1571:"In the bacteriology of the 1920s, the conversion of the R to the S form could be regarded as an adaptation to the environment. However, the transformation of Type I to Type II was the equivalent of the transformation of one species into another, a phenomenon never before observed. Avery was initially skeptical of Griffith's findings and for some time refused to accept the validity of his claims, believing that they were the result of inadequate experimental controls. Avery's research on therapeutic sera led him to conclude that pneumococcal types were fixed and that specific therapeutic agents could thus be developed to combat the various types. A transformation from type to type
1190:
in which activated immune cells invade the central nervous system and cause inflammation, neurodegeneration and tissue damage. The underlying condition that produces this behaviour is currently unknown. Current research in neuropathology, neuroimmunology, neurobiology, and neuroimaging, together with
754:
that Gilman, as its first president, was planning, Welch traveled again to
Germany for training in Koch's bacteriology in 1883. Welch returned to America but moved to Baltimore, eager to overhaul American medicine, while blending Vichow's anatomical pathology, Cohnheim's experimental pathology, and
1279:
into the skin. Not all spider bites inject venom – a dry bite, and the amount of venom injected can vary based on the type of spider and the circumstances of the encounter. The mechanical injury from a spider bite is not a serious concern for humans.
1085:
toward basic research into the mechanisms operating during disease processes, which at the time medical scientists were all but wholly ignorant of, as biologists had scarcely taken interest in disease mechanisms. Thomas became for
American
554:. Pathology describes the abnormal or undesired condition (symptoms of a disease), whereas pathophysiology seeks to explain the functional changes that are occurring within an individual due to a disease or pathologic state.
1165:
is a reduction in the efficiency of the heart muscle, through damage or overloading. As such, it can be caused by a wide number of conditions, including myocardial infarction (in which the heart muscle is
710:, unlike any previous work, where in 80 pages Koch, as noted by a historian, "was able to show, in a manner practically conclusive, that a number of diseases, differing clinically, anatomically, and in
612:, who joined the Society in 1845, published the paper "On the conservation of energy", highly influential to reduce physiology's research foundation to physical sciences. In the late 1850s, German
1609:, Symposium Celebrating the Thirty-Fifth Anniversary of the Publication of "Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types", 2 Feb 1979
742:
in New York City in 1878. Welch's course drew enrollment from students at other medical schools, which responded by opening their own pathology laboratories. Once appointed by
2195:
Rodriguez-Muñoz, A.; Motahari-Rad, H.; Martin-Chaves, L.; Benitez-Porres, J.; Rodriguez-Capitan, J.; Gonzalez-Jimenez, A.; Insenser, M.; Tinahones, F.J.; Murri, M. (2024).
840:
from virulent to avirulent and between antigenic types —nearly a switch in species— challenging pneumonia's specific causation. The laboratory of
Rockefeller Institute's
1174:(in which misfolded proteins are deposited in the heart muscle, causing it to stiffen). Over time these increases in workload will produce changes to the heart itself.
857:, too, opening it to precise investigation. Having returned, Avery kept a photo of Griffith on his desk while his researchers followed the trail. In 1944, Avery,
1299:
gene was discovered in 1994 by J. M. Friedman's laboratory. These investigators postulated that leptin was a satiety factor. In the ob/ob mouse, mutations in the
881:
1133:
in PD; however, not all of them are well understood. Five proposed major mechanisms for neuronal death in
Parkinson's Disease include protein aggregation in
2242:
Zhang, Y; Proenca, R; Maffei, M; Barone, M; Leopold, L; Friedman, JM (Dec 1, 1994). "Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue".
869:, widely doubted amid estimations that something must act with it. At the time of Griffith's report, it was unrecognized that bacteria even had genes.
892:— and the only especial cell structures as chromosomes, which bacteria lack as such. Chromosomal DNA was presumed too simple, so genes were sought in
888:
emerged in the same decade. In the 1940s, most scientists viewed the cell as a "sack of chemicals" —a membrane containing only loose molecules in
1187:
714:, can be produced experimentally by the injection of putrid materials into animals." Koch used bacteriology and the new staining methods with
800:, was founded in 1901 with Welch, nicknamed "dean of American medicine", as its scientific director, who appointed his former Hopkins student
1070:
1108:
1247:
lymphocyte count falls below 200 cells/ml of blood, the HIV host has progressed to AIDS, a condition characterized by deficiency in
851:, British-Canadian, convinced that anything from England must be correct, repeated Griffith's results, then achieved transformation
120:
1575:
presented a disturbing clinical picture, as well as a challenge to the theoretical formulations of contemporary bacteriology" .
