730:
332:, the first ruler of independent Haiti and a leader of the Revolution, talked about people whom he called "Rouges" (reds), or sometimes "Incas" in his letters. When they were spoken about in context of the war, he makes mention of cooperation between Africans and Natives in maroon communities that plotted against colonists on the southern peninsula. He also discusses "Incas among his men" showing him secret burial quarters in the Artibonite valley that could be used by rebels as shelter and storage. There were 3,000 known Native peoples (both "esclaves" and "sauvages") living in Haiti in the years before independence, according to a 1802 colonial census.
573:
2070:
43:
2058:
100:
843:
710:
under
Governor Claiborne was faced with a dilemma previously unknown in the United States, the integration of the military by incorporating entire units of established "colored" militia. See, e.g., the February 20, 1804 letter from Secretary of War Henry Dearborn to Claiborne, stating that "it would be prudent not to increase the Corps, but to diminish, if it could be done without giving offense."
721:, when the British began landing troops outside the city in December 1814 in preparation for an invasion of the city. The battle resulted in a decisive American victory, in which black soldiers played a critical role. However, many black troops who had been promised freedom in exchange for service were forcibly returned to slavery after the battle's conclusion.
809:, which was a requirement for having an apprenticeship. There was fear if blacks could read and write, they might start slave revolts and rebellions. Blacks were not allowed to apprentice as an editor or work in a printing press. Despite the restrictions of some apprenticeships, many free blacks benefited from their time as an apprentice.
753:
slave societies, the ethnic
European father might acknowledge the relationship and his children. Some were common-law marriages of affection. Slaveholders were more likely to free their mixed-race children of these relationships than they were to free other slaves. They also sometimes freed the enslaved women who were their concubines.
821:'s Creole residents more recognition of mixed-race children before its acquisition by the United States. A man who had a relationship with a woman of color often also arranged for a transfer of wealth to her and their children, whether through deed of land and property to the mother and/or children under the system of
756:
Many slave societies allowed masters to free their slaves. As the population of color became larger and the white ruling class felt more threatened by potential instability, they worked through their governments to increase restrictions on manumissions. These usually included taxes, requirements that
452:
in France voted to give full French citizenship to them, on the condition of having two free parents. The decree was revoked on
September 24, 1791, and replaced by a new, more generous decree on April 4, 1792, that gave full French citizenship to all free people, regardless of the color of their skin
325:
people. A large group of surviving Native Taino's also supported the
Haitian Revolution; they were known as "indiens esclaves" which numbered about 5,000. In a 1780 census, there was also a group listed as "indiens sauvages", which Haitian historians believe were the native Arawak and Taino that were
816:
In places where law or social custom permitted it, some free people of color managed to acquire good agricultural land and slaves and become planters themselves. Free blacks owned plantations in almost all the slave societies of the
Americas. In the United States, free people of color may have owned
812:
In
Caribbean colonies, governments sometimes hired free people of color as rural police to hunt down runaway slaves and keep order among the slave population. From the view of the white enslaver class in places such as Saint-Domingue or Jamaica, this was a critical function in a society in which the
640:
would attend dances known as "quadroon balls" to meet white gentlemen willing to provide for her and any children she bears from their union. The relationship would end as soon as the man married properly. According to legend, free girls of color were raised by their mothers to become concubines for
363:
Regardless of their ethnicity, in Saint-Domingue freedmen had been able to own land. Some acquired plantations and owned large numbers of slaves themselves. The slaves were generally not friendly with the freedmen, who sometimes portrayed themselves to whites as bulwarks against a slave uprising. As
760:
Slaves sometimes gained a measure of freedom by purchasing themselves, when allowed to save some portion of earnings if leased out or selling produce. The master determined if one had to pay market or reduced value. In other cases, relatives who were already free and earning money purchased others.
