342:, an approximately 30-mile journey that would have taken two hours. He sat in the "whites only" passenger car. When conductor J. J. Dowling, who was also in on the staged act, came to collect Plessy's ticket, he told Plessy to leave the "whites only" car. Plessy refused. The conductor stopped the train, walked back to the depot, and returned with Detective Cain. Cain and other passengers forcibly removed Plessy from the train. Cain then arrested Plessy and took him to the Orleans Parish jail. The Comité des Citoyens arrived at the jail, arranged for him to be released, and paid his $ 500 bond the following day by offering up a committee member's house as collateral.
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racially integrated schools in 1879, but many of the public schools in New
Orleans were unable to stay open in the 1880s due to a lack of funding. In response, the organization published a pamphlet declaring its intention to collect and build a community library and appealing to the Louisiana state government for "our fair share of public education" with safeguards against "fraud and manipulation, thereby insuring good teachers, a full term and all necessary articles for the maintenance of schools, which at this moment we have not."
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shortly after the trial's end. The shoemaking profession declined in the late 19th and early 20th centuries due to large-scale industrial production, so Plessy later took jobs as a laborer, warehouseman, clerk, and insurance premium collector for the black-owned People's Life
Insurance Company. He died on March 1, 1925, in New Orleans. His obituary read: "Homer Plessy — on Sunday, March 1, 1925, at 5:10 a.m. beloved husband of Louise Bordenave." He was interred in the Debergue-Blanco family tomb in
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319:, the son of group member Rodolphe Desdunes. Martinet contacted several railroad companies to inform them of the group's intentions. The railroads overwhelmingly opposed the Separate Car Act because it raised their operating costs by forcing them to use additional cars that might only be at half capacity. Some companies enforced the law, while others did not. Martinet eventually enlisted the
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327:. After he sat in a "whites only" car, the conductor stopped the train, and a private detective hired by the Comité des Citoyens arrested Desdunes. The prosecution dropped their case against Desdunes in May 1892, however, after the Louisiana State Supreme Court ruled that the Separate Car Act did not apply to interstate railroad trips.
542:. The pardon was issued in accordance with "The Avery C. Alexander Act. This 2006 act was passed by the Louisiana Legislature to expedite the pardon process for individuals who were criminalized and convicted under Louisiana laws created for the purpose of maintaining or enforcing racial separation or discrimination of individuals.
160:. Germain Plessy later lived with Catherine Mathieu, a free woman of color of French and African ancestry, and they had eight children. According to pre-Civil War records, Homer's maternal grandparents were both of African descent or mixed race. Many of Homer's ancestors and relatives were property-owning tradesmen, including
379:, an 1849 Massachusetts Supreme Court decision, ruling that racial segregation of schools was constitutional, and an 1867 Pennsylvania Supreme Court ruling that upheld railroads' rights to seat black and white passengers in separate sections of passenger cars. The court denied Walker's subsequent request for a rehearing.
595:. Mark Elliott claims that he was thirty in 1892, which implies a birthdate of 1861 or 1862. Thomas Brook places his birth in March 1862 without specifying a birthdate. Harvey Fireside claims that Plessy was in his "late twenties" in 1892 implying a birthdate of 1863 or later. Keith Medley claims that Plessy was born on
335:, one of the companies that opposed the law, and declared their intentions to stage an act of civil disobedience. He also hired the services of private detective Chris C. Cain to arrest Plessy and ensure that he was charged with violating the Separate Car Act and not with a misdemeanor such as disturbing the peace.