1749:
1183:
1006:
135:
2293:
Considine, RV; Considine, EL; Williams, CJ; Nyce, MR; Magosin, SA; Bauer, TL; Rosato, EL; Colberg, J; Caro, JF (Jun 1995).
1303:
gene resulted in the obese phenotype opening the possibility of leptin therapy for human obesity. However, soon thereafter
1742:
Microbial
Evolution and Co-Adaptation: A Tribute to the Life and Scientific Legacies of Joshua Lederberg: Workshop Summary
698:, Davaine had injected rabbits with a highly diluted, tiny amount of putrid blood, duplicated disease, and used the term
1700:
1411:
767:— opened at last in 1893 as America's first medical school devoted to teaching German scientific medicine, so called.
2069:
1869:"Neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease: Its role in neuronal death and implications for therapeutic intervention"
282:
1162:
23:
276:
1268:
1200:
844:, America's leading pneumococcal expert, was so troubled by the report that they refused to attempt repetition.
458:
200:
1057:
infections, revealed it was mediated by the host's own immune response, stirring investigation by pathologist
1082:
1010:
982:— to identify and deconstruct cell structures, functions, and mechanisms. The two new sciences interlaced,
1416:(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938 & 1960 / New York: Dover Publications, 1979), p 143–144, 147-148
1960:
1228:
369:
330:
318:
1191:
clinical neurology provide support for the notion that MS is not a single disease but rather a spectrum
1332:
1289:
797:
1916:
Golan, Daniel; Staun-Ram, Elsebeth; Miller, Ariel (2016). "Shifting paradigms in multiple sclerosis".
1307:
laboratory could not detect any mutations in the leptin gene in humans with obesity. On the contrary
1041:'s medical school, and facilitated greater communication between biologists and medical departments.
312:
2347:
2295:"Evidence against either a premature stop codon or the absence of obese gene mRNA in human obesity"
1292:
involves many possible pathophysiological mechanisms involved in its development and maintenance.
1252:
837:
751:
93:
78:
1620:
1606:
1339:
597:
350:
1150:
1034:
764:
601:
502:
496:
294:
185:
170:
655:, but its routinely vanishing from blood left other scientists inferring it a mere byproduct of
176:
84:
2061:
1248:
1240:
1236:
1216:
1208:
1123:
1078:
932:
719:
684:
628:
394:
344:
1717:
Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the
Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology
546:
state, whereas physiology is the biological discipline that describes processes or mechanisms
338:
1965:
1733:
1029:— discovering details of cell physiology by tracking changes to bacteria upon infection with
1002:
951:
785:
609:
600:
led the establishment of physiology research autonomous from medical research. In 1843, the
452:
382:
159:
31:
2053:
2022:
1170:
and dies), hypertension (which increases the force of contraction needed to pump blood) and
2251:
613:
420:
408:
373:
221:
1311:
expression was increased proposing the possibility of Leptin-resistance in human obesity.
706:
to a microorganism or, as it did for many others, to a chemical. In 1878, Koch published
8:
2357:
1038:
979:
858:
848:
731:
475:
414:
388:
56:
2255:
2219:
2085:
2352:
2275:
2131:
2106:
2034:
1941:
1893:
1868:
1844:
1819:
1791:
1766:
1549:
1532:
1508:
1483:
1452:
1427:
1383:
1358:
925:
873:
747:
743:
722:
crystallized the concept of cause—presumably identifiable by scientific investigation.
527:
252:
227:
102:
2319:
2294:
2194:
2172:
2155:
1668:
1644:"Rambling and scrambling in bacterial transformation—a historical and personal memoir"
1643:
2324:
2267:
2224:
2177:
2136:
2065:
2054:
2026:
2010:
1984:
1933:
1898:
1849:
1745:
1673:
1554:
1513:
1457:
1388:
1146:
936:
905:
796:, were founded in 1888 and 1891, respectively. America's first biomedical institute,
781:
739:
466:
288:
2038:
1945:
1231:
involves, upon acquisition of the virus, that the virus replicates inside and kills
2314:
2306:
2279:
2259:
2214:
2204:
2167:
2126:
2118:
2018:
1974:
1925:
1888:
1880:
1839:
1831:
1806:
1786:
1778:
1663:
1655:
1588:
1544:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1447:
1439:
1378:
1370:
1074:
998:
959:
939:
356:
267:
691:
investigations confirming its role in the natural environment via spores in soil.