520:
during the period of slavery and afterward. Initially descendants of French men and
African and Indian slaves (and later French men and free women of color), and often marrying within their own mixed-race community, some achieved wealth and power. By the late eighteenth century, most free people of
461:
In their competition for power, both the poor whites and free coloreds enlisted the help of slaves. By doing this, the feud helped to disintegrate class discipline and propel the slave population in the colony to seek further inclusion and liberties in society. As the widespread slave rebellion in
648:
by the late 18th century, free women of color usually preferred the legitimacy of marriage with other free men of color. In cases where free women of color did enter extramarital relationships with white men, such unions were overwhelmingly lifelong and exclusive. Many of these white men remained
752:
wrote in the mid-19th century that "like the patriarchs of old our men live all in one house with their wives and their concubines, and the mulattos one sees in every family exactly resemble the white children ..." In some places, especially in the French and
Spanish Caribbean and South American
709:
Free men of color had been armed members of the militia for decades during both
Spanish and French rule of the colony of Louisiana. They volunteered their services and pledged their loyalty to Claiborne and to their newly adopted country. In early 1804, the new U.S. administration in New Orleans
895:
When the end of slavery came, the distinction between former free coloreds and former slaves persisted in some societies. Because of advantages in the social capital of education and experience, free people of color often became leaders for the newly freed people. In Saint-Domingue, Toussaint
797:
In the early 19th century, societies required apprenticeships for free blacks to ensure they developed a means of support. For instance, in North
Carolina, "By the late 1830s, then, county courts could apprentice orphans, fatherless or abandoned children, illegitimate children, and free black
764:
Many people who lived as free within the slave societies did not have formal liberty papers. In some cases, these were refugees, who hid in the towns among free people of color and tried to maintain a low profile. In other cases, they were "living as free" with the permission of their master,
744:
of slaves until after the revolution. Throughout the slave societies of the Americas, some slave owners took advantage of the power relationships to use female slaves sexually; sometimes they had extended relationships of concubinage. However, in the Thirteen Colonies, the children of these
619:, many colonists took African women as concubines or wives. In the colonial period of French and Spanish rule, men tended to marry later after becoming financially established. Later, when more white families had settled or developed here, some young French men or ethnic French
757:
some socially useful reason be cited for manumission, and a requirement that a newly freed person demonstrate a means of independent support. Masters might free their slaves for a variety of reasons, but the most common was a family relationship between master and slave.
660:
As in Saint-Domingue, the free people of color developed as a separate class between the colonial French and Spanish and the mass of black slaves. They often achieved education, practiced artisan trades, and gained some measure of wealth; they spoke French and practiced
335:
Dessalines did not forget these people and their sacrifices against Spain and now, France. He named the Haitian army "the Incas", "the Army of the Sun" and eventually "the Indigenous Army" in honor of them. He also renamed the island "Haiti", its pre-Columbian name.
825:, or by arranging for an apprenticeship to a trade for their mixed-race children, which provided them a better opportunity to make a skilled living, or by educating sons in France and easing their way into the military. In St. Domingue by the late colonial period,
462:
the north of the island wore on, many free people of color abandoned their earlier distance from the slaves. A growing coalition between the free coloreds and the former slaves was essential for the eventual success of the Haitians to expel French influence.
955:(in eastern Canada) and resettled in Louisiana in the 18th century, generally outside the New Orleans area. Generations later, some of their culture relates to that of the Louisiana Creoles, but they are distinct. Members of each group may be multi-ethnic.
789:, there were restrictions on people of color owning slaves and agricultural land. But many free blacks lived in the countryside, and some became major slaveholders. In the antebellum years, individual slaves who were freed often stayed on or near the
903:
in the South had been free in the South before the Civil War. Other new leaders were educated men of color from the North whose families had long been free and who went to the South to work and help the freedmen. Some were elected to office.
439:
often won the hands of the small number of eligible women on the island. With growing resentment, the working-class whites monopolized assembly participation and caused the free people of color to look to France for legislative assistance.
434:
farmers often resented their social standing and worked to keep them shut out of government. Beyond financial incentives, the free coloreds caused the working-class whites further problems in finding women to start a family. The successful
1291:(1829â1897), abolitionist, politician and activist in Ohio, Washington, DC; and Virginia, first dean of Howard University Law Department, first president of Virginia State Univ., first black elected to US Congress from Virginia (1888)
928:, or free people of color, of the Louisiana area celebrate their culture and heritage through a New Orleansâbased Louisiana Creole Research Association (LA CrĂ©ole). The term "CrĂ©ole" is not synonymous with "free people of color" or
793:
where they or their ancestors had been slaves, and where they had extended family. Masters often used free blacks as plantation managers or overseers, especially if the master had a family relationship with the mixed-race man.