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marriage, Plessy's mother had one child with Dupart. Plessy's stepfather was politically engaged, having paid poll taxes in 1869 and 1870 in order to vote. He also joined the
Unification Movement of 1873, a civil rights movement promoting political equality, racial unity, and an end to discrimination in
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After the
Supreme Court ruling, Plessy's criminal trial went ahead in Ferguson's court in Louisiana on February 11, 1897. He pleaded guilty of violating the Separate Car Act, which carried a punishment of a $ 25 fine or twenty days in jail. He opted to pay the fine. The Comité des Citoyens disbanded
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The object of the
Amendment was undoubtedly to enforce the absolute equality of the two races before the law, but in the nature of things, it could not have been intended to abolish distinctions based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from political equality, or a commingling of the
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that stated, "no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, and property without due process of law." He also argued that segregation laws inherently implied that black
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Brown's opinion ended with a note on the subject of Plessy's racial identity under the law. He wrote that while the question of whether Plessy was legally black or white may have bearing on the outcome of the criminal case, legal definitions of racial categories were an issue of state law not before
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reported that "the conductor came up and asked if was a white man. Plessy, who is as white as the average white southerner, replied that he was a colored man. Then, said the conductor, 'you must go in the coach reserved for colored people.'" Historian Harvey
Fireside writes that "Plessy handed his
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We consider the underlying fallacy of the plaintiff's argument to consist in the assumption that the enforced separation of the two races stamps the colored race with a badge of inferiority. If this be so, it is not by reason of anything found in the act, but solely because the colored race chooses
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delivered the majority opinion, first dismissing any claim that the
Louisiana law violated the Thirteenth Amendment, which, in the majority's opinion, did no more than ensure that black Americans had the basic level of legal equality needed to abolish slavery. Next, the Court considered whether the
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ruled against Plessy in a state criminal district court, upholding the law on the grounds that
Louisiana had the right to regulate railroads within its borders. Plessy appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which heard the case four years later in 1896 and ruled 7–1 in favor of Louisiana, establishing
530:
In 2009, Keith Plessy and Phoebe
Ferguson, relatives of Plessy and Ferguson, respectively, created the Plessy and Ferguson Foundation for Education and Reconciliation. The foundation placed a historical marker at the corner of Press and Royal Streets in New Orleans, near the site of Homer Plessy's
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as white. The attorney hoped that by selecting a person of ambiguous racial identity, he might exploit the
Louisiana legislature's failure to define race and to force the court to consider the inconclusiveness of scientific evidence on definitive racial categories. In court, he later argued that a
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Joseph Adolphe Plessy died in 1869. Two years later in 1871, Homer's mother married Victor M. Dupart, a clerk for the U.S. Postal Service who supplemented his income by working as a shoemaker. Dupart had six children from a previous marriage; in addition to bringing Homer and his sister Ida to the
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and had taken on a more segregationist tilt. He hoped that unsympathetic justices would change their minds with time or retire, writing in one letter: "The Court has always been the foe of liberty until forced to move on by public opinion." In the 1890s, a case could take several years to appear
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amendments of the United States Constitution, which provided for equal protection under the law and "impermissibly clothed train officers with the authority and duty to assign passengers on the basis of race and with the authority to refuse service." Walker's plea deliberately did not specify if
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Medley writes that Plessy's political involvement began in the post-Reconstruction 1880s. In 1887, he served as vice-president of the fifty-person Justice, Protective, Educational, and Social Club, a group dedicated to reforming public education in New Orleans. Not only had Louisiana abolished
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as co-counsel. The case first appeared on the docket in January 1893, but Tourgée wrote to the Comité des Citoyens voicing his concerns that they would lose. In the three years since the Comité des Citoyens first organized, the court's makeup had changed under the administration of President
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in 1869. The state legislature legalized interracial marriage in 1868. And more than 200 black men held elected offices at the state and local levels in the 1870s. However, Medley writes that many of those gains eroded following the withdrawal of U.S. federal troops from the former
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In order to bring their test case to court, the Comité des Citoyens had to stage another incident on a train trip entirely within Louisiana state lines. They recruited Plessy, who may have been a friend of Rodolphe Desdunes, to be the plaintiff. Martinet contacted the
115:, which required separate accommodations for black and white people on railroads. On June 7, 1892, Plessy purchased a ticket for a "whites only" first-class train coach, boarded the train, and was arrested by a private detective hired by the group. Judge
103:, Plessy lived in a society in which black children attended integrated schools, black men could vote, and interracial marriage was legal. However, many of those civil rights were eroded following the withdrawal of U.S. federal troops from the former
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Plessy was black or white. On November 18, Ferguson denied Walker's petition, stating that Louisiana had the right to regulate railroad companies while they operated within state boundaries. Four days later, Walker petitioned the
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man of one-eighth African ancestry may not even know to which race he belongs, so a railroad employee would be even less qualified to "decide the question of race" and determine in what car a mixed-race individual ought to sit.
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law violated the Equal Protection Clause, concluding that although the Fourteenth Amendment was meant to guarantee legal equality of all races in America, it was not intended to prevent social or other types of discrimination.
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in the Orleans Parish criminal district court. He was represented by New Orleans lawyer James Walker, who submitted a plea challenging the jurisdiction of trial court by claiming that the Separate Car Act violated the
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Tourgée also suggested finding a female plaintiff, because he believed the courts might be more sympathetic to a woman being ejected from a railroad car. However, the Comité des Citoyens instead recruited musician
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ticket to J. J. Dowling...Then he spoke the words that he had carefully rehearsed: 'I have to tell you that, according to Louisiana law, I am a colored man.' The conductor looked in evident surprise at Plessy..."
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reported that "the Conductor asked if he was a colored man. On the latter replying that he was, the conductor informed him that he would have to go into the car for colored people. This he refused to do..."
144:. Later documents give his name as Homer Adolph Plessy or Homère Adolphe Plessy. His father, a carpenter named Joseph Adolphe Plessy, and his mother, a seamstress named Rosa Debergue, were both mixed-race
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The Court also rejected Tourgée's argument that segregation laws marked black Americans with "a badge of inferiority," and said that racial prejudice could not be overcome by legislation.
