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positions, from which they could recruit more insurgents and receive supplies. However, SWALA remained stymied by its own over-extended logistics and geographic circumstances which made landing groups of armed partisans along the shoreline impossible. This forced the movement to continue sending cadres into South West Africa on long overland treks through Zambia, during which they had to cross through the
Caprivi Strip, a region which was heavily monitored by the SAP for precisely this reason. From 1966 until the disintegration of Portuguese colonial rule in Angola during the mid 1970s, all of SWALA's infiltration attempts were made through the Caprivi Strip. The incursions were almost wholly unsuccessful.
538:
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329:
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for official or private US aid, anti-colonial movements found that anti-communist credentials were valued above all others. SWAPO's
Marxist style rhetoric and promises of ending foreign exploitation of South West Africa's resources did little to endear it to the US, which had significant investments in the territory. Additionally, the US government argued that change could only come if the colonial governments assented to a peaceful political transition, and therefore discouraged black Africans from seeking political rights through violence.
777:, one of five potential bases identified by SWALA's initial reconnaissance team as appropriate sites to recruit and drill more insurgents. At the time, SWALA numbered only about 250 personnel, most of whom were still undergoing training at Kongwa. The insurgents at Omugulugwombashe succeeded in recruiting only about 30 locals before the location of their camp was reported to the SAP. Three policemen discreetly visited the site on August 23, 1966, and confirmed that the insurgents were there. The SAP requested military assistance, and the
632:(OAU) formed a Liberation Committee for the purpose of encouraging anti-colonial movements. The Liberation Committee collected approximately ÂŁ20,000 in contributions from OAU member states; these funds were promised to any South West African party on the condition they would use them for the express purpose of armed struggle. SWANU was denied the funds because it refused this condition. Accordingly, all the money was given to SWAPO. Most SWAPO members had studied in South Africa, where they had been radicalised by the activities of the
812:, attempted to lead a reconnaissance team into the Caprivi as part of a general survey aimed at opening new lines of communication between the front lines in South West Africa and SWALA's headquarters in Dar es Salaam. Heinyeko was intercepted by an SAP patrol, which killed him after a brief firefight. The SAP later tracked and killed another 5 insurgents, with 4 managing to escape back into Zambia. After this catastrophe, SWALA considered abandoning the Zambian front and opening up a new infiltration route through
1883:
1853:
1824:
1795:
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1705:
1647:
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805:. The SAP began carrying its own search and destroy operations to locate the insurgents after they attacked a white farmer. Again, extensive SADF assistance was utilised, in the form of aircraft on loan and counter-insurgency advisers. The South African government was initially reluctant to view SWALA's activities as a military problem, reflecting a trend among Anglophone Commonwealth states to regard the police as the principal force in the suppression of insurgencies.
317:
353:
40:
4116:
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744:, departed the Kongwa refugee camp to infiltrate South West Africa. SWALA's strategy at this point was to conduct passive reconnaissance and focus on the politicisation of the rural populace in Ovamboland as opposed to seeking out engagements with the South African security forces. Encouraged by South Africa's apparent failure to detect the initial incursion, larger cadres made their own infiltration attempts in February and March 1966. The second cadre,
341:
417:
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PLAN during the liberation struggle. The
Military Council was one of SWAPO's most solid branches during the liberation struggle. Its members were either regional commanders or political commissars while others were chosen by merit of their vast experience in the struggle. They were instrumental in creating the Operational Command Headquarters which was situated in Lumbango. The council was established under the leadership of
293:
365:
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conditions were favourable for the combatants. Vegetation was tall and this provided for cover. The
Oshanas were filled with drinking water that combatants needed during the long treks from their Angolan bases into Namibia. The rain also washed away any foot tracks, which rendered follow-up operations by South African forces difficult. Once in Namibia combatants either planted
729:. There was a more practical segment to the Soviet relationship with SWALA: the Soviet government hoped that the cultivation of socialist client states on the African continent would deny their economic and strategic resources to the West. The training courses SWALA recruits underwent in the Soviet Union included extensive political instruction in Marxist theory.
696:, Petrus Hambija and Lazarus Sakaria. They were also trained as company commanders so they could train and lead new recruits upon their return to Kongwa. Two years later, twelve recruits were sent to Ghana for six months of training. Other recruits were sent to Algeria, where they received eight months of basic instruction in small arms, explosives, laying
572:. Under the terms of the mandate, the South African government was only permitted to administer South West Africa until its inhabitants were prepared for their own political self-determination. However, South Africa interpreted the mandate as a veiled annexation and made no attempt to prepare South West Africa for future autonomy.
