:
5205:
5171:
5078:
4934:
4919:
4543:
4063:
3587:
3388:
3295:
3184:
2712:
2083:
1310:
9461:
9453:
9396:
9311:
8799:
8704:
8560:
8542:
8444:
8103:
8073:
7798:
7718:
7697:
7199:
6369:
5670:
5521:
4978:
4712:
4473:
3470:
3436:
3416:
3300:
3179:
2886:
1841:
Oldfield, John (January 2004). "State politics, railroads, and Civil Rights in South Carolina, 1883–89".
949:
500:
446:
420:
322:
182:
The "separate but equal" provision of private services mandated by state law is constitutional under the
1330:
9704:
9479:
9416:
9406:
8956:
8714:
8674:
8031:
7725:
6321:
5056:
4924:
4894:
3878:
3633:
3522:
3452:
2923:
1215:
967:
2750:
2643:
9388:
9201:
9033:
8594:
8093:
7931:
7738:
7524:
6931:
6923:
6536:
5957:
5890:
4722:
4553:
4523:
4458:
3943:
3582:
3562:
3532:
3441:
3375:
3348:
3314:
3057:
2838:
38:
2694:
953:(1954), the US Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public education was unconstitutional. While
9078:
8642:
8555:
8199:
7988:
7803:
7743:
7733:
7659:
7556:
7500:
6664:
6221:
6189:
5820:
5614:
5598:
5223:
4623:
4583:
4108:
4013:
3421:
3370:
3363:
3336:
3276:
3157:
3067:
2991:
2212:
1816:
972:
933:
583:
484:" (person of seven-eighths white and one-eighth black ancestry), to participate in an orchestrated
2770:
9411:
8961:
8615:
8584:
8364:
8304:
8169:
7912:
7564:
7129:
6985:
6246:
6173:
5566:
5481:
4973:
4388:
4158:
3823:
3803:
3718:
3673:
3249:
3206:
3189:
3027:
2996:
2948:
2869:
2676:
639:
587:
529:
492:
461:
392:
183:
957:
was never explicitly overruled by the Supreme Court, it is effectively dead as a precedent; the
9326:
9056:
8294:
8088:
8078:
8016:
7826:
7765:
6795:
4428:
4163:
4148:
4143:
4018:
3873:
3713:
3658:
3228:
3078:
3001:
2972:
2934:
1994:
1178:
795:
758:
756:
Harlan predicted the Court's decision would eventually become as infamous as its 1857 decision
546:
361:
5215:
2410:
469:
9401:
8914:
8779:
8734:
8550:
8269:
8234:
8053:
8036:
7843:
7760:
7484:
7327:
7295:
6883:
6432:
5380:
5272:
5021:
4558:
4373:
4003:
3908:
3888:
3858:
3547:
3542:
3289:
3254:
3152:
3116:
2810:
2765:
2660:
2110:
1532:
1364:
1260:
245:
209:
113:
2733:
2685:
2421:
Color-Blind Justice: Albion Tourgée and the Quest for Racial Equality from the Civil War to
698:
Justice John Marshall Harlan became known as the "Great Dissenter" for his fiery dissent in
9643:
9051:
8814:
8625:
8577:
8449:
8339:
8244:
8011:
8001:
7973:
7838:
7692:
7476:
7223:
7073:
6966:
6771:
6704:
6213:
6149:
6029:
5866:
5694:
5654:
5606:
5041:
4929:
4727:
4608:
4513:
4323:
3953:
3111:
2843:
898:
707:
622:
525:
496:
408:
388:
233:
217:
2484:
2276:"Homer Plessy, of Plessy v. Ferguson's 'separate but equal' ruling, pardoned by Louisiana"
1380:
563:
8:
9426:
8784:
8699:
8179:
7968:
7858:
7788:
7407:
7359:
7303:
7239:
7231:
7164:
7081:
7017:
6680:
6624:
6568:
6560:
6197:
6077:
6061:
5938:
5718:
5702:
5396:
5280:
4804:
4765:
4313:
4273:
4223:
4133:
4093:
4068:
4023:
3828:
3783:
3628:
3608:
3577:
3572:
3515:
3426:
3221:
3174:
3124:
3085:
2020:
1779:
1772:"Negro drinking at "Colored" water cooler in streetcar terminal, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma"
979:
of 1965 provided for federal oversight and enforcement of voter registration and voting.
941:
533:
229:
9431:
2667:
2163:
9499:
9436:
9179:
8637:
8404:
8384:
8289:
8214:
8041:
7946:
7936:
7815:
7712:
7687:
7468:
7287:
7279:
7105:
7065:
7033:
6950:
6819:
6811:
6779:
6696:
6520:
6472:
6448:
6416:
6337:
6273:
6125:
6021:
5836:
5505:
5420:
5349:
5260:
5121:
4889:
4873:
4866:
4845:
4837:
4794:
4628:
4538:
4518:
4443:
4423:
4413:
4393:
4308:
4193:
4138:
4083:
3988:
3768:
3683:
3342:
3326:
3306:
3072:
3037:
2964:
2703:
2580:
2466:
Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism
2145:
1858:
1434:
1426:
1367:
1315:
1119:
1023:
816:
800:
567:
365:
353:
345:
1771:
1057:
left Washington shortly before oral arguments and did not participate in the decision.
8946:
8667:
8329:
8299:
7894:
7651:
7603:
7595:
7548:
7271:
7145:
6859:
6616:
6456:
6440:
6391:
6377:
6353:
6109:
6093:
6053:
5981:
5922:
5622:
5529:
5465:
5412:
5304:
4989:
4904:
4899:
4859:
4732:
4503:
4488:
4453:
4233:
4153:
4098:
3883:
3047:
3042:
2914:
2900:
2893:
2854:
2616:
2597:
2560:
2548:
2526:
2520:
2505:
2469:
2450:
2428:
2419:
2406:
2365:
2346:
2338:
2149:
2044:
From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality
1862:
1575:"Enforcing Racial Segregation; It Is Viewed as Violating the Rights of All Americans"
1538:
1438:
1229:
1219:
976:
241:
2779:
621:
Seven justices formed the Court's majority and joined an opinion written by justice
395:
upheld Ferguson's ruling on appeal. Plessy then appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.
9102:
9073:
9068:
8966:
8934:
8907:
8632:
8249:
8219:
8209:
8204:
7771:
6851:
6827:
6408:
6157:
6133:
5997:
5404:
5372:
5320:
5166:
5151:
5141:
5111:
4852:
4799:
4648:
4633:
4598:
4463:
4408:
4398:
4293:
4168:
4103:
3978:
3893:
3853:
3843:
3833:
3818:
3813:
3788:
3678:
3062:
2977:
2940:
2572:
2396:
2137:
1850:
1418:
1111:
1000:
894:
610:
450:
384:
301:
253:
1673:
1671:
1102:
Groves, Harry E. (1951). "Separate but Equal—The Doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson".
116:
9097:
8924:
8834:
8829:
8760:
Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)
8610:
8565:
8419:
8409:
8389:
8374:
8274:
8149:
8139:
7778:
6673:
Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. Jacksonville
6265:
6005:
5874:
5428:
5388:
5312:
5161:
5146:
5131:
4949:
4578:
4568:
4528:
4508:
4468:
4343:
4333:
4298:
4258:
4243:
4178:
4043:
3993:
3923:
3808:
3758:
3743:
3733:
3728:
3708:
3693:
3688:
3663:
3603:
3527:
3130:
3101:
3096:
3052:
3032:
3011:
2983:
2442:
2259:
1995:"Plessy v. Ferguson – 163 U.S. 537 (1896) :: Justia US Supreme Court Center"
1054:
937:
842:
660:
The Court reasoned that laws requiring racial separation were within Louisiana's
591:
485:
201:
159:
2114:
1854:
1264:
9534:
8939:
8902:
8892:
8652:
8647:
8589:
8424:
8354:
8284:
8279:
7783:
7707:
7415:
7247:
6993:
6958:
6835:
6345:
6101:
6013:
5782:
5288:
5200:
5181:
4770:
4618:
4603:
4533:
4483:
4448:
4433:
4418:
4378:
4358:
4348:
4303:
4288:
4268:
4038:
4008:
3998:
3968:
3958:
3868:
3838:
3638:
3264:
3216:
3106:
1668:
1656:
928:
902:
368:
in 1877. Such legally enforced segregation in the South lasted into the 1960s.
2141:
1422:
9658:
8492:
8474:
8464:
8434:
8379:
8334:
8319:
8264:
8254:
8239:
8189:
8184:
8154:
7951:
7879:
7702:
7509:
Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank
7137:
6528:
6400:
6069:
6037:
5965:
5828:
5734:
5582:
5497:
5176:
5106:
4954:
4820:
4643:
4573:
4478:
4328:
4263:
4248:
4238:
4198:
4123:
4113:
4073:
4058:
3948:
3938:
3898:
3848:
3723:
3648:
3618:
2552:
831:
784:
357:
2401:
2380:
2035:
2033:
9665:
African-American history between emancipation and the civil rights movement
8804:
8572:
8497:
8469:
8454:
8439:
8394:
8369:
8349:
8259:
8229:
8224:
8194:
8144:
7996:
7682:
7423:
6787:
5973:
5328:
5136:
5116:
4638:
4593:
4588:
4548:
4383:
4363:
4318:
4253:
4188:
4173:
4088:
4078:
4033:
3983:
3973:
3963:
3933:
3928:
3918:
3903:
3863:
3798:
3778:
3773:
3753:
3748:
3738:
3698:
3653:
3623:
3006:
512:
Plessy petitioned the state district criminal court to throw out the case,
473:
372:
100:
1311:"Plessy and Ferguson unveil plaque today marking their ancestors' actions"
625:. The Court first dismissed any claim that the Louisiana law violated the
8824:
8809:
8657:
8620:
8459:
8414:
8399:
8164:
8159:
8006:
6297:
5574:
5489:
5361:
5156:
5126:
4753:
4717:
4658:
4653:
4613:
4563:
4498:
4493:
4403:
4353:
4283:
4278:
4218:
4203:
4053:
4048:
3913:
3793:
3763:
3703:
3668:
2929:
2721:
2030:
1633:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1623:
890:
885:
465:
454:
376:
221:
6753:
Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College
1430:
8359:
8344:
8314:
8309:
8058:
8026:
7865:
7833:
6843:
4780:
4438:
4368:
4338:
4208:
4183:
4128:
4028:
3643:
3613:
2584:
2314:
914:
basis, although not by law, among numerous other facets of daily life.
477:
407:"—and to determine the reasonableness of the laws they passed. Justice
132:
8695:
Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
6721:
Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1
6577:
Village of Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.
1620:
1409:
Maidment, Richard A. (August 1973). "Plessy v. Ferguson Re-Examined".
1208:
We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson: The Fight Against Legal Segregation
1123:
869:
We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson, The Fight Against Legal Segregation
8973:
8819:
8324:
8108:
8046:
7941:
4758:
4228:
4213:
2728:
1012:
380:
7620:
2576:
2255:"Louisiana board votes to pardon Homer Plessy of Plessy v. Ferguson"
1018:
List of United States court cases involving the Fourteenth Amendment
375:, a mixed-race man, deliberately boarded a whites-only train car in
9446:
9441:
8951:
5639:
Thornburgh v. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists
4118:
2128:
Mcwilliams, Wilson Carey (1999). "On Rogers Smith's Civic Ideals".
1115:
1003:
for final approval. Edwards granted the pardon on January 5, 2022.
911:
812:
481:
8710:
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
2638:
2613:
I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases
2447:
Forbidden Grounds: The Case Against Employment Discrimination Laws
8063:
4707:
2067:
Nahuja, Aama (2009). "Gong Lum v. Rice". In Lomotey, Kofi (ed.).
1879:. Smithsonian National Museum of American History Behring Center.
906:
360:" re-establishing racial segregation that had been passed in the
283:
Brewer took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
1518:, 59 Massachusetts 198, 5 Cush. 198 (Massachusetts S.J.C. 1848).
1083:
794:
legitimized state laws establishing "racial" segregation in the
694:
614:
Justice Henry Billings Brown, author of the majority opinion in
8897:
5845:
Monell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York
5245:
4775:
2739:
128:
76:
5899:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
807:
8709:
3510:
730:
961:
ruled that segregation on interstate transport violated the
545:
violate the 14th Amendment, Louisiana Supreme Court Justice
270:
Brown, joined by Fuller, Field, Gray, Shiras, White, Peckham
8754:
7533:
Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett
5437:
O'Gorman & Young, Inc. v. Hartford Fire Insurance Co.
6330:
Sipuel v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma
2547:(5th ed.). Eagan, Minnesota: West Thomson/Reuters.
1158:
1146:
632:
Next, the Court considered whether the law violated the
5743:
Box v. Planned Parenthood of Indiana and Kentucky, Inc.
4960:
Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
4738:"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"
2545:
Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure
590:
and New Orleans. Cunningham was a staunch supporter of
6425:
Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
4984:
African American founding fathers of the United States
3337:
Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
3202:
John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
2449:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
2211:. New Orleans Center for Creative Arts. Archived from
1727:
1560:
American Colossus: The Triumph of Capitalism 1865–1900
1457:
787:
streetcar terminal's "colored" drinking fountain, 1939
9690:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Fuller Court
6489:
United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education
5631:
City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
2809:
1975:
1951:
1907:"In The Nation; An Historic Day in the Supreme Court"
1717:
1715:
1469:
1445:
1071:
867:
New Orleans historian Keith Weldon Medley, author of
7320:
San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez
6385:
Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County
5711:
Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of Northern New England
1599:
1537:. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. p. 30.
