Neuroplasticity - Knowledge

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and increased BDNF levels in humans across multiple exercise paradigms. We conducted a meta-analysis of 29 studies (N = 1111 participants) examining the effect of exercise on BDNF levels in three exercise paradigms: (1) a single session of exercise, (2) a session of exercise following a program of regular exercise, and (3) resting BDNF levels following a program of regular exercise. Moderators of this effect were also examined. Results demonstrated a moderate effect size for increases in BDNF following a single session of exercise (Hedges' g = 0.46, p < 0.001). Further, regular exercise intensified the effect of a session of exercise on BDNF levels (Hedges' g = 0.59, p = 0.02). Finally, results indicated a small effect of regular exercise on resting BDNF levels (Hedges' g = 0.27, p = 0.005). ... Effect size analysis supports the role of exercise as a strategy for enhancing BDNF activity in humans

304:. However, Merzenich argued that neuroplasticity could occur beyond the critical period. His first encounter with adult plasticity came when he was engaged in a postdoctoral study with Clinton Woosley. The experiment was based on observation of what occurred in the brain when one peripheral nerve was cut and subsequently regenerated. The two scientists micromapped the hand maps of monkey brains before and after cutting a peripheral nerve and sewing the ends together. Afterwards, the hand map in the brain that they expected to be jumbled was nearly normal. This was a substantial breakthrough. Merzenich asserted that, "If the brain map could normalize its structure in response to abnormal input, the prevailing view that we are born with a hardwired system had to be wrong. The brain had to be plastic." Merzenich received the 2016 376:

a cognitive task is shifted from a damaged part of the brain to its homologous area in the brain. Functional changes like this occur usually in children rather than adults. In map expansion, cortical maps related to particular cognitive tasks expand due to frequent exposure to stimuli. Map expansion has been proven through experiments performed in relation to the study: experiment on effect of frequent stimulus on functional connectivity of the brain was observed in individuals learning spatial routes. Cross-model reassignment involves reception of novel input signals to a brain region which has been stripped off its default input. Functional plasticity through compensatory masquerade occurs using different cognitive processes for an already established cognitive task.

1161:, has been able to show "how somatosensory area 3b and ventroposterior (VP) nucleus of the thalamus are affected by longstanding unilateral dorsal-column lesions at cervical levels in macaque monkeys." Adult brains have the ability to change as a result of injury but the extent of the reorganization depends on the extent of the injury. His recent research focuses on the somatosensory system, which involves a sense of the body and its movements using many senses. Usually, damage of the somatosensory cortex results in impairment of the body perception. Kaas' research project is focused on how these systems (somatosensory, cognitive, motor systems) respond with plastic changes resulting from injury. 1235:(VBM) method to visualize the structural plasticity of brains in healthy monolinguals and bilinguals. They first investigated the differences in density of grey and white matter between two groups and found the relationship between brain structure and age of language acquisition. The results showed that grey-matter density in the inferior parietal cortex for multilinguals were significantly greater than monolinguals. The researchers also found that early bilinguals had a greater density of grey matter relative to late bilinguals in the same region. The inferior parietal cortex is a brain region highly associated with the language learning, which corresponds to the VBM result of the study. 1142:(an infarction) is induced by obstruction of blood flow to a portion of a monkey's motor cortex, the part of the body that responds by movement moves when areas adjacent to the damaged brain area are stimulated. In one study, intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) mapping techniques were used in nine normal monkeys. Some underwent ischemic-infarction procedures and the others, ICMS procedures. The monkeys with ischemic infarctions retained more finger flexion during food retrieval and after several months this deficit returned to preoperative levels. With respect to the distal 982:, and can also be seen as an especially important mechanism for children in terms of risk and resiliency. Trauma is considered a great risk as it negatively affects many areas of the brain and puts a strain on the sympathetic nervous system from constant activation. Trauma thus alters the brain's connections such that children who have experienced trauma may be hyper vigilant or overly aroused. However, a child's brain can cope with these adverse effects through the actions of neuroplasticity. 609:

experiment suggests that the subjects had modified the neural representation of their phantom limbs and generated the motor commands needed to execute impossible movements in the absence of feedback from the body. The authors stated that: "In fact, this finding extends our understanding of the brain's plasticity because it is evidence that profound changes in the mental representation of the body can be induced purely by internal brain mechanisms—the brain truly does change itself."

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occur based on experiences that are unique to an individual. Examples of this are learning multiple languages, playing a sport, doing theatre, etc. A study done by Hyde in 2009, showed that changes in the brain of children could be seen in as little as 15 months of musical training. Ker and Nelson suggest this degree of plasticity in the brains of children can "help provide a form of intervention for children... with developmental disorders and neurological diseases."

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purposeful painting, etc.) can "macroscopically imprint a neural network system of spontaneous activity in which the related brain regions become functionally and topologically modularized in both domain-general and domain-specific manners". In simple terms, brains repeatedly exposed to artistic training over long periods develop adaptations to make such activity both easier and more likely to spontaneously occur.