781:(SADF) was able to mobilise a small force of paratroops to attack the camp. Paramilitary officers of the SAP's Reaction Unit were also flown into South West Africa for the raid. The attack on Omugulugwombashe commenced on August 26, with the paratroops and policemen rappelling into the camp from eight SADF
847:
The party president was also the
Commander-in-Chief of PLAN and chairman of the SWAPO Military Council. Under the president, a deputy chief commander was also the commander of the army, being responsible for all PLAN operations and activities. Below the commander was the Secretary of Defence, who was
792:
The South
African government subsequently arrested 37 of SWAPO's most prominent leaders and tried them, along with the captured SWALA insurgents, on charges of terrorism and armed insurrection. The defence counsel argued that because SWAPO did not recognise South Africa's administration of South West
724:
ideology. This radicalisation helped reinforce a wider shift to the left in Third World politics and made the Soviet Union the more credible of the superpowers in anti-colonial causes. For its part, the Soviet Union approved of SWAPO's decision to adopt guerrilla warfare because it was not optimistic
716:
to deliver an advisory opinion opposed to South
African territorial ambitions. Its postwar anti-colonial rhetoric made it a potentially important source of anti-colonial support, and for a time Washington was a major stop for nationalist leaders touring the world for benefactors. But when campaigning
829:
The SWAPO Military
Council was the highest decision-making body of the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN). The council was constituted in 1977 and met once a year to review the political and military situation and the progress of the war. It drew up strategies for the operations conducted by
1035:
The first incursions were staged from Zambia into the
Caprivi strip by combatants in the early 1960s. PLAN incursions from Angola into Namibia restarted in earnest after the Portuguese withdrawal from Angola in 1975. Infiltration began particularly after the first rains during the rainy season when
756:
and set off on foot towards
Ovamboland. The incursion in February was a failure, as the insurgents accidentally crossed into Angola and became involved with an altercation with two local shopkeepers there. Three were subsequently arrested by the Portuguese authorities in that country. Their capture
483:
and acts of sabotage. PLAN initially lacked any standing units, and the bulk of operations were carried out by political exiles who spent cyclical periods residing in refugee camps in neighbouring states before launching raids inside South West Africa itself. By the end of the war, PLAN had 32,000
707:
and other Western states through their respective embassies in Dar es Salaam. During the 1940s, the US and South African governments had clashed over the latter's nettlesome attempts to annex South West Africa as a fifth province. The US had consistently voted against annexation proposals in the
2168:
The bulk of PLAN's manpower was demobilised between May and December 1989. However, a small number of PLAN troops remained in reserve until after Namibian independence. The last of PLAN's heavy equipment and troops were not repatriated to Namibia until 1990, when they were integrated with the
843:
The Operational Command Headquarters was a highest level military command within PLAN consisting of the commander of PLAN and its deputy, PLAN chief political commissar, chief of staff, and all other departments within PLAN. SWAPO had developed structures to manage and control its armed wing,
796:
Despite this setback, SWALA remained under pressure from the SWAPO leadership and pan-African strategists on the OAU Liberation Committee to establish "liberated zones" or "semi-liberated zones" in South West Africa. This strategy depended on the insurgents being able to seize and hold static
957:
For administration purposes, the theater of operations was divided into four different military regions that were later called "fronts", with each front having its own Regional Commander, assisted by a Political Commissar and a Chief of Staff as part of the front's Command structure.
800:
The arrest of so much of SWAPO's internal leadership in mid 1966 effectively decapitated SWALA at the command level for months. It was not until December 1966 that the movement attempted to launch another major raid into South West Africa, this time further to the south near
651:, where SWAPO's traditional political base was located. Pohamba and Muatale succeeded in recruiting hundreds of volunteers for a new guerrilla army, which was subsequently named the South West African Liberation Army (SWALA). SWALA's headquarters was established in
515:
adopted a resolution which proclaimed that, in accordance with the desires of its people, South West Africa be renamed "Namibia". Thereafter, SWAPO started using the term "Namibia" more frequently in its political discourse, and SWALA began to be referred to as the
575:
During the late 1950s and early 1960s, pressure for global decolonisation and national self-determination began mounting on the African continent; these factors had a radical impact on South West African nationalism. Early nationalist organisations such as the
2249:
834:
who served as the first SWAPO Secretary of Defence. Nanyemba was delegated by the President to chair the council for the first five years until he, as the Commander-in-Chief, and as per requirement of both SWAPO Constitution and PLAN manual took over.
495:(UNTAG) and repatriated to South West Africa. A small number remained in reserve until after Namibian independence, when they were also repatriated. The last PLAN troops and equipment were returned to Namibia in mid-1990 for integration with the new
793:
Africa as legitimate, its members could not be tried under South African laws by a South African court. The court rejected this opinion, and at least 20 of the detainees were given life sentences, while another 9 were given twenty year sentences.
700:, radio communications, and political theory. SWALA personnel selected for more specialised instruction were sent to the Soviet Union. By 1965, there were also SWALA recruits undergoing training in North Korea and the People's Republic of China.
848:
in charge of logistical operations. He reported to and advised the National Executive. Military operations were organised by the commanders of the different regions, who were responsible for making recommendations to the Secretary of Defence.
725:
about any solution to the South West African problem short of revolutionary struggle. It also possessed a marked antipathy towards the South African government, which Moscow viewed as a regional Western ally and a bastion of
1068:, the PLAN did not have permanent bases located closer to the Namibian–Angolan border as compared to a conventional army. In reality, base-camps were set up on a temporary basis as the security situation changed every time.
608:
had the effect of encouraging nationalist parties to take up arms against colonial powers elsewhere. Furthermore, the armed revolution figured prominently in the rhetoric of Africa's leading statesmen at the time, such as
2246:
683:
all offered free training programmes for SWALA recruits, provided they were able to make the necessary travel arrangements. The first seven SWALA recruits were sent to Egypt for training that year. These were
621:, to whom these parties looked to for political inspiration. SWAPO's first attempt to recruit guerrillas also coincided with uprisings against colonial rule in several neighbouring territories, namely
487:
PLAN launched its largest and final offensive between late April and early March 1989. Thereafter, it ceased operations due to the ongoing peace process in South West Africa and withdrew to above the
584:(SWAPO) made determined attempts to establish indigenous political structures for an independent South West Africa. SWAPO first discussed the possibility of armed struggle at its party conference in
785:
helicopters on loan to the SAP. The SWALA camp was destroyed and the insurgents suffered 2 dead, 1 seriously wounded, and 8 captured. This was the first engagement of what became known as the
3227:
720:
One consequence of this attitude was that SWALA followed most other African anti-colonial armies in becoming more definitively oriented towards the Soviet bloc and adopting forms of
600:
SWAPO's decision to take up arms against the South African government may be linked to a variety of political factors. The success of indigenous anti-colonial guerrilla movements in
1019:"Zulu" as founding Commander who then was succeeded by Shilongo Elia, Nguluma Sheehama, Ehrenfried "Baby" Jeombe, Festus "Uudjuu wa Nangula" Hamukoto & Tomas "Mapaya" Shuuya.