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Keith Medley notes that Plessy grew up in a society in which black people had gained unprecedented civil rights in Louisiana. Beginning in 1868, all black men could vote if they paid a
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Plessy worked as a shoemaker and may have also done carpentry, according to a relative. During the 1880s, he worked at Patricio Brito's shoe-making business in New Orleans's
291:, and managing editor L. J. Joubert, who served as president of the Justice, Protective, Educational, and Social Club at the same time Plessy was vice president.
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On May 18, 1896, the Supreme Court issued a 7–1 decision against Plessy that upheld the constitutionality of Louisiana's train car segregation laws. Justice
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Plessy may have been born in 1858, 1862, or on March 17, 1863, under the name Homère Patris Plessy. He was the second of two children in a French-speaking
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In December 1892, the Louisiana Supreme Court's five members unanimously upheld Ferguson's ruling, citing two cases from Northern states as precedents:
408:, in the hopes the election might influence the outcome in their favor. However, the court called the case in spring 1896, and the oral arguments of
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On June 7, 1892, Plessy bought a first-class ticket on the East Louisiana Railroad running between the Press Street Depot in New Orleans and
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391:, which the United States Supreme Court accepted. Tourgée would represent Plessy before the Supreme Court and enlisted the aid of former
306:. In his correspondence with Martinet, Tourgée suggested finding a plaintiff who had "not more than one-eight colored blood" and could
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to force the U.S. Supreme Court to rule on the constitutionality of segregation laws. The Court decided against Plessy. The resulting "
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Company to participate in the group's plan. On February 24, 1892, Daniel Desdunes purchased a first-class ticket on a train bound for
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148:. Homer's paternal grandfather, Germain Plessy was a white Frenchman born in Bordeaux circa 1777. Germain Plessy lived in the French
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the U.S. Supreme Court. Ultimately, Brown deferred to Louisiana law to determine whether Plessy was legally black or white.
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lasted into the mid-20th century, until a series of landmark Supreme Court decisions concerning segregation, beginning with
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in 1877. When white Democrats returned to power in the late 1870s, they began to defund public education for black people.
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case did not involve education, it formed the legal basis of separate school systems for the following fifty-eight years.
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people were inferior, and therefore stigmatized them with a second-class status that violated the Fourteenth Amendment's
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427:, which reads: "nor shall any State ... deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
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in 1877. In the 1880s, Plessy became involved in political activism, and in 1892, the civil rights group
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599:, 1863 (i.e. March 17, 1863), and that his original middle name, Patris, was in honor of St. Patrick.
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271:. A group of 18 prominent black, creole of color, and white creole New Orleans residents formed the
267:, which required separate accommodation for black and white people on railroads, including separate
36:; 1858, 1862 or March 17, 1863 – March 1, 1925) was an American shoemaker and activist, who was the
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A placard marks the place in New Orleans where Chris C. Cain arrested Homer Plessy on June 7, 1892.
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588:, New Orleans, claims that he was 63 years old when he died on March 1, 1925, placing his birth
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517:" legal doctrine, allowing state-sponsored racial segregation. The Supreme Court decision in
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1946:
Color-Blind Justice: Albion Tourgée and the Quest for Racial Equality from the Civil War to
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before reaching the Supreme Court, and Plessy's lawyers hoped to delay until close to the
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colony, before moving to New Orleans during the 1790s as part of a group of thousands of
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Separate and Unequal: Homer Plessy and the Supreme Court Decision That Legalized Racism
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1804:"Portion of Press Street to be renamed after early civil rights activist Homer Plessy"
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736:"Overlooked No More: Homer Plessy, Who Sat on a Train and Stood Up for Civil Rights"
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notes that Plessy may have been 34 at the time of the 1892 incident that led to the
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were held on April 13. Tourgée argued that the State of Louisiana had violated the
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1462:"Plessy v. Ferguson – 163 U.S. 537 (1896) :: Justia US Supreme Court Center"
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891:"Document of the Month - 2013 Archive: Homer Plessy's 1888 Marriage Certificate"
70:" legal doctrine determined that state-mandated segregation did not violate the
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to court in order to force the judiciary to determine the constitutionality of
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on July 14, 1888; Brito served as a witness. In 1889, he and his wife moved to
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1663:"Document of the Month - 2016 Archive: Homer Plessy's 1925 Death Certificate"
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1781:"Plessy and Ferguson unveil plaque today marking their ancestors' actions"
1223:"Plessy and Ferguson unveil plaque today marking their ancestors' actions"
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Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap)
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recruited him for an act of civil disobedience to challenge Louisiana's
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169:
161:
1488:
1316:
Maidment, Richard A. (August 1973). "Plessy v. Ferguson Re-Examined".
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arrest. A portion of Press Street was renamed after Plessy in 2018.