1929:
1715:
1062:
1050:
994:
975:
942:—seeking fundamental explanation of organisms and life— led largely by physicist
889:
841:
825:
760:
755:
Koch's bacteriology. Hopkins medical school, led by the "Four
Horsemen" —Welch,
735:
648:
624:
444:
426:
400:
324:
240:
2008:
Oparil S, Zaman MA, Calhoun DA (November 2003). "Pathogenesis of hypertension".
1732:
1014:
943:
2209:
2122:
1232:
1204:
1087:
1018:
862:
738:, and opened America's first scientific laboratory —a pathology laboratory— at
660:
616:
126:
50:
2197:"A Systematic Review of Proteomics in Obesity: Unpacking the Molecular Puzzle"
1884:
1805:
Letter: Lewis Thomas (MSKCC) to Joshua
Lederberg (Stanford Univ), 7 Aug 1978,
1737:
1659:
1443:
1374:
2341:
2196:
1979:
1054:
1030:
990:
967:
913:
901:
833:
821:
801:
789:
756:
651:
identified a microorganism as the crucial causal agent of the cattle disease
640:
620:
567:
438:
1584:
2228:
2181:
2140:
2030:
1988:
1937:
1902:
1853:
1677:
1558:
1517:
1320:
1304:
1142:
1122:
as a result of changes in biological activity in the brain with respect to
1091:
1058:
1026:
971:
963:
917:
909:
897:
885:
829:
809:
676:
672:
656:
644:
44:
2328:
2271:
1461:
1392:
812:, Rockefeller Institute became the globe's leader in biomedical research.
663:'s report of a tiny spore stage of a bacterial species, the fellow German
538:. Pathology is the medical discipline that describes conditions typically
1782:
1171:
1066:
1022:
877:
805:
793:
715:
680:
664:
490:
484:
246:
111:
35:
958:
in cells was controversial amid unclear visualization with conventional
955:
824:
triggered frenzied search for its cause, although most deaths were via
619:, a former student of Müller, directed focus to the cell, establishing
523:
303:
263:
2310:
1005:—reported decades earlier but controversial— and was awarded the 1958
962:. Around 1940, largely via cancer research at Rockefeller Institute,
876:, began at 1900, yet inheritance of Mendelian traits was localized to
150:
2263:
2078:
1835:
1212:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1112:
711:
519:
683:'s postulates, and confirmed Davaine's conclusion, a major feat for
1621:"Notes on the biological interpretation of Fred Griffith's finding"
1167:
1116:
893:
853:
804:
as director of pathology and bacteriology laboratories. By way of
605:
551:
2156:"Obesity wars: Molecular progress confronts an expanding epidemic"
1428:"Germ theory, hysteria, and Freud's early work in psychopathology"
1069:
and that degrade host tissue. In the late 1970s, as president of
1572:
947:
702:, but it was unclear whether this referred as did Pasteur's term
688:
652:
543:
531:
365:
215:
66:
1764:
1702:
Discovering Cell
Mechanisms: The Creation of Modern Cell Biology
1593:(New York: Rockefeller University Press, 1976), pp 133, 135-136
1308:
1300:
1296:
1256:
1127:
1119:
832:
invasion. In London, pathologist with the
Ministry of Health,
734:
trained in German pathology from 1876 to 1878, including under
695:
535:
191:
141:
2292:
2051:
1295:
This field of research had been almost unapproached until the
750:, as founding dean of the medical school of the newly forming
1276:
1272:
1866:
1484:"William Henry Welch (1850-1934): The road to Johns Hopkins"
679:
as a distinct discipline— identified a spore stage, applied
530:
that cause, result from, or are otherwise associated with a
1203:
is that of a chronic disease characterized by elevation of
912:— and conjectured it to spell a code. In the early 1960s,
2107:"Dissecting How CD4 T Cells Are Lost During HIV Infection"
1219:. About 90–95% of hypertension is essential hypertension.
1961:"Essential hypertension. Part I: definition and etiology"
1275:. A spider envenomation occurs whenever a spider injects
1244:
1037:. Lederberg led the opening of a genetics department at
966:
emerged as a new discipline filling the vast gap between
921:
866:
2241:
1765:
Sauerwald A, Hoesche C, Oschwald R, Kilimann MW (2007).