659:, which was sympathetic to SWAPO's cause. The Tanzanian government permitted SWALA to set up a training camp at Kongwa, where the volunteers would receive guerrilla training. The
4119:
1574:
SWAPO T-34s were never deployed during offensive operations against the South African military, being confined to the role of protecting strategic bases inside northern Angola.
3526:
765:. SWAPO sources maintain that some of those captured by the police were later permitted to escape and make their way back to Kongwa, albeit as South African informants.
4145:
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1060:. Its main guerrilla training camps were located inside Angola, the Tobias Hainyeko Training Centre (THTC) and the Jumbo Training Centre (JTC), both located around
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475:. Throughout its history, PLAN had both irregular insurgent and semi-conventional units, as well as an extensive recruitment network in rural
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816:. In December 1969, a group of insurgents were intercepted by the SAP shortly after crossing the Botswana border and 4 were killed.
1320:
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Wilbardt "Nakada" Tashiya as founding Commander who then was succeeded by Uuno "Kanana" Shaanika & Erastus "Zicky" Negonga.
3881:
3569:
1296:
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Most of the SWALA's support came from socialist nations. However, SWALA representatives also requested direct support from the
996:
Absai Hanghome as founding Commander who then was succeeded by Joseph Amunyela wa Shalali and later Ehrenfried "Baby" Jeombe.
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1175:, who provided weapons, ammunition, vehicles and other non-lethal military equipment, such as field radios and uniforms.
2806:. Basel, Switzerland: Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Center and Southern Africa Library. pp. 36–41.
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from Algeria and the Soviet Union. In September 1965, the first cadre of six SWALA guerrillas, identified simply as
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1952:
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2202:. Basel: Basler Afrika Bibliographien Namibia Resource Center and Southern Africa Library. pp. 143–153.
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Volcano unit – this was a special commando force that was trained to infiltrate the Farming areas south of
202:
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militants under arms, including three battalions of semi-conventional troops equipped with heavy weapons.
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made the decision to begin recruiting South West Africans and send them for guerrilla training overseas.
464:
3939:
1004:
Matias Mbulunganga Ndakolo as founding Commander who then was succeeded by George "Chicken" Kaxuxwena,
752:"Castro" or "Leonard Nangolo". The insurgents travelled from Tanzania to Zambia, then crossed into the
721:
561:
2948:
United States Relations with South Africa: A Critical Overview from the Colonial Period to the Present
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PLAN operated numerous base-camps and support facilities, which were initially set up across Southern
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National Liberation in Postcolonial Southern Africa: A Historical Ethnography of SWAPO's Exile Camps
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2980:
The Origins of the Angolan Civil War: Foreign Intervention and Domestic Political Conflict, 1961-76
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491:. The bulk of PLAN's forces were disarmed and demobilized on its Angolan camps in late 1989 by the
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National Liberation Movements in Office: Forging Democracy with African Adjectives in Namibia
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Surviving the Ride: A pictorial history of South African Manufactured Mine-Protected vehicles
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National Liberation Movements in Office: Forging Democracy with African Adjectives in Namibia
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1979:
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Beginning in March 1962 Nujoma dispatched two recruiters, Lucas Pohamba and Elia Muatale, to
230:
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Peoples Liberation Army of Namibia, or PLAN (army of SWAPO) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
773:
In September 1965, SWALA established its first training camp on South West African soil, at
4071:
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2405:. Frankfurt: Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften. pp. 106–168.
758:
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240:
8:
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640:. They decided to model the movement's new military wing on that established by the ANC,
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225:
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The Namibian War of Independence, 1966-1989: Diplomatic, Economic and Military Campaigns
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3806:
3786:
3782:
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Soviet Union and Revolutionary Warfare: Principles, Practices, and Regional Comparisons
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The Inevitable Pipeline Into Exile. Botswana's Role in the Namibian Liberation Struggle
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2200:
Contesting Caprivi: A History of Colonial Isolation and Regional Nationalism in Namibia
2016:
1326:
1204:
614:
260:
2748:
International Law from Below: Development, Social Movements and Third World Resistance
2592:. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Incorporated Publishers. pp. 74–77, 93–95.
524:(PLAN). The title may have been adopted informally or semi-formally as early as 1969.
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220:
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A Military History of South Africa: From the Dutch-Khoi Wars to the End of Apartheid
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while the North-Eastern, Northern and North-Western Fronts were located in Southern
844:
structurally, the Central Committee and the National Executive controlled the army.
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1044:(SADF) convoys, or attacked SADF bases from a stand-off distance by using mortars.
774:
601:
250:
235:
210:
2287:"Peter Mweshihange: The cornerstone of Namibia's liberation struggle. (1930-1998)"
2140:(SWATF), the military and security arm of the former South African administration.
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2533:
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761:(SAP) successfully intercepted the guerrillas involved in the March incursion in
685:
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61:
39:
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1938:
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Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization
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1947:
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879:
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148:
69:
2950:. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Incorporated. pp. 143–146, 227–228.
1040:, sabotaged administration infrastructure i.e. electricity pylons, ambushed
4036:
3715:
3599:
3554:
2247:
Peter Eneas Nanyemba affectionately known as "Ndlimani Yomukunda Gwamupolo"
2001:
1968:
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SWALA suffered a second major reversal on 18 May 1967, when its commander,
802:
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and deposed the German colonial administration. The end of the war and the
398:
322:
310:
3117:
From Fledgling to Eagle: The South African Air Force during the Border War
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Namibia and Southern Africa: Regional Dynamics of Decolonization, 1945-90
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Flight Plan Africa: Portuguese Airpower in Counterinsurgency, 1961–1974
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479:(Namibia). During the war most of its domestic activities consisted of
119:
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Ex-Combatants and the Post-Conflict State: Challenges of Reintegration
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Special flights: the GDR and liberation movements in southern Africa
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3144:. Santa Barbara: Praeger Security International. pp. 169–185.
