Psychological stress

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gives individuals a break from their stressors. This was tested in a recent study of college women who had identified studying as their primary stressor. The women were then placed under four conditions at varying times: "rest," "studying," "exercising," and "studying while exercising." The stress levels of the participants were measured through self-assessments of stress and anxiety symptoms after each condition. The results demonstrated that the "exercise" condition had the most significant reduction in stress and anxiety symptoms. These results demonstrate the validity of the time-out hypothesis. It is also important to note that exercise provided greater stress reduction than rest.

1467:, however they all are variations on the same general idea: There are good/productive and negative/counterproductive ways to handle stress. Because stress is perceived, the following mechanisms do not necessarily deal with the actual situation that is causing an individual stress. However, they may be considered coping mechanisms if they allow the individual to cope better with the negative feelings/anxiety that they are experiencing due to the perceived stressful situation, as opposed to actually fixing the concrete obstacle causing the stress. The following mechanisms are adapted from the DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994. 227:, etc. Though rare in occurrence, this type of stressor typically causes a great deal of stress in a person's life. A study conducted by Stanford University found that after natural disasters, those affected experienced a significant increase in stress level. Combat stress is a widespread acute and chronic problem. With the rapid pace and the urgency of firing first, accidental killings of friendly forces (or fratricide) may occur. Prevention requires stress reduction, emphasis on vehicle and other identification training, awareness of the tactical situation, and continual risk analysis by leaders at all levels. 1177: 1432:

experiences chronic stress, exercise provides an ideal coping mechanism. Despite popular belief, it is not necessary for exercise to be routine or intense in order to reduce stress; as little as five minutes of aerobic exercise can begin to stimulate anti-anxiety effects. Further, a 10-minute walk may have the same psychological benefits as a 45-minute workout, reinforcing the assertion that exercise in any amount or intensity will reduce stress. Cycling and walking activities have lower stress scores when compared to other modes of transport or commuting.

1367:(e.g., financial support or assistance in transportation to a physician's appointment), informational support (e.g., knowledge, education or advice in problem-solving), and emotional support (e.g., empathy, reassurance, etc.). Social support can reduce the rate of stress during pregnancy. Studies have found that those who had a large change in their life with a small amount of social support has a higher chance of complications. Whereas those with a larger support system would have a chance for less complications. 1363:

impact on health by increasing positive affect, promoting adaptive health behaviors, predictability and stability in life, and safeguarding against social, legal, and economic concerns that could negatively impact health. Another model, the "buffering effect", says that social support exerts greatest influence on health in times of stress, either by helping individuals appraise situations in less threatening manners or coping with the actual stress. Researchers have found evidence to support both these pathways.

1476: 255:, moving houses, etc. These events, either positive or negative, can create a sense of uncertainty and fear, which will ultimately lead to stress. For instance, research has found the elevation of stress during the transition from high school to university, with college freshmen being about two times more likely to be stressed than final year students. Research has found that major life events are somewhat less likely to be major causes of stress, due to their rare occurrences. 48: 1277:

death. This suggests that there are individual differences in vulnerability to the potential pathogenic effects of stress; individual differences in vulnerability arise due to both genetic and psychological factors. In addition, the age at which the stress is experienced can dictate its effect on health. Research suggests chronic stress at a young age can have lifelong impacts on the biological, psychological, and behavioral responses to stress later in life.

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chronic events that occurred more than several months ago are linked to stress and illness and personality change. Additionally, positive life events are typically not linked to stress – and if so, generally only trivial stress – while negative life events can be linked to stress and the health problems that accompany it. However, positive experiences and positive life changes can predict decreases in neuroticism.

191:, researchers generally classify the different types of stressors into four categories: 1) crises/catastrophes, 2) major life events, 3) daily hassles/microstressors, and 4) ambient stressors. According to Ursin (1988), the common factor between these categories is an inconsistency between expected events ("set value") and perceived events ("actual value") that cannot be resolved satisfactorily, which puts stress into the broader context of 1552:“The Association for Applied and Therapeutic Humour defines therapeutic humour as ‘any intervention that promotes health and wellness by stimulating a playful discovery, expression or appreciation of the absurdity of or incongruity of life’s situations. This intervention may enhance health or be used as a complementary treatment of illness to facilitate healing or coping whether physical, emotional, cognitive, or spiritual”. 1128:. The body is completely drained of the hormones and resources it was depending on to manage the stressor. The person now begins to exhibit behaviors such as anxiety, irritability, avoidance of responsibilities and relationships, self-destructive behavior, and poor judgment. Someone experiencing these symptoms has a much greater chance of lashing out, damaging relationships, or avoiding social interaction at all. 1231:. This is particularly true regarding chronic stressors. These are stressors that may not be as intense as an acute stressor like a natural disaster or a major accident, but they persist over longer periods of time. These types of stressors tend to have a more negative impact on health because they are sustained and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily. This depletes the body's 280:

stress assessment) at the Oregon State University that examined the perceived intensity of daily hassles on an individual's mortality. Aldwin's study concluded that there is a strong correlation between individuals who rate their hassles as very intense and a high level of mortality. One's perception of their daily stressors can have a modulating effect on the physiological impact of daily stressors.

1564:, suggested that humour was an excellent defensive strategy in emotional situations. When one laughs during a tough situation they feel absent from their worries, and this allows them to think differently. When one experiences a different mind set, they feel more in control of their response, and how they would go about dealing with the event that caused stress. 1350:. A child may feel angry with a parent or their peers who they feel brought this change on them. They need someone to talk to but it definitely would not be the person with whom they are angry. That is when the imaginary friend comes in. They “talk” to this imaginary friend but in doing so they cut off communication with the real people around them. 1118:. The body continues building up resistance throughout the stage of resistance, either until the body's resources are depleted, leading to the exhaustion phase, or until the stressful stimulus is removed. As the body uses up more and more of its resources, it becomes increasingly tired and susceptible to illness. At this stage 1205:, and health complaints. Research indicates the type of stressor (whether it is acute or chronic) and individual characteristics such as age and physical well-being before the onset of the stressor can combine to determine the effect of stress on an individual. An individual's personality characteristics (such as level of 1656:– Repression occurs when an individual attempts to remove all their thoughts, feelings, and anything related to the upsetting/stressful (perceived) threat out of their awareness in order to be disconnected from the entire situation. When done long enough in a successful way, this is more than just denial. 1583:

Also, most hospitalized children have been seen to use laughter and play to relieve their fear, pain and stress. It has been discovered that there is a great importance in the use of laughter and humour in stress coping. Humans should use humour as a means to transcend their original understanding of

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These cultural differences can affect how people communicate when they are stressed. For example, a member of an individualistic culture would be hesitant to ask for pain medication for fear of being perceived as weak. A member of a collectivistic culture would not hesitate. They have been brought up