1061:
that led to identification of enzymes released by the
1359:"Casimir Davaine (1812-1882): A precursor of Pasteur"
604:
was founded in part to purge biology and medicine of
1915:
1820:"Planning science (a generation after Lewis Thomas)"
1590:
Oswald T Avery: His Life and Scientific Achievements
1207:. Hypertension can be classified by cause as either
1533:"Welch, Sedgwick, and the Hopkins model of hygiene"
2007:
1607:"Memories of working in Oswald Avery's laboratory"
1243:, and then a latent, asymptomatic phase. When the
2045:
1153:(BBB) breakdown resulting in vascular leakiness.
2339:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1126:(PD). There are several proposed mechanisms for
718:to identify particular microorganisms for each.
1958:
518:) is a branch of study, at the intersection of
1251:and the resulting increased susceptibility to
798:The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research
623:as the focus of physiological research, while
1399:
1356:
1188:inflammatory demyelinating disease of the CNS
631:in medical schools' scientific laboratories.
2104:
2060:. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. p.
2001:
1952:
1705:(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005)
1481:
1817:
1744:. Washington DC: National Academies Press.
1738:"The Life and Legacies of Joshua Lederberg"
1618:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1728:
1726:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1081:, to redirect the funding focus of the US
687:. Pasteur and colleagues followed up with
2318:
2218:
2208:
2171:
2130:
2052:Hall, John E.; Guyton, Arthur C. (2006).
1978:
1892:
1843:
1790:
1720:(New York: Oxford University Press, 1993)
1667:
1548:
1530:
1507:
1451:
1425:
1382:
708:Aetiology of Traumatic Infective Diseases
2153:
1641:
1537:The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine
1468:
847:When Avery was away on summer vacation,
786:Berlin Institute for Infectious Diseases
473:
363:
301:
261:
207:
157:
100:
29:
16:Convergence of pathology with physiology
2023:10.7326/0003-4819-139-9-200311040-00011
1959:Carretero OA, Oparil S (January 2000).
1723:
1684:
1601:
1599:
2340:
1340:"Pathophysiology – Medical dictionary"
1109:pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease
1102:
1071:Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center
908:inferred DNA's molecular structure —a
865:reported the transformation factor as
725:
2299:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2188:
2147:
1867:Tansey M. G., Goldberg M. S. (2010).
1767:"Lewis Thomas and droopy rabbit ears"
1524:
1184:pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis
1177:
1044:
1007:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
815:
675:—a pivotal step that would establish
586:
2086:"Hypertension: eMedicine Nephrology"
1596:
1235:, which are required for almost all
770:
1736:Forum on Microbial Threats (2009).
896:. Yet in 1953, American biologist
13:
14:
2369:
1824:Journal of Clinical Investigation
780:The first biomedical institutes,
1771:Journal of Experimental Medicine
1239:. There is an initial period of
1163:pathophysiology of heart failure
1156:
1141:, changes in cell metabolism or
2286:
2235:
2098:
1909:
1860:
1811:
1799:
1758:
1708:
1635:
1612:
1269:pathophysiology of spider bites
1262:
1201:pathophysiology of hypertension
1194:
935:had spearheaded and funded the
591:
2105:Doitsh, G; Greene, WC (2016).
2056:Textbook of medical physiology
1578:
1565:
1500:10.1080/08998280.2011.11928722
1419:
1350:
1077:, soon to become president of
836:in 1928 reported pneumococcal
775:
634:
1:
2173:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)01081-X
1326:
1083:National Institutes of Health
1011:Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
788:, whose first directors were
643:'s report on fermentation to
1930:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000324
1918:Current Opinion in Neurology
1271:is due to the effect of its
1049:In the 1950s, researches on
974:by applying new technology —
557:
7:
1413:The History of Bacteriology
1314:
1229:pathophysiology of HIV/AIDS
1222:
1097:
1073:, Thomas collaborated with
10:
2374:
2210:10.1007/s13679-024-00561-4
2123:10.1016/j.chom.2016.02.012
1290:pathophysiology of obesity
1283:
1211:(also known as primary or
1013:in Long Island, New York,
984:cell and molecular biology
581:
1885:10.1016/j.nbd.2009.11.004
1660:10.1128/jb.185.1.1-6.2003
1444:10.1017/S002572730004031X
1375:10.1017/S0025727300010942
1237:adaptive immune responses
596:In Germany in the 1830s,
61:
1980:10.1161/01.CIR.101.3.329
1253:opportunistic infections
828:, already attributed to
752:Johns Hopkins University
526:, concerning disordered
2201:Current Obesity Reports
1873:Neurobiology of Disease
730:The American physician
700:ferment of putrefaction
602:Berlin Physical Society
528:physiological processes
1357:Théodoridès J (1966).