9834: 1292:, a well-known anesthetic agent, that was found to have potent anti-depressant effects after a single infusion due to its capacity to rapidly increase the number of dendritic spines and to restore aspects of functional connectivity. Additional neuroplasticity promoting compounds with therapeutic effects that were both rapid and enduring have been identified through classes of compounds including 1247:(DTI) scanning method to determine the white matter intensity between monolinguals and bilinguals. Increased myelinations in white matter tracts were found in bilingual individuals who actively used both languages in everyday life. The demand of handling more than one language requires more efficient connectivity within the brain, which resulted in greater white matter density for multilinguals. 9380: 225:, the "central" cortical mass (more or less equidistant from the visual, tactile and auditive projection areas), would be a "maneuvering mass", rather unspecific or multisensory, with capacity to increase neural excitability and re-organize the activity by means of plasticity properties. He gives as a first example of adaptation, to see upright with reversing glasses in the 605:. However, in 1995 Herta Flor and her colleagues demonstrated that cortical remapping occurs only in patients who have phantom pain. Her research showed that phantom limb pain (rather than referred sensations) was the perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as maladaptive plasticity. 1279:, there is a significant delay in their clinical effect and often an inadequate treatment response. As neuroscientists pursued this avenue of research, clinical and preclinical data across multiple modalities began to converge on pathways involved in neuroplasticity. They found a strong inverse relationship between the number of 387:) to compensate a pathological event. In the latter case the functions from one part of the brain transfer to another part of the brain based on the demand to produce recovery of behavioral or physiological processes. Regarding physiological forms of activity-dependent plasticity, those involving synapses are referred to as 1177:, females recovered even better. This difference may be attributed to different levels of progesterone, with higher levels of progesterone leading to the faster recovery from brain injury in mice. However, clinical trials showed progesterone offers no significant benefit for traumatic brain injury in human patients. 1172:

and David Wright. This is the first treatment in 40 years that has significant results in treating traumatic brain injuries while also incurring no known side effects and being cheap to administer. Stein noticed that female mice seemed to recover from brain injuries better than male mice, and that at

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Brain areas that serve a function in auditory processing repurpose to process somatosensory information in congenitally deaf people. They have higher sensitivity in detecting frequency change in vibration above threshold and higher and more widespread activation in auditory cortex under somatosensory

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Christopher Shaw and Jill McEachern (eds) in "Toward a theory of Neuroplasticity", state that there is no all-inclusive theory that overarches different frameworks and systems in the study of neuroplasticity. However, researchers often describe neuroplasticity as "the ability to make adaptive changes

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There are different ideas and theories on what biological processes allow for neuroplasticity to occur. The core of this phenomenon is based upon synapses and how connections between them change based on neuron functioning. It is widely agreed upon that neuroplasticity takes on many forms, as it is a

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is a neuroscientist who has been one of the pioneers of neuroplasticity for over three decades. He has made some of "the most ambitious claims for the field – that brain exercises may be as useful as drugs to treat diseases as severe as schizophrenia – that plasticity exists from cradle to the grave,

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documented changes in hippocampal structure associated with acquiring the knowledge of London's layout in local taxi drivers. A redistribution of grey matter was indicated in London Taxi Drivers compared to controls. This work on hippocampal plasticity not only interested scientists, but also engaged

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There is a beneficial effect of multilingualism on people's behavior and cognition. Numerous studies have shown that people who study more than one language have better cognitive functions and flexibilities than people who only speak one language. Bilinguals are found to have longer attention spans,

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Individuals who have chronic pain experience prolonged pain at sites that may have been previously injured, yet are otherwise currently healthy. This phenomenon is related to neuroplasticity due to a maladaptive reorganization of the nervous system, both peripherally and centrally. During the period

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Functional plasticity refers to the brain's ability to alter and adapt the functional properties of neurons. Functional plasticity can occur in four known ways namely homologous area adaptation, map expansion, cross- model reassignment, and compensatory masquerade. Through homologous area adaptation

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Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from

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representation, "postinfarction mapping procedures revealed that movement representations underwent reorganization throughout the adjacent, undamaged cortex." Understanding of interaction between the damaged and undamaged areas provides a basis for better treatment plans in stroke patients. Current

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activating the auditory system has prevented the deficits and induced functional maturation of the auditory system. Due to a sensitive period for plasticity, there is also a sensitive period for such intervention within the first 2–4 years of life. Consequently, in prelingually deaf children, early

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Deaf individuals have enhanced peripheral visual attention, better motion change but not color change detection ability in visual tasks, more effective visual search, and faster response time for visual targets compared to hearing individuals. Altered visual processing in deaf people is often found

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There is substantial evidence that artistic engagement in a therapeutic environment can create changes in neural network connections as well as increase cognitive flexibility. In one 2013 study, researchers found evidence that long-term, habitual artistic training (e.g. musical instrument practice,

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A diagrammatic explanation of the mirror box. The patient places the intact limb into one side of the box (in this case the right hand) and the amputated limb into the other side. Due to the mirror, the patient sees a reflection of the intact hand where the missing limb would be (indicated in lower

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experiment, and specially, several first-hand brain injuries cases in which he observed dynamic and adaptive properties in their disorders, in particular in the inverted perception disorder . He stated that a sensory signal in a projection area would be only an inverted and constricted outline that

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Consistent evidence indicates that exercise improves cognition and mood, with preliminary evidence suggesting that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may mediate these effects. The aim of the current meta-analysis was to provide an estimate of the strength of the association between exercise

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There are many examples of neuroplasticity in human development. For example, Justine Ker and Stephen Nelson looked at the effects of musical training on neuroplasticity, and found that musical training can contribute to experience dependent structural plasticity. This is when changes in the brain

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in their work with kittens. The experiment involved sewing one eye shut and recording the cortical brain maps. Hubel and Wiesel saw that the portion of the kitten's brain associated with the shut eye was not idle, as expected. Instead, it processed visual information from the open eye. It was "…as

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Given the central importance of neuroplasticity, an outsider would be forgiven for assuming that it was well defined and that a basic and universal framework served to direct current and future hypotheses and experimentation. Sadly, however, this is not the case. While many neuroscientists use the

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In 2009, Lorimer Moseley and Peter Brugger carried out an experiment in which they encouraged arm amputee subjects to use visual imagery to contort their phantom limbs into impossible configurations. Four of the seven subjects succeeded in performing impossible movements of the phantom limb. This

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is a typical structure with combinations of LTP/LTD and redundancy within the circuitry, allowing plasticity at several sites. More recently it has become clearer that synaptic plasticity can be complemented by another form of activity-dependent plasticity involving the intrinsic excitability of

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Structural plasticity is often understood as the brain's ability to change its neuronal connections. New neurons are constantly produced and integrated into the central nervous system throughout the life span based on this type of neuroplasticity. Researchers nowadays use multiple cross-sectional

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Exercise-related improvements in brain function and structure may be conferred by the concurrent adaptations in vascular function and structure. Aerobic exercise increases the peripheral levels of growth factors (e.g., BDNF, IFG-1, and VEGF) that cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and stimulate

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does not necessarily maintain the overall activity of a neuron within a network but contributes to encoding memories. Also, many studies have indicated functional neuroplasticity in the level of brain networks, where training alters the strength of functional connections. Although a recent study

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techniques have shown that parts of the brain associated with visual processing are adapted for the new skill of echolocation. Studies with blind patients, for example, suggest that the click-echoes heard by these patients were processed by brain regions devoted to vision rather than audition.