1598:
202:, free people developed. These colonial societies classified mixed-race people in a variety of ways, generally related to visible features and to the proportion of African ancestry. Racial classifications were numerous in
947:" have sometimes been confused, as members of each group generally had ancestors who were French-speaking; but the terms are not synonymous. The Cajuns often have some ancestry tracing back to French colonists who were
932:, but many members of LA Créole have traced their genealogies through those lines. Today, the (often multiracial) descendants of the French and Spanish colonists, Africans, and other ethnicities are widely known as
673:. Many were artisans who owned property and their own businesses. They formed a social category distinct from both whites and slaves, and maintained their own society into the period after United States annexation.
676:
Some historians suggest that free people of color made New Orleans the cradle of the civil rights movement in the United States. They achieved more rights than did free people of color or free blacks in the
761:
Sometimes masters, or the government, would free slaves without payment as a reward for some notable service; a slave who revealed slave conspiracies for uprisings was sometimes rewarded with freedom.
785:
Free people of color filled an important niche in the economy of slave societies. In most places they worked as artisans and small retail merchants in the towns. In many places, especially in the
453:
and the statuses of their parents. This was followed by a proclamation on February 4, 1794, which abolished slavery in French colonies, granting citizenship rights to all, regardless of color.
343:("free before") in Saint-Domingue. The term was used to distinguish those who were already free, compared to those liberated by the general emancipation of 1793. About 16,000 of these
1884:
Rohrs, Richard. "Training in an "art, trade, mystery, and employment": Opportunity or Exploitation of Free Black Apprentices in New Hanover County, North Carolina, 1820â1859".
1089:), was the son of a noble French general in Saint Domingue and a slave woman. His father took him to France at age 14 and gave him an education, helping him enter the military
364:
property owners, freedmen tended to support distinct lines set between their own class and that of slaves. Also often working as artisans, shopkeepers or landowners, the
592:
and the southern area of New France, both when the area was controlled by the French and Spanish, and after its acquisition by the United States as part of the
321:(runaway slaves) were sometimes able to establish independent small communities and a kind of freedom in the mountains, along with remnants of Haiti's original
636:
portray such unions as formal, financial transactions arranged between a white man and the mother of the mixed-race mistress. Supposedly, the young woman of
430:("small whites"). Because of the freedmen's relative economic success in the region, sometimes related to blood ties to influential whites people, the
1967:
532:. In Saint-Domingue, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and other French Caribbean colonies before slavery was abolished, the free people of color were known as
765:
sometimes in return for payment of rent or a share of money they earned by trades. The master never made their freedom official, as in the case of
339:
When slavery was ended in the colony in 1793, by action of the French government following the French Revolution, there were approximately 28,000
940:
signed Act 276 on 14 June 2013, creating the "prestige" license plate, "I'm Creole", honoring Louisiana Creoles' contributions and heritage.
31:
231:). The term was sometimes meant to include the free people of color, but they considered the term pejorative since they had been born free.
1139:(c. 1780 â 1842), born in Fairfax County, Virginia; lived in Washington, D.C.; in 1821 brought legal challenge to African surety bond laws.
1059:(1755â1791) was a wealthy free man of mixed-race descent who instigated a revolt against white colonial authority in French Saint-Domingue.
368:
frequently became quite prosperous, and many prided themselves on their European culture and descent. They were often well-educated in the
2115:
999:(1730â1810), African, Caribbean and American slave trader, referred to as the first free colored voluntary immigrant to the United States
1099:, a teacher and preacher among both white and free people of color until the mid-19th century, when laws restricted free people of color
426:
before and into the Haitian Revolution were the working-class white people such as farmers and tradesmen of the colony, known as the
896:
Louverture had gained freedom before he became a leader in the slave rebellion, but he is not believed to have been of mixed race.
654:
612:
713:
A decade later during the War of 1812, the militia which consisted of free men of color volunteered to join the force mustered by
2142:
806:
469:
still remained segregated in many respects. Their animosity and struggle for power erupted in 1799. The competition between the
773:
but was captured in 1837 and sold together with her children under claims that they were still slaves according to the laws of
449:
2172:
860:
2105:
17:
1685:"Plaçage and the Performance of Whiteness: The Trial of Eulalie Mandeville, Free Colored Woman, of Antebellum New Orleans"
801:
However, the number of apprenticeships declined as the number of free blacks increased. In some Southern states after the
162:
African descent with little mixture. They were a distinct group of free people of color in the French colonies, including
2147:
1304:
504:, the United States and elsewhere. Some took slaves with them. Others, however, remained to play an influential role in
355:, black former slaves who had either purchased their freedom or had been given it by their masters for various reasons.