1249:cell-mediated immunity
1241:influenza-like illness
1079:Rockefeller University
954:. Yet the reality of
933:Rockefeller Foundation
904:, and British chemist
720:Germ theory of disease
685:experimental pathology
639:By 1863, motivated by
629:experimental pathology
614:anatomical pathologist
1734:Institute of Medicine
1642:Lacks SA (Jan 2003).
1482:Silverman BD (2011).
1344:TheFreeDictionary.com
1255:and certain forms of
1003:bacterial conjugation
952:Vanderbilt University
610:Hermann von Helmholtz
2301:(Research Support).
2246:(Research Support).
1818:Weissmann G (2006).
1783:10.1084/jem.20412fta
1619:Lederberg J (1956).
1053:, a complication of
924:, thus establishing
900:, British physicist
894:chromosomal proteins
882:chromosomal genetics
872:The first genetics,
374:LIVER FUNCTION TESTS
2256:1994Natur.372..425Z
1151:blood–brain barrier
1124:Parkinson's disease
1103:Parkinson's disease
1039:Stanford University
980:electron microscope
931:In the late 1930s,
726:Scientific medicine
667:isolated Davaine's
647:, fellow Frenchman
26:
1699:Bechtel, William,
1625:American Scientist
1531:Benson KR (1999).
1426:Carter KC (1980).
1410:Bulloch, William,
1178:Multiple sclerosis
1045:Disease mechanisms
926:molecular genetics
874:Mendelian genetics
816:Molecular paradigm
748:John Shaw Billings
744:Daniel Coit Gilman
587:Nineteenth century
574:) and φυσιολογία (
103:ARTERIAL BLOOD GAS
19:
2311:10.1172/jci118007
2154:Flier JS (2004).
2111:Cell Host Microbe
2011:Ann. Intern. Med.
1751:978-0-309-13121-6
1168:starved of oxygen
1147:neuroinflammation
1088:basic researchers
937:molecular biology
906:Rosalind Franklin
782:Pasteur Institute
771:Twentieth century
746:, upon advice by
740:Bellevue Hospital
659:. In 1876, upon
509:
508:
2365:
2333:
2332:
2322:
2290:
2284:
2283:
2264:10.1038/372425a0
2250:(6505): 425–32.
2239:
2233:
2232:
2222:
2212:
2192:
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2185:
2175:
2151:
2145:
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2005:
1999:
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1996:
1995:
1982:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1896:
1864:
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1857:
1847:
1836:10.1172/JCI28895
1815:
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1511:
1479:
1466:
1465:
1455:
1423:
1417:
1408:
1397:
1396:
1386:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1336:
1137:, disruption of
999:Joshua Lederberg
960:light microscopy
940:research program
264:SERUM OSMOLARITY
73:
64:
27:
18:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2362:
2348:Pathophysiology
2338:
2337:
2336:
2291:
2287:
2240:
2236:
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2189:
2152:
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2099:
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2083:
2079:
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2046:
2006:
2002:
1993:
1991:
1957:
1953:
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1804:
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1640:
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1617:
1613:
1604:
1597:
1583:
1579:
1570:
1566:
1529:
1525:
1480:
1469:
1432:Medical History
1424:
1420:
1409:
1400:
1363:Medical History
1355:
1351:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1317:
1286:
1265:
1225:
1197:
1180:
1159:
1105:
1100:
1051:rheumatic fever
1047:
976:ultracentrifuge
916:helped crack a
826:lobar pneumonia
818:
778:
773:
765:William Halsted
728:
649:Casimir Davaine
637:
625:Julius Cohnheim
598:Johannes Müller
594:
589:
584:
566:comes from the
564:pathophysiology
560:
516:physiopathology
512:Pathophysiology
231:
195:
190:
180:
175:
145:
140:
130:
125:
115:
88:
71:
70:
65:
62:
21:Pathophysiology
17:
12:
11:
5:
2371:
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2234:
2187:
2146:
2097:
2077:
2070:
2044:
2000:
1951:
1924:(3): 354–361.