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A surprising consequence of neuroplasticity is that the brain activity associated with a given function can be transferred to a different location; this can result from normal experience and also occurs in the process of recovery from brain injury. Neuroplasticity is the fundamental issue that

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One of the first experiments providing evidence for neuroplasticity was conducted in 1793, by Italian anatomist Michele Vicenzo Malacarne, who described experiments in which he paired animals, trained one of the pair extensively for years, and then dissected both. Malacarne discovered that the

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reveal more activation in the blind than in the sighted people during a sound-moving detection task. Several studies support the latter idea and found weakened ability in audio distance evaluation, proprioceptive reproduction, threshold for visual bisection, and judging minimum audible angle.

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research includes the tracking of changes that occur in the motor areas of the cerebral cortex as a result of a stroke. Thus, events that occur in the reorganization process of the brain can be ascertained. The treatment plans that may enhance recovery from strokes, such as physiotherapy,

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Neuroplasticity is involved in the development of sensory function. The brain is born immature and then adapts to sensory inputs after birth. In the auditory system, congenital hearing loss, a rather frequent inborn condition affecting 1 of 1000 newborns, has been shown to affect auditory

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in blind people may undergo cross-modal plasticity, and therefore other senses may have enhanced abilities. Or the opposite could occur, with the lack of visual input weakening the development of other sensory systems. One study suggests that the right posterior middle temporal gyrus and

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cerebellums of the trained animals were substantially larger than the cerebellum of the untrained animals. However, while these findings were significant, they were eventually forgotten. In 1890, the idea that the brain and its function are not fixed throughout adulthood was proposed by

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Neuroplasticity is gaining popularity as a theory that, at least in part, explains improvements in functional outcomes with physical therapy post-stroke. Rehabilitation techniques that are supported by evidence which suggest cortical reorganization as the mechanism of change include

463:, but research has revealed that other parts of the brain, including the cerebellum, may be involved as well. However, the degree of rewiring induced by the integration of new neurons in the established circuits is not known, and such rewiring may well be functionally redundant. 512:, inflammation, and neuronal cell death, and enhances spatial reference memory and sensory-motor recovery." In a clinical trial, a group of severely injured patients had a 60% reduction in mortality after three days of progesterone injections. However, a study published in the 103:

to manifest only during childhood, but research in the latter half of the 20th century showed that many aspects of the brain can be altered (or are "plastic") even through adulthood. However, the developing brain exhibits a higher degree of plasticity than the adult brain.

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Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K (February 2013). "Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects".

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Changing brain behavior and morphology to suit other seasonal behaviors is relatively common in animals. These changes can improve the chances of mating during breeding season. Examples of seasonal brain morphology change can be found within many classes and species.

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While it is still debated whether these changes in brain are result of genetic disposition or environmental demands, many evidences suggest that environmental, social experience in early multilinguals affect the structural and functional reorganization in the brain.

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and other association areas of the brain in deaf and/or hard of hearing people undergo compensatory plasticity. The auditory cortex usually reserved for processing auditory information in hearing people now is redirected to serve other functions, especially for

180:, Cajal first described the neuron as the fundamental unit of the nervous system that later served as an essential foundation to develop the concept of neural plasticity. Many neuroscientists used the term plasticity to explain the regenerative capacity of the 428:

There is ample evidence for the active, experience-dependent re-organization of the synaptic networks of the brain involving multiple inter-related structures including the cerebral cortex. The specific details of how this process occurs at the molecular and

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Recent studies have also found that learning multiple languages not only re-structures the brain but also boosts brain's capacity for plasticity. A recent study found that multilingualism not only affects the grey matter but also white matter of the brain.

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in 2014 detailing the results of a multi-center NIH-funded phase III clinical trial of 882 patients found that treatment of acute traumatic brain injury with the hormone progesterone provides no significant benefit to patients when compared with placebo.

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invented a device that was tested on a small number of people, and involved a person sitting in a chair, embedded in which were nubs that were made to vibrate in ways that translated images received in a camera, allowing a form of vision via

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demonstrate a diminished cortical somatotopic representation of the hand contralaterally as well as a decreased spacing between the hand and the mouth. Additionally, chronic pain has been reported to significantly reduce the volume of

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Wall JT, Xu J, Wang X (September 2002). "Human brain plasticity: an emerging view of the multiple substrates and mechanisms that cause cortical changes and related sensory dysfunctions after injuries of sensory inputs from the body".

1303:, and other novel compounds. To differentiate between traditional antidepressants focused on monoamine modulation and this new category of fast acting antidepressants that achieve therapeutic effects through neuroplasticity, the term 1098:

of egg-laying hormones outside of mating season due to increased effectiveness of inhibitors in the brain. Changes to the inhibitory nature of regions of the brain can also be found in humans and other mammals. In the amphibian

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Some researchers and academics have suggested that artistic engagement has substantially altered the human brain throughout our evolutionary history. D.W Zaidel, adjunct professor of behavioral neuroscience and contributor at

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levels are topics of active neuroscience research. The way experience can influence the synaptic organization of the brain is also the basis for a number of theories of brain function including the general theory of mind and

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that demonstrated changes in neuronal pathways, which he concluded were evidence of plasticity. Despite this, and other research that suggested plasticity, neuroscientists did not widely accept the idea of neuroplasticity.