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To calculate one's score, add up the number of "life change units" if an event occurred in the past year. A score of more than 300 means that individual is at risk for illness, a score between 150 and 299 means risk of illness is moderate, and a score under 150 means that individual only has a slight

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The approach-avoidance conflict, occurs when a person is forced to choose whether or not to partake in something that has both attractive and unattractive traits – such as whether or not to attend an expensive college (meaning taking out loans now, but also meaning a quality education

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refers to a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's levels of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of improving everyday functioning. It involves controlling and reducing the tension that occurs in stressful situations by making emotional

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Divorce, death, and remarriage are all disruptive events in a household. Although everyone involved is affected by events such as these, it can be most drastically seen in children. Due to their age, children have relatively undeveloped coping skills. For this reason a stressful event may cause some

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It has long been believed that negative affective states, such as feelings of anxiety and depression, could influence the pathogenesis of physical disease, which in turn, have direct effects on biological process that could result in increased risk of disease in the end. However, studies done by the

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are often correlated with much higher risks of cardiovascular disease. This occurs because of the compromised immune system as well as the high levels of arousal in the sympathetic nervous system that occur as part of the body's physiological response to stressful events. However, it is possible for

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In the physiological domain of oculomotor function alone, several physiological responses are suspected to detect different stress situations in a person-specific and objective manner (not by means of a survey). For example, via eye movement and gaze behavior, via pupil behavior and via eyelid blink

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Another way individuals can cope with stress is by the way one perceives stress. Perceptions of stress are critical for making decisions and living everyday life. The outlook or the way an individual perceives the given situation can affect the manner to which the individual handles stress, whether

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impact the effect of stress on their health. Studies consistently show that social support can protect against physical and mental consequences of stress. This can occur through a variety of mechanisms. One model, known as the "direct effects" model, holds that social support has a direct, positive

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of stress as something harmful increases the risk even further. For example, when humans are under chronic stress, permanent changes in their physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses are most likely to occur. Such changes could lead to disease. Chronic stress results from stressful events

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As the name implies, these are global (as opposed to individual) low-grade stressors that are a part of the background environment. They are defined as stressors that are "chronic, negatively valued, non-urgent, physically perceptible, and intractable to the efforts of individuals to change them".

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Language barriers can cause stress, and sometimes this stress adds to language barriers. People may feel uncomfortable with the difficulties caused by differences in syntax, vocabulary, ways of showing respect, and use of body language. Along with a desire for successful social interactions, being

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Even though psychological stress is often connected with illness or disease, most healthy individuals can still remain disease-free after confronting chronic stressful events. Also, people who do not believe that stress will affect their health do not have an increased risk of illness, disease, or

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There is some evidence that stress can make the individual more susceptible to physical illnesses like the common cold. "Although chronic (but not acute) stressful events are associated with greater susceptibility, the association between social diversity and colds is not altered after controlling

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Daily hassles are the most frequently occurring type of stressor in most adults. The high frequency of hassles causes this stressor to have the most physiological effect on an individual. Carolyn Aldwin, Ph.D., conducted a longitudinal study on older men (mean age ca. 66 years at the time of first

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defined stress as “the nonspecific (that is, common) result of any demand upon the body, be the effect mental or somatic.” This includes the medical definition of stress as a physical demand and the colloquial definition of stress as a psychological demand. A stressor is inherently neutral meaning

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A multitude of theories have been presented in attempts to explain why exercise effectively reduces stress. One theory, known as the time-out hypothesis, claims that exercise provides distraction from the stressor. The time out hypothesis claims that exercise effectively reduces stress because it

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Experiments show that when healthy human individuals are exposed to acute laboratory stressors, they show an adaptive enhancement of some markers of natural immunity but a general suppression of functions of specific immunity. By comparison, when healthy human individuals are exposed to real-life

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The length of time since occurrence and whether or not it is a positive or negative event are factors in whether or not it causes stress and how much stress it causes. Researchers have found that events that have occurred within the past month generally are not linked to stress or illness, while

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is any event, experience, or environmental stimulus that causes stress in an individual. These events or experiences are perceived as threats or challenges to the individual and can be either physical or psychological. Researchers have found that stressors can make individuals more prone to both

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Social support is defined more specifically as psychological and material resources provided by a social network that are aimed at helping an individual cope with stress. Researchers generally distinguish among several types of social support: instrumental support – which refers to material aid

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Studies conducted in military and combat fields show that some of the most potent stressors can be due to personal organisational problems in the unit or on the home front. Stress due to bad organisational practices is often connected to "toxic leadership", both in companies and in governmental

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and chronic stress can cause illness, and studies have found such a link. According to these theories, both kinds of stress can lead to changes in behavior and in physiology. Behavioral changes can involve smoking and eating habits and physical activity. Physiological changes can be changes in

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organizational changes, which include a change in job tasks or downsizing, lead to a somewhat increased stress level as well as slightly increased health problems. This study added that complaints about poor sleep, sleepiness and incomplete recovery also increased in connection with extensive

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The Lazarus and Folkman model suggests that external events create a form of pressure to achieve, engage in, or experience a stressful situation. Stress is not the external event itself, but rather an interpretation and response to the potential threat; this is when the coping process begins.

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Studies have shown that exercise reduces stress. Exercise effectively reduces fatigue, improves sleep, enhances overall cognitive function such as alertness and concentration, decreases overall levels of tension, and improves self-esteem. Because many of these are depleted when an individual

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Decreasing stressful behaviors is a part of prevention. Some of the common strategies and techniques are: self-monitoring, tailoring, material reinforcement, social reinforcement, social support, self-contracting, contracting with significant other, shaping, reminders, self-help groups, and

1031:(HESI) is a valid questionnaire used in many communities for assessment the stress level of college students. There are many (psycho-)physiological measurement methods that correlate more or less well with psychological stress (mental or emotional) and are thus used as a possible indicator. 5310:

Although the SRRS identified women with high and low stress, it also appeared limited in covering certain areas of stress currently felt by these women. For example, worry and concern about events that have not happened, or in some cases did happen but were not included on the scale, were

1684:. Although some people claim that inhibition coping mechanisms may eventually increase the stress level because the problem is not solved, detaching from the stressor can sometimes help people to temporarily release the stress and become more prepared to deal with problems later on. 1820:. Though stress is discussed throughout history from many distinct topics and cultures, there is no universal consensus over describing stress. This has led to multiple kinds of research, looking at the different aspects of psychological stress and how it changes over a lifespan. 1422:

may also play a role in stress management. A randomized study by Sutarto et al. assessed the effect of resonant breathing biofeedback (recognize and control involuntary heart rate variability) among manufacturing operators; depression, anxiety and stress significantly decreased.