7208:
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Co.
5032:
Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
1963:
1922:
1920:
379:. By boarding the whites-only car, Plessy violated
9670:History of racial segregation in the United States
6868:Personnel Administrator of Massachusetts v. Feeney
6737:Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action
5591:Planned Parenthood of Central Missouri v. Danforth
2594:Plessy v. Ferguson: A Brief History with Documents
2502:The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation
2041:
1712:
1526:
1524:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1177:
59:1896 U.S. Supreme Court case on racial segregation
6505:Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education
6182:Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health
1053:Due to the sudden death of his daughter, justice
982:
468:residents formed a civil rights group called the
9656:
8745:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
7384:City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.
6593:Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
3568:Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
2745:Landmark Cases: Historic Supreme Court Decisions
2219:
1917:
440:
428:to the point that it is considered to have been
9695:Overruled United States Supreme Court decisions
8790:Black players in professional American football
8740:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
6465:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
5990:Mullane v. Central Hanover Bank & Trust Co.
3558:Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
3491:Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
3382:Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
1521:
1293:
5037:Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
2183:"Anthony Kennedy and the Ghost of Earl Warren"
1170:
893:public school for white children to exclude a
647:two races upon terms unsatisfactory to either.
7636:
7541:Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs
6892:Michael M. v. Superior Court of Sonoma County
6649:Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell
6497:Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
6290:Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education
5231:
4945:List of lynching victims in the United States
3283:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
2795:
2273:
2017:"Civil rights pioneer celebrated with marker"
1701:
1699:
400:Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
9725:United States racial discrimination case law
8503:Historically black colleges and universities
5759:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
5663:Ohio v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health
5546:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
2775:National Archives and Records Administration
2542:
1650:
1637:
1557:
1404:
1402:
1089:
356:". The decision legitimized the many state "
7344:Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia
7256:Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections
6245:
5883:Will v. Michigan Department of State Police
3412:Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
2543:Nowak, John E.; Rotunda, Ronald D. (2012).
2385:Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases"
2362:Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies
2359:
2337:
1836:
1834:
1706:
1690:
1677:
1662:
1562:. New York: Random House. pp. 463–464.
751:, 163 U.S. at 559 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
724:, 163 U.S. at 557 (Harlan, J., dissenting).
23:
9720:Race-related case law in the United States
9680:Passenger rail transportation in Louisiana
7643:
7629:
6609:Crawford v. Los Angeles Board of Education
6142:Cleveland Board of Education v. Loudermill
5238:
5224:
3461:Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
2802:
2788:
2364:(6th ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer.
2304:
2127:
2069:Encyclopedia of African American Education
1892:The Mysterious Stranger and Other Cartoons
1815:
1696:
1530:
1352:
1350:
1348:
24:
8720:National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
7368:New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer
6900:Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan
5915:Fitzgerald v. Barnstable School Committee
5017:Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
2400:
2130:Studies in American Political Development
1889:
1877:"Separate But Equal: The Law of the Land"
1399:
6601:Washington v. Seattle School Dist. No. 1
5052:King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
3092:University of Georgia desegregation riot
2615:. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 69–80.
2463:
2252:
1840:
1831:
1745:
1408:
1308:
806:
778:
693:
609:
32:This is an accepted version of this page
9685:United States equal protection case law
7312:Lehnhausen v. Lake Shore Auto Parts Co.
7181:Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward
6046:Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur
5647:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
5514:Webster v. Reproductive Health Services
4966:Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence
4703:"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
4698:"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
2751:Newspaper articles and clippings about
2610:
2559:
2499:
2441:
2417:
2253:Brockell, Gillian (November 12, 2021).
2039:
1776:Prints & Photographs Online Catalog
1757:
1733:
1490:"'Plessy v. Ferguson': Who Was Plessy?"
1475:
1463:
1451:
1345:
1250:
1164:
1152:
1140:
1077:
605:
557:
371:The underlying case began in 1892 when
14:
9657:
9619:Topics related to the African diaspora
8725:National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
7455:
6553:Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver
5348:
5259:
4880:African-American women in the movement
3332:White House Conference on Civil Rights
3163:"Segregation now, segregation forever"
2591:
2518:
2482:
2225:
2100:
2066:
1987:
1805:. New York: Anchor Books. p. 466.
1800:
1592:"Milton Joseph Cunningham, Obituary".
1572:
1204:
1198:
1101:
9599:Landmark African-American legislation
7650:
7624:
7583:
7454:
6244:
5907:City of Rancho Palos Verdes v. Abrams
5347:
5258:
5219:
3321:Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
2783:
2504:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2427:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2081:
1981:
1957:
1938:
1932:
1904:
1600:Mimi Methvin McManus (May 29, 2003).
1573:Gordon, Milton M. (January 3, 1954).
975:prohibited legal segregation and the
845:and Eric Maltz, have viewed Harlan's
838:blacks and thousands of poor whites.
566:and James C. Walker and the other by
495:in New Orleans, Louisiana, bound for
64:1896 United States Supreme Court case
8730:National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
6633:Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education
5774:Section 1979 of the Revised Statutes
5089:St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
3553:Regional Council of Negro Leadership
3501:Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
3447:Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
2924:Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
2849:Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
2378:
2313:
2180:
1969:
1926:
1721:
1309:Reckdahl, Katy (February 11, 2009).
1253:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
1136:
889:(1927), which upheld the right of a
9084:African-American Vernacular English
7400:Kadrmas v. Dickinson Public Schools
7216:Quaker City Cab Co. v. Commonwealth
6641:City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.
5751:June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo
5727:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
5538:Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt
3496:Lowndes County Freedom Organization
3432:Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
3102:Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
2563:(1997). "Generality and Equality".
2019:. February 10, 2009. Archived from
1843:American Nineteenth Century History
1821:"Segregation and the Supreme Court"
1769:
854:dissent as particularly troubling:
702:and other early civil rights cases.
689:
56:
9715:African-American Roman Catholicism
9002:U.S. cities with large populations
8705:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
7173:Arlington County Board v. Richards
7098:Examining Board v. Flores de Otero
6876:Wengler v. Druggists Mut. Ins. Co.
6362:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
5247:United States Fourteenth Amendment
4940:African-American churches attacked
3506:Montgomery Improvement Association
3481:Georgia Council on Human Relations
3466:Council of Federated Organizations
3437:Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
3195:16th Street Baptist Church bombing
3153:Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
2959:1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
2863:McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents
2343:The Case Against the Supreme Court
2228:"Plessy/Ferguson plaque dedicated"
1515:Sarah C. Roberts v. City of Boston
82:Supreme Court of the United States
57:
9741:
9730:United States Supreme Court cases
7875:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
7871:Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009
7678:African American founding fathers
7517:Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents
7058:Takahashi v. Fish and Game Comm'n
5012:Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
4885:Jews in the civil rights movement
2663:537 (1896) is available from:
2631:
2522:We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson
2307:University of Illinois Law Review
2274:Tina Burnside (January 5, 2022).
2226:Abrams, Eve (February 12, 2009).
2181:Amar, Akhil Reed (July 6, 2015).
2071:. Vol. 1. SAGE. p. 291.
1487:
897:girl. Despite the laws enforcing
9637:
8755:United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
7900:Nadir of American race relations
7336:Village of Belle Terre v. Boraas
6745:Fisher v. University of Texas II
6206:Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co.
5206:Civil rights movement portal
5199:
5047:Freedom Riders National Monument
4789:The Kingdom of God Is Within You
3301:1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
3260:1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
3147:Second Emancipation Proclamation
2761:The Road to 'Separate But Equal'
2729:Plessy & Ferguson Foundation
2637:
2468:. New York: Carroll & Graf.
2082:White, Walter (March 10, 1954).
1381:"Plessy v. Ferguson: Litigation"
1184:Encyclopedia of American Studies
1030:United States constitutional law
811:1904 caricature of "White" and "
75:
7761:Civil rights movement 1954–1968
7751:Civil rights movement 1865–1896
7050:Ohio ex rel. Clark v. Deckebach
6729:Fisher v. University of Texas I
6086:Moore v. City of East Cleveland
5931:Los Angeles County v. Humphries
5445:West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish
5074:Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
5062:Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
3538:National Council of Negro Women
3476:Deacons for Defense and Justice
2485:"Anti-Canonical Considerations"
2267:
2246:
2201:
2174:
2156:
2121:
2094:
2075:
2060:
2009:
1898:
1883:
1869:
1809:
1794:
1763:
1751:
1739:
1683:
1643:
1604:. genealogy.com. Archived from
1585:
1566:
1551:
1507:
1481:
1373:
1323:
1271:
1047:
774:
771:shortly after the trial's end.
673:to put that construction on it.
575:, prohibiting slavery, and the
539:
9710:Civil rights movement case law
9700:1896 in United States case law
8750:Thurgood Marshall College Fund
7756:Civil right movement 1896–1954
6916:J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B.
2954:Mansfield school desegregation
2297:
1905:Krock, Arthur (June 6, 1950).
1531:Tischauser, Leslie V. (2012).
1279:"Plessy v. Ferguson (No. 210)"
1244:
1130:
1095:
983:Plessy and Ferguson Foundation
959:Interstate Commerce Commission
326:(1954), and subsequent rulings
13:
1:
8930:Cherokee freedmen controversy
7906:The Negro Motorist Green Book
6585:Dayton Bd. of Ed. v. Brinkman
5790:McNeese v. Board of Education
5297:United States v. Wong Kim Ark
5084:National Voting Rights Museum
5027:Civil Rights Movement Archive
4826:Lynching in the United States
4713:"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
3168:Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
3141:University of Chicago sit-ins
2908:Davis v. Prince Edward County
2519:Medley, Keith Weldon (2003).
2164:"Brown v. Board of Education"
1894:. McClure, Phillips & Co.
1281:. Legal Information Institute
1205:Medley, Keith Weldon (2003).
1035:
441:Legal background and incident
435:
337:, 163 U.S. 537 (1896), was a
6314:Hirabayashi v. United States
6166:DeShaney v. Winnebago County
6118:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co.
5859:Owen v. City of Independence
5474:Pierce v. Society of Sisters
5079:National Civil Rights Museum
4935:March on Washington Movement
4920:Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
3389:Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
2725:from the Library of Congress
2500:Lofgren, Charles A. (1987).
2040:Klarman, Michael J. (2004).
1064:
1040:
765:
536:to stop his criminal trial.
514:State v. Homer Adolph Plessy
460:A group of prominent black,
7:
8800:Black players in ice hockey
8735:National Urban League (NUL)
8561:American Society of Muslims
7799:Selma to Montgomery marches
7719:Brown v. Board of Education
7200:United States v. Cruikshank
6370:Brown v. Board of Education
5671:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
5522:Planned Parenthood v. Casey
4723:"This Little Light of Mine"
3471:Dallas County Voters League
3417:Atlanta Negro Voters League
3180:Letter from Birmingham Jail
2887:Brown v. Board of Education
2360:Chemerinsky, Erwin (2019).
2345:. New York: Penguin Books.
1855:10.1080/1466465042000257864
1411:Journal of American Studies
1331:"Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)"
1006:
950:Brown v. Board of Education
841:Some commentators, such as
597:
447:Louisiana State Legislature
421:Brown v. Board of Education
323:Brown v. Board of Education
10:
9746:
9675:Legal history of Louisiana
8957:Great Dismal Swamp maroons
8715:Nashville Student Movement
7726:Children of the plantation
6322:Korematsu v. United States
5057:Martin Luther King Jr. Day
4925:Holt Street Baptist Church
4895:16th Street Baptist Church
3879:Annie Bell Robinson Devine
3523:Nashville Student Movement
3453:An Appeal for Human Rights
2483:Larson, Edward J. (2011).
1770:Lee, Russell (July 1939).
1651:Nowak & Rotunda (2012)
1638:Nowak & Rotunda (2012)
1602:"Milton Joseph Cunningham"
1216:Pelican Publishing Company
1090:Nowak & Rotunda (2012)
9627:
9594:Index of related articles
9472:
9387:
9111:
9044:
8982:
8882:
8843:
8775:
8768:
8683:
8603:
8595:Doctrine of Father Divine
8541:
8483:
8132:
7987:
7979:Women's suffrage movement
7932:Reconstruction Amendments
7739:Voting Rights Act of 1965
7658:
7590:
7584:
7579:
7525:United States v. Morrison
7463:
7450:
7191:
7156:
6977:
6942:
6932:United States v. Skrmetti
6924:United States v. Virginia
6763:
6537:Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson
6257:
6253:
6240:
5958:Jacobson v. Massachusetts
5949:
5891:Gonzaga University v. Doe
5769:
5556:
5455:
5360:
5356:
5343:
5267:
5254:
5195:
5097:
4999:
4813:
4746:
4688:
4667:
4554:Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
4524:Modjeska Monteith Simkins
3596:
3588:Women's Political Council
3583:Wednesdays in Mississippi
3578:United Auto Workers (UAW)
3563:Southern Regional Council
3533:Northern Student Movement
3442:Committee for Freedom Now
3402:
3349:Memphis sanitation strike
3315:Voting Rights Act of 1965
3237:
3058:Savannah Protest Movement
3020:
2878:
2839:Journey of Reconciliation
2831:
2818:
2771:Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
2596:. Boston: Bedford Books.
2464:Fireside, Harvey (2004).
2379:Chin, Gabriel J. (1996).
2142:10.1017/S0898588X9900200X
2084:"Decision in Plessy Case"
2048:. Oxford University Press
1817:Sutherland, Arthur E. Jr.