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proportion or the synaptic strength in the brain are considered as examples of structural neuroplasticity. Structural neuroplasticity is currently investigated more within the field of neuroscience in current academia.

362:(CT)) to study the structural alterations of the human brains. This type of neuroplasticity often studies the effect of various internal or external stimuli on the brain's anatomical reorganization. The changes of 7141: 7223:

Parry DM, Goldsmith AR (August 1993). "Ultrastructural evidence for changes in synaptic input to the hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone neurons in photosensitive and photorefractory starlings".

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volume in multiple brain regions, particularly those that give rise to cognitive control. The brain structures that show the greatest improvements in gray matter volume in response to aerobic exercise are the

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effect, traditional antidepressants improved neuroplasticity but over a significantly protracted time course of weeks or months. The search for faster acting antidepressants found success in the pursuit of

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There are a number of other factors that are thought to play a role in the biological processes underlying the changing of neural networks in the brain. Some of these factors include synapse regulation via

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appear to have a significant role in the regulation of synaptic plasticity and cognitive function. However age-related increases in reactive oxygen species may also lead to impairments in these functions.

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Wayne NL, Kim YJ, Yong-Montenegro RJ (March 1998). "Seasonal fluctuations in the secretory response of neuroendocrine cells of Aplysia californica to inhibitors of protein kinase A and protein kinase C".

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Parry DM, Goldsmith AR, Millar RP, Glennie LM (March 1997). "Immunocytochemical localization of GnRH precursor in the hypothalamus of European starlings during sexual maturation and photorefractoriness".

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is an emerging technique, which is also hypothesized to work by way of neuroplasticity, though there is currently insufficient evidence to determine the exact mechanisms of change when using this method.

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Vestergaard-Poulsen P, van Beek M, Skewes J, Bjarkam CR, Stubberup M, Bertelsen J, et al. (January 2009). "Long-term meditation is associated with increased gray matter density in the brain stem".

661:. However, following treatment, these abnormalities in cortical reorganization and grey matter volume are resolved, as well as their symptoms. Similar results have been reported for phantom limb pain, 1228:

stronger organization and analyzation skills, and a better theory of mind than monolinguals. Researchers have found that the effect of multilingualism on better cognition is due to neuroplasticity.

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and that radical improvements in cognitive functioning – how we learn, think, perceive, and remember are possible even in the elderly." Merzenich's work was affected by a crucial discovery made by

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Neville HJ, Lawson D (March 1987). "Attention to central and peripheral visual space in a movement detection task: an event-related potential and behavioral study. II. Congenitally deaf adults".

8804:"Effects of computer-based intervention through acoustically modified speech (Fast ForWord) in severe mixed receptive-expressive language impairment: outcomes from a randomized controlled trial" 9066: 985:

Neuroplasticity is shown in four different categories in children and covering a wide variety of neuronal functioning. These four types include impaired, excessive, adaptive, and plasticity.

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related to the structure and function of the nervous system." Correspondingly, two types of neuroplasticity are often discussed: structural neuroplasticity and functional neuroplasticity.

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word neuroplasticity as an umbrella term it means different things to different researchers in different subfields ... In brief, a mutually agreed-upon framework does not appear to exist.

2332: 438:. The concept of neuroplasticity is also central to theories of memory and learning that are associated with experience-driven alteration of synaptic structure and function in studies of 1071:, many song control nuclei in the brain increase in size during mating season. Among birds, changes in brain morphology to influence song patterns, frequency, and volume are common. 7705:

Frost SB, Barbay S, Friel KM, Plautz EJ, Nudo RJ (June 2003). "Reorganization of remote cortical regions after ischemic brain injury: a potential substrate for stroke recovery".

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discusses that these observed changes should not directly relate to neuroplasticity, since they may root in the systematic requirement of the brain network for reorganization.

80:. Other forms of neuroplasticity include homologous area adaptation, cross modal reassignment, map expansion, and compensatory masquerade. Examples of neuroplasticity include 230:

would be magnified due to the increase in recruited cerebral mass, and re-inverted due to some effect of brain plasticity, in more central areas, following a spiral growth.

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Mechelli A, Crinion JT, Noppeney U, O'Doherty J, Ashburner J, Frackowiak RS, et al. (October 2004). "Neurolinguistics: structural plasticity in the bilingual brain".

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result of a variety of pathways. These pathways, mainly signaling cascades, allow for gene expression alterations that lead to neuronal changes, and thus neuroplasticity.

7152: 165:, though the idea was largely neglected. Up until the 1970s, neuroscientists believed that the brain's structure and function was essentially fixed throughout adulthood. 4635:

Napadow V, Kettner N, Ryan A, Kwong KK, Audette J, Hui KK (June 2006). "Somatosensory cortical plasticity in carpal tunnel syndrome--a cross-sectional fMRI evaluation".

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also provided support for neuroplasticity, as regions of the brain that remained healthy could sometimes take over, at least in part, functions that had been destroyed;

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Cutler SM, Pettus EH, Hoffman SW, Stein DG (October 2005). "Tapered progesterone withdrawal enhances behavioral and molecular recovery after traumatic brain injury".

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where the term was used to describe "a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once". The first person to use the term

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Nudo RJ, Milliken GW (May 1996). "Reorganization of movement representations in primary motor cortex following focal ischemic infarcts in adult squirrel monkeys".

8677: 455:(birth of brain cells) occurs in the adult, rodent brain—and such changes can persist well into old age. The evidence for neurogenesis is mainly restricted to the 384: 6016:

Stivalet P, Moreno Y, Richard J, Barraud PA, Raphel C (January 1998). "Differences in visual search tasks between congenitally deaf and normally hearing adults".