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Lefcourt (2001) suggests that this perspective-taking humour is the most effective due to its ability to distance oneself from the situation of great stress. Studies show that the use of laughter and humour creates a sense of relief of stress that can last up to 45 minutes

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and others distinguishes between automatic responses, such as those one's native language provides, and a foreign language that requires System 2 work to translate. System 2 can become "depleted" by conscious mental effort, making it more difficult and stressful.

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Both epidemiological and controlled studies have demonstrated relationships between psychosocial stressors and disease. The underlying mediators, however, are unclear in most cases, although possible mechanisms have been explored in some experimental

1596:– allows an "indirect resolution of conflict with neither adverse consequences nor consequences marked by loss of pleasure." Essentially, this mechanism allows channeling of troubling emotions or impulses into an outlet that is socially acceptable. 1269:

that persist over a relatively long period of time, such as caring for a spouse with dementia, or results from brief focal events that continue to be experienced as overwhelming even long after they are over, such as experiencing a sexual assault.

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with other people. Daily stressors, however, are different for each individual, as not everyone perceives a certain event as stressful. For example, most people find public speaking to be stressful, but someone who has experience with it will not.

126:) and bad stress (distress). On the other is over-stress (hyperstress) and understress (hypostress). Selye advocates balancing these: the ultimate goal would be to balance hyperstress and hypostress perfectly and have as much eustress as possible. 1459:

There are various ways individuals deal with perceived threats that may be stressful. However, people have a tendency to respond to threats with a predominant coping style, in which they dismiss feelings, or manipulate the stressful situation.

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whose axons project to various regions of the brain, is involved in releasing norepinephrine directly onto neurons. High levels of norepinephrine acting as a neurotransmitter on its receptors expressed on neurons in brain regions, such as the

1240:, a biological process affecting many physiological systems. For example, studies have found that caregivers, particularly those of dementia patients, have higher levels of depression and slightly worse physical health than non-caregivers. 1709:– When an individual indirectly deals with their anxiety and negative thoughts/feelings stemming from their stress by acting in a hostile or resentful manner towards others. Help-Rejecting Complaining can also be included in this category. 1163:

Psychological stress does not appear to be a risk factor for the onset of cancer, though it may worsen outcomes in those who already have cancer. Research has found that personal belief in stress as a risk factor for cancer was common in

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into the bloodstream to adjust bodily processes. These hormonal adjustments increase energy-levels, increase muscle tension, reduce sensitivity to pain, slow down the digestive system, and cause a rise in blood pressure. In addition, the

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Pathological anxiety and chronic stress lead to structural degeneration and impaired functioning of the hippocampus and the PFC, which may account for the increased risk of developing neuropsychiatric disorders, including depression and

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Typical examples of ambient stressors are pollution, noise, crowding, and traffic. Unlike the other three types of stressor, ambient stressors can (but do not necessarily have to) negatively impact stress without conscious awareness.

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Rau R, Richter P (1995). "24-Stunden-Monitoring zur Prüfung der Reaktivität psychophysiologischer Parameter in Belastungs- und Erholungsphasen. Speichelparameter und kardiovaskuläre Parameter in Feld- und Experimentaluntersuchungen".

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The avoidance-avoidance conflict, occurs where a person has to choose between two equally unattractive options, for example, to take out a second loan with unappealing terms to pay off the mortgage or to face foreclosure on one's

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the strongest conclusion derived from decades of research on stressors and cancer is that stressful events may be associated with decreased cancer survival but are probably not associated with disease incidence (Chida et al.

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These mechanisms cause the individual to have a diminished (or in some cases non-existent) awareness about their anxiety, threatening ideas, fears, etc., that come from being conscious of the perceived threat.

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more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when such microstressors cannot be avoided (for example: stress related to living in a dangerous neighborhood). Chronic stress may lead to

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Biosignale der Pupille zur Steuerung intelligenter User Interfaces. Untersuchung von Pupillenbewegungen zur Realisierung einer biopsychologischen Computerschnittstelle für die Mensch-Computer-Interaktion.

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Although many techniques have traditionally been developed to deal with the consequences of stress, considerable research has also been conducted on the prevention of stress, a subject closely related to

3697:"Prevalence of beliefs about actual and mythical causes of cancer and their association with socio-demographic and health-related characteristics: Findings from a cross-sectional survey in England" 5431:

is aimed at a popular audience and communicated through the mass media. It addresses topics related to psychology—such as romantic relationships, stress management, child rearing, and sexuality

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Travel-related stress results from three main categories: lost time, surprises (an unforeseen event such as lost or delayed baggage) and routine breakers (inability to maintain daily habits).

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and minor hassles. Examples include: making decisions, meeting deadlines at work or school, traffic jams, encounters with irritating personalities, etc. Often, this type of stressor includes

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Biswas P, Dutt V, Langdon P (January 2016). "Comparing ocular parameters for cognitive load measurement in eye-gaze-controlled interfaces for automotive and desktop computing environments".

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These skills are what one could call as “facing the problem head on”, or at least dealing with the negative emotions experienced by stress in a constructive manner. (generally adaptive)

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Uchino BN (May 2009). "Understanding the Links Between Social Support and Physical Health: A Life-Span Perspective With Emphasis on the Separability of Perceived and Received Support".

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Blickbasierte Beanspruchungsmessung : Entwicklung und Evaluation eines Kalibrierungssystems zur individuellen Bewertung der mentalen Beanspruchung in der Mensch-Technik-Interaktion

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chronic stress, this stress is associated with a biphasic immune response where partial suppression of cellular and humoral function coincides with low-grade, nonspecific inflammation.

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High amounts of stress and the perception that stress impacts health are each associated with poor health and mental health. Individuals who perceived that stress affects their health

5247:- "1955 H. Basowitz et al. Anxiety & Stress i. 7 Anxiety has been defined in terms of an affective response; stress is the stimulus condition likely to arouse such response." 2358:

Jeronimus BF, Riese H, Sanderman R, Ormel J (October 2014). "Mutual reinforcement between neuroticism and life experiences: a five-wave, 16-year study to test reciprocal causation".

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Fevre ML, Kolt GS, Matheny J (1 January 2006). "Eustress, distress and their interpretation in primary and secondary occupational stress management interventions: which way first?".

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University of Wisconsin-Madison and other places have shown this to be partly untrue; although perceived stress seems to increase the risk of reported poor health, the additional

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Modern people may attempt to self-assess their own "stress-level"; third parties (sometimes clinicians) may also provide qualitative evaluations. Quantitative approaches such as

1416:. A number of self-help approaches to stress-prevention and resilience-building have been developed, drawing mainly on the theory and practice of cognitive-behavioral therapy. 158:

Stress is a non-specific response. It is neutral, and what varies is the degree of response. It is all about the context of the individual and how they perceive the situation.

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changes in their behavior. Falling in with a new crowd, developing some new and sometimes undesirable habits are just some of the changes stress may trigger in their lives.