1428:
1386:
604:
545:
155:
729:
2025:, focusing on the gens de couleur libres in New Orleans. The novel was adapted as a TV mini-series of the same name.
1396:
882:
790:
86:
64:
2121:
1731:"French Speaking 'Hommes de Couleur Libre' Left Indelible Mark on the Culture and Development of the French Quarter"
57:
2152:
829:
owned about one-third of the land and about one-quarter of the slaves, mostly in the southern part of the island.
2137:
2017:
1118:
1646:"Review: The Strange History of the American Quadroon: Free Women of Color in the Revolutionary Atlantic World"
864:
701:
as governor of the Territory of Orleans, formally accepted delivery of the French colony on December 20, 1803.
1172:
415:. But they sought equal rights for free people of color, which became an early central issue of the unfolding
2177:
1047:
271:
was often used to cover the same class of peopleâthose who were legally free and visibly of African descent.
2038:
set in and around New Orleans whose main character, the eponymous Benjamin January, is a free man of color.
1965:
521:
color in Saint-Domingue were native born and part of colored families that had been free for generations.
1216:
1163:(before 1786 â after 1811), Afro-Brazilian opera singer, first Afro-American woman to perform in Portugal
158:
descent who were not enslaved. However, the term also applied to people born free who were primarily of
2048:
2030:
1489:"The Strange History of the American Quadroon: Free Women of Color in the Revolutionary Atlantic World"
1254:
1184:
1051:
1024:
1018:
of the campaign in France and the colony to extend full citizenship to free men of color following the
2167:
1320:
1145:(fl. 1782), businesswoman of Saint-Domingue and one of the richest free people of color in the colony
948:
549:
540:. Comparable mixed-race groups became an important part of the populations of the British colony of
407:
were limited in their freedoms. They did not possess the same rights as Frenchmen, specifically the
2162:
517:
51:
1313:(1849â1893), 19th-century heiress through her white father, socialite and estate owner in Georgia
1196:
964:
933:
913:
853:
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694:
686:
620:
572:
329:
163:
899:
In the United States, many of the African Americans elected as state and local officials during
1310:
1264:
1237:
1219:(1801â1861), born free in Virginia, furniture maker/craftsman in Caswell County, North Carolina
1154:
1076:
786:
557:
553:
311:
257:
68:
1459:"Decree of the National Convention of 4 February 1794, Abolishing Slavery in all the Colonies"
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1599:"The Formation of a Three-Caste Society: Evidence from Wills in Antebellum New Orleans"
1579:
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2096:
1181:(1800â1869), Jamaican campaigner for equal rights, newspaper editor, mayor of Kingston
1987:
1716:
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Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-Revolutionary Saint Domingue
1904:
Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-Revolutionary Saint Domingue
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Blue Coat or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-Revolutionary Saint Domingue
1338:
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1210:
1169:(1796/1798 â 1847), campaigner for equal rights for free people of color in Jamaica
1160:
1142:
1034:
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970:
698:
529:
436:
317:
139:
107:
1527:"The Project Gutenberg eBook of Society In America Vol. II., by Harriet Martineau"
1127:(1770â1818), President of the Republic of Haiti from 1807 until his death in 1818.
393:
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1285:(1828-1908), Surinamese teacher who wrote the first history textbook of Suriname
1157:(1795â1872), Jamaican lawyer, naturalist, politician, educator and administrator
1062:
474:
448:
The free people of color won a major political battle on May 15, 1791, when the
322:
260:. It frequently referred to free people of mixed African and European ancestry.
2035:
1684:
1319:(1852-1889), Surinamese inventor, who moved to the United States to invent the
1136:
1096:
1015:
1011:
996:
993:
or Mary Rose (1718â1783), Jamaican Free person of color and hotelier on Jamaica
976:
714:
681:, including serving in the armed militia. After the United States acquired the
670:
669:. At one time the center of their residential community in New Orleans was the
525:
381:
373:
198:, and those cities held by the Spanish, a substantial third class of primarily
171:
1778:
The Territorial Papers of the United States, Vol. IX, The Territory of Orleans
1614:
1273:(1820â1865), Jamaican politician and campaigner for the rights of black people
1056:
2131:
1708:
1669:
1622:
1575:
1512:
1294:
1250:
1178:
1043:
1002:
987:. She successfully challenged the Curaçao authorities in a famous court case.