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433:
195:
2667:
Soviet Strategy in Southern Africa: Gorbachev's Pragmatic Approach
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The North-Eastern Front Front had these fighters as its Commander;
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alerted the South African government to SWALA's presence, and the
4066:
1845:
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1160:
1136:
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520:(NPA). It was not until 1973 that SWALA was formally renamed the
346:
166:
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3387:
2920:. Basel: P. Schlettwein Publishing Switzerland. pp. 27–39.
3623:
3045:. Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific. pp. 260–271.
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Sure Road? Nationalisms in Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique
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The Northern-Western Front had these fighters as its Commander;
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2500:. London: Kegan Paul International. pp. 73–87, 100–116.
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left South Africa in possession of South West Africa under a
334:
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3199:
3197:
3195:
2778:. London: I.B. Tauris & Company, Ltd. pp. 251–261.
1955:(with PLAN's forerunner, South West African Liberation Army)
992:
The Eastern Front Front had these fighters as its Commander;
3016:. Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press. pp.
2918:
Swapo's Struggle for Namibia, 1960–1991: War by Other Means
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Warfare by Other Means: South Africa in the 1980s and 1990s
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2725:. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 16–34.
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Peter, Abbott; Helmoed-Romer Heitman; Paul Hannon (1991).
975:
The Eastern Front was the only military region located in
3397:, Weapon series 2, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford. p. 68.
3192:
3171:"The Villager-Whatever happened to the Military Council?"
2750:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 50–68.
2700:. Alberton: Lemur Books (Pty) Ltd. pp. 20, 89, 260.
2475:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 73–89.
1816:
1787:
1486:
1338:
1244:
1219:
1209:
3448:. Windhoek, South West Africa (Namibia). 12 October 1984
2357:. Johannesburg: Galago Publishing Pty Ltd. p. 379.
2216:
748:, was led by Leonard Philemon Shuuya, also known by the
1012:
The Northern Front had these fighters as its Commander;
2886:
Derluguian, Georgi (1997). Morier-Genoud, Eric (ed.).
1111:
Besides enjoying political support and sanctuary from
2638:
Camp, Steve; Helmoed-Römer, Heitman (November 2014).
1670:
3500:. New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers. pp.
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3306:
Koevoet! Experiencing South Africa's Deadly Bush War
3073:. Solihull: Helion & Company. pp. 362–363.
2615:
Koevoet! Experiencing South Africa's Deadly Bush War
1131:, the PLAN received military assistance mainly from
2982:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 50–61.
2329:. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan. pp. 81–88.
838:
3493:
3467:Schleicher, Hans-Georg; Schleicher, Ilona (1998).
3119:. Solihull: Helion & Company. pp. 42–53.
3009:
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2435:. London: Panaf Books. pp. 157–160, 228–242.
2118:People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola
4146:Military units and formations established in 1966
3328:
2637:
4132:
3040:
2890:. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV. pp. 81–95.
2855:
2617:. Solihull: Helion and Company. pp. 86–93.
2146:(NDF), the current national military of Namibia.
3333:(2009 ed.). Peter Lang GMBH. p. 159.
3041:Magyar, Karl; Danopoulos, Constantine (2002) .
2723:African Yearbook of International Law, Volume I
2671:. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. pp.
3281:"SWAPO - How Moscow Battalion came into being"
2881:
2879:
2877:
2642:. Pinetown: 30 Degrees South. pp. 19–22.
692:, Vilho Haitembu, Titus Muailepeni Shitilifa,
44:PLAN insurgents on the march in Angola, 1980s.
3570:
3308:. Solihull: Helion and Company. p. 260.
3275:
3273:
856:The command structure of PLAN consisted of:
4077:South Africa and weapons of mass destruction
3584:
2858:The Devils Are Among Us: The War for Namibia
1905:
493:United Nations Transitional Assistance Group
3165:
3163:
3161:
2874:
2631:
2400:
896:PLAN Chief of Counter Intelligence: Israel
553:during the late nineteenth century. During
3970:United Nations Transition Assistance Group
3577:
3563:
3524:
3417:Modern African Wars (3): South-West Africa
3270:
3133:
2973:
2971:
2969:
2967:
2885:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2535:Modern African Wars (3): South-West Africa
2320:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2306:
549:had administered Namibia as the colony of
3139:
3003:
3001:
2999:
2977:
2911:
2909:
2907:
2860:. London: Zed Books Ltd. pp. 14–23.
2841:
2839:
2837:
2835:
2833:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2825:
2823:
2797:
2795:
2745:
2739:
2426:
2424:
2422:
2396:
2394:
2193:
2191:
2189:
1508:
824:
507:SWAPO's military wing was founded as the
4151:1966 establishments in South West Africa
3158:
3110:
3043:Prolonged Wars: A Post Nuclear Challenge
2941:
2939:
2937:
2856:Herbstein, Denis; Evenson, John (1989).
2769:
2767:
2662:
2656:
2606:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2575:
2470:
2392:
2390:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2348:
2346:
2324:
1106:
628:Yet another incentive appeared when the
588:in 1961. In March 1962, SWAPO president
582:South West African People's Organisation
536:
3413:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3098:
3096:
3094:
3092:
3090:
3064:
3062:
2964:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2557:
2555:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2303:
2284:
2197:
2150:
1076:Main PLAN combat formations comprised:
927:PLAN Chief of Medical Health Services:
461:South West Africa People's Organisation
14:
4133:
3442:"SWAPO strengthened by Red T-34 tanks"
3303:
3297:
3262:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
3034:
3007:
2996:
2915:
2904:
2820:
2801:
2792:
2612:
2495:
2489:
2430:
2419:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2186:
1487:Anti-tank rocket and grenade launchers
986:
511:(SWALA) in 1962. On 12 June 1968, the
105:Chairman of the SWAPO Military Council
3980:1989 Namibian parliamentary elections
3558:
3491:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3350:
2978:Guimaraes, Fernando Andresen (2001).