1908:
1879:(3): 510–518.
1859:
1810:
1798:
1757:
1750:
1722:
1707:
1683:
1634:
1611:
1595:
1577:
1564:
1523:
1467:
1418:
1398:
1349:
1346:. Farlex, Inc.
1330:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1323:
1316:
1313:
1285:
1282:
1264:
1261:
1233:T helper cells
1224:
1221:
1205:blood pressure
1196:
1193:
1186:is that of an
1179:
1176:
1158:
1155:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1046:
1043:
1033:, the process
1019:Salvador Luria
890:chaotic motion
880:by 1903, thus
863:Maclyn McCarty
838:transformation
817:
814:
777:
774:
772:
769:
727:
724:
661:Ferdinand Cohn
636:
633:
617:Rudolf Virchow
608:, and in 1847
593:
590:
588:
585:
583:
580:
559:
556:
507:
506:
500:
494:
488:
481:
480:
471:
470:
464:
462:
456:
449:
448:
442:
436:
434:
431:
430:
424:
418:
412:
405:
404:
398:
392:
386:
379:
378:
361:
360:
354:
348:
342:
335:
334:
328:
322:
316:
309:
308:
299:
298:
292:
286:
280:
273:
272:
259:
258:
256:
250:
244:
237:
236:
234:
229:
225:
219:
212:
211:
205:
204:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
168:
165:
164:
155:
154:
148:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
107:
98:
97:
91:
86:
82:
75:
74:
60:
54:
48:
41:
40:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2370:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2330:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2305:(6): 2986–8.
2304:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2230:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2183:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2166:(2): 337–50.
2165:
2161:
2157:
2150:
2142:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2117:(3): 280–91.
2116:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2087:
2081:
2073:
2071:0-7216-0240-1
2067:
2063:
2058:
2057:
2048:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2017:(9): 761–76.
2016:
2013:
2012:
2004:
1990:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1973:(3): 329–35.
1972:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1955:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1761:
1753:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1729:
1727:
1719:
1718:
1711:
1704:
1703:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1679:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1638:
1631:(3): 268–269.
1630:
1626:
1622:
1615:
1608:
1605:Dubos, René,
1602:
1600:
1592:
1591:
1586:
1585:Dubos, René J
1581:
1574:
1568:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1543:(5): 313–20.
1542:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1519:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1494:(3): 236–42.
1493:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1445:
1441:
1438:(3): 259–74.
1437:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1415:
1414:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1394:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:(2): 155–65.
1368:
1364:
1360:
1353:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1331:
1322:
1319:
1318:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1291:
1281:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1260:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1192:
1189:
1185:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1157:Heart failure
1154:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1143:mitochondrial
1140:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1095:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1063:innate immune
1060:
1056:
1055:streptococcal
1052:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1031:their viruses
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
987:
985:
981:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
938:
934:
929:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
902:Francis Crick
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
870:
868:
864:
860:
859:Colin MacLeod
856:
855:
850:
849:Martin Dawson
845:
843:
839:
835:
834:Fred Griffith
831:
827:
823:
822:1918 pandemic
813:
811:
807:
803:
802:Simon Flexner
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
768:
766:
762:
758:
757:William Osler
753:
749:
745:
741:
737:
733:
732:William Welch
723:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
641:Louis Pasteur
632:
630:
626:
622:
618:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
579:
577:
573:
569:
568:Ancient Greek
565:
555:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
489:
486:
483:
482:
479:
477:
472:
468:
465:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
450:
446:
443:
440:
437:
435:
433:
432:
428:
425:
422:
419:
416:
413:
410:
407:
406:
402:
399:
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
380:
377:
375:
371:
367:
362:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
343:
340:
337:
336:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
314:
311:
310:
307:
305:
300:
296:
293:
290:
287:
284:
281:
278:
275:
274:
271:
269:
265:
260:
257:
254:
251:
248:
245:
242:
239:
238:
235:
232:
226:
223:
220:
217:
214:
213:
210:
206:
202:
199:
196:
187:
184:
181:
172:
169:
167:
166:
163:
161:
156:
152:
149:
146:
137:
134:
131:
122:
119:
116:
110:
109:
106:
104:
99:
95:
92:
89:
83:
80:
77:
76:
68:
58:
55:
52:
49:
46:
43:
42:
39:
37:
33:
28:
25:
24:sample values
22:
2302:
2298:
2288:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2200:
2190:
2163:
2159:
2149:
2114:
2110:
2100:
2089:. Retrieved
2080:
2055:
2047:
2014:
2009:
2003:
1992:. Retrieved
1970:
1964:
1954:
1921:
1917:
1911:
1876:
1872:
1862:
1827:
1823:
1813:
1801:
1777:(12): 2777.