203:
1730:
1661:
1504:
1151:(c. 1790 â 1861), born a slave; became a wealthy businessman and slaveholder
2091:
Digital Library on American Slavery: Browse Subjects â Free People of Color
1645:
1488:
1241:
1222:
1206:
937:
770:
650:
159:
30:"Gens de couleur libres" redirects here. For the Matana Roberts album, see
1821:. Mississippi Dept. of Archives & History. pp. Vol II, pp. 54â55.
1443:
1421:
Transamerican Literary Relations and the Nineteenth-Century Public Sphere
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1039:
741:
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195:
99:
2082:
1756:"Louisiana's Free People of Color-Digitization Grant-letter in support"
1583:
1551:
1030:
867: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
802:
633:
411:. Most supported slavery on the island, at least up to the time of the
268:
191:
187:
1110:
980:
625:
608:
283:, Saint-Domingue was legally divided into three distinct groups: free
2022:
1333:
813:
population of slaves on large plantations vastly outnumbered whites.
603:
and traders first arrived in these colonies, the men frequently took
399:
297:
211:
179:
167:
27:
Persons of partial African and European descent who were not enslaved
1929:
Heritage of Freedom: Free People of Color in the Americas, 1492â1900
1567:
1458:
1240:(1809â1883), Jamaican-born general, who commanded British forces in
842:
817:
the most property in Louisiana, as France and Spain had allowed the
326:
known to live in tiny reclusive mountain communities at this point.
1834:"1811 Slave Uprising-Governor on Trial: Claiborne in His Own Words"
1833:
1792:
1755:
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408:
183:
123:
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and used inherited wealth to create services for African Americans
397:, despite the provisions of equality nominally established in the
1552:"The Feminine Face of Afro-Catholicism in New Orleans, 1727-1852"
1353:
1106:
1102:
653:
was often viewed as no different from the modern conception of a
600:
119:
1033:(1747â1802), born a slave; purchased his freedom and joined the
588:
Free people of color played an important role in the history of
1027:(1745â1799), composer and swordsman in late 18th-century France
952:
807:
forbade the teaching of free blacks or slaves to read and write
689:
in New Orleans and the region worked to integrate the military
493:
302:
284:
253:
151:
147:
1872:
Slaves Without Masters: The Free Negro in the Antebellum South
1373:
Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution
1175:(1798â1883) Haitian-born free woman of color and businesswoman
644:
However, evidence suggests that on account of the community's
2097:
Free Men of Color Leave Indelible Mark on New Orleans Culture
944:
917:
516:
Free people of color were an important part generally in the
175:
1257:, became active abolitionist in Philadelphia, supported the
1476:. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. p. 44.
1388:
Caribbean and Atlantic Diaspora Dance: Igniting Citizenship
805:
slave rebellion of 1831, the legislatures passed laws that
497:
623:
still took mixed-race women as mistresses, often known as
524:
Free people of color were leaders in the French colony of
315:; others were considered freed black slaves. In addition,
1267:(1817â1892), abolitionist and activist in Ohio and Kansas
1133:(1779â1861), architect-builder in New Orleans, Louisiana.
973:(1715-1771), Surinamese free-born coffee plantation owner
528:, which achieved independence in 1804 as the Republic of
287:(who were divided socially between the plantation-class
1941:
1919:. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000, chapter 6.
1857:
Mary Boykin Miller Chesnut and C. Vann Woodward. 1981.
1838:
Salon Publique, Pitot House, 7 November 2011, Pp. 11â13
249:("free people of color") was commonly used in France's
1906:. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000, Chapter 4
1446:
La Révolution française, Saint-Domingue et l'esclavage
384:, also part of French culture, and many denounced the
194:. In these territories and major cities, particularly
2046:
1819:
Official Letter Books of W.C.C. Claiborne, 1801â1816
1203:
with Jordon, politician, campaigner for equal rights
104:
Free Women of Color with their Children and Servants
2034:is a series of historical murder mystery novels by
649:legal bachelors for life. This form of interracial
1234:(1806â1894), American-French engineer and inventor
1193:(1800â1874), American pastry chef and restaurateur
2129:
2010:
967:(c. 1700â1770), Jamaican poet and school teacher
488:After their loss in that conflict, many wealthy
2093:The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
2004:New Orleans Architecture: The Creole Faubourgs
1550:Clark, Emily; Gould, Virginia Meacham (2002).
