Magnesium in biology

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the coordinating ion in the chlorophyll molecule. It is the intracellular compartmentalisation of Mg in plant cells that leads to additional complexity. Four compartments within the plant cell have reported interactions with Mg. Initially, Mg will enter the cell into the cytoplasm (by an as yet unidentified system), but free Mg concentrations in this compartment are tightly regulated at relatively low levels (≈2 mmol/L) and so any excess Mg is either quickly exported or stored in the second intracellular compartment, the vacuole. The requirement for Mg in mitochondria has been demonstrated in yeast and it seems highly likely that the same will apply in plants. The chloroplasts also require significant amounts of internal Mg, and low concentrations of cytoplasmic Mg. In addition, it seems likely that the other subcellular organelles (e.g., Golgi, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.) also require Mg.

609:(EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined the same as in the United States. For women and men ages 18 and older, the AIs are set at 300 and 350 mg/day, respectively. AIs for pregnancy and lactation are also 300 mg/day. For children ages 1–17 years, the AIs increase with age from 170 to 250 mg/day. These AIs are lower than the U.S. RDAs. The European Food Safety Authority reviewed the same safety question and set its UL at 250 mg/day - lower than the U.S. value. The magnesium UL is unique in that it is lower than some of the RDAs. It applies to intake from a pharmacological agent or dietary supplement only and does not include intake from food and water. 1469:

radioactive half-life of Mg, the most stable of the radioactive magnesium isotopes, is only 21 hours. This severely restricts the experiments involving the nuclide. Also, since 1990, no facility has routinely produced Mg, and the price per mCi is now predicted to be approximately US$ 30,000. The chemical nature of Mg is such that it is closely approximated by few other cations. However, Co, Mn and Ni have been used successfully to mimic the properties of Mg in some enzyme reactions, and radioactive forms of these elements have been employed successfully in cation transport studies. The difficulty of using metal ion replacement in the study of enzyme function is that the relationship between the enzyme activities with the replacement ion compared to the original is very difficult to ascertain.

20: 1786:, Ca, and Mn can all impede uptake.(Kurvits and Kirkby, 1980; In acid soils Al is a particularly strong inhibitor of Mg uptake. The inhibition by Al and Mn is more severe than can be explained by simple displacement, hence it is possible that these ions bind to the Mg uptake system directly. In bacteria and yeast, such binding by Mn has already been observed. Stress responses in the plant develop as cellular processes halt due to a lack of Mg (e.g. maintenance of ΔpH across the plasma and vacuole membranes). In Mg-starved plants under low light conditions, the percentage of Mg bound to chlorophyll has been recorded at 50%. Presumably, this imbalance has detrimental effects on other cellular processes. 423:(RDAs) for magnesium in 1997. If there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs, an estimate designated Adequate Intake (AI) is used instead. The current EARs for magnesium for women and men ages 31 and up are 265 mg/day and 350 mg/day, respectively. The RDAs are 320 and 420 mg/day. RDAs are higher than EARs so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy is 350 to 400 mg/day depending on age of the woman. RDA for lactation ranges 310 to 360 mg/day for same reason. For children ages 1–13 years, the RDA increases with age from 65 to 200 mg/day. As for safety, the IOM also sets 1677:, 1990), and is released at need. But for most cells it is death by senescence or injury that releases Mg and many of the other ionic constituents, recycling them into healthy parts of the plant. In addition, when Mg in the environment is limiting, some species are able to mobilise Mg from older tissues. These processes involve the release of Mg from its bound and stored states and its transport back into the vascular tissue, where it can be distributed to the rest of the plant. In times of growth and development, Mg is also remobilised within the plant as source and sink relationships change. 1560:, 2002). Thus, it is presumed that recognition of the Mg ion requires some mechanism to interact initially with the hydration shell of Mg, followed by a direct recognition/binding of the ion to the protein. Due to the strength of the inner sphere complexation between Mg and any ligand, multiple simultaneous interactions with the transport protein at this level might significantly retard the ion in the transport pore. Hence, it is possible that much of the hydration water is retained during transport, allowing the weaker (but still specific) outer sphere coordination. 1256:

sphere coordination, stabilising anions or reactive intermediates, also including binding to ATP and activating the molecule to nucleophilic attack. When interacting with enzymes and other proteins, Mg may bind using inner or outer sphere coordination, to either alter the conformation of the enzyme or take part in the chemistry of the catalytic reaction. In either case, because Mg is only rarely fully dehydrated during ligand binding, it may be a water molecule associated with the Mg that is important rather than the ion itself. The

1511:(AAS) determines the total magnesium content of a biological sample. This method is destructive; biological samples must be broken down in concentrated acids to avoid clogging the fine nebulising apparatus. Beyond this, the only limitation is that samples must be in a volume of approximately 2 mL and at a concentration range of 0.1 – 0.4 μmol/L for optimum accuracy. As this technique cannot distinguish between Mg already present in the cell and that taken up during the experiment, only content not uptaken can be quantified. 1774:

chloroplasts/chlorophyll. In pine trees, even before the visible appearance of yellowing and necrotic spots, the photosynthetic efficiency of the needles drops markedly. In Mg deficiency, reported secondary effects include carbohydrate immobility, loss of RNA transcription and loss of protein synthesis. However, due to the mobility of Mg within the plant, the deficiency phenotype may be present only in the older parts of the plant. For example, in Pinus radiata starved of Mg, one of the earliest identifying signs is the