2945:
2934:
2773:
2764:
2720:
2714:
2695:
2689:
2371:
2352:
2343:
2262:
2240:
1265:SG-43/SGM Goryunov medium machine gun
557:, South African troops under General
3471:. Harare: SAPES Books. p. 213.
3114:
3087:
3068:
3059:
2587:
2552:
2538:. Osprey Publishing. pp. 5–13.
2471:Williams, Christian (October 2015).
2449:
1332:
851:
469:South West African Territorial Force
4186:Military wings of socialist parties
3496:The battlefronts of Southern Africa
2525:
2273:
2138:South West Africa Territorial Force
1520:
952:
768:
522:People's Liberation Army of Namibia
453:People's Liberation Army of Namibia
33:People's Liberation Army of Namibia
24:
3366:Namimbian Broadcasting Corporation
3347:
2162:
1671:Rocket systems and towed artillery
1285:
25:
18:Peoples Liberation Army of Namibia
4197:
4161:Communist organizations in Africa
3543:
3420:. Osprey Publishing. p. 33.
3368:. 25 January 2020. Archived from
2802:MĂĽller, Johann Alexander (2012).
1515:SA-7 Grail surface-to-air missile
578:South West African National Union
509:South West Africa Liberation Army
4115:
4114:
4105:
4104:
3721:Ovamboland People's Organization
3660:Internal resistance to apartheid
3362:"Their Blood Waters Our Freedom"
2746:Rajagopal, Balakrishnan (2003).
2285:Shiremo, Shampapi (6 May 2011).
1953:Julius Shaambeni Shilongo Mnyika
1881:
1851:
1822:
1793:
1763:
1733:
1703:
1645:
1615:
1585:
1553:
1205:PPS wz. 1943/1952 submachine gun
1008:& Ehrenfried "Baby" Jeombe.
839:Operational Command Headquarters
426:
415:
403:
391:
374:
363:
351:
339:
327:
315:
303:
291:
38:
3705:Bantustans in South West Africa
3525:Guy Martin (3 September 2013).
3518:
3485:
3460:
3434:
3414:Heitman, Helmoed-Romer (1991).
3407:
3322:
3220:
2514:
819:
732:In 1963, SWALA began receiving
513:United Nations General Assembly
502:
463:(SWAPO). It fought against the
459:) was the military wing of the
2155:
1270:DShkM 12.7mm Heavy machine gun
1080:1st Motorized Infantry Brigade
884:PLAN Chief of Reconnaissance:
714:International Court of Justice
13:
1:
4087:Southern Africa Freedom Trail
2774:Louis, William Roger (2006).
2180:
1481:82-BM-41 (M-1937) 82mm mortar
1354:POMZ-2/2M anti-personnel mine
1178:
1047:
933:PLAN Chief of Communication:
630:Organisation of African Unity
532:
4166:Anti-Apartheid organisations
3769:Cuban intervention in Angola
3686:South African administration
3550:Namibian camouflage patterns
3395:The Rocket-propelled Grenade
1366:PP Mi-SR anti-personnel mine
1363:PP Mi-BA anti-personnel mine
1280:Dragunov SVD-63 sniper rifle
935:Augustus "McNamara" Nghaamwa
890:PLAN Chief of Intelligence:
722:national liberation movement
7:
4181:Military history of Namibia
3393:L. Rottman, Gordon (2010).
3140:Stapleton, Timothy (2010).
2401:Torreguitar, Elena (2009).
2130:, the military wing of the
2111:
1627:Armoured Personnel Carrier
1597:Armoured Personnel Carrier
1408:PT Mi-Ba-III anti-tank mine
1359:PP Mi-D anti-personnel mine
1349:PMN-1/2 anti-personnel mine
1042:South African Defence Force
1030:
915:PLAN Chief of Air Defence:
909:PLAN Chief of Engineering:
779:South African Defence Force
465:South African Defence Force
27:Namibian political movement
10:
4202:
3741:Battle of Omugulugwombashe
3329:Elena Torreguitar (2009).
2325:McMullin, Jaremey (2013).
2259:Newspaper, 17 October 2014
1469:
1403:PT Mi-Ba-II anti-tank mine
1398:PROM-1 anti-personnel mine
1393:PMR-2A anti-personnel mine
1173:People's Republic of China
878:PLAN Chief of Operations:
681:People's Republic of China
595:
527:
80:SWAPO Secretary of Defence
4100:
4057:End Conscription Campaign
4024:
3998:
3962:
3900:Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
3882:Aeroflot An-12 shoot-down
3729:
3673:
3647:
3592:
2721:Yusuf, Abdulqawi (1994).
2198:Kangumu, Bennett (2011).
2132:African National Congress
1906:Notable former combatants
1863:Anti-aircraft Autocannon
1834:Anti-aircraft Autocannon
1805:Anti-aircraft Autocannon
1715:Multiple Rocket Launcher
1388:PMR-1 anti-personnel mine
1383:PMA-3 anti-personnel mine
1378:PMA-2 anti-personnel mine
1374:PMA-1 anti-personnel mine
1370:PPM-2 anti-personnel mine
1344:PMD-6 anti-personnel mine
1339:OZM-4 anti-personnel mine
939:PLAN Chief of Personnel:
921:PLAN Chief of Logistics:
903:PLAN Chief of Artillery:
783:AĂ©rospatiale Alouette III
634:African National Congress
570:League of Nations mandate
439:
386:
286:
275:
259:
201:
179:
141:
131:
49:
37:
32:
4052:Democratic International
3891:Operation Alpha Centauri
3711:Decolonisation of Africa
3681:German South West Africa
3586:South African Border War
3380:– via Youtube.com.