275:(Committee of Citizens) to challenge the law. Many staff members of
234:, a former governor of Louisiana, has been misattributed as Plessy.
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1855:"Homer Plessy: Pardon for 'separate but equal' civil rights figure"
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2234:
I Dissent: Great Opposing Opinions in Landmark Supreme Court Cases
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2052:"Public Rights, Social Equality, and the Conceptual Roots of the
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1669:. Le Comité des Archives de la Louisiane, Inc. February 1, 2016
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480:
388:
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newspaper, were among the group's members, including publisher
897:. Le Comité des Archives de la Louisiane, Inc. July 1, 2013
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the "separate but equal" doctrine as a legal basis for the
2037:(5th ed.). Eagan, Minnesota: West Thomson/Reuters.
983:"No, Internet, this is not Homer Plessy. But who is it?"
2035:
Treatise on Constitutional Law: Substance and Procedure
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On October 28, 1892, Plessy was arraigned before Judge
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The group contacted attorney and civil rights advocate
1779:
Ted Jackson / The Times-Picayune (February 11, 2009).
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as long as the facilities provided for both black and
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Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
226:
There is no known photograph of Homer Plessy, though
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782:
127:
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were putatively "equal". The legal precedent set by
2215:, and America's Journey from Slavery to Segregation
2123:. Vol. 17. New York: Oxford University Press.
1287:
1285:
1283:
1059:
1057:
203:. He married nineteen-year-old Louise Bordenave at
124:which remained in effect into the 1950s and 1960s.
1991:The Plessy Case: A Legal-Historical Interpretation
1916:Plessy v. Ferguson: A Brief History with Documents
1729:"Documents Related to Brown v. Board of Education"
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484:A bronze plaque on the side of Plessy's tomb in
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921:
653:
1881:"Louisiana Laws - Louisiana State Legislature"
1704:"The Court's Decision – Separate Is Not Equal"
1214:
854:
686:
440:two races upon terms unsatisfactory to either.
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18:American activist (1858, 1862 or 1863 – 1925)
2845:History of civil rights in the United States
2618:Residential segregation in the United States
2032:
1645:
1643:
1512:
1499:
562:
560:
523:overturned the doctrine in 1954. Though the
250:
2830:Activists for African-American civil rights
2176:Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases"
2033:Nowak, John E.; Rotunda, Ronald D. (2012).
1926:Constitutional Law: Principles and Policies
1923:
1686:
1684:
1537:
1524:
1482:
263:In 1890, the State of Louisiana passed the
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2081:
1928:(6th ed.). New York: Wolters Kluwer.
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641:
639:
637:
635:
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2191:
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1456:
1454:
1309:
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387:On January 5, 1893, Walker applied for a
2236:. Boston: Beacon Press. pp. 69–80.
2088:. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood.
1966:
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932:
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406:1896 United States presidential election
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20:
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1987:
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534:On January 5, 2022, Louisiana Governor
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2822:
2145:Dictionary of American Negro Biography
2008:
1667:Le Comité des Archives de la Louisiane
1649:
1621:
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1274:
1208:
1196:
1162:
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1111:
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1036:
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895:Le Comité des Archives de la Louisiane
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824:
812:
800:
788:
773:
733:
714:
492:describes his historical significance.
2254:
2137:
2109:
2049:
1994:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1952:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1912:
1690:
1087:
980:
956:
877:
761:
729:
727:
725:
723:
680:
647:
237:
2890:20th-century African-American people
2880:19th-century African-American people
2802:
2169:
1906:
1221:Reckdahl, Katy (February 11, 2009).
2623:Segregation academy (United States)
2538:Sex segregation in public restrooms
2103:
1635:A Dictionary of Louisiana Biography
13:
2865:19th-century people from Louisiana
2163:
1827:
734:Rifkin, Glenn (January 31, 2020).
720:
298:, who agreed to help them bring a
14:
2911:
2012:We As Freemen: Plessy v. Ferguson
321:Louisville and Nashville Railroad
215:'s Third Precinct. He was also a
189:racially integrated school system
128:Early life and historical context
2801:
2773:
2772:
1973:. New York: Carroll & Graf.
1016:Encyclopedia of American Studies
981:Scott, Mike (February 2, 2017).
509:The Supreme Court's decision in
418:that abolished slavery, and the
1873:
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1821:
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1747:
1721:
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871:
842:
830:
818:
806:
794:
602:
580:, but also notes that Plessy's
458:to put that construction on it.
95:in a family of French-speaking
2142:; Winston, Michael R. (eds.).
2082:Tischauser, Leslie V. (2012).
1176:"Plessy v. Ferguson (No. 210)"
767:
755:
674:
1:
2009:Medley, Keith Weldon (2003).
1178:. Legal Information Institute
589:
574:
545:
475:
105:Confederate States of America
2895:20th-century American people
1988:Lofgren, Charles A. (1987).