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When someone is stressed, many challenges can arise; a recognised challenge being communication difficulties. Here are some examples of how stress can hinder communication.

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of war or peacekeeping operations indicate that persons who construe a positive meaning from their combat or threat experiences tend to adjust better than those who do not.

5188:"Freudian defense mechanisms and empirical findings in modern social psychology: Reaction formation, projection, displacement, undoing, isolation, sublimation, and denial" 1526:") – involves dealing with stress by turning to a social network for support, but an individual does not share with others in order to diffuse or avoid the responsibility. 3467:

Reßut N, Hoppe A (December 2020). "Erfassung von individuellem Beanspruchungserleben bei kognitiven Belastungssituationen mittels Mustererkennung im Lidschlagverhalten".

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Galley N (1993). "Augenbewegungen, Antizipation und Leistung: Auf dem Wege zu einem neuropsychologischen Konzentrationsmodell". In Beckmann J, Strang H, Hahn E (eds.).

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Böckelmann I, Seibt R (September 2011). "Methoden zur Indikation vorwiegend psychischer Berufsbelastung und Beanspruchung — Möglichkeiten für die betriebliche Praxis".

1534:– the individual steps outside of a situation in order to gain greater perspective, and also to highlight any comic aspect to be found in their stressful circumstances. 4066:

Schlotz W, Yim IS, Zoccola PM, Jansen L, Schulz P (2011). "The perceived stress reactivity scale: Measurement invariance, stability, and validity in three countries".

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Jeronimus BF, Ormel J, Aleman A, Penninx BW, Riese H (November 2013). "Negative and positive life events are associated with small but lasting change in neuroticism".

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in a culture where everyone helps each other and is one functional unit whereas the member of the individualistic culture is not as comfortable asking others for aid.

329:, also known as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, or SRRS. Developed by psychiatrists Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe in 1967, the scale lists 43 stressful events. 5323: 2739:

epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol are considered the most important 'stress hormones,' although a number of other hormones are also influenced by stress .

1252: – a term referring to the ability to be both chronically stressed and healthy. Chronic stress can correlate with psychological disorders such as 2308:

Cohen S, Frank E, Doyle WJ, Skoner DP, Rabin BS, Gwaltney JM (May 1998). "Types of stressors that increase susceptibility to the common cold in healthy adults".

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Schok ML, Kleber RJ, Elands M, Weerts JM (March 2008). "Meaning as a mission: a review of empirical studies on appraisals of war and peacekeeping experiences".

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Riese H, Snieder H, Jeronimus BF, Korhonen T, Rose RJ, Kaprio J, Ormel J (2014). "Timing of Stressful Life Events Affects Stability and Change of Neuroticism".

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The approach-approach conflict, occurs when a person is choosing between two equally attractive options, i.e. whether to go see a movie or to go see a concert.

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This stress-induced focus on the self is compounded by exposure to 'pop-psychology' advice to use selffocused stress management techniques during interviews.

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Kingston C, Schuurmans-Stekhoven J (December 2016). "Life hassles and delusional ideation: Scoping the potential role of cognitive and affective mediators".

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Psychological stress can be external and related to the environment, but may also be caused by internal perceptions that cause an individual to experience

5176:"displacement n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Edited by Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press 2009. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 4080:

Pinquart M, Sörensen S (June 2003). "Differences between caregivers and noncaregivers in psychological health and physical health: a meta-analysis".

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it be positive or negative. Too much stress can be detrimental to the individual and can cause negative psychological and physical health effects.

1155:, increased heart and respiration rates, cessation of digestive processes, secretion of adrenaline, arteriole dilation, and constriction of veins. 163:

that the same stressor can cause either distress or eustress. It is individual differences and responses that induce either distress or eustress.

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Keller, Abiola; Litzelman, Kristin; Wisk, Lauren E.; Maddox, Torsheika; Cheng, Erika Rose; Creswell, Paul D.; Witt, Whitney P. (September 2012).

2171:. Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved September 20, 2012, from CollinsDictionary.com. 3576: 1144: 5632: 1701:– Often viewed as counter-normative, or problematic behavior. Instead of reflecting or problem-solving, an individual takes maladaptive action. 187:

Stressors are more likely to affect the health of an individual when they are "chronic, highly disruptive, or perceived as uncontrollable". In

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which means "good" (as in "euphoria"). Eustress results when a person perceives a stressor as positive. "Distress" stems from the Latin root

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or other measurements giving results which may correlate with perceived psychological stress include testing for one or more of the several

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uncomfortable with the communication around a person can discourage them from communicating at all, thus adding to the language barrier.

1194: 2883:"Measuring stress in medical education: validation of the Korean version of the higher education stress inventory with medical students" 1718:

There is an alternative method to coping with stress, in which one works to minimize their anxiety and stress in a preventative manner.

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Kobasa, S. C. (1982). "The Hardy Personality: Toward a Social Psychology of Stress and Health". In G. S. Sanders & J. Suls (Eds.),

3322: 2649:"The effects of traveling in different transport modes on galvanic skin response (GSR) as a measure of stress: An observational study" 1308:

culture, like that of many Asian countries, prefers to see individuals as interdependent on each other. They value modesty and family.

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and a lack of coping resources available or used by an individual can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as

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This type of stressor is unforeseen and unpredictable and, as such, is completely out of the control of the individual. Examples of

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Berkman LF, Glass T, Brissette I, Seeman TE (September 2000). "From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium".

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Ursin H (1988). "Expectancy and activation: An attempt to systematize stress theory". In Hellhammer DH, Florin I, Weiner H (eds.).

4357: 1027:, for cardiovascular responses, or for immune response. There are some valid questionnaires to assess stress level such as, 5285:

Linn MW (1986). "Elderly Women's Health and Psychological Adjustment: Life Stressors and Social Support". In Hobfoll SE (ed.).

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Stanton NA, Hedge A, Brookhuis K, Salas E, Hendrick HW (2005). Stanton NA, Hedge A, Brookhuis K, Salas E, Hendrick HW (eds.).

4794: 4763: 4508: 3519: 3149: 3075: 3007: 1965: 1062:. This stage occurs when the stressor is first presented. The body begins to gather resources to deal with the stressor. The 2441:"Do hassles mediate between life events and mortality in older men? Longitudinal findings from the VA Normative Aging Study" 1301:

culture, like that of the United States, where everyone is an independent entity defined by their accomplishments and goals.

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Hargrove MB, Nelson DL, Cooper CL (2013). "Generating eustress by challenging employees: Helping people savor their work".

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Chen Y (December 2009). "Advances in the pathophysiology of tension-type headache: from stress to central sensitization".