3008:Shultz, Richard (1988).
2663:Vanneman, Peter (1990).
1260:ZB-53 medium machine gun
1210:SKS semi-automatic rifle
1071:
787:South African Border War
551:German South West Africa
473:South African Border War
4176:Guerrilla organizations
4047:Constructive engagement
3974:Australian contribution
3858:Angola–Cuba Declaration
3527:"Namibia Defence Force"
3205:Ekandjo, Peter (2014).
2916:Dobell, Lauren (1998).
2496:Dreyer, Ronald (1994).
2431:Nujoma, Samuel (2001).
2225:Ekandjo, Peter (2014).
2120:, the military wing of
2070:Epaphras Denga Ndaitwah
2027:Kayambu Erasmus Amupolo
1446:TM-62B/M anti-tank mine
1323:anti-tank rifle grenade
1064:. Due to the nature of
1006:Ruben "Danger Ashipala"
947:Kayambu Erasmus Amupolo
866:PLAN Deputy Commander:
636:(ANC), namely the 1952
261:Political position
4120:Battles and operations
3930:Operation Excite/Hilti
3716:Old Location shootings
3175:www.thevillager.com.na
2946:Lulat, Y.G.M. (1992).
2588:Dale, Richard (2014).
2171:Namibian Defence Force
2144:Namibian Defence Force
1509:Anti-aircraft missiles
1413:PT-MI-K anti-tank mine
1299:anti-personnel grenade
1200:PPSh-41 submachine gun
1056:and later in Southern
917:Andrew "Bongi" Intamba
886:Isaak "Pondo" Shikongo
825:SWAPO Military Council
542:
518:Namibian People's Army
497:Namibian Defence Force
4092:Western Contact Group
4042:Cuba–Angola airbridge
3492:Legum, Colin (1987).
3304:Hooper, Jim (2013) .
2696:Stiff, Peter (1989).
2613:Hooper, Jim (2013) .
2353:Stiff, Peter (2001).
2085:Nestor Shali Shalauda
2061:Jesaya Elago Kambonde
1980:Charles Ndaxu Namoloh
1944:Jesaya Elago Kambonde
1465:UKA-63 anti-tank mine
1451:TMD-44 anti-tank mine
1245:RPK light machine gun
1225:Type 56 assault rifle
1107:Weapons and equipment
874:Charles Ndaxu Namoloh
872:PLAN Chief-of-Staff:
694:Patrick Israel Iyambo
540:
231:Left-wing nationalism
4156:Communism in Namibia
4072:Operation IA Feature
3935:Brazzaville Protocol
3774:Turnhalle Convention
3235:ujdigispace.uj.ac.za
3209:, p. 47., Windhoek.
2433:Where others wavered
2229:, p. 38., Windhoek.
2151:Notes and references
1461:TMK-2 anti-tank mine
1456:TMD-B anti-tank mine
1441:TM-57 anti-tank mine
1436:TM-46 anti-tank mine
1432:TMA-5 anti-tank mine
1428:TMA-4 anti-tank mine
1423:TMA-3 anti-tank mine
1418:TMA-2 anti-tank mine
1185:Tokarev TT-33 pistol
759:South African Police
736:submachine guns and
566:Treaty of Versailles
241:Scientific socialism
4141:Military of Namibia
3877:Operation Wallpaper
3793:Settlement Proposal
3691:Bondelswarts affair
3446:Windhoek Advertiser
3207:The Volunteers Army
3115:Lord, Dick (2012).
3069:Cann, John (2015).
2227:The Volunteers Army
1215:AK-47 assault rifle
987:Regional Commanders
971:North-Western Front
965:North-Eastern Front
712:and even urged the
562:occupied the colony
489:16th parallel south
471:(SWATF) during the
226:African nationalism
180:Active regions
3925:Operation Displace
3807:Operation Saffraan
3787:Battle of Cassinga
3783:Operation Reindeer
3764:Operation Savannah
3285:www.swapoparty.org
2252:2015-07-31 at the
2017:Eliaser Tuhadeleni
1893:Anti-aircraft Gun
615:Gamal Abdel Nasser
543:
133:Dates of operation
4128:
4127:
3940:Tripartite Accord
3906:Operation Moduler
3872:Operation Magneto
3835:Operation Kerslig
3816:Operation Sceptic
3802:Operation Rekstok
3655:Angolan Civil War
3648:Related conflicts
3511:978-0-8419-1144-4
3478:978-1-77905-071-7
3427:978-1-85532-122-9
3403:978 1 84908 153 5
3340:978-3-631-57995-4
3215:978-99945-78-18-4
2545:978-1-85532-122-9
2364:978-1-919854-01-4
2336:978-1-349-33179-6
2235:978-99945-78-18-4
2128:Umkhonto we Sizwe
2042:Erastus Kashopola
1974:Peter Nambundunga
1964:Peter Mweshihange
1933:Fillipus Nandenga
1903:
1902:
1668:
1667:
1333:Land mine systems
1327:M60 rifle grenade
1317:anti-tank grenade
1275:M/52 sniper rifle
1220:AKM assault rifle
1190:Makarov PM pistol
1066:guerrilla warfare
1017:Fillipus Nandenga
911:Nande Shafombambi
852:Command structure
655:, the capital of
642:Umkhonto we Sizwe
638:Defiance Campaign
477:South West Africa
449:
448:
411:South West Africa
221:African socialism
184:South West Africa
95:Peter Mweshihange
16:(Redirected from
4193:
4118:
4117:
4108:
4107:
3985:Caprivi conflict
3954:Operation Merlyn
3945:Oshakati bombing
3920:Operation Packer
3911:Operation Hooper
3844:Operation Askari
3825:Operation Protea
3579:
3572:
3565:
3556:
3555:
3538:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3522:
3516:
3515:
3499:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3464:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3438:
3432:
3431:
3411:
3405:
3391:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3377:
3372:on April 4, 2023
3358:
3345:
3344:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3301:
3295:
3294:
3292:
3291:
3277:
3268:
3267:
3261:
3253:
3251:
3249:
3243:
3237:. Archived from
3232:
3224:
3218:
3203:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3177:. Archived from
3167:
3156:
3155:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3112:
3085:
3084:
3066:
3057:
3056:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3018:121–123, 140–145
3015:
3005:
2994:
2993:
2975:
2962:
2961:
2943:
2932:
2931:
2913:
2902:
2901:
2883:
2872:
2871:
2853:
2818:
2817:
2799:
2790:
2789:
2771:
2762:
2761:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2698:Nine Days of War
2693:
2687:
2686:
2670:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2649:978-1928211-17-4
2635:
2629:
2628:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2585:
2550:
2549:
2529:
2523:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2493:
2487:
2486:
2468:
2447:
2446:
2428:
2417:
2416:
2398:
2369:
2368:
2350:
2341:
2340:
2322:
2301:
2300:
2295:. Archived from
2282:
2271:
2266:
2260:
2244:
2238:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2195:
2174:
2166:
2095:Wilbard Shikongo
2075:Sinsy Nghipandua
2047:Matheus Alueendo
2012:Helao Shityuwete
1997:Sakaria Nashandi
1935:"Commander Zulu"
1928:Hidipo Hamutenya
1887:
1885:
1884:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1769:
1767:
1766:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1675:
1674:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1621:
1619:
1618:
1591:
1589:
1588:
1559:
1557:
1556:
1525:
1524:
1521:Armored vehicles
1083:Moscow Battalion
953:Military regions
860:PLAN Commander:
775:Omugulugwombashe
769:Early activities
602:French Indochina
440:Battles and wars
432:
430:
429:
420:
419:
418:
409:
407:
406:
397:
395:
394:
379:
378:
377:
368:
367:
366:
357:
355:
354:
345:
343:
342:
333:
331:
330:
321:
319:
318:
309:
307:
306:
297:
295:
294:
282:
251:Marxism-Leninism
236:Anti-imperialism
211:Anti-colonialism
172:
163:
154:
134:
124:
116:
99:
91:
74:
66:
42:
30:
29:
21:
4201:
4200:
4196:
4195:
4194:
4192:
4191:
4190:
4131:
4130:
4129:
4124:
4096:
4020:
4016:Fort Klapperkop
3994:
3990:Bicesse Accords
3958:
3867:Operation Argon
3830:Operation Daisy
3759:Alvor Agreement
3750:Alcora Exercise
3725:
3696:1946 referendum
3669:
3643:
3588:
3583:
3546:
3541:
3531:
3529:
3523:
3519:
3512:
3490:
3486:
3479:
3465:
3461:
3451:
3449:
3440:
3439:
3435:
3428:
3412:
3408:
3392:
3385:
3375:
3373:
3360:
3359:
3348:
3341:
3327:
3323:
3316:
3302:
3298:
3289:
3287:
3279:
3278:
3271:
3255:
3254:
3247:
3245:
3244:on 24 June 2016
3241:
3230:
3228:"Archived copy"
3226:
3225:
3221:
3204:
3193:
3184:
3182:
3169:
3168:
3159:
3152:
3138:
3134:
3127:
3113:
3088:
3081:
3067:
3060:
3053:
3039:
3035:
3028:
3006:
2997:
2990:
2976:
2965:
2958:
2944:
2935:
2928:
2914:
2905:
2898:
2884:
2875:
2868:
2854:
2821:
2814:
2800:
2793:
2786:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2661:
2657:
2650:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2611:
2607:
2600:
2586:
2553:
2546:
2530:
2526:
2519:
2515:
2508:
2494:
2490:
2483:
2469:
2450:
2443:
2429:
2420:
2413:
2399:
2372:
2365:
2351:
2344:
2337:
2323:
2304:
2283:
2274:
2267:
2263:
2254:Wayback Machine
2245:
2241:
2224:
2217:
2210:
2196:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2177:
2167:
2163:
2158:
2153:
2114:
2109:
2090:Tomas Hamunyela
1992:Monica Nashandi
1959:Philemon Moongo
1918:Tobias Hainyeko
1913:Danger Ashipala
1908:
1882:
1880:
1852:
1850:
1823:
1821:
1794:
1792:
1764:
1762:
1734:
1732:
1704:
1702:
1673:
1646:
1644:
1616:
1614:
1586:
1584:
1554:
1552:
1523:
1511:
1489:
1476:M57 60mm mortar
1472:
1335:
1292:F1 hand grenade
1288:
1286:Grenade systems
1250:RPD machine gun
1181:
1109:
1089:Bravo Battalion
1086:Alpha Battalion
1074:
1050:
1033:
989:
955:
929:Eloby Amundamba
854:
841:
827:
822:
810:Tobias Hainyeko
771:
686:Tobias Hainyeko
611:Ahmed Ben Bella
598:
535:
530:
505:
427:
425:
424:
416:
414:
413:
404:
402:
401:
392:
390:
375:
373:
372:
364:
362:
361:
352:
350:
349:
340:
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337:
328:
326:
325:
316:
314:
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304:
302:
301:
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175:
170:
161:
152:
132:
127:
122:
114:
107:
102:
97:
89:
82:
77:
72:
64:
62:Tobias Hainyeko
57:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4199:
4189:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4153:
4148:
4143:
4126:
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70:Dimo Hamaambo
68:
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4037:Cassinga Day