1225:(1805â1881), Jamaican nurse who served in the
580:daughter. Late 18th-century collage painting,
1986:Sister Dorothea Olga McCants, translation of
567:
32:Coin Coin Chapter One: Gens de Couleur Libres
1797:Salon Publique, Pitot House, 7 November 2011
1323:, significantly changing shoe-manufacturing.
745:relationships were not usually emancipated.
1303:(d. 1848), Jamaican "doctress", who nursed
1279:(1827â1901), Louisiana-born French composer
216:
1549:
1423:. Cambridge University Press. p. 91.
1418:
798:children whose parents were not employed.
769:, who had been living as a free person in
388:religion brought with slaves from Africa.
883:Learn how and when to remove this message
641:white men, as they themselves once were.
87:Learn how and when to remove this message
1643:
1596:
1486:
728:
571:
98:
50:This article includes a list of general
1816:
1046:; freed by his master to fight for the
609:as their concubines or common-law wives
14:
2130:
1775:
1682:
1384:
1005:(1743â1822), born free, served in the
279:By the late 18th century prior to the
2124:(The Museum for Free People of Color)
2006:(Gretna, 1984), Sally Kittredge Evans
1079:(1762â1806), father of French writer
979:(1718 - after 1779), free colored in
780:
443:
244:
1861:. (New Haven: Yale University Press)
1471:
1113:resistance fighter and associate of
865:adding citations to reliable sources
836:
36:
1689:American Nineteenth Century History
1385:Daniel, Yvonne (15 December 2011).
1305:Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson
704:
638:mixed European and African ancestry
209:A freed African slave was known as
24:
1980:
1974:Louisiana State Government website
1187:(1800â1857), American entrepreneur
943:The terms Louisiana "Créole" and "
56:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
2189:
2042:
1883:
1831:
1790:
1753:
1297:(c. 1830 â 1881), American writer
1095:, (Ń. 1763 â 1838), born free in
958:
274:
146:) were primarily people of mixed
118:In the context of the history of
2068:
2056:
1886:North Carolina Historical Review
1391:. University of Illinois Press.
1209:(1801â1881), early 19th-century
841:
41:
1959:
1934:
1931:. New York: Facts on File, 2010
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1637:
1590:
852:needs additional citations for
832:
372:, and they tended to scorn the
2143:Ethnic groups in the Caribbean
1874:(The New Press, 1974 and 2007)
1556:The William and Mary Quarterly
1543:
1519:
1480:
1465:
1451:
1437:
1412:
1378:
1365:
477:and the black Haitians led by
376:language used by slaves. Most
13:
1:
2011:Representation in other media
1359:
1042:(1750â1816), born a slave in
724:
613:Marriage 'à la façon du pays'
560:and the Portuguese colony of
422:The primary adversary of the
2173:Slavery in the United States
2112:(New Orleans Public Library)
1998:Black New Orleans, 1860â1880
1992:Nos Hommes et Notre Histoire
1701:10.1080/14664658.2014.959818
1683:Wilson, Carol (2014-05-04).
1119:Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795
1065:(1761â1811) was the leading
740:There was relatively little
615:). When African slaves were
511:
7:
1650:Journal of American History
1644:Lachance, P. (2015-06-01).
1493:Journal of American History
1487:Lachance, P. (2015-06-01).
1327:
1199:(1800â1878), co-founder of
1173:Elisabeth Dieudonné Vincent
1069:military leader during the
734:Free West Indian Dominicans
456:
10:
2194:
2148:People from Saint-Domingue
2031:Benjamin January mysteries
1793:"1811 Slave Uprising, etc"
1735:New Orleans French Quarter
1597:Lachance, Paul F. (1994).
1253:(1810â1898), born free in
1185:Aspasia Cruvellier Mirault
1052:American Revolutionary War
1025:Chevalier de Saint-Georges
911:
568:New Orleans and New France
544:, the Spanish colonies of
465:The former slaves and the
29:
2021:is a historical novel by
1776:Carter, Clarence (1940).
1615:10.1017/S0145553200016990
1419:Brickhouse, Anna (2009).
1321:automated lasting machine
1014:(1744â1801), leader from
576:Free woman of color with
358:
1988:Rodolphe Lucien Desdunes
1859:Mary Chesnut's Civil War
1817:Rowland, Dunbar (1917).