1423:10.1017/S0021875800013396
994:
968:Keys v. Carolina Coach Co
348:laws did not violate the
315:
308:
292:
287:
282:
274:
266:
261:
195:
190:
181:
176:
168:
155:
150:
140:
108:
95:
88:
74:
69:
9644:United States portal
9079:African-American English
8508:Inventors and scientists
8200:George Washington Carver
7804:Chicago Freedom Movement
7557:United States v. Georgia
7501:City of Boerne v. Flores
6665:United States v. Fordice
6222:Williams v. Pennsylvania
6190:Washington v. Glucksberg
3422:Atlanta Student Movement
3371:Civil Rights Act of 1968
3296:1964–1965 Scripto strike
3277:Civil Rights Act of 1964
3175:1963 Birmingham campaign
3068:Civil Rights Act of 1960
2992:Civil Rights Act of 1957
1890:McCutheon, John (1905).
1385:Law Library of Louisiana
973:Civil Rights Act of 1964
584:Milton Joseph Cunningham
507:
449:passed a law called the
385:Separate Car Act of 1890
294:U.S. Const. amends. XIII
39:latest accepted revision
9567:African-American firsts
8616:Back-to-Africa movement
8585:Black Hebrew Israelites
8365:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
7913:Partus sequitur ventrem
7565:Shelby County v. Holder
7130:Cabell v. Chavez-Salido
6986:Patsone v. Pennsylvania
6247:Equal Protection Clause
6174:Michael H. v. Gerald D.
5567:United States v. Vuitch
5482:Griswold v. Connecticut
4974:Voter Education Project
4728:"We Shall Not Be Moved"
4389:Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
3824:Josephine Dobbs Clement
3250:Chester school protests
3245:Twenty-fourth Amendment
3207:Detroit Walk to Freedom
2949:Tallahassee bus boycott
2870:Baton Rouge bus boycott
2402:10.17077/0021-065X.4551
1709:, § 9.3.1, p. 761.
1693:, § 9.3.1, p. 761.
1680:, § 9.3.1, p. 761.
1665:, § 9.3.1, p. 760.
963:Interstate Commerce Act
640:Equal Protection Clause
530:Louisiana Supreme Court
493:East Louisiana Railroad
393:Louisiana Supreme Court
184:Equal Protection Clause
163:, 11 So. 948 (La. 1892)
9535:Spingarn Medal winners
9024:States and territories
8795:Black NFL quarterbacks
8295:Martin Luther King Jr.
7827:Dred Scott v. Sandford
7766:Montgomery bus boycott
7432:Armour v. Indianapolis
6796:Moritz v. Commissioner
5852:Procunier v. Navarette
5770:Civil rights liability
5558:Abortion jurisprudence
5187:Movement photographers
4429:Bernice Johnson Reagon
4149:Martin Luther King Sr.
4144:Martin Luther King Jr.
3714:William Holmes Borders
3486:Highlander Folk School
3376:Poor People's Campaign
3229:St. Augustine movement
3079:Gomillion v. Lightfoot
3002:Katz Drug Store sit-in
2973:Royal Ice Cream sit-in
2935:Montgomery bus boycott
2611:Tushnet, Mark (2008).
2592:Thomas, Brook (1997).
2525:. Gretna LA: Pelican.
2418:Elliott, Mark (2006).
1801:Brands, H. W. (2010).
865:
819:
788:
759:Dred Scott v. Sandford
754:
727:
703:
684:
658:
618:
547:Charles Erasmus Fenner
8845:Athletic associations
8780:Negro league baseball
8551:African-American Jews
8270:Ketanji Brown Jackson
8235:Henry Highland Garnet
8094:Negro National Anthem
7844:George Floyd protests
7809:Post–civil rights era
7485:Fitzpatrick v. Bitzer
7328:Richardson v. Ramirez
7296:Boddie v. Connecticut
6884:Kirchberg v. Feenstra
6713:Johnson v. California
6433:McLaughlin v. Florida
5821:O'Connor v. Donaldson
5381:Allgeyer v. Louisiana
5273:Slaughter-House Cases
5022:Civil Rights Memorial
4910:Bethel Baptist Church
4559:Charles Kenzie Steele
4004:Audrey Faye Hendricks
3909:Myrlie Evers-Williams
3889:Patricia Stephens Due
3859:Abraham Lincoln Davis
3794:Colia Lafayette Clark
3548:Operation Breadbasket
3543:National Urban League
3290:Katzenbach v. McClung
3158:Atlanta's Berlin Wall
2811:Civil rights movement
2766:National Park Service
2489:Pepperdine Law Review
2327:Pepperdine Law Review
2215:on February 21, 2009.
2026:on February 21, 2009.
1558:H. W. Brands (2010).
856:
810:
782:
740:
713:
697:
670:
655:, 163 U.S. at 543–44.
644:
613:
364:after the end of the
344:decision ruling that
302:1890 La. Acts No. 111
89:Argued April 13, 1896
9052:Afro-Seminole Creole
8578:Azusa Street Revival
8450:Booker T. Washington
7974:Underground Railroad
7839:Free people of color
7693:Atlantic slave trade
7477:Katzenbach v. Morgan
7224:Breedlove v. Suttles
7074:Graham v. Richardson
6967:Obergefell v. Hodges
6772:Breedlove v. Suttles
6705:Grutter v. Bollinger
6545:Jefferson v. Hackney
6214:Obergefell v. Hodges
6150:Edwards v. Aguillard
6030:Epperson v. Arkansas
5867:Harlow v. Fitzgerald
5802:Jenkins v. McKeithen
5695:Mazurek v. Armstrong
5655:Hodgson v. Minnesota
5615:Bellotti v. Baird II
5607:Colautti v. Franklin
5362:Economic substantive
5067:other King memorials
5042:Freedom Rides Museum
4979:1960s counterculture
4930:Edmund Pettus Bridge
4609:Walter Francis White
4514:Alexander D. Shimkin
3028:New Year's Day March
2997:Ministers' Manifesto
2844:Executive Order 9981
1997:. Supreme.justia.com
1941:Georgia State L. Rev
1825:The Atlantic Monthly
1488:Gates, Henry Louis.
1179:"Plessy v. Ferguson"
899:compulsory education
850:passage of Harlan's
708:John Marshall Harlan
634:Fourteenth Amendment
627:Thirteenth Amendment
623:Henry Billings Brown
606:Opinion of the Court
558:Supreme Court appeal
526:John Howard Ferguson
497:Covington, Louisiana
409:John Marshall Harlan
389:John Howard Ferguson
91:Decided May 18, 1896
9447:Trinidad and Tobago
9062:Black American Sign
8889:By African descent
8883:Ethnic subdivisions
8870:Southwestern (SWAC)
8785:Baseball color line
8700:Black Panther Party
8604:Political movements
8521:in computer science
8180:Carol Moseley Braun
7969:Tulsa race massacre
7962:Treatment of slaves
7794:March on Washington
7789:Birmingham movement
7408:Gregory v. Ashcroft
7376:Mills v. Habluetzel
7360:Zablocki v. Redhail
7304:Eisenstadt v. Baird
7240:Oyama v. California
7232:Skinner v. Oklahoma
7165:Shapiro v. Thompson
7082:Sugarman v. Dougall
7026:Porterfield v. Webb
7018:Terrace v. Thompson
6681:Missouri v. Jenkins
6625:Hunter v. Underwood
6569:Milliken v. Bradley
6561:Norwood v. Harrison
6513:McDaniel v. Barresi
6198:Troxel v. Granville
6078:Mathews v. Eldridge
6062:Taylor v. Louisiana
5939:Connick v. Thompson
5719:Gonzales v. Carhart
5703:Stenberg v. Carhart
5687:Lambert v. Wicklund
5599:Bellotti v. Baird I
5397:Lochner v. New York
5281:Minor v. Happersett
4805:Mary McLeod Bethune
4766:Sermon on the Mount
4733:"We Shall Overcome"
4314:William Lewis Moore
4094:Frank Minis Johnson
4069:Richie Jean Jackson
4024:Donald L. Hollowell
3829:Charles E. Cobb Jr.
3634:Gwendolyn Armstrong
3629:William G. Anderson
3609:Victoria Gray Adams
3573:The Freedom Singers
3427:Black Panther Party
3212:March on Washington
3125:Garner v. Louisiana
3086:Boynton v. Virginia
2713:Library of Congress
2443:Epstein, Richard A.
2323:and the Anti-Canon"
2234:on January 29, 2012
1780:Library of Congress
1596:. October 20, 1916.
942:grandfather clauses
534:writ of prohibition
470:Comité des Citoyens
464:, and white creole
127:16 S. Ct. 1138; 41
103:v. John H. Ferguson
29:Page version status
9545:US representatives
9540:US cabinet members
9432:Dominican Republic
9019:Metropolitan areas
8860:Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
8685:Civic and economic
8663:Self-determination
8484:Education, science
8405:Fred Shuttlesworth
8385:A. Philip Randolph
8290:Coretta Scott King
8215:Frederick Douglass
8042:Harlem Renaissance
7947:Separate but equal
7937:Reconstruction era
7925:Plessy v. Ferguson
7816:Cornerstone Speech
7730:Civil Rights Acts
7713:Black Lives Matter
7688:American Civil War
7469:Civil Rights Cases
7457:Enforcement Clause
7288:Oregon v. Mitchell
7280:Williams v. Rhodes
7106:Nyquist v. Mauclet
7066:Hernandez v. Texas
6951:Bowers v. Hardwick
6943:Sexual orientation
6820:Stanton v. Stanton
6812:Geduldig v. Aiello
6780:Goesaert v. Cleary
6697:Gratz v. Bollinger
6521:Palmer v. Thompson
6473:Hunter v. Erickson
6449:Loving v. Virginia
6417:Anderson v. Martin
6338:Shelley v. Kraemer
6282:Plessy v. Ferguson
6274:Yick Wo v. Hopkins
6126:Kolender v. Lawson
6022:Loving v. Virginia
5837:Imbler v. Pachtman
5814:Wood v. Strickland
5679:Leavitt v. Jane L.
5506:Bowers v. Hardwick
5421:Buchanan v. Warley
5350:Due Process Clause
5261:Citizenship Clause
5122:Michael Eric Dyson
5007:In popular culture
4890:Fifth Circuit Four
4874:Loving v. Virginia
4867:Hernandez v. Texas
4846:Buchanan v. Warley
4838:Separate but equal
4832:Plessy v. Ferguson
4795:Frederick Douglass
4629:Robert F. Williams
4539:Kelly Miller Smith
4519:Fred Shuttlesworth
4444:Frederick D. Reese
4424:George Raymond Jr.
4414:A. Philip Randolph
4394:Fay Bellamy Powell
4309:Queen Mother Moore
4194:Z. Alexander Looby
4139:Coretta Scott King
4084:Barbara Rose Johns
4064:Jimmie Lee Jackson
3989:William E. Harbour
3769:Stokely Carmichael
3684:Randolph Blackwell
3354:King assassination
3343:Loving v. Virginia
3327:March Against Fear
3307:How Long, Not Long
3185:Children's Crusade
3136:Cambridge movement
3073:Ax Handle Saturday
3038:Greensboro sit-ins
2965:Give Us the Ballot
2753:Plessy v. Ferguson
2735:Plessy v. Ferguson
2722:Plessy v. Ferguson
2653:Plessy v. Ferguson
2645:Plessy v. Ferguson
2565:Law and Philosophy
2561:Schauer, Frederick
2423:Plessy v. Ferguson
2339:Chemerinsky, Erwin
2321:Plessy v. Ferguson
2103:Southern Quarterly
2088:The New York Times
1911:The New York Times
1707:Chemerinsky (2019)
1705:Quoted in part in
1691:Chemerinsky (2019)
1678:Chemerinsky (2019)
1663:Chemerinsky (2019)
1608:on October 6, 2014
1579:The New York Times
1357:Plessy v. Ferguson
1316:The Times-Picayune
1167:, pp. 279–80.
1155:, pp. 204–05.
1024:Loving v. Virginia
955:Plessy v. Ferguson
881:Plessy v. Ferguson
874:The effect of the
820:
817:John T. McCutcheon
801:Reconstruction Era
789:
704:
681:, 163 U.S. at 551.
619:
568:Samuel F. Phillips
366:Reconstruction era
354:separate but equal
346:racial segregation
342:U.S. Supreme Court
334:Plessy v. Ferguson
206:Associate Justices
70:Plessy v. Ferguson
35:
18:Plessy vs Ferguson
9705:1896 in Louisiana
9652:
9651:
9480:African Americans
9352:Dallas–Fort Worth
8947:Black Southerners
8878:
8877:
8330:Thurgood Marshall
8300:Bernard Lafayette
7895:Million Man March
7652:African Americans
7618:
7617:
7614:
7613:
7604:Trump v. Anderson
7596:Gold Clause Cases
7575:
7574:
7549:Tennessee v. Lane
7446:
7445:
7442:
7441:
7352:Trimble v. Gordon
7272:Levy v. Louisiana
7264:Rinaldi v. Yeager
7146:Bernal v. Fainter
7122:Ambach v. Norwick
7114:Foley v. Connelie
7010:Crane v. New York
6908:Lehr v. Robertson
6860:Caban v. Mohammed
6617:Palmore v. Sidoti
6457:Lee v. Washington
6441:Reitman v. Mulkey
6392:Gebhart v. Belton
6378:Briggs v. Elliott
6354:Sweatt v. Painter
6236:
6235:
6232:
6231:
6110:Parratt v. Taylor
6094:Duren v. Missouri
6054:Arnett v. Kennedy
5982:Powell v. Alabama
5923:Ashcroft v. Iqbal
5808:Scheuer v. Rhodes
5623:H. L. v. Matheson
5530:Lawrence v. Texas
5466:Meyer v. Nebraska
5413:Coppage v. Kansas
5339:
5338:
5305:Perez v. Brownell
5213:
5212:
4990:Eyes on the Prize
4905:A.G. Gaston Motel
4900:Kelly Ingram Park
4860:Sweatt v. Painter
4544:Mary Louise Smith
4504:Cleveland Sellers
4489:Michael Schwerner
4454:Gloria Richardson
4234:Thurgood Marshall
4154:Bernard Lafayette
3884:John Wesley Dobbs
3398:
3397:
3117:Birmingham attack
3097:Rock Hill sit-ins
3048:Sibley Commission
3043:Nashville sit-ins
2915:Gebhart v. Belton
2901:Briggs v. Elliott
2894:Bolling v. Sharpe
2855:Sweatt v. Painter
2755:at Newspapers.com
2642:Works related to
2622:978-0-8070-0036-6
2603:978-0-312-14997-0
2511:978-0-19-505684-6
2371:978-1-4548-9574-9
2352:978-0-14-312800-7
1803:American Colossus
1653:, § 14.8, p. 818.