626:
538:granted Plessy a posthumous
25:Plessy’s tomb in New Orleans
7:
2480:Brown v. Board of Education
2120:American National Biography
1924:Chemerinsky, Erwin (2019).
1318:Journal of American Studies
520:Brown v. Board of Education
501:in New Orleans, Louisiana.
85:Brown v. Board of Education
42:United States Supreme Court
10:
2916:
2860:Activists from New Orleans
2840:African-American Catholics
2835:African-American activists
2389:Czechoslovakia and Hungary
2217:. New York: W. W. Norton.
2148:. New York: W. W. Norton.
2140:Logan, Rayford Whittingham
2117:; Carnes, Mark C. (eds.).
2050:Scott, Rebecca J. (2008).
1901:
1513:Nowak & Rotunda (2012)
1500:Nowak & Rotunda (2012)
586:Saint Louis Cemetery No. 1
499:Saint Louis Cemetery No. 1
486:Saint Louis Cemetery No. 1
243:
187:. The state implemented a
2762:
2636:
2551:
2503:
2434:Apartheid in South Africa
2354:
2286:
2209:Luxenberg, Steve (2019).
2170:Chin, Gabriel J. (1996).
1967:Fireside, Harvey (2004).
1330:10.1017/S0021875800013396
504:
377:Roberts v. City of Boston
251:Orchestrating a test case
2870:Roman Catholic activists
1919:. Boston: Bedford Books.
573:case, placing his birth
550:
345:
277:The New Orleans Crusader
99:. Growing up during the
2850:Louisiana Creole people
2658:Anti-miscegenation laws
2493:Anti-miscegenation laws
2211:Separate: The Story of
2193:10.17077/0021-065X.4551
2138:Olsen, Otto H. (1982).
2015:. Gretna, LA: Pelican.
1637:, Vol. 2 (1988), p. 655
1633:"Homer Adolph Plessy",
1540:, § 9.3.1, p. 761.
1527:, § 9.3.1, p. 761.
1485:, § 9.3.1, p. 760.
425:Equal Protection Clause
366:Louisiana Supreme Court
333:East Louisiana Railroad
97:Louisiana Creole people
2749:White Australia policy
2668:Corporative federalism
2232:Tushnet, Mark (2008).
1943:Elliott, Mark (2006).
1913:Brook, Thomas (1997).
1830:"'A Long Time Coming'"
1802:Adelson, Jeff (2018).
1708:americanhistory.si.edu
493:
490:New Orleans, Louisiana
469:
451:
260:
50:. He staged an act of
26:
2855:Louisiana Republicans
2718:Religious intolerance
483:
455:
448:, 163 U.S. at 543–44.
437:
258:
24:
2728:Second-class citizen
2723:Reservation in India
2449:United Arab Emirates
2379:Bulgaria and Romania
1464:. Supreme.justia.com
1011:"Plessy v. Ferguson"
432:Henry Billings Brown
420:Fourteenth Amendment
416:Thirteenth Amendment
383:Supreme Court appeal
352:John Howard Ferguson
340:Covington, Louisiana
205:St. Augustine Church
146:free people of color
117:John Howard Ferguson
93:free person of color
54:to challenge one of
34:Homère Patris Plessy
2885:19th-century births
2596:Exclusionary zoning
2543:Separatist feminism
2321:Partition of Bengal
2063:Michigan Law Review
1227:The Times-Pickayune
597:Saint Patrick's Day
372:to stop the trial.
370:writ of prohibition
273:Comité des Citoyens
109:Comité des Citoyens
30:Homer Adolph Plessy
2486:Massive resistance
2474:School segregation
2469:Separate but equal
2394:Dominican Republic
2296:Partition of India
2213:Plessy v. Ferguson
1948:Plessy v. Ferguson
1538:Chemerinsky (2019)
1525:Chemerinsky (2019)
1483:Chemerinsky (2019)
1251:Plessy v. Ferguson
1051:, pp. 131–134
741:The New York Times
571:Plessy v. Ferguson
515:Separate but Equal
511:Plessy v. Ferguson
494:
466:, 163 U.S. at 551.
411:Plessy v. Ferguson
396:Samuel F. Phillips
261:
246:Plessy v. Ferguson
239:Plessy v. Ferguson
232:P. B. S. Pinchback
178:Reconstruction-era
158:Haitian Revolution
101:Reconstruction era
91:Plessy was born a
80:Plessy v. Ferguson
68:separate but equal
60:racial segregation
52:civil disobedience
47:Plessy v. Ferguson
27:
2817:
2816:
2693:Majority minority
2574:Ethnic federalism
2356:Ethnic and racial
2316:Greece and Turkey
2243:978-0-8070-0036-6
2224:978-0-393-23937-9
2001:978-0-19-503852-1
1935:978-1-4548-9574-9
1907:Secondary sources
1861:. January 5, 2022
1735:. August 15, 2016
1733:National Archives
1515:, § 14.8, p. 818.