1774:
1770:
1760:
1741:
1716:
1710:
1701:
1651:
1647:
1637:
1628:
1624:
1614:
1589:
1580:
1567:
1540:
1536:
1526:
1491:
1487:
1435:
1431:
1421:
1412:
1366:
1362:
1352:
1343:
1334:
1321:Pathogenesis
1305:J. F. Caro's
1294:
1287:
1266:
1263:Spider bites
1226:
1198:
1195:Hypertension
1181:
1160:
1117:dopaminergic
1106:
1092:patron saint
1059:Lewis Thomas
1048:
1035:transduction
988:
983:
972:biochemistry
964:cell biology
944:Max Delbrück
930:
918:genetic code
910:double helix
898:James Watson
886:Biochemistry
871:
852:
846:
842:Oswald Avery
830:pneumococcal
819:
810:World War II
779:
761:Howard Kelly
729:
716:aniline dyes
707:
703:
699:
694:Also, as to
693:
677:bacteriology
673:pure culture
668:
657:putrefaction
645:butyric acid
638:
595:
592:Reductionism
575:
571:
563:
561:
547:
539:
515:
511:
510:
474:
364:
302:
262:
208:
160:ALVEOLAR GAS
158:
101:
36:ELECTROLYTES
30:
20:
1966:Circulation
1830:(6): 1463.
1714:Kay, Lily,
1648:J Bacteriol
1488:Proceedings
1172:amyloidosis
1135:Lewy bodies
1067:macrophages
1023:Phage Group
989:Mindful of
878:chromosomes
806:World War I
776:Biomedicine
681:Jakob Henle
665:Robert Koch
635:Germ theory
576:phisiologia
2358:Physiology
2342:Categories
2162:(Review).
2091:2009-06-05
1994:2009-06-05
1654:(1): 1–6.
1327:References
1213:idiopathic
1145:function,
1001:confirmed
956:organelles
689:ecological
669:bacterides
627:pioneered
550:within an
524:physiology
304:URINALYSIS
2353:Pathology
1217:secondary
1209:essential
1139:autophagy
1075:Lederberg
1025:—hosting
712:aetiology
562:The term
558:Etymology
548:operating
542:during a
520:pathology
503:CSF/S glu
497:CSF/S alb
2229:38703299
2220:11306592
2182:14744442
2141:26962940
2039:32785528
2031:14597461
1989:10645931
1946:20562972
1938:27070218
1903:19913097
1854:16648878
1678:12486033
1559:11049162
1518:21738298
1315:See also
1223:HIV/AIDS
1128:neuronal
1098:Examples
1021:led the
1015:Delbrück
991:Griffith
968:cytology
854:in vitro
736:Cohnheim
621:cytology
606:vitalism
552:organism
540:observed
249:= −0.36
2329:7769141
2280:4359725
2272:7984236
2252:Bibcode
2132:4835240
1894:2823829
1845:1449953
1792:2118519
1573:in vivo
1550:2579023
1509:3124910
1462:6997653
1453:1082654
1393:5325873
1384:1033586
1284:Obesity
1120:neurons
1009:. At
948:Caltech
790:Pasteur
704:ferment
653:anthrax
582:History
570:πάθος (
544:disease
532:disease
491:CSF glu
485:CSF alb
439:AST/ALT
366:PROTEIN
347:= 1.01
333:= 0.95
279:= 300
153:= 7.40
2327:
2320:295988
2317:
2278:
2270:
2244:Nature
2227:
2217:
2180:
2139:
2129:
2068:
2037:
2029:
1987:
1944:
1936:
1901:
1891:
1852:
1842:
1789:
1748:
1676:
1669:141969
1666:
1557:
1547:
1516:
1506:
1460:
1450:
1391:
1381:
1309:Leptin
1301:leptin
1297:leptin
1257:cancer
1149:, and
1065:cells