2885: 594:. This results in activity within the surrounding area of the cortex being misinterpreted by the area of the cortex formerly responsible for the amputated limb. 68:

and reorganization. It is when the brain is rewired to function in some way that differs from how it previously functioned. These changes range from individual

6770:"Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies" 3407: 954:, decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right 753: 8803: 5769:"Altered cross-modal processing in the primary auditory cortex of congenitally deaf adults: a visual-somatosensory fMRI study with a double-flash illusion" 5023: 9872: 8660: 835:) are associated with better executive function, faster processing speed, and greater volume of the hippocampus, caudate nucleus, and nucleus accumbens. 703:

on effects of meditation on the brain. His results suggest that meditation may lead to change in the physical structure of brain regions associated with

7834: 5574:"Effect of aerobic exercise on cognition, academic achievement, and psychosocial function in children: a systematic review of randomized control trials" 4059: 2651: 946:

Reviews of MRI and electroencephalography (EEG) studies on individuals with ADHD suggest that the long-term treatment of ADHD with stimulants, such as

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Takami S, Urano A (February 1984). "The volume of the toad medial amygdala-anterior preoptic complex is sexually dimorphic and seasonally variable".

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of the University of California, Berkeley, produced the first scientific evidence of anatomical brain plasticity, publishing her research in 1964.

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and strength of neural connections to the hippocampus during fall months. These morphological changes within the hippocampus which are related to

872:(ACC). A review by Bavelier et al. (2006) summarizes many aspects on the topic of visual ability comparison between deaf and hearing individuals. 6480:"Auditory motion in the sighted and blind: Early visual deprivation triggers a large-scale imbalance between auditory and "visual" brain regions" 2602: 3991: 7483:"Evidence for seasonal plasticity in the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) system of the ewe: changes in synaptic inputs onto GnRH neurons" 4423:

Maihöfner C, Handwerker HO, Neundörfer B, Birklein F (December 2003). "Patterns of cortical reorganization in complex regional pain syndrome".

1169: 425:. There are many instances of cortical and subcortical rewiring of neuronal circuits in response to training as well as in response to injury. 7581:

Smulders TV, Sasson AD, DeVoogd TJ (May 1995). "Seasonal variation in hippocampal volume in a food-storing bird, the black-capped chickadee".

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Masten AS (May 2011). "Resilience in children threatened by extreme adversity: frameworks for research, practice, and translational synergy".

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Rodrigo Machado-Vieira, Jacqueline Baumann, Cristina Wheeler-Castillo, David Latov, Ioline D. Henter, Giacomo Salvadore, et al. (2010).

7800: 6176:"Enhanced peripheral visual processing in congenitally deaf humans is supported by multiple brain regions, including primary auditory cortex" 184:

only. Cajal, however, used the term plasticity to reference his findings of degeneration and regeneration in the adult brain (a part of the

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were the most significantly affected by age, generally showing reduced expression over time. There was also a marked increase in cortical

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Armstrong BA, Neville HJ, Hillyard SA, Mitchell TV (November 2002). "Auditory deprivation affects processing of motion, but not color".

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Diamond MC, Krech D, Rosenzweig MR (August 1964). "The effects of an enriched environment on the histology of the rat cerebral cortex".

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contrast). The patient thus receives artificial visual feedback that the "resurrected" limb is now moving when they move the good hand.

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Schore AN (2001). "The effects of early relational trauma on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health".

325:, the role of inflammation and inflammatory cytokines, proteins such as Bcl-2 proteins and neutrophorins, and energy production via 1922:"Characterizing brain cortical plasticity and network dynamics across the age-span in health and disease with TMS-EEG and TMS-fMRI" 7859:

Lu T, Pan Y, Kao SY, Li C, Kohane I, Chan J, et al. (June 2004). "Gene regulation and DNA damage in the ageing human brain".

4323:"Interdependence of movement and anatomy persists when amputees learn a physiologically impossible movement of their phantom limb" 3324:

Zhang W, Linden DJ (November 2003). "The other side of the engram: experience-driven changes in neuronal intrinsic excitability".

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Sophie E. Holmes, Dustin Scheinost, Sjoerd J. Finnema, Mika Naganawa, Margaret T. Davis, Nicole DellaGioia, et al. (2019).

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Nottebohm F (December 1981). "A brain for all seasons: cyclical anatomical changes in song control nuclei of the canary brain".

4613: 4258: 176:, used the term neuronal plasticity to describe nonpathological changes in the structure of adult brains. Based on his renowned 9214: 2012:"Finding the Intersection of Neuroplasticity, Stroke Recovery, and Learning: Scope and Contributions to Stroke Rehabilitation" 391:. The strengthening or weakening of synapses that results in an increase or decrease of firing rate of the neurons are called 9160: 8649: 8630: 7024: 5426: 3794:"An assessment of the existence of adult neurogenesis in humans and value of its rodent models for neuropsychiatric diseases" 2582: 2342: 2149: 1822: 1394: 928: 8898:"Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity-based training program: a randomized, controlled study" 2204: 508:

injections in brain-injured patients. "Administration of progesterone after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and stroke reduces

6872:"Methylphenidate and atomoxetine normalise fronto-parietal underactivation during sustained attention in ADHD adolescents" 5924: 5806: 3485:"SK2 channels in cerebellar Purkinje cells contribute to excitability modulation in motor-learning-specific memory traces" 1560:

Paternina-Die M, Martínez-García M, Martín de Blas D, Noguero I, Servin-Barthet C, Pretus C, et al. (February 2024).

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Hess RF, Thompson B (February 2013). "New insights into amblyopia: binocular therapy and noninvasive brain stimulation".

514: 485: 8716: 8584:, Schoppmann A, Zook JM (April 1984). "Somatosensory cortical map changes following digit amputation in adult monkeys". 3226:"The Benefits of Exercise on Structural and Functional Plasticity in the Rodent Hippocampus of Different Disease Models" 336:, but occurs at every level in the processing hierarchy; this produces the map changes observed in the cerebral cortex. 9858: 4678:

Sasmita AO, Kuruvilla J, Ling AP (November 2018). "Harnessing neuroplasticity: modern approaches and clinical future".