1502:, § 14.8, p. 818.
401:Benjamin Harrison
393:Solicitor General
296:Albion W. Tourgée
289:Rodolphe Desdunes
285:Louis A. Martinet
154:European settlers
62:laws and bring a
2907:
2805:
2804:
2776:
2775:
2744:Social apartheid
2628:Social exclusion
2601:Forced migration
2569:Ethnic cleansing
2559:Auto-segregation
2301:Northern Ireland
2275:
2268:
2261:
2252:
2251:
2247:
2228:
2205:
2195:
2159:
2134:
2115:Garraty, John A.
2104:Tertiary sources
2099:
2078:
2060:
2046:
2026:
2005:
1984:
1963:
1939:
1920:
1896:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1885:www.legis.la.gov
1877:
1871:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1828:Waxmen, Olivia.
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1725:
1719:
1718:
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1714:
1700:
1694:
1688:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1659:
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1647:
1638:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1547:
1541:
1534:
1528:
1522:
1516:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1458:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1431:
1425:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1313:
1307:
1301:
1295:
1289:
1278:
1272:
1266:
1247:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1218:
1212:
1206:
1200:
1194:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1172:
1166:
1160:
1154:
1148:
1142:
1136:
1127:
1121:
1115:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1091:
1085:
1079:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1052:
1046:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1013:
1006:
1000:
999:
997:
995:
978:
972:
971:, pp. 31–32
966:
960:
954:
948:
942:
936:
930:
919:
913:
907:
906:
904:
902:
887:
881:
875:
869:
863:
852:
846:
840:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
804:
798:
792:
791:, pp. 21–22
786:
777:
771:
765:
759:
753:
752:
750:
748:
731:
718:
712:
701:
695:
684:
678:
672:
666:
651:
645:
620:
606:
600:
594:
591:
579:
576:
564:
536:John Bel Edwards
467:
449:
265:Separate Car Act
113:Separate Car Act
2915:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2758:
2733:Separate school
2638:
2632:
2547:
2499:
2350:
2282:
2279:
2244:
2225:
2180:Iowa Law Review
2166:
2164:Further reading
2156:
2131:
2111:Locke, Mamie E.
2106:
2096:
2058:
2023:
2002:
1981:
1960:
1936:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1889:
1887:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1864:
1862:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1836:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1800:
1796:
1786:
1784:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1761:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1738:
1736:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1712:
1710:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1689:
1682:
1672:
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1660:
1656:
1648:
1641:
1632:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1608:
1604:
1596:
1592:
1584:
1580:
1572:
1568:
1560:
1556:
1548:
1544:
1535:
1531:
1523:
1519:
1510:
1506:
1498:
1489:
1481:
1477:
1467:
1465:
1460:
1459:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1420:
1416:
1408:
1404:
1396:
1389:
1383:Tischauser 2012
1381:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1353:
1314:
1310:
1302:
1298:
1290:
1281:
1273:
1269:
1248:
1241:
1231:
1229:
1219:
1215:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1181:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1169:
1161:
1157:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1130:
1122:
1118:
1110:
1106:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1062:
1055:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1021:
1019:
1008:
1007:
1003:
993:
991:
979:
975:
967:
963:
955:
951:
943:
939:
931:
922:
914:
910:
900:
898:
889:
888:
884:
876:
872:
864:
855:
847:
843:
835:
831:
823:
819:
811:
807:
799:
795:
787:
780:
772:
768:
760:
756:
746:
744:
732:
721:
713:
704:
696:
687:
679:
675:
667:
654:
646:
633:
629:
624:
623:
607:
603:
592:
577:
565:
558:
553:
548:
507:
478:
468:
462:
450:
444:
385:
348:
325:Mobile, Alabama
317:Daniel Desdunes
253:
248:
242:
130:
19:
12:
11:
5:
2913:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2811:
2799:
2798:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2770:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2703:Nuremberg Laws
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2678:Ghetto benches
2675:
2673:Discrimination
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2642:
2640:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2614:
2613:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2586:Ethnopluralism
2583:
2582:
2581:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2509:
2507:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2490:
2489:
2488:
2483:
2471:
2466:
2456:
2454:United Kingdom
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2391:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2360:
2358:
2352:
2351:
2349:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2292:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2278:
2277:
2270:
2263:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2242:
2229:
2223:
2206:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2154:
2135:
2129:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2100:
2094:
2079:
2069:(5): 777–804.
2047:
2030:
2021:
2006:
2000:
1985:
1979:
1964:
1958:
1940:
1934:
1921:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1872:
1846:
1820:
1794:
1771:
1746:
1720:
1695:
1680:
1654:
1639:
1626:
1614:
1602:
1590:
1578:
1566:
1554:
1542:
1529:
1517:
1504:
1487:
1475:
1450:
1438:
1426:
1414:
1402:
1387:
1375:
1363:
1351:
1324:(2): 125–132.