1027:Watson
861:, and
763:, and
696:sepsis
572:pathos
536:injury
505:= 0.6
499:= 7.5
461:= 1.0
455:= 3.0
453:AF alb
447:= 0.2
441:= 0.6
429:= 0.5
417:= 4.0
403:= 0.7
391:= 7.6
385:= 100
359:= 800
321:= 100
295:BUN:Cr
285:= 295
224:= 2.0
218:= 9.5
209:OTHER:
197:= 105
96:= 1.0
53:= 100
47:= 140
2276:S2CID
2035:S2CID
1942:S2CID
1277:venom
1273:venom
1215:) or
1131:death
1113:death
995:Avery
914:Crick
493:= 60
487:= 30
469:= 60
423:= 40
411:= 71
397:= 25
353:= 60
341:= 25
315:= 80
297:= 20
268:RENAL
255:= 16
243:= 55
203:= 10
201:A-a g
182:= 36
147:= 95
132:= 40
117:= 24
90:= 22
69:= 150
59:= 20
2325:PMID
2268:PMID
2225:PMID
2178:PMID
2160:Cell
2137:PMID
2066:ISBN
2027:PMID
1985:PMID
1934:PMID
1899:PMID
1850:PMID
1746:ISBN
1674:PMID
1555:PMID
1514:PMID
1458:PMID
1389:PMID
1288:The
1267:The
1227:The
1199:The
1182:The
1161:The
1107:The
1017:and
993:and
978:and
970:and
950:and
820:The
808:and
794:Koch
792:and
784:and
522:and
514:(or
459:SAAG
401:TBIL
331:FENa
327:= 5
291:= 5
233:= 1
81:= 4
2315:PMC
2307:doi
2260:doi
2248:372
2215:PMC
2205:doi
2168:doi
2164:116
2127:PMC
2119:doi
2062:228
2019:doi
2015:139
1975:doi
1971:101
1926:doi
1889:PMC
1881:doi
1840:PMC
1832:doi
1828:116
1807:p 1
1787:PMC
1779:doi
1775:204
1664:PMC
1656:doi
1652:185
1545:PMC
1504:PMC
1496:doi
1448:PMC
1440:doi
1379:PMC
1371:doi
1245:CD4
1115:of
1111:is
946:at
922:DNA
920:in
867:DNA
671:in
578:).
534:or
476:CSF
467:SOG
421:ALT
415:Alb
409:ALP
395:AST
383:LDH
351:UCr
345:USG
325:UAG
319:UCl
313:UNa
289:POG
283:PCO
277:PMO
112:HCO
94:PCr
67:Glu
57:BUN
32:BMP
2344::
2323:.
2313:.
2303:95
2297:.
2274:.
2266:.
2258:.
2223:.
2213:.
2203:.
2199:.
2176:.
2158:.
2135:.
2125:.
2115:19
2113:.
2109:.
2064:.
2033:.
2025:.
1983:.
1969:.
1963:.
1940:.
1932:.
1922:29
1920:.
1897:.
1887:.
1877:37
1875:.
1871:.
1848:.
1838:.
1826:.
1822:.
1785:.
1773:.
1769:.
1740:.
1725:^
1686:^
1672:.
1662:.
1650:.
1646:.
1629:44
1627:.
1623:.
1598:^
1587:,
1553:.
1541:72
1539:.
1535:.
1512:.
1502:.
1492:24
1490:.
1486:.
1470:^
1456:.
1446:.
1436:24
1434:.
1430:.
1401:^
1387:.
1377:.
1367:10
1365:.
1361:.
1342:.
1259:.
1094:.
1090:a
997:,
986:.
928:.
884:.
759:,
445:BU
427:BC
389:TP
370:GI
357:UO
339:UK
253:AG
247:BE
241:CK
228:PO
222:Mg
216:Ca
177:CO
151:pH
127:CO
85:CO
51:Cl
45:Na
2331:.
2309::
2282:.
2262::
2254::
2231:.
2207::
2184:.
2170::
2143:.
2121::
2094:.
2074:.
2041:.
2021::
1997:.
1977::
1948:.
1928::
1905:.
1883::
1856:.
1834::
1795:.
1781::
1754:.
1680:.
1658::
1561:.
1520:.
1498::
1464:.
1442::
1395:.
1373::
478::
376::
372:/
368:/
306::
270::
266:/
230:4
194:2
192:O
189:A
186:p
179:2
174:A
171:p
162::
144:2
142:O
139:a
136:p
129:2
124:a
121:p
114:3
105::
87:2
79:K
72:\
63:/
38::
34:/
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