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McEwen BS (April 2018). "Redefining neuroendocrinology: Epigenetics of brain-body communication over the life course".

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in Neuroscience "for the discovery of mechanisms that allow experience and neural activity to remodel brain function."

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Pagnoni G, Cekic M (October 2007). "Age effects on gray matter volume and attentional performance in Zen meditation".

2881: 10035: 10030: 9722: 8571: 4818:"The underlying anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: larger hippocampal and frontal volumes of gray matter" 2624: 1362: 1342: 1327: 1130:-immunoreactive neurons within it" during the fall, when these parts are larger. In the spring, both reduce in size. 1095: 763: 489: 399:(LTD), respectively, and they are considered as examples of synaptic plasticity that are associated with memory. The 535:, in early childhood or they would never gain it. In recent years, however, successful improvements in persons with 9913: 8495:

Calvin Ly, Alexandra C. Greb, Lindsay P. Cameron, Jonathan M. Wong, Eden V. Barragan, Paige C. Wilson, et al.

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neurogenesis and angiogenesis (Trejo et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2002; Fabel et al., 2003; Lopez-Lopez et al., 2004).

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Freed WJ, de Medinaceli L, Wyatt RJ (March 1985). "Promoting functional plasticity in the damaged nervous system".

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Edelman, Gerald. Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (Basic Books, 1992, Reprint edition 1993).

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or other stereo vision anomalies have become prime examples of neuroplasticity; binocular vision improvements and

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Stein DG, Hoffman SW (July–August 2003). "Concepts of CNS plasticity in the context of brain damage and repair".

5887:"Impact of early deafness and early exposure to sign language on the cerebral organization for motion processing" 2361:

Gonzalo Rodríguez-Leal J, Gonzalo Fonrodona I, Gonzalo Rodríguez-Leal J, Gonzalo Fonrodona I (11 February 2021).

1243:

is made up of myelinated axons that is greatly associated with learning and communication. Neurolinguists used a

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Bennett EL, Diamond MC, Krech D, Rosenzweig MR (October 1964). "Chemical and Anatomical Plasticity of Brain".

2360: 740:, has written that "evolutionary theory links the symbolic nature of art to critical pivotal brain changes in 9838: 9563: 7826: 7339: 4063: 2702: 2572: 1317: 380: 105: 8239: 4380:

Seifert F, Maihöfner C (October 2011). "Functional and structural imaging of pain-induced neuroplasticity".

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people to navigate their environment and sense their surroundings in detail. Studies in 2010 and 2011 using

9717: 9538: 7753:"Large-scale reorganization in the somatosensory cortex and thalamus after sensory loss in macaque monkeys" 1002: 767: 161: 139: 6590:"Early visual deprivation severely compromises the auditory sense of space in congenitally blind children" 2363:"Brain Dynamics: The brain activity according to the dynamic conditions of nervous excitability. Volume 1" 332:

JT Wall and J Xu have traced the mechanisms underlying neuroplasticity. Re-organization is not cortically

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The relationship between phantom limb sensation and neuroplasticity is a complex one. In the early 1990s

33: 9423: 3994:(a story of TBI and the results of ProTECT using progesterone treatments) Emory University News Archives 297:

though the brain didn't want to waste any 'cortical real estate' and had found a way to rewire itself."

9284: 9207: 3695:"A new case of complete primary cerebellar agenesis: clinical and imaging findings in a living patient" 683:

A number of studies have linked meditation practice to differences in cortical thickness or density of

355: 8242:"The Timing of Antidepressant Effects: A Comparison of Diverse Pharmacological and Somatic Treatments" 3006:

Zilles K (October 1992). "Neuronal plasticity as an adaptive property of the central nervous system".

2598: 10141: 9752: 9727: 9596: 8764: 6871: 6479: 6275: 6125:"Visuo-tactile interactions in the congenitally deaf: a behavioral and event-related potential study" 5824: 5296:"Cerebral hemodynamics of the aging brain: risk of Alzheimer disease and benefit of aerobic exercise" 4529:"Reorganization of motor and somatosensory cortex in upper extremity amputees with phantom limb pain" 3851:"Genesis of neuronal and glial progenitors in the cerebellar cortex of peripuberal and adult rabbits" 1293: 923:

is a learned ability for humans to sense their environment from echoes. This ability is used by some

869: 865: 804: 540: 181: 3778: 3075:"Reorganization and plastic changes of the human brain associated with skill learning and expertise" 2822:

Maguire EA, Gadian DG, Johnsrude IS, Good CD, Ashburner J, Frackowiak RS, et al. (April 2000).

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with reduced expression after age 40, and especially after age 70. Genes that play central roles in

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cause an elevation of nociceptive input from the periphery to the central nervous system. Prolonged

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Kowalczyk OS, Cubillo AI, Smith A, Barrett N, Giampietro V, Brammer M, et al. (October 2019).

5623:"Physical activity and cognitive function in individuals over 60 years of age: a systematic review" 1920:

Pascual-Leone A, Freitas C, Oberman L, Horvath JC, Halko M, Eldaief M, et al. (October 2011).

1244: 908: 774:(VEGF). Exercise-induced effects on the hippocampus are associated with measurable improvements in 7804: 7616:

Smith GT (September 1996). "Seasonal plasticity in the song nuclei of wild rufous-sided towhees".

894:, as a rule, allows the children to learn the mother language and acquire acoustic communication. 578:

sensation, a person continues to feel pain or sensation within a part of their body that has been

239:

Other significant evidence was produced in the 1960s and after, notably from scientists including

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Gene Expression to Neurobiology and Behavior: Human Brain Development and Developmental Disorders

4215:"Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation" 3957:

Young JA, Tolentino M (January 2011). "Neuroplasticity and its applications for rehabilitation".