4032:32 Battalion
4011:Freedom Park
4006:Heroes' Acre
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3811:
3797:
3778:
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3600:South Africa
3593:Participants
3530:. Retrieved
3520:
3495:
3487:
3468:
3462:
3450:. Retrieved
3445:
3436:
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3409:
3394:
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3370:the original
3365:
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3299:
3288:. Retrieved
3284:
3246:. Retrieved
3239:the original
3234:
3222:
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3179:the original
3174:
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3070:
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2354:
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2297:the original
2290:
2264:
2242:
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2199:
2164:
2002:John Pandeni
1969:Peter Naholo
1889:Soviet Union
1859:Soviet Union
1830:Soviet Union
1801:Soviet Union
1771:Soviet Union
1741:Soviet Union
1711:Soviet Union
1653:Soviet Union
1623:Soviet Union
1593:Soviet Union
1565:Medium Tank
1561:Soviet Union
1311:hand grenade
1305:hand grenade
1230:Vz. 52 rifle
1195:CZ 75 pistol
1153:East Germany
1145:Soviet Union
1110:
1075:
1051:
1034:
1026:
1015:
1003:
995:
974:
956:
945:PLAN Chief:
855:
846:
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828:
820:Organization
807:
803:Grootfontein
799:
795:
791:
772:
749:
745:
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731:
719:
702:
661:Soviet Union
646:
627:
599:
580:(SWANU) and
574:
544:
521:
517:
508:
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503:Nomenclature
486:
481:mine warfare
456:
452:
450:
399:South Africa
323:East Germany
311:Soviet Union
142:Headquarters
104:
79:
54:
4062:Heroes' Day
3532:24 December
2156:Annotations
2100:Peter Vilho
2032:Ben Kadhila
1689:In service
1539:In service
1169:North Korea
1095:Salute Unit
892:James Auala
763:Kavangoland
677:North Korea
559:Louis Botha
555:World War I
467:(SADF) and
359:North Korea
186:(Namibia),
151:, Tanzania
137:1962 – 1990
123:, (1982–90)
4135:Categories
3674:Background
3452:4 February
3290:2017-07-12
3248:15 January
3185:2017-07-12
2181:References
2065:John Mutwa
2037:John Mutwa
2022:Ben Ulenga
1988:"Ndlimani"
1698:BM-21 Grad
1657:Scout Car
1571:1984-1990
1179:Small-arms
1165:Yugoslavia
1048:Facilities
900:"Lunganda"
738:TT pistols
698:land mines
679:, and the
649:Ovamboland
590:Sam Nujoma
533:Background
120:Sam Nujoma
3999:Memorials
3963:Aftermath
3701:Apartheid
1686:Acquired
1536:Acquired
1240:UK vz. 59
1235:ZB vz. 26
1038:Landmines
746:"Group 2"
742:"Group 1"
387:Opponents
266:Left-wing
246:Communism
171:(1976–90)
169:, Angola
162:(1972–76)
160:, Zambia
153:(1962–72)
98:(1983–90)
90:(1970–83)
73:(1967–90)
65:(1962–67)
4110:Category
3665:Cold War
3258:cite web
2250:Archived
2112:See also
1976:"Cosmos"
1171:and the
1117:Tanzania
1100:Oshivelo
1031:Strategy
814:Botswana
657:Tanzania
586:Rehoboth
434:Rhodesia
270:far-left
203:Ideology
196:Tanzania
4067:Koevoet
2292:New Era
2257:New Era
1941:"Jesus"
1846:ZU-23-2
1680:Origin
1610:BTR-152
1548:T-34/85
1530:Origin
1470:Mortars
1161:Hungary
1137:Algeria
1062:Lubango
734:PPSh-41
673:Algeria
596:Origins
528:History
499:(NDF).
347:Algeria
279:32,000
167:Lubango
50:Leaders
3902:begins
3730:Events
3624:Angola
3508:
3475:
3424:
3401:
3376:19 May
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2233:
2206:
2173:(NDF).
2134:(ANC).
1886:
1856:
1827:
1798:
1768:
1738:
1708:
1692:Notes
1650:
1640:BRDM-2
1620:
1590:
1580:BTR-60
1558:
1542:Notes
1503:RPG-75
1321:PGN-60
1315:RPG-43
1149:Poland
1143:, the
1129:Angola
1125:Zambia
1058:Angola
1054:Zambia
981:Angola
977:Zambia
623:Angola
617:, and
431:
408:
396:
356:
344:
332:
320:
308:
296:
287:Allies
281:(1989)
192:Zambia
188:Angola
158:Lusaka
4171:SWAPO
3634:UNITA
3628:FAPLA
3614:SWAPO
3608:SWATF
3242:(PDF)
3231:(PDF)
2673:41–57
1817:ZPU-4
1788:ZPU-1
1758:ZIS-3
1728:ZIS-2
1683:Type
1533:Type
1498:RPG-7
1493:RPG-2
1309:RGD-5
1303:RG-42
1133:Egypt
1121:Kenya
1113:Ghana
1072:Units
669:Egypt
665:Ghana
422:UNITA
335:China
3950:1989
3916:1988
3896:1987
3887:1986
3863:1985
3849:1984
3840:1983
3821:1981
3812:1980
3798:1979
3779:1978
3755:1975
3746:1970
3737:1966
3639:Cuba
3618:PLAN
3604:SADF
3534:2014
3506:ISBN
3473:ISBN
3454:2017
3422:ISBN
3399:ISBN
3378:2020
3335:ISBN
3310:ISBN
3264:link
3250:2022
3211:ISBN
3146:ISBN
3121:ISBN
3075:ISBN
3047:ISBN
3022:ISBN
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299:Cuba
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