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made it possible to group some undifferentiated combination of one or more of these with an informal diagnosis such as "

1602:– redirects thoughts (cognitive energy) to good things that are either occurring or have not occurred. This can lead to 5513: 5494: 5056: 3270: 1877: 325:

Life events scales can be used to assess stressful things that people experience in their lives. One such scale is the

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Dahlin M, Joneborg N, Runeson B (June 2005). "Stress and depression among medical students: a cross-sectional study".

1664:– An attempt to remove any “unacceptable thoughts” from one's consciousness by replacing them with the exact opposite. 1184:

There is likely a connection between stress and illness. Theories of a proposed stress–illness link suggest that both

5414: 5376: 5296: 3348: 3210: 3182: 2815: 2770: 2725: 2065: 2025: 1992: 1648:– This is when an individual redirects their emotional feelings about one situation to another, less threatening one. 4858: 2547:

Headquarters, Department of the Army (2006). Combat and Operational Stress Control, FM 4-02.51, Washington, DC, p. 9

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Neuronal Control of Bodily Function: Basic and Clinical Aspects, Vol. 2: Neurobiological Approaches to Human Disease

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Pastorino, E. & Doyle-Portillo, S. (2009). What is Psychology?. 2nd Ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson Higher Education.

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activation, and immunological function. However, there is much variability in the link between stress and illness.

1778: 1133: 3648:"Work stress and risk of cancer: meta-analysis of 5700 incident cancer events in 116,000 European men and women" 2975:

Gopher D, Donchin E (1986). "Workload: An examination of the concept". In Boff KR, Kaufman L, Thomas JP (eds.).

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organizational changes. Another key finding was that this is even true for the anticipation of such changes

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with major stressors and traumas may also dictate their response to stressors. Stress may also cause

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The cultures of the world generally fall into two categories; individualistic and collectivistic.

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and reaction to the environment. Excessive amounts of stress, however, can increase the risk of

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Stress management in the workplace – organize a new system, switch tasks to reduce own stress.

5343:

Nerve Strain: The Busy Lives of American Women, the Cause of Their Ill Health, and the Remedy

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Cohen S, Wills TA (September 1985). "Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis".

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1955, people already identified a range of more nuanced ideas to describe and confront such

1753:

Depending on the situation, all of these coping mechanisms may be adaptive, or maladaptive.

1584:

an external event, take a different perspective, in which their anxiety may be minimized by.

4452: 4435: 4296:

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Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Miller GE (October 2007). "Psychological stress and disease".

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These methods deal with stress by an individual literally taking action, or withdrawing.

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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

1243:

Studies have also shown that perceived chronic stress and the hostility associated with

5124: 4968: 4943: 4730: 4661: 4583: 4322: 4297: 4274: 4183: 4143: 4116: 4049: 4001: 3976: 3857: 3795: 3770: 3721: 3696: 3672: 3647: 3619: 3594: 3525: 3484: 3445: 3381: 3303: 3243: 3081: 3040: 2957: 2909: 2882: 2863: 2696: 2624: 2530: 2465: 2440: 2421: 2333: 2258: 1928: 1705: 1660: 1464: 1244: 74: 4614: 3205:. Göttingen, Bern, Toronto, Seattle: Hogrefe Verl. für Psychologie. pp. 229–245. 141:(as in "dissonance" or "disagreement"). Medically defined distress is a threat to the 5509: 5490: 5463: 5410: 5372: 5292: 5159: 5089: 5052: 4973: 4904: 4899: 4882: 4833: 4790: 4759: 4734: 4699: 4653: 4618: 4575: 4571: 4504: 4457: 4392: 4327: 4266: 4231: 4187: 4148: 4097: 4041: 4006: 3950: 3908: 3904: 3875: 3849: 3845: 3822:

Herbert TB, Cohen S (1993). "Stress and immunity in humans: a meta-analytic review".

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for life events." Stressful events, such as job changes, correlate with insomnia,

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To measure the body's response to stress, psychologists tend to use Hans Selye's

142: 2456: 1610:, and awareness of the power/benefits of one's efforts. For example, studies on 1358:

Researchers have long been interested in how an individual's level and types of

1055:. General adaptive syndrome, according to this system, occurs in three stages: 122:(1974) proposed four variations of stress. On one axis he locates good stress ( 4695: 4649: 4093: 3712: 3480: 2321: 1817: 1359: 1220: 1109: 1083: 1024: 5155: 5085: 4410: 4037: 3511: 3141: 3067: 2999: 2899: 2881:

Shim EJ, Jeon HJ, Kim H, Lee KM, Jung D, Noh HL, et al. (November 2016).

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There are three major psychological types of conflicts that can cause stress.

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Stern JA, Walrath LC, Goldstein R (January 1984). "The endogenous eyeblink".

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Krantz DS, Falconer JF (1997). "Measurement of cardiovascular responses". In

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Prior to the introduction of the concept "stress" in the psychological sense

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The Upside of Stress: Why Stress Is Good for You, and How to Get Good at It

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reported a large amount of stress had an increased risk of premature death.

4331: 4270: 4235: 4152: 4101: 4045: 4010: 3977:"Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants" 3954: 3804: 3771:"Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants" 3744: 3730: 3681: 3628: 3203:

Aufmerksamkeit und Energetisierung. Facetten von Konzentration und Leistung

2918: 2859: 2692: 2474: 2417: 2379: 2254: 1856: 47: 5258: 4908: 4657: 3912: 3853: 3453: 3174: 2593: 2572:

Holmes TH, Rahe RH (August 1967). "The Social Readjustment Rating Scale".

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Folkman S, Moskowitz J (2000). "Stress, Positive Emotion, and Coping".

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Pflügers Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere

1538: 112:

or other negative emotions surrounding a situation, such as pressure,

5576: 4959: 4358:"Stress as a positive: Recent research that suggests it has benefits" 4313: 3663: 3102:

Schriftenreihe der Bundesanstalt für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsmedizin

3058:

Chen F, Zhou J, Wang Y, Yu K, Arshad SZ, Khawaji A, Conway D (2016).

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activation, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. The

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Gottlieb, Benjamin."Coping with Chronic Stress". Plenum Press. 1997.

1805:. By the 19th century, the popularisation of the nascent science of 1510: 1487:. The reason given is: The DSM has significantly changed since 1994. 1011:

The SRRS is used in psychiatry to weight the impact of life events.

3595:"Ten Surprising Facts About Stressful Life Events and Disease Risk" 2439:

Aldwin CM, Jeong YJ, Igarashi H, Choun S, Spiro A (November 2014).

1623: 1543: 1075: 1036: 236: 224: 172: 130: 123: 1734:

Guided imagery and visualization – create a relaxing state of mind

145:. It occurs when a demand vastly exceeds a person's capabilities. 5581: 2646: 1790: 1766: 1728:

Support systems – to listen, offer advice, and support each other

1611: 1165: 252: 240: 181: 109: 70: 1168:, though awareness of risk factors overall was found to be low. 684:

A modified version was made for non-adults. The scale is below.