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Mahncke HW, Connor BB, Appelman J, Ahsanuddin ON, Hardy JL, Wood RA, et al. (August 2006).

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Ioana Rădulescu, Ana Miruna, Drăgoi Simona, Corina Trifu, Mihai Bogdan Cristea (5 August 2021).

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Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, et al. (September 2013).

10073: 10025: 9969: 9944: 9523: 9513: 9304: 9259: 8399:"Neuroplasticity and depression: Rewiring the brain's networks through pharmacological therapy" 1332: 1164:

One recent study of neuroplasticity involves work done by a team of doctors and researchers at

779: 678: 666: 497: 439: 409: 392: 185: 8339: 8072: 6675:"Neural correlates of natural human echolocation in early and late blind echolocation experts" 4865:

Lazar SW, Kerr CE, Wasserman RH, Gray JR, Greve DN, Treadway MT, et al. (November 2005).

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Grasselli G, Boele HJ, Titley HK, Bradford N, van Beers L, Jay L, et al. (January 2020).

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The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the frontiers of brain science

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stimulation. However, speeded response for somatosensory stimuli is not found in deaf adults.

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Wieloch T, Nikolich K (June 2006). "Mechanisms of neural plasticity following brain injury".

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Immediate early genes in sensory processing, cognitive performance and neurological disorders

3765: 2696: 1158: 641: 473: 4468:"Chronic back pain is associated with decreased prefrontal and thalamic gray matter density" 1810: 1114:

Seasonal brain variation occurs within many mammals. Part of the hypothalamus of the common

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from the periphery then elicits a neuroplastic response at the cortical level to change its

10136: 10078: 10053: 9807: 9558: 9398: 9369: 9264: 9176: 9019: 8909: 8353: 8087: 7968: 7868: 7535: 7524:"Seasonal recruitment of hippocampal neurons in adult free-ranging black-capped chickadees" 7398: 6686: 5183: 5061: 4989: 4927: 4466:

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Carey L, Walsh A, Adikari A, Goodin P, Alahakoon D, De Silva D, et al. (2 May 2019).

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of the removed limbs are believed to have become engaged with the area around them in the

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Flor H, Elbert T, Knecht S, Wienbruch C, Pantev C, Birbaumer N, et al. (June 1995).

2390:(1896). "Some preliminary experiments on vision without inversion of the retinal image". 1209: 1197: 1087: 544: 388: 8913: 8494: 8357: 8091: 7972: 7872: 7539: 7402: 6690: 5351:"A meta-analytic review of the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor" 5187: 5065: 4993: 4931: 4916:"Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice" 4578:"Extensive reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex in chronic back pain patients" 4577: 4338: 4230: 4214: 3866: 3651: 3194: 2839: 2782: 2522: 1777: 1594: 1561: 10015: 9777: 9671: 9611: 9334: 9314: 9110: 9058: 8974: 8932: 8897: 8879: 8854: 8834: 8802:

Cohen W, Hodson A, O'Hare A, Boyle J, Durrani T, McCartney E, et al. (June 2005).

8752: 8708: 8609: 8555: 8472: 8447: 8423: 8398: 8374: 8342:"Lower synaptic density is associated with depression severity and network alterations" 8341: 8322: 8268: 8241: 8217: 8190: 8169: 8111: 8048: 8021: 8002: 7936: 7911: 7892: 7777: 7752: 7730: 7684: 7641: 7460: 7352: 7249: 7237: 7200: 7117: 7092: 7073: 7016: 6989: 6954: 6899: 6848: 6794: 6769: 6709: 6674: 6614: 6589: 6507: 6460: 6412: 6387: 6359: 6303: 6251: 6226: 6202: 6175: 6151: 6124: 6093: 5963: 5911: 5902: 5852: 5793: 5741: 5714: 5674:"Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations" 5649: 5622: 5598: 5573: 5549: 5524: 5495: 5470: 5437: 5409:

Gomez-Pinilla F, Hillman C (2013). "The Influence of Exercise on Cognitive Abilities".

5375: 5350: 5322: 5295: 5271: 5238: 5214: 5171: 5152: 5092: 5049: 5010: 4891: 4882: 4866: 4842: 4817: 4798: 4754: 4703: 4660: 4605: 4553: 4544: 4528: 4492: 4448: 4436: 4405: 4357: 4322: 4250: 4174:"Decreasing phantom limb pain through observation of action and imagery: a case series" 4029: 3939: 3910:"Plasticity and redundancy in the integration of adult born neurons in the hippocampus" 3885: 3850: 3826: 3793: 3751: 3727: 3670: 3635: 3611: 3586: 3562: 3535: 3511: 3484: 3460: 3433: 3399: 3349: 3301: 3274: 3250: 3225: 3163: 3101: 3074: 2988: 2944: 2799: 2766: 2742: 2733: 2717: 2684: 2491: 2407: 2387: 2308: 2281: 2257: 2230: 2090: 2038: 2011: 1946: 1921: 1897: 1880: 1786: 1761: 1742: 1694: 1669: 1645: 1618: 1537: 1512: 1488: 1461: 1337: 920: 783: 602: 226: 77: 73: 8822: 8740: 8156: 8139: 7672: 7091:

Hyde KL, Lerch J, Norton A, Forgeard M, Winner E, Evans AC, et al. (March 2009).