1640:, § 14.8, p. 818.
1544:978-0-313-38609-1
1225:978-1-58980-120-2
977:Voting Rights Act
965:in the 1955 case
883:were affirmed in
564:Albion W. Tourgée
350:U.S. Constitution
330:
329:
242:George Shiras Jr.
47:16 September 2024
26:
16:(Redirected from
9737:
9642:
9641:
9640:
9604:Lynching victims
9103:Louisiana Creole
9074:American English
8962:Louisiana Creole
8935:Choctaw freedmen
8773:
8772:
8310:Huddie Ledbetter
8250:Fannie Lou Hamer
8220:W. E. B. Du Bois
8210:Claudette Colvin
8205:Shirley Chisholm
8022:Family structure
7890:Military history
7772:Browder v. Gayle
7645:
7638:
7631:
7622:
7621:
7581:
7580:
7493:Dellmuth v. Muth
7452:
7451:
6852:Parham v. Hughes
6828:Edwards v. Healy
6657:Freeman v. Pitts
6412:(M.D. Ala. 1956)
6409:Browder v. Gayle
6255:
6254:
6242:
6241:
6158:Turner v. Safley
6134:Hudson v. Palmer
5998:NAACP v. Alabama
5457:Right to privacy
5405:Muller v. Oregon
5373:Mugler v. Kansas
5358:
5357:
5345:
5344:
5321:Rogers v. Bellei
5256:
5255:
5240:
5233:
5226:
5217:
5216:
5204:
5203:
5167:Charles M. Payne
5152:Steven F. Lawson
5142:David Halberstam
5112:Clayborne Carson
4853:Hocutt v. Wilson
4800:W. E. B. Du Bois
4649:Sammy Younge Jr.
4634:Q. V. Williamson
4599:Wyatt Tee Walker
4464:Bernice Robinson
4409:Lincoln Ragsdale
4399:Rodney N. Powell
4294:Douglas E. Moore
4169:Sanford R. Leigh
4104:J. Charles Jones
3979:Fannie Lou Hamer
3894:Joseph Ellwanger
3854:Jonathan Daniels
3844:Claudette Colvin
3834:Annie Lee Cooper
3819:Kathleen Cleaver
3814:Eldridge Cleaver
3789:Shirley Chisholm
3679:Gloria Blackwell
3270:workers' murders
3217:"I Have a Dream"
3112:Anniston bombing
3063:Greenville Eight
2978:Little Rock Nine
2941:Browder v. Gayle
2829:
2828:
2804:
2797:
2790:
2781:
2780:
2717:
2711:
2708:
2702:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2684:
2681:
2675:
2672:
2666:
2641:
2626:
2607:
2588:
2556:
2536:
2515:
2496:
2479:
2460:
2438:
2414:
2404:
2375:
2356:
2334:
2315:Amar, Akhil Reed
2310:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2230:. Archived from
2223:
2217:
2216:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2189:. Slate Magazine
2178:
2172:
2171:
2160:
2154:
2153:
2125:
2119:
2118:
2098:
2092:
2091:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2047:
2037:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2013:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1967:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1936:
1930:
1924:
1915:
1914:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1838:
1829:
1828:
1813:
1807:
1806:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1749:
1743:
1737:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1710:
1703:
1694:
1687:
1681:
1675:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1618:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1597:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1528:
1519:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1406:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1377:
1371:
1354:
1343:
1342:
1340:
1338:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1306:
1291:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1248:
1242:
1241:
1239:
1237:
1232:on March 4, 2009
1228:. Archived from
1213:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1181:
1174:
1168:
1162:
1156:
1150:
1144:
1134:
1128:
1127:
1099:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1075:
1058:
1051:
1001:John Bel Edwards
895:Chinese American
862:
752:
725:
690:Harlan's dissent
682:
656:
638:
581:Attorney General
451:Separate Car Act
254:Rufus W. Peckham
210:Stephen J. Field
191:Court membership
79:
78:
67:
66:
21:
9745:
9744:
9740:
9739:
9738:
9736:
9735:
9734:
9655:
9654:
9653:
9648:
9638:
9636:
9623:
9589:Historic places
9582:US state firsts
9468:
9383:
9107:
9040:
9012:2010 majorities
9007:2000 majorities
8978:
8925:Black Seminoles
8874:
8865:Southern (SIAC)
8848:
8847:and conferences
8846:
8839:
8835:Serena Williams
8830:Jackie Robinson
8764:
8688:
8686:
8679:
8599:
8566:Nation of Islam
8537:
8485:
8479:
8420:Sojourner Truth
8410:Clarence Thomas
8375:Gabriel Prosser
8275:Michael Jackson
8150:Crispus Attucks
8140:Ralph Abernathy
8128:
8084:Musical theater
7983:
7849:Great Migration
7821:COVID-19 impact
7779:Sit-in movement
7654:
7649:
7619:
7610:
7586:
7571:
7459:
7438:
7187:
7152:
7090:In re Griffiths
7034:Webb v. O'Brien
6973:
6938:
6759:
6689:Texas v. Lesage
6481:Hadnott v. Amos
6266:Pace v. Alabama
6249:
6228:
6006:Hoyt v. Florida
5945:
5875:Felder v. Casey
5771:
5765:
5552:
5451:
5429:Adams v. Tanner
5389:Holden v. Hardy
5363:
5352:
5335:
5313:Afroyim v. Rusk
5263:
5250:
5244:
5214:
5209:
5198:
5191:
5172:Thomas E. Ricks
5162:Diane McWhorter
5147:Vincent Harding
5132:Adam Fairclough
5099:
5093:
4995:
4950:Freedom Schools
4809:
4742:
4690:
4684:
4675:Omaha, Nebraska
4663:
4579:Hartman Turnbow
4569:Dorothy Tillman
4529:Glenn E. Smiley
4509:Charles Sherrod
4469:Jo Ann Robinson
4344:Charles Neblett
4334:Elijah Muhammad
4299:Harriette Moore
4259:Floyd McKissick
4244:Franklin McCain
4179:Stanley Levison
4044:T. R. M. Howard
3994:Vincent Harding
3924:Walter Fauntroy
3809:Xernona Clayton
3759:John H. Calhoun
3744:Aurelia Browder
3734:Stanley Branche
3729:Raylawni Branch
3709:Joseph E. Boone
3694:Ezell Blair Jr.
3689:Unita Blackwell
3664:Harry Belafonte
3604:Ralph Abernathy
3592:
3528:Nation of Islam
3404:
3394:
3233:
3190:Birmingham riot
3131:Albany Movement
3053:Atlanta sit-ins
3033:Sit-in movement
3016:
3012:Biloxi wade-ins
2984:Cooper v. Aaron
2874:
2820:
2814:
2808:
2715:
2709:
2706:
2700:
2697:
2691:
2688:
2682:
2679:
2673:
2670:
2664:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2604:
2577:10.2307/3504874
2533:
2512:
2476:
2457:
2435:
2389:Iowa Law Review
2372:
2353:
2300:
2295:
2294:
2284:
2282:
2272:
2268:
2260:Washington Post
2251:
2247:
2237:
2235:
2224:
2220:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2192:
2190:
2179:
2175:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2126:
2122:
2099:
2095:
2080:
2076:
2065:
2061:
2051:
2049:
2038:
2031:
2023:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2000:
1998:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1984:, p. 1002.
1980:
1976:
1968:
1964:
1960:, p. 1015.
1956:
1952:
1937:
1933:
1925:
1918:
1903:
1899:
1888:
1884:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1839:
1832:
1814:
1810:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1783:
1768:
1764:
1756:
1752:
1744:
1740:
1732:
1728:
1720:
1713:
1704:
1697:
1688:
1684:
1676:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1621:
1611:
1609:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1571:
1567:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1529:
1522:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1496:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1458:
1450:
1446:
1407:
1400:
1390:
1388:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1355:
1346:
1336:
1334:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1307:
1294:
1284:
1282:
1277:
1276:
1272:
1249:
1245:
1235:
1233:
1226:
1211:
1203:
1199:
1189:
1187:
1176:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1151:
1147:
1135:
1131:
1100:
1096:
1088:
1084:
1076:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1061:
1055:David J. Brewer
1052:
1048:
1043:
1038:
1009:
997:
985:
938:white primaries
860:
843:Gabriel J. Chin
836:disenfranchised
832:Jim Crow system
815:" rail cars by
777:
768:
753:
747:
726:
720:
692:
683:
677:
657:
651:
636:
608:
600:
592:white supremacy
560:
542:
510:
462:creole of color
443:
438:
311:
246:Edward D. White
244:
232:
230:David J. Brewer
220:
202:Melville Fuller
161:Ex parte Plessy
136:
101:Homer A. Plessy
90:
84:
65:
60:
55:
54:
53:
52:
51:
50:
34:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9743:
9733:
9732:
9727:
9722:
9717:
9712:
9707:
9702:
9697:
9692:
9687:
9682:
9677:
9672:
9667:
9650:
9649:
9647:
9646:
9634:
9628:
9625:
9624:
9622:
9621:
9616:
9611:
9606:
9601:
9596:
9591:
9586:
9585:
9584:
9579:
9574:
9564:
9563:
9562:
9557:
9555:Visual artists
9552:
9547:
9542:
9537:
9532:
9527:
9522:
9517:
9515:Mathematicians
9512:
9507:
9502:
9497:
9492:
9487:
9476:
9474:
9470:
9469:
9467:
9466:
9465:
9464:
9456:
9451:
9450:
9449:
9444:
9439:
9434:
9429:
9421:
9420:
9419:
9414:
9409:
9404:
9393:
9391:
9385:
9384:
9382:
9381:
9376:
9371:
9366:
9365:
9364:
9359:
9354:
9349:
9339:
9334:
9332:South Carolina
9329:
9324:
9323:
9322:
9314:
9309:
9304:
9302:North Carolina
9299:
9298:
9297:
9287:
9282:
9281:
9280:
9270:
9265:
9264:
9263:
9255:
9254:
9253:
9247:Massachusetts
9245:
9244:
9243:
9233:
9228:
9227:
9226:
9216:
9211:
9210:
9209:
9199:
9194:
9193:
9192:
9182:
9177:
9176:
9175:
9165:
9164:
9163:
9158:
9148:
9143:
9142:
9141:
9136:
9126:
9121:
9115:
9113:
9109:
9108:
9106:
9105:
9100:
9095:
9094:
9093:
9092:
9091:
9089:social context
9086:
9076:
9066:
9065:
9064:
9054:
9048:
9046:
9042:
9041:
9039:
9038:
9037:
9036:
9031:
9021:
9016:
9015:
9014:
9009:
8999:
8998:
8997:
8986:
8984:
8980:
8979:
8977:
8976:
8971:
8970:
8969:
8959:
8954:
8949:
8944:
8943:
8942:
8940:Creek Freedmen
8937:
8932:
8927:
8917:
8915:Alabama Creole
8912:
8911:
8910:
8905:
8900:
8895:
8886:
8884:
8880:
8879:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8857:
8855:Central (CIAA)
8851:
8849:
8844:
8841:
8840:
8838:
8837:
8832:
8827:
8822:
8817:
8812:
8807:
8802:
8797:
8792:
8787:
8782:
8776:
8770:
8766:
8765:
8763:
8762:
8757:
8752:
8747:
8742:
8737:
8732:
8727:
8722:
8717:
8712:
8707:
8702:
8697:
8691:
8689:
8684:
8681:
8680:
8678:
8677:
8672:
8671:
8670:
8660:
8655:
8650:
8648:Pan-Africanism
8645:
8640:
8635:
8630:
8629:
8628:
8618:
8613:
8607:
8605:
8601:
8600:
8598:
8597:
8592:
8590:Black theology
8587:
8582:
8581:
8580:
8570:
8569:
8568:
8563:
8553:
8547:
8545:
8539:
8538:
8536:
8535:
8534:
8533:
8531:in STEM fields
8528:
8523:
8515:
8510:
8505:
8500:
8495:
8489:
8487:
8486:and technology
8481:
8480:
8478:
8477:
8472:
8467:
8462:
8457:
8452:
8447:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8427:
8425:Harriet Tubman
8422:
8417:
8412:
8407:
8402:
8397:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8377:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8355:Michelle Obama
8352:
8347:
8342:
8337:
8332:
8327:
8322:
8317:
8312:
8307:
8302:
8297:
8292:
8287:
8285:Barbara Jordan
8282:
8280:Harriet Jacobs
8277:
8272:
8267:
8262:
8257:
8252:
8247:
8242:
8237:
8232:
8227:
8222:
8217:
8212:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8172:
8170:Amelia Boynton
8167:
8162:
8157:
8152:
8147:
8142:
8136:
8134:
8133:Notable people
8130:
8129:
8127:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8081:
8076:
8071:
8069:LGBT community
8066:
8061:
8056:
8051:
8050:
8049:
8039:
8034:
8029:
8024:
8019:
8014:
8009:
8004:
7999:
7993:
7991:
7985:
7984:
7982:
7981:
7976:
7971:
7966:
7965:
7964:
7954:
7949:
7944:
7939:
7934:
7929:
7921:
7916:
7909:
7902:
7897:
7892:
7887:
7882:
7877:
7868:
7863:
7862:
7861:
7856:
7846:
7841:
7836:
7831:
7823:
7818:
7813:
7812:
7811:
7806:
7801:
7796:
7791:
7786:
7784:Freedom Riders
7781:
7776:
7768:
7758:
7753:
7748:
7747:
7746:
7741:
7736:
7728:
7723:
7715:
7710:
7708:Black genocide
7705:
7700:
7695:
7690:
7685:
7680:
7675:
7670:
7664:
7662:
7656:
7655:
7648:
7647:
7640:
7633:
7625:
7616:
7615:
7612:
7611:
7609:
7608:
7600:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7577:
7576:
7573:
7572:
7570:
7569:
7561:
7553:
7545:
7537:
7529:
7521:
7513:
7505:
7497:
7489:
7481:
7473:
7464:
7461:
7460:
7448:
7447:
7444:
7443:
7440:
7439:
7437:
7436:
7428:
7420:
7416:Vacco v. Quill
7412:
7404:
7396:
7392:Clark v. Jeter
7388:
7380:
7372:
7364:
7356:
7348:
7340:
7332:
7324:
7316:
7308:
7300:
7292:
7284:
7276:
7268:
7260:
7252:
7248:Oyler v. Boles
7244:
7236:
7228:
7220:
7212:
7204:
7195:
7193:
7189:
7188:
7186:
7185:
7177:
7169:
7160:
7158:
7154:
7153:
7151:
7150:
7142:
7134:
7126:
7118:
7110:
7102:
7094:
7086:
7078:
7070:
7062:
7054:
7046:
7038:
7030:
7022:
7014:
7006:
7002:Heim v. McCall
6998:
6994:Truax v. Raich
6990:
6981:
6979:
6975:
6974:
6972:
6971:
6963:
6959:Romer v. Evans
6955:
6946:
6944:
6940:
6939:
6937:
6936:
6928:
6920:
6912:
6904:
6896:
6888:
6880:
6872:
6864:
6856:
6848:
6840:
6836:Craig v. Boren
6832:
6824:
6816:
6808:
6804:Kahn v. Shevin
6800:
6792:
6784:
6776:
6767:
6765:
6761:
6760:
6758:
6757:
6749:
6741:
6733:
6725:
6717:
6709:
6701:
6693:
6685:
6677:
6669:
6661:
6653:
6645:
6637:
6629:
6621:
6613:
6605:
6597:
6589:
6581:
6573:
6565:
6557:
6549:
6541:
6533:
6525:
6517:
6509:
6501:
6493:
6485:
6477:
6469:
6461:
6453:
6445:
6437:
6429:
6421:
6413:
6405:
6397:
6396:
6395:
6388:
6381:
6366:
6358:
6350:
6346:Perez v. Sharp
6342:
6334:
6326:
6318:
6310:
6306:Smith v. Texas
6302:
6294:
6286:
6278:
6270:
6261:
6259:
6251:
6250:
6238:
6237:
6234:
6233:
6230:
6229:
6227:
6226:
6218:
6210:
6202:
6194:
6186:
6178:
6170:
6162:
6154:
6146:
6138:
6130:
6122:
6114:
6106:
6102:Parham v. J.R.