5506:

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5047:

Lefcourt HM (2001). "The Humour Solution". In Snyder CR (ed.).

2934:

International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health

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A particularly interesting response to stress is talking to an

204: 82: 4994:

Levo LM (September 2003). "Understanding Defense Mechanisms".

3645: 2992:

Elektrodermale Aktivität. Grundlagen, Methoden und Anwendungen

2606: 1810: 1774: 1770: 1725:

Regular exercise – set up a fitness program, 3–4 times a week

1070:

are activated, resulting in the release of hormones from the

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Cohen S (November 2004). "Social relationships and health".

4213: 3890: 3552: 3550: 3548: 2357: 1375:"Stress Relief" redirects here. For The Office episode, see 5027: 5025: 5023: 5021: 4816:

International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics

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Huang CJ, Webb HE, Zourdos MC, Acevedo EO (November 2013).

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Suggested strategies to improve stress management include:

1092: 1091:, a collection of norepinephrine-containing neurons in the 5015:

Adapted from DSM-IV Adaptive Functioning Scale, APA, 1994.

4374: 4117:"Cardiovascular reactivity, stress, and physical activity" 3695:

Shahab L, McGowan JA, Waller J, Smith SG (November 2018).

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Das Lidschlagverhalten als Indikator psychischer Belastung

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Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists

2762:

Measuring Stress: A Guide for Health and Social Scientists

2084:

Selye H (October 1975). "Implications of stress concept".

1737:

Progressive muscle relaxation – loosen tense muscle groups

5036:(7 ed.). Missouri: Mosby/Elsevier. pp. 160–173. 4941: 4295: 3974: 3768: 3545: 1960:. New York: St. Martins Press. pp. 37, 71, 92, 271. 1633: 1104:, are thought to be involved in the effects of stress on 220: 5018: 4166:

Kemeny ME (August 2003). "The Psychobiology of Stress".

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Journal writing – express true emotion, self-reflection

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of emotional strain and pressure. Stress is a type of

5441: 5439: 5051:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 68–92. 4989: 4987: 4922: 4920: 4918: 4248: 3965: 3573:"HHS 231 – Extended Campus – Oregon State University" 3431: 3196: 3194: 3062:. Human-computer interaction series. Cham: Springer. 2837: 2307: 1402: 1382:"Stress Reliever" redirects here. For the track, see 5547: 5224:(5th ed.). Toronto: Elsevier. pp. 472–488. 5185: 4492: 3338: 2792: 2140: 1668:

Other inhibition coping mechanisms include undoing,

1180:

A stressed woman waiting in line at a medical centre

3228:

International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction

3131: 1463:There are different classifications for coping, or 27:"Stressed out" redirects here. For other uses, see 5436: 5234: 5186:Baumeister RF, Dale K, Sommer KL (December 1998). 5049:Coping with Stress: Effective People and Processes 4984: 4915: 4486:Fundamentals of Nursing: Human and Health Function 4483: 4204:(pp. 1–25). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. 3592: 3191: 2047: 2009: 1731:Time management – develop an organizational system 5002:(4). Silver Spring, Maryland: St. Luke Institute. 4880: 4677: 4675: 3225: 2016:. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Company. p. 1511:Highly adaptive/active/problem-focused mechanisms 5619: 5106: 4503:(4th ed.). St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby/Elsevier. 4079: 3343:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 142–162. 3285: 3167:Handbook of human factors and ergonomics methods 2391: 2389: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2347: 2113: 2056:. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 5484: 4809: 4498: 4352: 4350: 3926: 3593:Cohen S, Murphy ML, Prather AA (January 2019). 3565: 3104:. 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"Ambient Stressors". 2464: 2179: 2074: 2034: 1618:Other adaptive coping mechanisms include 818:Serious illness requiring hospitalization 746:Jail sentence of parent for over one year 5071: 5046: 4758:. McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 261–. 4479: 4477: 4475: 4473: 4471: 3363: 2989: 2713: 2512: 2503: 2222:. Kirkland, WA: Huber. pp. 313–334. 1952: 1537: 1175: 850:Jail sentence of parent for over 30 days 116:, etc., which they then deem stressful. 5460:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207 5336: 4364:from the original on 11 September 2016. 4202:Social Psychology of Health and Illness 3993:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141 3787:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144141 3114: 2226: 2109: 2107: 2054:Stress Research Issues for the Eighties 882:Becoming involved with drugs or alcohol 5620: 5445: 5219: 4547: 4453:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163551 4165: 3320: 3200: 3132:Schlick C, Bruder R, Luczak H (2018). 2562: 2284: 1846:Complex post-traumatic stress disorder 1634:Mental inhibition/disavowal mechanisms 1337: 1195:hypothalamic pituitary adrenocorticoid 834:Not making an extracurricular activity 207:and catastrophes include: devastating 198: 5633:Stress (biological and psychological) 5400: 5031: 4876: 4874: 4872: 4853: 4851: 4849: 4847: 4810:Sutarto AP, Wahab MN, Zin NM (2015). 4751: 4681: 4550:Perspectives on Psychological Science 4484:Craven R, Hirnle C, Jensen S (2013). 4468: 3868: 3501: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2217: 2083: 2045: 2007: 986:Decrease in arguments between parents 954:Increased absence of parent from home 898:Increase in arguments between parents 810:Having a visible congenital deformity 587:Change in working hours or conditions 166: 5448:Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 5368:Clinical Psychology: An Introduction 5364: 5284: 4993: 4023: 3981:Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 3927:Greubel J, Kecklund G (March 2011). 3775:Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 3561:. Jon-David Hague. pp. 446–447. 3121:(Ph.D. thesis). Universität Potsdam. 2104: 2001: 1687: 1469: 1444: 1316: 1151:involves pupil dilation, release of 302: 230: 4881:Breus MJ, O'Connor PJ (July 1998). 4755:Comprehensive Stress Management 10E 4716: 3611:10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102857 3469:Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft 3025:Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft 2175:from the original on June 20, 2012. 1713: 1064:hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis 1042: 922:Change in parent's financial status 786:Discovery of being an adopted child 778:Pregnancy of unprepared for sibling 651:Change in number of family reunions 13: 5531:"Manage Stress - healthfinder.gov" 5478: 5403:"Mental Health and Mental Illness" 5256: 4869: 4844: 4731:10.1097/01.grf.0000141451.68933.9f 4719:Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 4434:Miller G, Chen E, Cole SW (2009). 3446:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1984.tb02312.x 3399:Ponder E, Kennedy WP (July 1927). 2635: 2134: 2086:New York State Journal of Medicine 1984:Stress: myth, theory, and research 1981:Jones F, Bright J, Clow A (2001). 1878:Mindfulness-based stress reduction 1403:Prevention and resilience building 994:Decrease in arguments with parents 515:Change in responsibilities at work 320: 14: 5644: 5523: 5371:. London: Routledge. p. 22. 5288:Stress, Social Support, And Women 4859:"Exercise for Stress and Anxiety" 4501:Foundations of mental health care 4026:Current Pain and Headache Reports 2574:Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1414:psychological resilience-building 1325:The System 1 – System 2 model of 1136:response involves high levels of 1029:Higher Education Stress Inventory 970:Addition of third adult to family 427:Change in health of family member 295:and employment after graduation). 5407:The Handy Psychology Answer Book 5394: 5357: 5329: 5316: 5278: 5250: 5228: 5222:Canadian Fundamentals of Nursing 5213: 5179: 4900:10.1097/00005768-199807000-00013 4772:from the original on 2017-02-18. 4572:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01122.x 3905:10.1001/jama.1997.03550150035018 3846:10.1097/00006842-199307000-00004 3745:"How stress affects your health" 3579:from the original on 2012-10-10. 3418:10.1113/expphysiol.1927.sp000433 3136:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. 2994:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. 2852:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02176.x 2116:Journal of Managerial Psychology 1987:. Pearson Education. p. 4. 1851:Conservation of resources theory 1474: 1285: 1280: 1171: 1122:disorders first begin to appear. 914:Outstanding personal achievement 794:Marriage of parent to stepparent 539:Outstanding personal achievement 491:Change in frequency of arguments 483:Change to different line of work 5324:a usage Ngram for the two terms 5170: 5100: 5065: 5040: 4935: 4927:Snyder CR, Lefcourt HM (2001). 4745: 4710: 4629: 4594: 4541: 4517: 4427: 4403: 4289: 4242: 4207: 4194: 4159: 4108: 4073: 4060: 4017: 3919: 3899:(15): 1231, author reply 1232. 3884: 3815: 3762: 3737: 3688: 3495: 3460: 3392: 3357: 3332: 3314: 3279: 3254: 3219: 3158: 3125: 3108: 3092: 3051: 3016: 2983: 2968: 2874: 2831: 2786: 2744: 2707: 2609:European Journal of Personality 2550: 2541: 2481: 2432: 2278: 2269: 2211: 507:Foreclosure of mortgage or loan 20:For other kinds of stress, see 4829:10.1080/10803548.2012.11076959 3506:. Wiesbaden: Springer Vieweg. 2161: 1974: 1946: 1921: 1014: 379:Death of a close family member 16:Feeling of strain and pressure 1: 4615:10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00065-4 4603:Social Science & Medicine 4251:Current Opinion in Psychiatry 3240:10.1080/10447318.2015.1084112 2804:, Underwood Gordon L (eds.). 2759:, Underwood Gordon L (eds.). 1914: 1893:Posttraumatic stress disorder 1762: 1370: 938:Being a senior in high school 930:Accepted at college of choice 770:Change in acceptance by peers 754:Marital separation of parents 730:Acquiring a visible deformity 267:This category includes daily 29:Stressed Out (disambiguation) 4263:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000223 4216:Psychology and Psychotherapy 3378:10.1080/07370024.2014.892428 3341:Handbook of psychophysiology 3134:Arbeitswissenschaft. 4. Aufl 2674:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106764 2586:10.1016/0022-3999(67)90010-4 2247:10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013 2155:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2012.12.008 1841:Cognitive behavioral therapy 946:Hospitalization of a sibling 826:Failure of a grade in school 738:Fathering an unwed pregnancy 327:Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale 263:Daily hassles/microstressors 193:cognitive-consistency theory 133:" comes from the Greek root 7: 5264:Online Etymology Dictionary 4440:Annual Review of Psychology 3599:Annual Review of Psychology 3557:Mitterer J, Coon D (2013). 