6291: 6029: 5994: 5715:"Cognitive control in the self-regulation of physical activity and sedentary behavior" 4950: 4915: 4593: 3019: 2976: 1513:"Social influences on neuroplasticity: stress and interventions to promote well-being" 1438: 1263:

played a dominant role in psychiatry and drug development. However, while traditional

1031:. Some changes occur seasonally in species to enhance or generate response behaviors. 10058: 10005: 9696: 9631: 9606: 9458: 9418: 9156: 9102: 9050: 9003: 8966: 8962: 8937: 8884: 8826: 8790: 8744: 8700: 8645: 8626: 8601: 8567: 8547: 8527: 8477: 8428: 8379: 8314: 8273: 8222: 8161: 8103: 8053: 7994: 7941: 7884: 7827:"Progesterone offers no significant benefit in traumatic brain injury clinical trial" 7782: 7722: 7676: 7633: 7629: 7598: 7563: 7558: 7523: 7504: 7452: 7448: 7414: 7344: 7330: 7290: 7241: 7192: 7188: 7122: 7065: 7030: 7020: 6946: 6903: 6891: 6840: 6835: 6818: 6799: 6750: 6714: 6619: 6558: 6499: 6495: 6452: 6417: 6364: 6295: 6256: 6207: 6156: 6085: 6055: 6033: 5998: 5955: 5951: 5916: 5856: 5844: 5840: 5798: 5746: 5695: 5654: 5603: 5554: 5500: 5442: 5422: 5380: 5366: 5327: 5276: 5258: 5254: 5219: 5201: 5144: 5136: 5097: 5079: 5015: 4955: 4896: 4847: 4833: 4790: 4746: 4695: 4652: 4648: 4597: 4558: 4497: 4440: 4397: 4362: 4303: 4254: 4242: 4195: 4190: 4173: 4154: 4060:"Progesterone offers no significant benefit in traumatic brain injury clinical trial" 4021: 3974: 3931: 3890: 3831: 3813: 3732: 3714: 3675: 3616: 3567: 3516: 3465: 3391: 3341: 3306: 3255: 3206: 3155: 3147: 3142: 3125: 3106: 3048: 3023: 2980: 2936: 2928: 2908: 2863: 2858: 2823: 2804: 2747: 2718:"Recalling routes around london: activation of the right hippocampus in taxi drivers" 2676: 2578: 2534: 2483: 2338: 2313: 2262: 2182: 2145: 2082: 2043: 1992: 1951: 1902: 1818: 1791: 1734: 1699: 1650: 1599: 1581: 1542: 1493: 1442: 1400: 1390: 998: 820: 796: 787: 712: 654: 598: 591: 284: 244: 221:

concluded from his research on brain dynamics, that, contrary to the activity of the

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Edelman and Jean-Pierre Changeux, editors, The Brain (Transaction Publishers, 2000).

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While the brain was commonly understood as a nonrenewable organ in the early 1900s,

10020: 9979: 9961: 9850: 9737: 9621: 9548: 9463: 9344: 9294: 9094: 9042: 8995: 8958: 8927: 8917: 8874: 8866: 8818: 8780: 8736: 8712: 8692: 8593: 8543: 8539: 8467: 8459: 8418: 8410: 8369: 8361: 8304: 8263: 8253: 8212: 8202: 8151: 8116: 8095: 8043: 8033: 8006: 7984: 7976: 7931: 7923: 7896: 7876: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7714: 7668: 7625: 7590: 7553: 7543: 7494: 7444: 7406: 7334: 7326: 7282: 7233: 7184: 7112: 7108: 7104: 7057: 7012: 6993: 6981: 6938: 6883: 6830: 6789: 6781: 6742: 6704: 6694: 6650: 6609: 6601: 6550: 6491: 6444: 6407: 6399: 6354: 6346: 6307: 6287: 6246: 6238: 6197: 6187: 6146: 6136: 6075: 6067: 6056:"Response speed advantage for vision does not extend to touch in early deaf adults" 6025: 5990: 5947: 5906: 5898: 5836: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5736: 5726: 5685: 5644: 5634: 5593: 5585: 5544: 5536: 5490: 5482: 5432: 5414: 5370: 5362: 5317: 5307: 5266: 5250: 5209: 5191: 5172:"Sculpting the Intrinsic Modular Organization of Spontaneous Brain Activity by Art" 5128: 5087: 5069: 5050:"Sculpting the Intrinsic Modular Organization of Spontaneous Brain Activity by Art" 5005: 4997: 4945: 4935: 4886: 4878: 4837: 4829: 4782: 4738: 4730: 4707: 4687: 4664: 4644: 4589: 4548: 4540: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4432: 4409: 4389: 4352: 4342: 4293: 4234: 4185: 4146: 4117: 4033: 4013: 3966: 3921: 3880: 3870: 3821: 3805: 3722: 3706: 3665: 3655: 3606: 3598: 3557: 3547: 3506: 3496: 3455: 3450: 3445: 3383: 3333: 3296: 3286: 3245: 3237: 3198: 3167: 3137: 3096: 3086: 3015: 2972: 2948: 2920: 2853: 2843: 2794: 2786: 2737: 2729: 2666: 2526: 2475: 2441: 2399: 2303: 2293: 2252: 2242: 2174: 2074: 2033: 2023: 1982: 1941: 1933: 1892: 1781: 1773: 1746: 1726: 1689: 1681: 1640: 1630: 1589: 1573: 1532: 1524: 1483: 1473: 1434: 1352: 1284: 1165: 1076: 891: 886: 824: 692: 625: 528: 435: 422: 255: 240: 222: 8613: 8396: 8326: 7659:

Tramontin AD, Brenowitz EA (June 2000). "Seasonal plasticity in the adult brain".

4691: 3275:"Physiology of Cerebellar Reserve: Redundancy and Plasticity of a Modular Machine" 3224:

Patten AR, Yau SY, Fontaine CJ, Meconi A, Wortman RC, Christie BR (October 2015).

2212: 2062: 1118:

is more receptive to GnRH during breeding season than at other times of the year.

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Flor H (July 2002). "Phantom-limb pain: characteristics, causes, and treatment".

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Bavelier D, Brozinsky C, Tomann A, Mitchell T, Neville H, Liu G (November 2001).

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child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure.

6335:"Vibrotactile activation of the auditory cortices in deaf versus hearing adults" 3042: 1730: 744:

supporting increased development of language and hierarchical social grouping".

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