6098:
6090:
6082:
6074:
6066:
6058:
6050:
6042:
6034:
6026:
6018:
6014:Oyler v. Boles
6010:
6002:
5994:
5986:
5978:
5970:
5962:
5953:
5951:
5947:
5946:
5944:
5943:
5935:
5927:
5919:
5911:
5903:
5895:
5887:
5879:
5871:
5863:
5855:
5849:
5841:
5833:
5825:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5796:Pierson v. Ray
5793:
5787:
5783:Monroe v. Pape
5778:
5776:
5767:
5766:
5764:
5763:
5755:
5747:
5739:
5731:
5723:
5715:
5707:
5699:
5691:
5683:
5675:
5667:
5659:
5651:
5643:
5635:
5627:
5619:
5611:
5603:
5595:
5587:
5579:
5571:
5562:
5560:
5554:
5553:
5551:
5550:
5542:
5534:
5526:
5518:
5510:
5502:
5494:
5486:
5478:
5470:
5461:
5459:
5453:
5452:
5450:
5449:
5441:
5433:
5425:
5417:
5409:
5401:
5393:
5385:
5377:
5368:
5366:
5354:
5353:
5341:
5340:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5333:
5325:
5317:
5309:
5301:
5293:
5289:Elk v. Wilkins
5285:
5277:
5268:
5265:
5264:
5252:
5251:
5243:
5242:
5235:
5228:
5220:
5211:
5210:
5196:
5193:
5192:
5190:
5189:
5184:
5182:Akinyele Umoja
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5144:
5139:
5134:
5129:
5124:
5119:
5114:
5109:
5103:
5101:
5095:
5094:
5092:
5091:
5086:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5070:
5069:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5009:
5003:
5001:
4997:
4996:
4994:
4993:
4986:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4970:
4969:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4917:
4912:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4882:
4877:
4870:
4863:
4856:
4849:
4842:
4841:
4840:
4828:
4823:
4817:
4815:
4811:
4810:
4808:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4785:
4784:
4783:
4778:
4771:Mahatma Gandhi
4768:
4763:
4762:
4761:
4750:
4748:
4744:
4743:
4741:
4740:
4735:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4705:
4700:
4694:
4692:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4682:
4680:South Carolina
4677:
4671:
4669:
4665:
4664:
4662:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4619:Hosea Williams
4616:
4611:
4606:
4604:Hollis Watkins
4601:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4534:A. Maceo Smith
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4484:Bernie Sanders
4481:
4476:
4474:Angela Russell
4471:
4466:
4461:
4459:David Richmond
4456:
4451:
4449:Walter Reuther
4446:
4441:
4436:
4434:Cordell Reagon
4431:
4426:
4421:
4419:George Raymond
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4379:Charles Person
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4349:Huey P. Newton
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4304:Harry T. Moore
4301:
4296:
4291:
4289:Cecil B. Moore
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4269:James Meredith
4266:
4261:
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4146:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4099:Clarence Jones
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4056:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4039:Zilphia Horton
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4011:
4009:Lola Hendricks
4006:
4001:
3999:Dorothy Height
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3969:Lawrence Guyot
3966:
3961:
3959:Jack Greenberg
3956:
3951:
3946:
3944:Andrew Goodman
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3871:
3869:Joseph DeLaine
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3839:Dorothy Cotton
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3784:J. L. Chestnut
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3719:Amelia Boynton
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3641:
3639:Arnold Aronson
3636:
3631:
3626:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3519:
3518:
3508:
3503:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3408:
3406:
3400:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3385:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3367:
3366:
3361:
3351:
3346:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3317:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3298:
3293:
3286:
3279:
3274:
3273:
3272:
3265:Freedom Summer
3262:
3257:
3255:Bloody Tuesday
3252:
3247:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3226:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3172:
3171:
3170:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3121:
3120:
3119:
3114:
3104:
3099:
3094:
3089:
3082:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3024:
3022:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2975:
2970:
2969:
2968:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2932:
2927:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2911:
2904:
2897:
2882:
2880:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2872:
2867:
2859:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2826:
2816:
2815:
2807:
2806:
2799:
2792:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2768:
2757:
2748:
2731:
2726:
2718:
2695:Google Scholar
2649:
2633:
2632:External links
2630:
2628:
2627:
2621:
2608:
2602:
2589:
2557:
2540:
2531:
2516:
2510:
2497:
2480:
2474:
2461:
2455:
2439:
2433:
2415:
2376:
2370:
2357:
2351:
2335:
2311:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2292:
2266:
2245:
2218:
2200:
2173:
2155:
2136:(1): 216–229.
2120:
2093:
2074:
2059:
2029:
2008:
1986:
1974:
1972:, p. 156.
1962:
1950:
1931:
1916:
1897:
1882:
1868:
1830:
1808:
1793:
1762:
1750:
1738:
1736:, p. 208.
1734:Lofgren (1987)
1726:
1711:
1695:
1682:
1667:
1655:
1642:
1619:
1594:Times Picayune
1584:
1565:
1550:
1543:
1520:
1506:
1480:
1476:Lofgren (1987)
1468:
1466:, p. 270.
1464:Elliott (2006)
1456:
1454:, pp. 42.
1452:Lofgren (1987)
1444:
1417:(2): 125–132.
1398:
1387:. May 19, 2021
1372:
1344:
1322:
1292:
1270:
1243:
1224:
1197:
1169:
1165:Schauer (1997)
1157:
1153:Lofgren (1987)
1145:
1141:Epstein (1995)
1139:, p. 76;
1129:
1116:10.2307/272323
1094:
1082:
1080:, p. 280.
1078:Schauer (1997)
1069:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1059:
1045:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1032:
1027:
1020:
1015:
1008:
1005:
996:
993:
984:
981:
929:literacy tests
903:private school
776:
773:
767:
764:
745:
718:
691:
688:
675:
649:
607:
604:
599:
596:
577:14th Amendment
573:13th Amendment
559:
556:
541:
538:
509:
506:
442:
439:
437:
434:
362:American South
328:
327:
313:
312:
309:
306:
305:
290:
289:
285:
284:
280:
279:
276:
272:
271:
268:
264:
263:
259:
258:
257:
256:
234:Henry B. Brown
218:John M. Harlan
207:
204:
199:
193:
192:
188:
187:
179:
178:
174:
173:
170:
166:
165:
157:
153:
152:
148:
147:
142:
138:
137:
126:
110:
106:
105:
97:
96:Full case name
93:
92:
86:
85:
80:
72:
71:
63:
58:
36:
30:
27:
25:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9742:
9731:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9721:
9718:
9716:
9713:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9703:
9701:
9698:
9696:
9693:
9691:
9688:
9686:
9683:
9681:
9678:
9676:
9673:
9671:
9668:
9666:
9663:
9662:
9660:
9645:
9635:
9633:
9630:
9629:
9626:
9620:
9617:
9615:
9614:Neighborhoods
9612:
9610:
9607:
9605:
9602:
9600:
9597:
9595:
9592:
9590:
9587:
9583:
9580:
9578:
9577:Sports firsts
9575:
9573:
9570:
9569:
9568:
9565:
9561:
9558:
9556:
9553:
9551:
9548:
9546:
9543:
9541:
9538:
9536:
9533:
9531:
9528:
9526:
9523:
9521:
9518:
9516:
9513:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9501:
9498:
9496:
9493:
9491:
9488:
9486:
9483:
9482:
9481:
9478:
9477:
9475:
9471:
9463:
9460:
9459:
9457:
9455:
9452:
9448:
9445:
9443:
9440:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9424:
9422:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9399:
9398:
9395:
9394:
9392:
9390:
9386:
9380:
9379:West Virginia
9377:
9375:
9372:
9370:
9367:
9363:
9360:
9358:
9355:
9353:
9350:
9348:
9345:
9344:
9343:
9340:
9338:
9335:
9333:
9330:
9328:
9325:
9321:
9318:
9317:
9316:Pennsylvania
9315:
9313:
9310:
9308:
9305:
9303:
9300:
9296:
9295:New York City
9293:
9292:
9291:
9288:
9286:
9283:
9279:
9276:
9275:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9262:
9259:
9258:
9256:
9252:
9249:
9248:
9246:
9242:
9239:
9238:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9225:
9222:
9221:
9220:
9217:
9215:
9212:
9208:
9205:
9204:
9203:
9200:
9198:
9195:
9191:
9188:
9187:
9186:
9183:
9181:
9178:
9174:
9171:
9170:
9169:
9166:
9162:
9159:
9157:
9154:
9153:
9152:
9149:
9147:
9144:
9140:
9139:San Francisco
9137:
9135:
9132:
9131:
9130:
9127:
9125:
9122:
9120:
9117:
9116:
9114:
9112:By state/city
9110:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9090:
9087:
9085:
9082:
9081:
9080:
9077:
9075:
9072:
9071:
9070:
9067:
9063:
9060:
9059:
9058:
9057:American Sign
9055:
9053:
9050:
9049:
9047:
9043:
9035:
9032:
9030:
9027:
9026:
9025:
9022:
9020:
9017:
9013:
9010:
9008:
9005:
9004:
9003:
9000:
8996:
8993:
8992:
8991:
8990:Neighborhoods
8988:
8987:
8985:
8981:
8975:
8972:
8968:
8965:
8964:
8963:
8960:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8948:
8945:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8922:
8921:
8920:Black Indians
8918:
8916:
8913:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8890:
8888:
8887:
8885:
8881:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8856:
8853:
8852:
8850:
8842:
8836:
8833:
8831:
8828:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8816:
8813:
8811:
8808:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8778:
8777:
8774:
8771:
8767:
8761:
8758:
8756:
8753:
8751:
8748:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8721:
8718:
8716:
8713:
8711:
8708:
8706:
8703:
8701:
8698:
8696:
8693:
8692:
8690:
8682:
8676:
8673:
8669:
8666:
8665:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8654:
8651:
8649:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8627:
8624:
8623:
8622:
8619:
8617:
8614:
8612:
8609:
8608:
8606:
8602:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8586:
8583:
8579:
8576:
8575:
8574:
8571:
8567:
8564:
8562:
8559:
8558:
8557:
8554:
8552:
8549:
8548:
8546:
8544:
8540:
8532:
8529:
8527:
8524:
8522:
8519:
8518:
8516:
8514:
8511:
8509:
8506:
8504:
8501:
8499:
8498:Black schools
8496:
8494:
8493:Black studies
8491:
8490:
8488:
8482:
8476:
8475:Whitney Young
8473:
8471:
8468:
8466:
8465:Oprah Winfrey
8463:
8461:
8458:
8456:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8443:
8441:
8438:
8436:
8435:Denmark Vesey
8433:
8431:
8428:
8426:
8423:
8421:
8418:
8416:
8413:
8411:
8408:
8406:
8403:
8401:
8398:
8396:
8393:
8391:
8388:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8380:Joseph Rainey
8378:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8351:
8348:
8346:
8343:
8341:
8338:
8336:
8335:Toni Morrison
8333:
8331:
8328:
8326:
8323:
8321:
8320:Joseph Lowery
8318:
8316:
8313:
8311:
8308:
8306:
8303:
8301:
8298:
8296:
8293:
8291:
8288:
8286:
8283:
8281:
8278:
8276:
8273:
8271:
8268:
8266:
8265:Jesse Jackson
8263:
8261:
8258:
8256:
8255:Kamala Harris
8253:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8241:
8240:Marcus Garvey
8238:
8236:
8233:
8231:
8228:
8226:
8223:
8221:
8218:
8216:
8213:
8211:
8208:
8206:
8203:
8201:
8198:
8196:
8193:
8191:
8190:Blanche Bruce
8188:
8186:
8185:Edward Brooke
8183:
8181:
8178:
8176:
8175:James Bradley
8173:
8171:
8168:
8166:
8163:
8161:
8158:
8156:
8155:James Baldwin
8153:
8151:
8148:
8146:
8143:
8141:
8138:
8137:
8135:
8131:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8117:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8099:Neighborhoods
8097:
8095:
8092:
8090:
8087:
8085:
8082:
8080:
8077:
8075:
8072:
8070:
8067:
8065:
8062:
8060:
8057:
8055:
8052:
8048:
8045:
8044:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8035:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8025:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8015:
8013:
8010:
8008:
8005:
8003:
8000:
7998:
7995:
7994:
7992:
7990:
7986:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7963:
7960:
7959:
7958:
7955:
7953:
7952:Silent Parade
7950:
7948:
7945:
7943:
7940:
7938:
7935:
7933:
7930:
7927:
7926:
7922:
7920:
7917:
7915:
7914:
7910:
7908:
7907:
7903:
7901:
7898:
7896:
7893:
7891:
7888:
7886:
7883:
7881:
7880:Jim Crow laws
7878:
7876:
7872:
7869:
7867:
7864:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7851:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7829:
7828:
7824:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7810:
7807:
7805:
7802:
7800:
7797:
7795:
7792:
7790:
7787:
7785:
7782:
7780:
7777:
7774:
7773:
7769:
7767:
7764:
7763:
7762:
7759:
7757:
7754:
7752:
7749:
7745:
7742:
7740:
7737:
7735:
7732:
7731:
7729:
7727:
7724:
7721:
7720:
7716:
7714:
7711:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7703:Black cowboys
7701:
7699:
7696:
7694:
7691:
7689:
7686:
7684:
7681:
7679:
7676:
7674:
7671:
7669:
7666:
7665:
7663:
7661:
7657:
7653:
7646:
7641:
7639:
7634:
7632:
7627:
7626:
7623:
7606:
7605:
7601:
7598:
7597:
7593:
7592:
7589:
7582:
7578:
7567:
7566:
7562:
7559:
7558:
7554:
7551:
7550:
7546:
7543:
7542:
7538:
7535:
7534:
7530:
7527:
7526:
7522:
7519:
7518:
7514:
7511:
7510:
7506:
7503:
7502:
7498:
7495:
7494:
7490:
7487:
7486:
7482:
7479:
7478:
7474:
7471:
7470:
7466:
7465:
7462:
7458:
7453:
7449:
7434:
7433:
7429:
7426:
7425:
7421:
7418:
7417:
7413:
7410:
7409:
7405:
7402:
7401:
7397:
7394:
7393:
7389:
7386:
7385:
7381:
7378:
7377:
7373:
7370:
7369:
7365:
7362:
7361:
7357:
7354:
7353:
7349:
7346:
7345:
7341:
7338:
7337:
7333:
7330:
7329:
7325:
7322:
7321:
7317:
7314:
7313:
7309:
7306:
7305:
7301:
7298:
7297:
7293:
7290:
7289:
7285:
7282:
7281:
7277:
7274:
7273:
7269:
7266:
7265:
7261:
7258:
7257:
7253:
7250:
7249:
7245:
7242:
7241:
7237:
7234:
7233:
7229:
7226:
7225:
7221:
7218:
7217:
7213:
7210:
7209:
7205:
7202:
7201:
7197:
7196:
7194:
7190:
7183:
7182:
7178:
7175:
7174:
7170:
7167:
7166:
7162:
7161:
7159:
7155:
7148:
7147:
7143:
7140:
7139:
7138:Plyler v. Doe
7135:
7132:
7131:
7127:
7124:
7123:
7119:
7116:
7115:
7111:
7108:
7107:
7103:
7100:
7099:
7095:
7092:
7091:
7087:
7084:
7083:
7079:
7076:
7075:
7071:
7068:
7067:
7063:
7060:
7059:
7055:
7052:
7051:
7047:
7044:
7043:
7042:Frick v. Webb
7039:
7036:
7035:
7031:
7028:
7027:
7023:
7020:
7019:
7015:
7012:
7011:
7007:
7004:
7003:
6999:
6996:
6995:
6991:
6988:
6987:
6983:
6982:
6980:
6976:
6969:
6968:
6964:
6961:
6960:
6956:
6953:
6952:
6948:
6947:
6945:
6941:
6934:
6933:
6929:
6926:
6925:
6921:
6918:
6917:
6913:
6910:
6909:
6905:
6902:
6901:
6897:
6894:
6893:
6889:
6886:
6885:
6881:
6878:
6877:
6873:
6870:
6869:
6865:
6862:
6861:
6857:
6854:
6853:
6849:
6846:
6845:
6841:
6838:
6837:
6833:
6830:
6829:
6825:
6822:
6821:
6817:
6814:
6813:
6809:
6806:
6805:
6801:
6798:
6797:
6793:
6790:
6789:
6785:
6782:
6781:
6777:
6774:
6773:
6769:
6768:
6766:
6762:
6755:
6754:
6750:
6747:
6746:
6742:
6739:
6738:
6734:
6731:
6730:
6726:
6723:
6722:
6718:
6715:
6714:
6710:
6707:
6706:
6702:
6699:
6698:
6694:
6691:
6690:
6686:
6683:
6682:
6678:
6675:
6674:
6670:
6667:
6666:
6662:
6659:
6658:
6654:
6651:
6650:
6646:
6643:
6642:
6638:
6635:
6634:
6630:
6627:
6626:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6614:
6611:
6610:
6606:
6603:
6602:
6598:
6595:
6594:
6590:
6587:
6586:
6582:
6579:
6578:
6574:
6571:
6570:
6566:
6563:
6562:
6558:
6555:
6554:
6550:
6547:
6546:
6542:
6539:
6538:
6534:
6531:
6530:
6529:Coit v. Green
6526:
6523:
6522:
6518:
6515:
6514:
6510:
6507:
6506:
6502:
6499:
6498:
6494:
6491:
6490:
6486:
6483:
6482:
6478:
6475:
6474:
6470:
6467:
6466:
6462:
6459:
6458:
6454:
6451:
6450:
6446:
6443:
6442:
6438:
6435:
6434:
6430:
6427:
6426:
6422:
6419:
6418:
6414:
6411:
6410:
6406:
6403:
6402:
6401:Lucy v. Adams
6398:
6394:
6393:
6389:
6387:
6386:
6382:
6380:
6379:
6375:
6374:
6372:
6371:
6367:
6364:
6363:
6359:
6356:
6355:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6343:
6340:
6339:
6335:
6332:
6331:
6327:
6324:
6323:
6319:
6316:
6315:
6311:
6308:
6307:
6303:
6300:
6299:
6295:
6292:
6291:
6287:
6284:
6283:
6279:
6276:
6275:
6271:
6268:
6267:
6263:
6262:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6243:
6239:
6224:
6223:
6219:
6216:
6215:
6211:
6208:
6207:
6203:
6200:
6199:
6195:
6192:
6191:
6187:
6184:
6183:
6179:
6176:
6175:
6171:
6168:
6167:
6163:
6160:
6159:
6155:
6152:
6151:
6147:
6144:
6143:
6139:
6136:
6135:
6131:
6128:
6127:
6123:
6120:
6119:
6115:
6112:
6111:
6107:
6104:
6103:
6099:
6096:
6095:
6091:
6088:
6087:
6083:
6080:
6079:
6075:
6072:
6071:
6070:Goss v. Lopez
6067:
6064:
6063:
6059:
6056:
6055:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6043:
6040:
6039:
6038:In re Winship
6035:
6032:
6031:
6027:
6024:
6023:
6019:
6016:
6015:
6011:
6008:
6007:
6003:
6000:
5999:
5995:
5992:
5991:
5987:
5984:
5983:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5971:
5968:
5967:
5966:Zucht v. King
5963:
5960:
5959:
5955:
5954:
5952:
5948:
5941:
5940:
5936:
5933:
5932:
5928:
5925:
5924:
5920:
5917:
5916:
5912:
5909:
5908:
5904:
5901:
5900:
5896:
5893:
5892:
5888:
5885:
5884:
5880:
5877:
5876:
5872:
5869:
5868:
5864:
5861:
5860:
5856:
5853:
5850:
5847:
5846:
5842:
5839:
5838:
5834:
5831:
5830:
5829:Paul v. Davis
5826:
5823:
5822:
5818:
5815:
5812:
5809:
5806:
5803:
5800:
5797:
5794:
5791:
5788:
5785:
5784:
5780:
5779:
5777:
5775:
5768:
5761:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5752:
5748:
5745:
5744:
5740:
5737:
5736:
5735:Azar v. Garza
5732:
5729:
5728:
5724:
5721:
5720:
5716:
5713:
5712:
5708:
5705:
5704:
5700:
5697:
5696:
5692:
5689:
5688:
5684:
5681:
5680:
5676:
5673:
5672:
5668:
5665:
5664:
5660:
5657:
5656:
5652:
5649:
5648:
5644:
5641:
5640:
5636:
5633:
5632:
5628:
5625:
5624:
5620:
5617:
5616:
5612:
5609:
5608:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5596:
5593:
5592:
5588:
5585:
5584:
5583:Doe v. Bolton
5580:
5577:
5576:
5572:
5569:
5568:
5564:
5563:
5561:
5559:
5555:
5548:
5547:
5543:
5540:
5539:
5535:
5532:
5531:
5527:
5524:
5523:
5519:
5516:
5515:
5511:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5500:
5499:
5498:Doe v. Bolton
5495:
5492:
5491:
5487:
5484:
5483:
5479:
5476:
5475:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5463:
5462:
5460:
5458:
5454:
5447:
5446:
5442:
5439:
5438:
5434:
5431:
5430:
5426:
5423:
5422:
5418:
5415:
5414:
5410:
5407:
5406:
5402:
5399:
5398:
5394:
5391:
5390:
5386:
5383:
5382:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5370:
5369:
5367:
5365:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5346:
5342:
5331:
5330:
5326:
5323:
5322:
5318:
5315:
5314:
5310:
5307:
5306:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5294:
5291:
5290:
5286:
5283:
5282:
5278:
5275:
5274:
5270:
5269:
5266:
5262:
5257:
5253:
5248:
5241:
5236:
5234:
5229:
5227:
5222:
5221:
5218:
5208:
5207:
5202:
5194:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5177:Timothy Tyson
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5148:
5145:
5143:
5140:
5138:
5135:
5133:
5130:
5128:
5125:
5123:
5120:
5118:
5115:
5113:
5110:
5108:
5107:Taylor Branch
5105:
5104:
5102:
5096:
5090:
5087:
5085:
5082:
5080:
5077:
5075:
5072:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5035:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5018:
5015:
5013:
5010:
5008:
5005:
5004:
5002:
4998:
4992:
4991:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4967:
4963:
4962:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4955:Freedom songs
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4923:
4921:
4918:
4916:
4913:
4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4875:
4871:
4869:
4868:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4857:
4855:
4854:
4850:
4848:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4836:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4829:
4827:
4824:
4822:
4821:Jim Crow laws
4819:
4818:
4816:
4812:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4773:
4772:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4757:
4756:
4755:
4752:
4751:
4749:
4745:
4739:
4736:
4734:
4731:
4729:
4726:
4724:
4721:
4719:
4718:"Oh, Freedom"
4716:
4714:
4711:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4695:
4693:
4687:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4672:
4670:
4666:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4644:Whitney Young
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4624:Kale Williams
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4584:Albert Turner
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4574:A. P. Tureaud
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4479:Bayard Rustin
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4329:William Moyer
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4264:Joseph McNeil
4262:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4250:
4249:Charles McDew
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4239:Benjamin Mays
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4224:Vivian Malone
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4199:Joseph Lowery
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4165:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4155:
4152:
4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4124:Clyde Kennard
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4114:Vernon Jordan
4112:
4110:
4109:Matthew Jones
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4074:T. J. Jemison
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4059:Jesse Jackson
4057:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3949:Robert Graetz
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3939:Golden Frinks
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3899:Charles Evers
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3849:Vernon Dahmer
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3820:
3817:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3804:Septima Clark
3802:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3792:
3790:
3787:
3785:
3782:
3780:
3777:
3775:
3772:
3770:
3767:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3745:
3742:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3724:Bruce Boynton
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3649:James Baldwin
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3619:Mathew Ahmann
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3517:
3516:Youth Council
3514:
3513:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3502:
3499:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3455:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3401:
3391:
3390:
3386:
3384:
3383:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3360:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3308:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3291:
3287:
3285:
3284:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3271:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3169:
3166:
3165:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3108:
3107:Freedom Rides
3105:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2966:
2962:
2961:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2943:
2942:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2916:
2912:
2910:
2909:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2881:
2877:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2856:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2832:Prior to 1954
2830:
2827:
2824:
2817:
2812:
2805:
2800:
2798:
2793:
2791:
2786:
2785:
2782:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2756:
2754:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2719:
2714:
2705:
2696:
2687:
2678:
2677:CourtListener
2669:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2648:at Wikisource
2647:
2646:
2640:
2636:
2635:
2624:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2571:(3): 279–97.