922:Many descendants of the
907:
665:. Many also developed a
518:history of the Caribbean
305:. More than half of the
246:[ÊÉÌdÉkulĆÊlibÊ]
2153:Social history of Haiti
2018:The Feast of All Saints
1197:Robert Osborn (Jamaica)
965:Francis Williams (poet)
936:. Louisiana's Governor
914:Louisiana Creole people
748:South Carolina diarist
717:in preparation for the
695:William C. C. Claiborne
330:Jean-Jacques Dessalines
71:more precise citations.
2138:Ethnic groups in Haiti
2116:Gens de Couleur Libres
2103:Gens de Couleur Libres
1603:Social Science History
1472:King, Stewart (2001).
1311:Amanda America Dickson
1265:Charles Henry Langston
1238:William Gustavus Brown
1155:Richard Hill (Jamaica)
1077:Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
737:
667:syncretic Christianity
617:imported to the colony
585:
556:, the Dutch colony of
534:gens de couleur libres
378:gens de couleur libres
351:. Another 12,000 were
349:gens de couleur libres
312:gens de couleur libres
291:and the working-class
237:gens de couleur libres
166:and in settlements on
143:
136:gens de couleur libres
135:
115:
1662:10.1093/jahist/jav240
1505:10.1093/jahist/jav240
1271:George William Gordon
1167:Louis Celeste Lecesne
930:gens de couleur libre
732:
719:Battle of New Orleans
575:
265:British North America
102:
2178:Free people of color
1317:Jan Ernst Matzeliger
1289:John Mercer Langston
1259:Underground Railroad
1117:, the leader of the
1086:The Three Musketeers
861:improve this article
492:left as refugees to
479:Toussaint Louverture
450:Constituent Assembly
258:abolition of slavery
144:gente de color libre
128:free people of color
114:, c. 1764â1796.
18:Free person of color
2118:(Frenchcreoles.com)
2099:(FrenchQuarter.com)
2084:Feast of All Saints
1131:Jean-Louis Dolliole
683:Louisiana Territory
655:common-law marriage
2122:Le Musée de f.p.c.
2108:2020-06-14 at the
1996:John Blassingame,
1970:2021-04-11 at the
1461:. 4 February 1794.
1071:Haitian Revolution
991:Mary Johnston Rose
781:Economic influence
738:
594:Louisiana Purchase
586:
481:devolved into the
444:French citizenship
417:Haitian Revolution
281:Haitian Revolution
116:
106:, oil painting by
1531:www.gutenberg.org
1344:Mauritian Creoles
1191:Eliza Seymour Lee
1020:French Revolution
985:Dutch West Indies
934:Louisiana Creoles
893:
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679:Thirteen Colonies
483:War of the Knives
413:French Revolution
168:Caribbean islands
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1301:Cubah Cornwallis
1232:Norbert Rillieux
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1201:The Watchman
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1083:(author of
1057:Vincent Ogé
1040:Peter Salem
791:plantations
742:manumission
663:Catholicism
634:stereotypes
590:New Orleans
582:New Orleans
554:Puerto Rico
502:Puerto Rico
267:, the term
251:West Indian
196:New Orleans
77:August 2019
69:introducing
2132:Categories
1951:22 October
1892:: 128â145.
1740:2024-09-04
1536:2020-12-24
1360:References
1255:Charleston
1217:Thomas Day
1031:Salem Poor
803:Nat Turner
725:Definition
538:affranchis
391:Under the
353:affranchis
307:affranchis
298:affranchis
269:free Negro
200:mixed-race
192:Martinique
188:Guadeloupe
170:, such as
52:references
2063:Caribbean
2023:Anne Rice
1946:LA Creole
1717:145334891
1709:1466-4658
1670:0021-8723
1631:147609139
1623:0145-5532
1576:0043-5597
1513:0021-8723
1334:Coloureds
1246:Hong Kong
819:territory
736:, c. 1770
512:Caribbean
400:Code Noir
234:The term
212:affranchi
164:Louisiana
2106:Archived
1968:Archived
1404:18 March
1328:See also
949:expelled
873:May 2008
775:Maryland
691:en masse
632:Popular
601:settlers
578:quadroon
558:Suriname
457:Struggle
437:mulattos
254:colonies
184:Dominica
152:European
124:Americas
112:Dominica
2158:Mulatto
2049:Portals
1584:3491743
1354:Signare
1111:Curaçao
1103:Sablika
1067:mulatto
1048:Patriot
983:in the
981:Curaçao
823:plaçage
687:Creoles
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