2457:10.1016/j.exger.2014.06.019 1958:Why Zebras Don't Get Ulcers 1823: 1427:Exercising to reduce stress 1049:general adaptation syndrome 842:Hospitalization of a parent 627:Change in social activities 619:Change in church activities 571:Revision of personal habits 563:Change in living conditions 547:Spouse starts or stops work 10: 5649: 5144:Clinical Psychology Review 4696:10.1037/0003-066x.59.8.676 4650:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310 4499:Morrison-Valfre M (2009). 4094:10.1037/0882-7974.18.2.250 3713:10.1016/j.ejca.2018.03.029 3701:European Journal of Cancer 3559:Introduction to Psychology 3481:10.1007/s41449-019-00165-y 3366:Human–Computer Interaction 2322:10.1037/0278-6133.17.3.214 1756: 1448: 1388: 1381: 1377:Stress Relief (The Office) 1374: 1138:sympathetic nervous system 1068:sympathetic nervous system 387:Personal injury or illness 101:and also aggravation of a 18: 5591: 5551: 5238:Oxford English Dictionary 5156:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.04.005 5086:10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.89 5074:The American Psychologist 4684:The American Psychologist 4038:10.1007/s11916-009-0078-x 3512:10.1007/978-3-658-36052-8 3169:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 3142:10.1007/978-3-662-56037-2 3068:10.1007/978-3-319-31700-7 3000:10.1007/978-3-662-06968-4 2900:10.1186/s12909-016-0824-9 2653:Environment International 2410:10.1017/S0033291713000159 2128:10.1108/02683940610684391 1483:This section needs to be 1354:Social support and health 1158: 643:Change in sleeping habits 467:Change in financial state 148: 54: 45: 40: 5485:Kelly McGonigal (2015). 5034:Communication in Nursing 4389:10.1001/jama.298.14.1685 4134:10.3389/fphys.2013.00314 3946:10.2486/indhealth.ms1211 3401:"On the act of blinking" 2527:10.1177/0013916583153005 2515:Environment and Behavior 2445:Experimental Gerontology 1436:Theoretical explanations 858:Breaking up with partner 451:Gain a new family member 312:Organisational stressors 5243:Oxford University Press 5207:10.1111/1467-6494.00043 5121:10.1111/1467-8721.00073 4180:10.1111/1467-8721.01246 4121:Frontiers in Physiology 2285:Teo LY, Fam JY (2018). 2143:Organizational Dynamics 2012:Stress without distress 1331:Thinking, Fast and Slow 1248:individuals to exhibit 1126:The stage of exhaustion 1116:The stage of resistance 802:Death of a close friend 659:Change in eating habits 475:Death of a close friend 154:Neutrality of Stressors 55:A man expressing stress 22:Stress (disambiguation) 5504:Ian Robertson (2017). 5195:Journal of Personality 4638:Psychological Bulletin 3824:Psychosomatic Medicine 2398:Psychological Medicine 2052:. In Cooper CL (ed.). 1546: 1399:and physical changes. 1181: 1021:Galvanic Skin Response 874:Suspension from school 675:Minor violation of law 635:Minor mortgage or loan 411:Marital reconciliation 103:pre-existing condition 4786:Build your Resilience 4783:Robertson, D (2012). 3175:10.1201/9780203489925 2887:BMC Medical Education 2491:. TTGmice. 2013-04-25 2235:Behavioural Processes 1933:Mental Health America 1903:Psychoneuroimmunology 1831:Acute stress reaction 1541: 1211:childhood experiences 1179: 1002:Parent beginning work 906:Loss of job by parent 459:Business readjustment 5628:Psychological stress 4360:. 4 September 2013. 4082:Psychology and Aging 3325:Dissertationsschrift 3261:Schneider M (2019). 2557:Whicker, Marcia Lynn 1898:Psychological trauma 1888:Occupational burnout 1836:Adaptive performance 1600:Positive reappraisal 1384:R.E.D. (Ne-Yo album) 1245:Type A personalities 1134:physiological stress 962:Sibling leaving home 611:Change in recreation 531:Trouble with in-laws 41:Psychological stress 2990:Boucsein W (1988). 2665:2021EnInt.15606764Y 1883:Occupational stress 1451:Coping (psychology) 1408:professional help. 1338:Changes in the home 1108:, such as impaired 1106:executive functions 595:Change in residence 555:Begin or end school 443:Sexual difficulties 403:Dismissal from work 199:Crises/catastrophes 5592:External resources 5508:. Bloomsbury USA. 4929:Coping With Stress 4789:. London: Hodder. 4228:10.1111/papt.12089 3300:10.1007/BF01756035 3115:Ribback S (2005). 3037:10.1007/BF03373839 2946:10.1007/BF00381130 1706:Passive aggression 1661:Reaction formation 1547: 1465:defense mechanisms 1182: 1147:2012-10-10 at the 1060:The alarm reaction 890:Birth of a sibling 762:Death of a sibling 722:Divorce of parents 693:Life Change Units 523:Child leaving home 363:Marital separation 342:Life Change Units 167:Types of stressors 75:psychological pain 5615: 5614: 5401:Cohen LJ (2011). 5338:Pinkham, Lydia E. 5220:Potter P (2014). 4948:Health Psychology 4796:978-1-4441-6871-6 4765:978-0-07-067104-1 4510:978-0-323-05644-1 4383:(14): 1685–1687. 4302:Health Psychology 3933:Industrial Health 3521:978-3-658-36051-1 3321:Kerkau F (2005). 3151:978-3-662-56036-5 3077:978-3-319-31698-7 3009:978-3-662-06969-1 2840:Medical Education 2404:(11): 2403–2415. 2310:Health Psychology 2092:(12): 2139–2145. 1967:978-0-8050-7369-0 1688:Active mechanisms 1524:tend and befriend 1504: 1503: 1445:Coping mechanisms 1396:Stress management 1391:Stress management 1317:Language barriers 1209:), genetics, and 1203:impaired sleeping 1102:prefrontal cortex 1009: 1008: 866:Beginning to date 682: 681: 603:Change in schools 579:Trouble with boss 347:Death of a spouse 333:risk of illness. 303:Ambient stressors 231:Major life events 209:natural disasters 59: 58: 35:Medical condition 5640: 5549: 5548: 5544: 5542: 5541: 5535:healthfinder.gov 5519: 5500: 5472: 5471: 5443: 5434: 5433: 5424: 5423: 5398: 5392: 5391: 5386: 5385: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5333: 5327: 5320: 5314: 5313: 5307: 5305: 5282: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5271: 5254: 5248: 5246: 5241:(2nd ed.). 5232: 5226: 5225: 5217: 5211: 5210: 5192: 5183: 5177: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5044: 5038: 5037: 5032:Riley J (2012). 5029: 5016: 5013: 5004: 5003: 4991: 4982: 4981: 4971: 4960:10.1037/a0026743 4939: 4933: 4932: 4924: 4913: 4912: 4902: 4893:(7): 1107–1112. 4878: 4867: 4866: 4855: 4842: 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3265:(Ph.D. thesis). 3258: 3252: 3251: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3198: 3189: 3188: 3162: 3156: 3155: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3020: 3014: 3013: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2972: 2966: 2965: 2929: 2923: 2922: 2912: 2902: 2878: 2872: 2871: 2835: 2829: 2828: 2826: 2824: 2794:Kiecolt-Glaser J 2790: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2779: 2748: 2742: 2741: 2736: 2734: 2711: 2705: 2704: 2686: 2676: 2644: 2633: 2632: 2621:10.1002/per.1929 2604: 2598: 2597: 2569: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2510: 2501: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2485: 2479: 2478: 2468: 2436: 2430: 2429: 2393: 2384: 2383: 2372:10.1037/a0037009 2355: 2342: 2341: 2305: 2299: 2298: 2282: 2276: 2273: 2267: 2266: 2230: 2224: 2223: 2215: 2209: 2206: 2177: 2176: 2165: 2159: 2158: 2138: 2132: 2131: 2111: 2102: 2101: 2081: 2072: 2071: 2051: 2046:Selye H (1983). 2043: 2032: 2031: 2015: 2008:Selye H (1974). 2005: 1999: 1998: 1978: 1972: 1971: 1950: 1944: 1943: 1941: 1940: 1925: 1908:Stress (biology) 1873:Mental breakdown 1764: 1714:Health promotion 1628:self-observation 1499: 1496: 1490: 1478: 1477: 1470: 1348:imaginary friend 1043:Physical effects 687: 686: 336: 335: 247:of a loved one, 211:, such as major 95:mental illnesses 50: 38: 37: 32: 25: 5648: 5647: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5637: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5611: 5610: 5587: 5586: 5560: 5539: 5537: 5529: 5526: 5516: 5497: 5481: 5479:Further reading 5476: 5475: 5444: 5437: 5421: 5419: 5417: 5399: 5395: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5365:Carr A (2012). 5362: 5358: 5348: 5346: 5334: 5330: 5321: 5317: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5283: 5279: 5269: 5267: 5255: 5251: 5233: 5229: 5218: 5214: 5201:(6): 1081–124. 5190: 5184: 5180: 5175: 5171: 5140: 5136: 5105: 5101: 5070: 5066: 5059: 5045: 5041: 5030: 5019: 5014: 5007: 4992: 4985: 4940: 4936: 4925: 4916: 4879: 4870: 4857: 4856: 4845: 4808: 4804: 4797: 4781: 4777: 4766: 4750: 4746: 4715: 4711: 4680: 4673: 4634: 4630: 4599: 4595: 4563:10.1.1.713.8624 4546: 4542: 4533: 4531: 4529:medlineplus.gov 4523: 4522: 4518: 4511: 4497: 4493: 4482: 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