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2541:
2539:
2534:
2532:1-58980-120-2
2528:
2524:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2475:0-7867-1293-7
2471:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2456:0-6743-0809-3
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2434:0-19-518139-5
2430:
2426:
2425:
2422:
2416:
2412:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2384:
2377:
2373:
2367:
2363:
2358:
2354:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2322:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2302:
2281:
2277:
2270:
2262:
2261:
2256:
2249:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2214:
2210:
2204:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2078:
2070:
2063:
2046:
2045:
2036:
2034:
2022:
2018:
2012:
1996:
1990:
1983:
1978:
1971:
1966:
1959:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1935:
1928:
1923:
1921:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1893:
1886:
1878:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1835:
1826:
1822:
1819:(July 1954).
1818:
1812:
1804:
1797:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1766:
1760:, p. 294
1759:
1754:
1748:, p. 229
1747:
1746:Fireside 2004
1742:
1735:
1730:
1724:, p. 85.
1723:
1718:
1716:
1708:
1702:
1700:
1692:
1686:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1664:
1659:
1652:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1624:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1561:
1554:
1546:
1540:
1536:
1535:
1534:Jim Crow laws
1527:
1525:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1478:, p. 43.
1477:
1472:
1465:
1460:
1453:
1448:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1403:
1386:
1382:
1376:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1332:
1326:
1318:
1317:
1312:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1280:
1274:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1247:
1231:
1227:
1221:
1217:
1210:
1209:
1201:
1185:
1180:
1173:
1166:
1161:
1154:
1149:
1143:, p. 99.
1142:
1138:
1133:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1091:
1086:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1056:
1050:
1046:
1031:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1004:
1002:
992:
989:
980:
978:
974:
970:
969:
964:
960:
956:
952:
951:
945:
943:
939:
935:
930:
924:
921:
915:
913:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
888:
887:
882:
877:
872:
870:
864:
855:
853:
848:
844:
839:
837:
833:
828:
823:
818:
814:
809:
805:
802:
797:
793:
786:
785:Oklahoma City
781:
772:
763:
761:
760:
750:
744:
739:
735:
732:
723:
717:
712:
709:
701:
696:
687:
680:
674:
669:
665:
663:
654:
648:
643:
641:
635:
630:
628:
624:
617:
612:
603:
595:
593:
589:
585:
582:
578:
574:
569:
565:
555:
551:
548:
537:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
505:
502:
498:
494:
489:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
458:
456:
452:
448:
445:In 1890, the
433:
431:
427:
423:
422:
417:
413:
410:
406:
401:
396:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
369:
367:
363:
359:
358:Jim Crow laws
355:
351:
347:
343:
340:
336:
335:
325:
324:
319:
314:
307:
304:, p. 152, § 1
303:
299:
295:
291:
286:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
262:Case opinions
260:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:Chief Justice
197:
196:
194:
189:
185:
180:
175:
171:
167:
164:
162:
158:
154:
149:
146:
143:
139:
134:
130:
124:
123:
118:
115:
111:
107:
104:
102:
98:
94:
87:
83:
73:
68:
62:
48:
44:
40:
33:
28:
19:
9530:Sportspeople
9500:Billionaires
9417:Sierra Leone
9320:Philadelphia
9156:Jacksonville
8983:Demographics
8815:Jack Johnson
8805:Muhammad Ali
8638:Conservatism
8573:Black church
8470:Andrew Young
8455:Ida B. Wells
8445:David Walker
8440:C. T. Vivian
8395:Paul Robeson
8390:Hiram Revels
8370:Colin Powell
8350:Barack Obama
8305:James Lawson
8260:Jimi Hendrix
8230:James Farmer
8225:Medgar Evers
8195:Ralph Bunche
8145:Maya Angelou
8119:Middle class
7997:Afrofuturism
7924:
7923:
7911:
7904:
7825:
7770:
7717:
7683:Afrocentrism
7673:Abolitionism
7602:
7594:
7563:
7555:
7547:
7539:
7531:
7523:
7515:
7507:
7499:
7491:
7483:
7475:
7467:
7430:
7424:Bush v. Gore
7422:
7414:
7406:
7398:
7390:
7382:
7374:
7366:
7358:
7350:
7342:
7334:
7326:
7318:
7310:
7302:
7294:
7286:
7278:
7270:
7262:
7254:
7246:
7238:
7230:
7222:
7214:
7206:
7198:
7179:
7171:
7163:
7144:
7136:
7128:
7120:
7112:
7104:
7096:
7088:
7080:
7072:
7064:
7056:
7048:
7040:
7032:
7024:
7016:
7008:
7000:
6992:
6984:
6965:
6957:
6949:
6930:
6922:
6914:
6906:
6898:
6890:
6882:
6874:
6866:
6858:
6850:
6842:
6834:
6826:
6818:
6810:
6802:
6794:
6788:Reed v. Reed
6786:
6778:
6770:
6751:
6743:
6735:
6727:
6719:
6711:
6703:
6695:
6687:
6679:
6671:
6663:
6655:
6647:
6639:
6631:
6623:
6615:
6607:
6599:
6591:
6583:
6575:
6567:
6559:
6551:
6543:
6535:
6527:
6519:
6511:
6503:
6495:
6487:
6479:
6471:
6463:
6455:
6447:
6439:
6431:
6423:
6415:
6407:
6399:
6390:
6383:
6376:
6368:
6360:
6352:
6344:
6336:
6328:
6320:
6312:
6304:
6296:
6288:
6281:
6280:
6272:
6264:
6220:
6212:
6204:
6196:
6188:
6180:
6172:
6164:
6156:
6148:
6140:
6132:
6124:
6116:
6108:
6100:
6092:
6084:
6076:
6068:
6060:
6052:
6044:
6036:
6028:
6020:
6012:
6004:
5996:
5988:
5980:
5974:Buck v. Bell
5972:
5964:
5956:
5937:
5929:
5921:
5913:
5905:
5897:
5889:
5881:
5873:
5865:
5857:
5851:
5843:
5835:
5827:
5819:
5813:
5807:
5801:
5795:
5789:
5781:
5757:
5749:
5741:
5733:
5725:
5717:
5709:
5701:
5693:
5685:
5677:
5669:
5661:
5653:
5645:
5637:
5629:
5621:
5613:
5605:
5597:
5589:
5581:
5573:
5565:
5544:
5536:
5528:
5520:
5512:
5504:
5496:
5488:
5480:
5472:
5464:
5443:
5435:
5427:
5419:
5411:
5403:
5395:
5387:
5379:
5371:
5329:Saenz v. Roe
5327:
5319:
5311:
5303:
5295:
5287:
5279:
5271:
5197:
5137:David Garrow
5117:John Dittmer
4988:
4915:Brown Chapel
4872:
4865:
4858:
4851:
4844:
4831:
4830:
4787:
4639:Andrew Young
4594:A. T. Walden
4589:C. T. Vivian
4549:Maxine Smith
4384:Homer Plessy
4364:James Orange
4319:Irene Morgan
4274:William Ming
4254:Ralph McGill
4189:Viola Liuzzo
4174:Jim Letherer
4159:James Lawson
4089:Vernon Johns
4079:Esau Jenkins
4034:Myles Horton
3984:Fred Hampton
3974:Prathia Hall
3964:Dick Gregory
3934:Marie Foster
3929:James Forman
3919:James Farmer
3904:Medgar Evers
3864:Angela Davis
3799:Ramsey Clark
3779:James Chaney
3774:Johnnie Carr
3754:Ralph Bunche
3749:H. Rap Brown
3739:Ruby Bridges
3699:Joanne Bland
3674:Claude Black
3654:Marion Barry
3624:Muhammad Ali
3451:
3387:
3380:
3341:
3319:
3288:
3281:
3123:
3084:
3077:
3007:Kissing Case
2982:
2939:
2922:
2913:
2906:
2899:
2892:
2885:
2861:
2853:
2760:
2752:
2743:
2734:
2720:
2652:
2644:
2612:
2593:
2568:
2564:
2544:
2521:
2501:
2492:
2488:
2465:
2446:
2424:
2420:
2392:
2388:
2382:
2361:
2342:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2309:(4): 961–78.
2306:
2283:. Retrieved
2279:
2269:
2258:
2248:
2236:. Retrieved
2232:the original
2221:
2213:the original
2203:
2191:. Retrieved
2186:
2176:
2167:
2158:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2087:
2077:
2068:
2062:
2050:. Retrieved
2043:
2021:the original
2011:
2001:December 22,
1999:. Retrieved
1989:
1977:
1965:
1953:
1944:
1940:
1934:
1910:
1900:
1891:
1885:
1871:
1849:(2): 71–91.
1846:
1842:
1824:
1811:
1802:
1796:
1784:. Retrieved
1775:
1765:
1758:Elliott 2006
1753:
1741:
1729:
1685:
1658:
1645:
1610:. Retrieved
1606:the original
1593:
1587:
1578:
1568:
1559:
1553:
1533:
1513:
1509:
1497:. Retrieved
1493:
1483:
1471:
1459:
1447:
1414:
1410:
1389:. Retrieved
1384:
1375:
1370: (1896).
1356:
1335:. Retrieved
1325:
1314:
1283:. Retrieved
1273:
1256:
1252:
1246:
1234:. Retrieved
1230:the original
1207:
1200:
1190:December 22,
1188:. Retrieved
1183:
1172:
1160:
1148:
1132:
1110:(1): 66–72.
1107:
1103:
1097:
1092:, § 18.8(c).
1085:
1073:
1049:
1022:
998:
990:
986:
966:
954:
948:
946:
925:
919:
916:
884:
880:
875:
873:
868:
866:
857:
851:
846:
840:
826:
824:
821:
791:
790:
775:Significance
769:
757:
755:
748:
741:
736:
728:
721:
714:
705:
699:
685:
678:
671:
666:
662:police power
659:
652:
645:
631:
620:
615:
601:
588:Natchitoches
561:
552:
543:
540:State appeal
513:
511:
490:
480:who was an "
474:Homer Plessy
459:
444:
429:
425:
419:
415:
414:
405:police power
397:
373:Homer Plessy
370:
333:
332:
331:
321:
317:
310:Overruled by
288:Laws applied
249:
237:
225:
213:
160:
151:Case history
120:
99:
61:
46:
37:This is the
31:
9550:US senators
9520:Republicans
9505:Journalists
9362:San Antonio
9327:Puerto Rico
9268:Mississippi
9161:Tallahassee
9134:Los Angeles
8825:Jesse Owens
8810:Arthur Ashe
8668:Nationalism
8658:Raised fist
8621:Black power
8526:in medicine
8460:Roy Wilkins
8415:Emmett Till
8400:Al Sharpton
8165:Julian Bond
8160:James Bevel
8124:Upper class
8114:Stereotypes
8007:Black mecca
7919:Plantations
7698:Black Codes
6349:(Cal. 1948)
6298:Lum v. Rice
5575:Roe v. Wade
5490:Roe v. Wade
5364:due process
5157:Doug McAdam
5127:Chuck Fager
4754:Nonviolence
4659:James Zwerg
4654:Bob Zellner
4614:Roy Wilkins
4564:Hank Thomas
4499:Pete Seeger
4494:Bobby Seale
4359:Jack O'Dell
4354:Edgar Nixon
4284:Amzie Moore
4279:Jack Minnis
4219:Mae Mallory
4204:Clara Luper
4164:Bernard Lee
4054:Cecil Ivory
4049:Ruby Hurley
4019:Oliver Hill
4014:Aaron Henry
3914:Chuck Fager
3874:Dave Dennis
3764:Guy Carawan
3704:Julian Bond
3669:James Bevel
3659:Daisy Bates
2930:Emmett Till
2813:(1954–1968)
2395:: 151–182.
2333:(1): 75–90.
2298:Works cited
2238:January 14,
2168:cornell.edu
2109:(3): 8–25.
2052:February 1,
1722:Amar (2011)
1598:, cited in
1499:October 27,
1391:January 17,
1137:Amar (2011)
891:Mississippi
886:Lum v. Rice
554:intermix."