1308:
1296:
1279:
1267:
1239:
1213:
1201:
1189:
1167:
1155:
1143:
1128:
1116:
1104:
1092:
1080:
1068:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1001:
988:Times-Picayune
973:
961:
949:
937:
920:
908:
882:
870:
853:
841:
829:
817:
805:
793:
778:
766:
754:
719:
702:
685:
673:
652:
630:
628:
625:
622:
621:
601:
555:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
506:
503:
477:
474:
460:
442:
384:
381:
347:
344:
252:
249:
244:Main article:
241:
236:
209:Faubourg Tremé
201:French Quarter
150:Saint-Domingue
129:
126:
17:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2912:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2827:
2825:
2810:
2809:
2800:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2771:
2769:
2768:Pillarisation
2765:
2764:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2688:Jim Crow laws
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2580:
2577:
2576:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2564:Balkanization
2562:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2554:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2506:
2502:
2494:
2491:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2459:United States
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2353:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2276:
2271:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2253:
2245:
2239:
2235:
2230:
2226:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2175:
2168:
2167:
2157:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2132:
2130:9780195127966
2126:
2122:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2107:
2097:
2095:9780313386091
2091:
2087:
2086:
2085:Jim Crow laws
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2055:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2024:
2022:1-58980-120-2
2018:
2014:
2013:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1993:
1992:
1986:
1982:
1980:0-7867-1293-7
1976:
1972:
1971:
1965:
1961:
1959:0-19-518139-5
1955:
1951:
1950:
1947:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1860:
1856:
1850:
1835:
1831:
1824:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1782:
1775:
1764:September 26,
1760:
1756:
1755:"Earl Warren"
1750:
1739:September 26,
1734:
1730:
1724:
1713:September 26,
1709:
1705:
1699:
1693:, p. 498
1692:
1687:
1685:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1652:, p. 218
1651:
1646:
1644:
1636:
1630:
1623:
1618:
1612:, p. 294
1611:
1606:
1600:, p. 229
1599:
1598:Fireside 2004
1594:
1588:, p. 208
1587:
1582:
1576:, p. 191
1575:
1570:
1564:, p. 292
1563:
1558:
1552:, p. 177
1551:
1546:
1539:
1533:
1526:
1521:
1514:
1508:
1501:
1496:
1494:
1492:
1484:
1479:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1448:, p. 280
1447:
1442:
1436:, p. 150
1435:
1430:
1424:, p. 149
1423:
1418:
1412:, p. 148
1411:
1406:
1399:
1394:
1392:
1384:
1379:
1372:
1367:
1360:
1355:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1305:
1300:
1294:, p. 270
1293:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1277:, p. 143
1276:
1271:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1211:, p. 146
1210:
1205:
1199:, p. 145
1198:
1193:
1177:
1171:
1165:, p. 139
1164:
1159:
1153:, p. 140
1152:
1147:
1140:
1135:
1133:
1125:
1124:Fireside 2004
1120:
1114:, p. 135
1113:
1108:
1102:, p. 134
1101:
1096:
1089:
1084:
1078:, p. 286
1077:
1072:
1066:, p. 264
1065:
1060:
1058:
1050:
1045:
1038:
1033:
1017:
1012:
1005:
990:
989:
984:
977:
970:
965:
959:, p. 798
958:
953:
946:
941:
934:
933:Fireside 2004
929:
927:
925:
917:
916:Fireside 2004
912:
896:
892:
886:
880:, p. 497
879:
874:
867:
862:
860:
858:
850:
845:
838:
833:
826:
821:
814:
809:
802:
797:
790:
785:
783:
775:
770:
763:
758:
743:
742:
737:
730:
728:
726:
724:
716:
711:
709:
707:
699:
698:Fireside 2004
694:
692:
690:
683:, p. 186
682:
677:
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2444:Saudi Arabia
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1707:
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1666:
1657:
1634:
1629:
1624:, p. 29
1617:
1610:Elliott 2006
1605:
1593:
1586:Lofgren 1987
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1574:Lofgren 1987
1569:
1562:Elliott 2006
1557:
1550:Lofgren 1987
1545:
1532:
1520:
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1446:Elliott 2006