476:, a man of
466:New Orleans
455:misdemeanor
432:overruled.
377:New Orleans
222:Horace Gray
9659:Categories
9495:Astronauts
9285:New Jersey
9129:California
8633:Capitalism
8430:Nat Turner
8360:Rosa Parks
8345:Diane Nash
8315:John Lewis
8104:Newspapers
8074:Literature
8059:Juneteenth
8012:Businesses
7866:Exodusters
7834:Free Negro
6844:Orr v. Orr
5100:historians
4781:Satyagraha
4747:Influences
4439:James Reeb
4374:James Peck
4369:Rosa Parks
4339:Diane Nash
4209:Danny Lyon
4184:John Lewis
4129:A. D. King
4029:James Hood
3644:Ella Baker
3614:Zev Aelony
2495:(1): 1–12.
2285:January 5,
1982:Maltz 1996
1958:Maltz 1996
1689:Quoted in
1649:Quoted in
1612:October 2,
1337:October 5,
1285:October 4,
1036:References
934:poll taxes
522:Fourteenth
518:Thirteenth
478:mixed race
436:Background
169:Subsequent
133:U.S. LEXIS
131:256; 1896
9609:Monuments
9485:Activists
9337:Tennessee
9257:Michigan
9241:Baltimore
9231:Louisiana
9224:Lexington
9207:Davenport
9146:Cleveland
9045:Languages
8974:Melungeon
8952:Blaxicans
8820:Joe Louis
8675:Socialism
8611:Anarchism
8340:Bob Moses
8325:Malcolm X
8245:Fred Gray
8109:Soul food
8047:New Negro
8032:Folktales
7942:Redlining
7157:Residency
4759:Padayatra
4708:"Kumbaya"
4668:By region
4324:Bob Moses
4229:Bob Mants
4214:Malcolm X
4134:C.B. King
3954:Fred Gray
3597:Activists
3238:1964–1968
3021:1960–1963
2879:1954–1959
2773:from the
2764:from the
2553:798148265
2187:slate.com
2150:143449197
2115:222201716
1970:Chin 1996
1927:Chin 1996
1863:144234514
1786:March 23,
1439:145390453
1265:733078852
1065:Citations
1041:Footnotes
1013:Anticanon
766:Aftermath
486:test case
381:Louisiana
109:Citations
9632:Category
9423:America
9389:Diaspora
9374:Virginia
9307:Oklahoma
9290:New York
9273:Nebraska
9236:Maryland
9219:Kentucky
9185:Illinois
9124:Arkansas
9029:Illinois
8967:of color
8653:Populism
8626:Movement
8543:Religion
7885:Lynching
7668:Timeline
6978:Alienage
5249:case law
4689:Movement
4119:Tom Kahn
3403:Activist
2823:timeline
2651:Text of
2445:(1995).
2341:(2014).
2317:(2011).
2193:July 22,
2111:ProQuest
1431:27553046
1261:ProQuest
1007:See also
912:de facto
813:Jim Crow
746:—
719:—
706:Justice
676:—
650:—
598:Decision
482:octoroon
430:de facto
339:landmark
318:de facto
267:Majority
141:Decision
43:reviewed
9560:Writers
9525:Singers
9510:Jurists
9458:Europe
9412:Liberia
9357:Houston
9261:Detroit
9197:Indiana
9190:Chicago
9173:Atlanta
9168:Georgia
9151:Florida
9119:Alabama
9069:English
8643:Leftism
8513:Museums
8064:Kwanzaa
7989:Culture
7957:Slavery
7660:History
6373:(1954)
4814:Related
4404:Al Raby
3359:funeral
3222:Big Six
2686:Findlaw
2668:Cornell
2585:3504874
2411:1121505
2024:(Flash)
907:de jure
731:nannies
275:Dissent
177:Holding
145:Opinion
9572:Mayors
9490:Actors
9462:France
9454:Israel
9442:Mexico
9427:Canada
9402:Gambia
9397:Africa
9347:Austin
9312:Oregon
9251:Boston
9214:Kansas
9180:Hawaii
9098:Gullah
8908:Yoruba
8898:Gullah
8769:Sports
8687:groups
8517:Women
8054:Hoodoo
7928:(1896)
7854:Second
7830:(1857)
7775:(1956)
7722:(1954)
7607:(2024)
7599:(1935)
7568:(2013)
7560:(2006)
7552:(2004)
7544:(2003)
7536:(2001)
7528:(2000)
7520:(2000)
7512:(1999)
7504:(1997)
7496:(1989)
7488:(1976)
7480:(1966)
7472:(1883)
7435:(2012)
7427:(2000)
7419:(1997)
7411:(1991)
7403:(1988)
7395:(1988)
7387:(1985)
7379:(1982)
7371:(1979)
7363:(1978)
7355:(1977)
7347:(1976)
7339:(1974)
7331:(1974)
7323:(1973)
7315:(1973)
7307:(1972)
7299:(1971)
7291:(1970)
7283:(1968)
7275:(1968)
7267:(1966)
7259:(1966)
7251:(1962)
7243:(1948)
7235:(1942)
7227:(1937)
7219:(1928)
7211:(1886)
7203:(1876)
7184:(1985)
7176:(1977)
7168:(1969)
7149:(1984)
7141:(1982)
7133:(1982)
7125:(1979)
7117:(1978)
7109:(1977)
7101:(1976)
7093:(1973)
7085:(1973)
7077:(1971)
7069:(1954)
7061:(1948)
7053:(1927)
7045:(1923)
7037:(1923)
7029:(1923)
7021:(1923)
7013:(1915)
7005:(1915)
6997:(1915)
6989:(1914)
6970:(2015)
6962:(1996)
6954:(1986)
6935:(2024)
6927:(1996)
6919:(1994)
6911:(1983)
6903:(1982)
6895:(1981)
6887:(1981)
6879:(1980)
6871:(1979)
6863:(1979)
6855:(1979)
6847:(1979)
6839:(1976)
6831:(1975)
6823:(1975)
6815:(1974)
6807:(1974)
6799:(1972)
6791:(1971)
6783:(1948)
6775:(1937)
6756:(2023)
6748:(2016)
6740:(2014)
6732:(2013)
6724:(2007)
6716:(2005)
6708:(2003)
6700:(2003)
6692:(1999)
6684:(1995)
6676:(1993)
6668:(1992)
6660:(1992)
6652:(1991)
6644:(1989)
6636:(1986)
6628:(1985)
6620:(1984)
6612:(1982)
6604:(1982)
6596:(1978)
6588:(1977)
6580:(1977)
6572:(1974)
6564:(1973)
6556:(1973)
6548:(1972)
6540:(1971)
6532:(1971)
6524:(1971)
6516:(1971)
6508:(1971)
6500:(1969)
6492:(1969)
6484:(1969)
6476:(1969)
6468:(1968)
6460:(1968)
6452:(1967)
6444:(1967)
6436:(1964)
6428:(1964)
6420:(1964)
6404:(1955)
6365:(1950)
6357:(1950)
6341:(1948)
6333:(1948)
6325:(1944)
6317:(1943)
6309:(1940)
6301:(1927)
6293:(1899)
6285:(1896)
6277:(1886)
6269:(1883)
6225:(2016)
6217:(2015)
6209:(2009)
6201:(2000)
6193:(1997)
6185:(1990)
6177:(1989)
6169:(1989)
6161:(1987)
6153:(1987)
6145:(1985)
6137:(1984)
6129:(1983)
6121:(1982)
6113:(1981)
6105:(1979)
6097:(1979)
6089:(1977)
6081:(1976)
6073:(1975)
6065:(1975)
6057:(1974)
6049:(1974)
6041:(1971)
6033:(1968)
6025:(1967)
6017:(1962)
6009:(1961)
6001:(1958)
5993:(1950)
5985:(1932)
5977:(1927)
5969:(1922)
5961:(1905)
5942:(2011)
5934:(2010)
5926:(2009)
5918:(2009)
5910:(2005)
5902:(2003)
5894:(2002)
5886:(1989)
5878:(1988)
5870:(1982)
5862:(1980)
5854:(1978)
5848:(1978)
5840:(1976)
5832:(1976)
5824:(1975)
5816:(1975)
5810:(1974)
5804:(1969)
5798:(1967)
5792:(1963)
5786:(1961)
5772:under
5762:(2022)
5754:(2020)
5746:(2019)
5738:(2018)
5730:(2016)
5722:(2007)
5714:(2006)
5706:(2000)
5698:(1997)
5690:(1997)
5682:(1996)
5674:(1992)
5666:(1990)
5658:(1990)
5650:(1989)
5642:(1986)
5634:(1983)
5626:(1981)
5618:(1979)
5610:(1979)
5602:(1976)
5594:(1976)
5586:(1973)
5578:(1973)
5570:(1971)
5549:(2022)
5541:(2016)
5533:(2003)
5525:(1992)
5517:(1989)
5509:(1986)
5501:(1973)
5493:(1973)
5485:(1965)
5477:(1925)
5469:(1923)
5448:(1937)
5440:(1931)
5432:(1917)
5424:(1917)
5416:(1915)
5408:(1908)
5400:(1905)
5392:(1898)
5384:(1897)
5376:(1887)
5332:(1999)
5324:(1971)
5316:(1967)
5308:(1958)
5300:(1898)
5292:(1884)
5284:(1875)
5276:(1873)
5000:Legacy
4776:Ahimsa
3405:groups
2866:(1950)
2858:(1950)
2819:Events
2740:C-SPAN
2716:
2710:
2707:
2704:Justia
2701:
2698:
2692:
2689:
2683:
2680:
2674:
2671:
2665:
2619:
2600:
2583:
2551:
2538:Review
2529:
2508:
2472:
2453:
2431:
2409:
2383:Plessy
2368:
2349:
2148:
2113:
1947:: 973.
1861:
1541:
1437:
1429:
1359:,
1263:
1236:May 1,
1222:
1186:. 2010
1124:272323
1122:
1104:Phylon
995:Pardon
971:. The
940:, and
920:Plessy
876:Plessy
861:
852:Plessy
847:Plessy
827:Plessy
792:Plessy
749:Plessy
722:Plessy
700:Plessy
679:Plessy
653:Plessy
637:'s
616:Plessy
532:for a
501:racial
426:Plessy
416:Plessy
278:Harlan
252:
250:·
248:
240:
238:·
236:
228:
226:·
224:
216:
214:·
212:
129:L. Ed.
9473:Lists
9437:Haiti
9407:Ghana
9342:Texas
9278:Omaha
8556:Islam
8089:Names
8079:Music
8017:Dance
7585:Other
7192:Other
5950:Other
5098:Noted
4691:songs
3511:NAACP
3364:riots
2738:from
2659:
2581:JSTOR
2381:"The
2146:S2CID
1859:S2CID
1435:S2CID
1427:JSTOR
1363:
1333:. PBS
1259:(3).
1212:(PDF)
1120:JSTOR
796:South
508:Trial
156:Prior
9369:Utah
9202:Iowa
9034:Ohio
8995:list
8903:Igbo
8893:Fula
8037:Hair
8027:Film
7744:1968
7734:1964
6258:Race
2661:U.S.
2617:ISBN
2598:ISBN
2549:OCLC
2527:ISBN
2506:ISBN
2470:ISBN
2451:ISBN
2429:ISBN
2407:SSRN
2366:ISBN
2347:ISBN
2287:2022
2240:2019
2195:2015
2054:2010
2003:2012
1788:2005
1782:Home
1614:2014
1539:ISBN
1501:2021
1393:2022
1365:U.S.
1339:2011
1287:2011
1238:2010
1220:ISBN
1192:2012
520:and
172:None
135:3390
122:more
114:U.S.
112:163
8002:Art
7859:New
6764:Sex
2742:'s
2657:163
2573:doi
2397:doi
2280:CNN
2138:doi
1851:doi
1494:PBS
1419:doi
1368:537
1361:163
1112:doi
947:In
783:An
586:of
383:'s
298:XIV
117:537
45:on
9661::
7873:/
2655:,
2579:.
2569:16
2567:.
2493:39
2491:.
2487:.
2405:.
2393:82
2391:.
2387:.
2331:39
2329:.
2325:.
2278:.
2257:.
2185:.
2166:.
2144:.
2134:13
2132:.
2107:46
2105:.
2086:.
2032:^
1945:12
1943:.
1919:^
1909:.
1857:.
1845:.
1833:^
1823:.
1778:.
1774:.
1714:^
1698:^
1670:^
1622:^
1577:.
1523:^
1492:.
1433:.
1425:.
1413:.
1401:^
1383:.
1347:^
1313:.
1295:^
1257:53
1255:.
1218:.
1214:.
1182:.
1118:.
1108:12
1106:.
936:,
320:)
300:;
296:,
41:,
7644:e
7637:t
7630:v
5239:e
5232:t
5225:v
4968:"
4964:"
3309:"
3305:"
3149:"
3145:"
2967:"
2963:"
2825:)
2821:(
2803:e
2796:t
2789:v
2625:.
2606:.
2587:.
2575::
2555:.
2535:.
2514:.
2478:.
2459:.
2437:.
2413:.
2399::
2374:.
2355:.
2319:"
2289:.
2263:.
2242:.
2197:.
2170:.
2152:.
2140::
2117:.
2090:.
2056:.
2005:.
1929:.
1913:.
1865:.
1853::
1847:5
1827:.
1790:.
1616:.
1581:.
1547:.
1503:.
1441:.
1421::
1415:7
1395:.
1341:.
1319:.
1289:.
1267:.
1240:.
1194:.
1126:.
1114::
316:(
186:.
125:)
119:(
49:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.