1441:
1434:Lofgren 1987
1429:
1422:Lofgren 1987
1417:
1410:Lofgren 1987
1405:
1400:, p. 43
1398:Lofgren 1987
1385:, p. 30
1378:
1373:, p. 42
1371:Lofgren 1987
1366:
1361:, p. 35
1359:Lofgren 1987
1354:
1321:
1317:
1311:
1306:, p. 36
1304:Lofgren 1987
1299:
1292:Elliott 2006
1270:
1249:
1230:. Retrieved
1226:
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1192:
1180:. Retrieved
1170:
1158:
1146:
1141:, p. 41
1139:Lofgren 1987
1126:, p. 25
1119:
1107:
1095:
1083:
1076:Elliott 2006
1071:
1064:Elliott 2006
1044:
1039:, p. 31
1032:
1022:December 22,
1020:. Retrieved
1015:
1004:
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986:
976:
964:
952:
947:, p. 34
940:
918:, p. 98
911:
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894:
885:
873:
868:, p. 32
851:, p. 30
844:
839:, p. 25
832:
827:, p. 27
820:
815:, p. 26
808:
803:, p. 16
796:
776:, p. 24
769:
757:
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739:
717:, p. 22
676:
669:Elliott 2006
616:The Crusader
615:
610:The Picayune
608:
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276:
269:railway cars
262:
238:
228:a photograph
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198:
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174:
131:
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83:
79:
76:white people
45:
33:
29:
28:
15:
2900:1925 deaths
2663:Black Codes
2611:labor camps
2518:Afghanistan
1813:January 19,
1650:Medley 2003
1622:Medley 2003
1275:Medley 2003
1265: (1896)
1209:Medley 2003
1197:Medley 2003
1163:Medley 2003
1151:Medley 2003
1112:Medley 2003
1100:Medley 2003
1090:, p. 5
1049:Medley 2003
1037:Medley 2003
969:Medley 2003
945:Medley 2003
935:, p. 3
866:Medley 2003
849:Medley 2003
837:Medley 2003
825:Medley 2003
813:Medley 2003
801:Medley 2003
789:Medley 2003
774:Medley 2003
764:, p. 4
715:Medley 2003
700:, p. 1
593: 1862
578: 1858
567:Mamie Locke
194:Confederacy
180:Louisiana.
162:blacksmiths
138:New Orleans
2875:Shoemakers
2824:Categories
2766:See also:
2754:Xenophobia
2606:Internment
2591:Ethnocracy
2155:0393015130
2056:Challenge"
1865:January 6,
1839:January 5,
1783:. NOLA.com
1691:Olsen 1982
1536:Quoted in
1511:Quoted in
1468:January 7,
1182:October 4,
1088:Brook 1997
994:August 28,
957:Scott 2008
878:Olsen 1982
762:Brook 1997
681:Brook 1997
648:Locke 1999
546:References
476:Later life
361:Fourteenth
357:Thirteenth
281:Republican
279:, a black
213:Sixth Ward
170:shoemakers
166:carpenters
136:family in
2646:Apartheid
2579:Bantustan
2464:Civil War
2288:Religious
2043:798148265
1673:April 16,
1346:145390453
901:April 16,
627:Citations
582:tombstone
300:test case
287:, writer
217:freemason
142:Louisiana
88:in 1954.
64:test case
56:Louisiana
44:decision
38:plaintiff
2779:Category
2739:Shunning
2735:(Canada)
2698:Nativism
2552:Dynamics
2429:Rhodesia
2424:Portugal
2419:Malaysia
2384:Bulgaria
2326:Portugal
2113:(1999).
2075:40041639
1890:April 3,
1859:BBC News
1808:NOLA.com
1338:27553056
1232:March 7,
461:—
443:—
185:poll tax
2808:Commons
2713:Rankism
2683:Hafrada
2637:Related
2533:Judaism
2409:Germany
2369:Bahrain
2346:Myanmar
2341:Bahrain
2202:1121505
2186:: 151.
1902:Sources
747:May 14,
40:in the
2795:racial
2790:gender
2708:Racism
2639:topics
2505:Gender
2414:Israel
2404:France
2374:Brazil
2364:Canada
2311:Serbia
2306:Israel
2240:
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2174:Plessy
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2054:Plessy
2041:
2028:Review
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1956:
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1254:,
1018:. 2010
540:pardon
525:Plessy
505:Legacy
464:Plessy
446:Plessy
368:for a
168:, and
134:Creole
32:(born
2785:caste
2513:Islam
2439:Spain
2336:Spain
2172:"The
2071:JSTOR
2059:(PDF)
1342:S2CID
1334:JSTOR
1258:
551:Notes
346:Trial
2651:laws
2523:Iran
2399:Fiji
2238:ISBN
2219:ISBN
2198:SSRN
2150:ISBN
2125:ISBN
2090:ISBN
2039:OCLC
2017:ISBN
1996:ISBN
1975:ISBN
1954:ISBN
1930:ISBN
1892:2024
1867:2022
1841:2022
1834:Time
1815:2022
1789:2012
1766:2019
1759:Oyez
1741:2019
1715:2019
1675:2023
1470:2022
1260:U.S.
1234:2014
1184:2011
1024:2012
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749:2020
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308:pass
2188:doi
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