1422:(Mn) is readily capable of replacing Mg, but only in a limited set of circumstances. Mn is very similar to Mg in terms of its chemical properties, including inner and outer shell complexation. Mn effectively binds ATP and allows hydrolysis of the energy molecule by most ATPases. Mn can also replace Mg as the activating ion for a number of Mg-dependent enzymes, although some enzyme activity is usually lost. Sometimes such enzyme metal preferences vary among closely related species: For example, the 1718: 631: 1751:

stroma on the addition of light. H is pumped out of the stroma (into both the cytoplasm and the lumen) leading to an alkaline pH. Mg (along with K) is released from the lumen into the stroma, in an electroneutralisation process to balance the flow of H. Finally, thiol groups on enzymes are reduced by a change in the redox state of the stroma. Examples of enzymes activated in response to these changes are fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, sedoheptulose bisphosphatase and

1165: 65: 297:. For other than pregnancy-related hypertension, a meta-analysis of 22 clinical trials with dose ranges of 120 to 973 mg/day and a mean dose of 410 mg, concluded that magnesium supplementation had a small but statistically significant effect, lowering systolic blood pressure by 3–4 mm Hg and diastolic blood pressure by 2–3 mm Hg. The effect was larger when the dose was more than 370 mg/day. 1649:

highly mobile in both the xylem and phloem, the ions will be transported to the top of the plant and back down again in a continuous cycle of replenishment. Hence, uptake and release from vascular cells is probably a key part of whole plant Mg homeostasis. Figure 1 shows how few processes have been connected to their molecular mechanisms (only vacuolar uptake has been associated with a transport protein, AtMHX).

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may be taken up into cells immediately (symplastic pathway) or may travel as far as the Casparian band (4) before being absorbed into cells (apoplastic pathway; 2). The concentration of Mg in the root cells is probably buffered by storage in root cell vacuoles (3). Note that cells in the root tip do not contain vacuoles. Once in the root cell cytoplasm, Mg travels toward the centre of the root by

6101: 1106:. This suggests that different cell types may regulate influx and efflux of magnesium in different ways based on their unique metabolic needs. Interstitial and systemic concentrations of free magnesium must be delicately maintained by the combined processes of buffering (binding of ions to proteins and other molecules) and muffling (the transport of ions to storage or extracellular spaces). 1482:(2001) have described work into a new class of compounds that may prove more useful, having significantly better binding affinities for Mg. The use of the fluorescent dyes is limited to measuring the free Mg. If the ion concentration is buffered by the cell by chelation or removal to subcellular compartments, the measured rate of uptake will give only minimum values of km and Vmax. 1180:) is seen when the environmental availability of magnesium is low. In ruminant animals, particularly vulnerable to magnesium availability in pasture grasses, the condition is known as 'grass tetany'. Hypomagnesemia is identified by a loss of balance due to muscle weakness. A number of genetically attributable hypomagnesemia disorders have also been identified in humans. 427:(ULs) for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of magnesium the UL is set at 350 mg/day. The UL is specific to magnesium consumed as a dietary supplement, the reason being that too much magnesium consumed at one time can cause diarrhea. The UL does not apply to food-sourced magnesium. Collectively the EARs, RDAs and ULs are referred to as 1793:, 1990). However, if this is followed by drought then ionic concentrations within the cell can increase dramatically. High cytoplasmic Mg concentrations block a K channel in the inner envelope membrane of the chloroplast, in turn inhibiting the removal of H ions from the chloroplast stroma. This leads to an acidification of the stroma that inactivates key enzymes in 1636:). Plant cell walls and membranes carry a great number of negative charges, and the interactions of cations with these charges is key to the uptake of cations by root cells allowing a local concentrating effect. Mg binds relatively weakly to these charges, and can be displaced by other cations, impeding uptake and causing deficiency in the plant. 1410:(e.g., ATP), but also, what is more important, it is buffered by storage of Mg in intracellular compartments. The transport of Mg between intracellular compartments may be a major part of regulating enzyme activity. The interaction of Mg with proteins must also be considered for the transport of the ion across biological membranes. 1759:

active site and is directly involved in the catalytic reaction. The second class of enzymes includes those where the Mg is complexed to nucleotide di- and tri-phosphates (ADP and ATP), and the chemical change involves phosphoryl transfer. Mg may also serve in a structural maintenance role in these enzymes (e.g., enolase).

1657:, where it is loaded into the xylem (5) for transport to the upper parts of the plant. When the Mg reaches the leaves it is unloaded from the xylem into cells (6) and again is buffered in vacuoles (7). Whether cycling of Mg into the phloem occurs via general cells in the leaf (8) or directly from xylem to phloem via 119:. However, the unusual nature of ionic magnesium has also led to a major challenge in the use of the ion in biological systems. Biological membranes are impermeable to magnesium (and other ions), so transport proteins must facilitate the flow of magnesium, both into and out of cells and intracellular compartments. 2568:

Veronese N, Watutantrige-Fernando S, Luchini C, Solmi M, Sartore G, Sergi G, Manzato E, Barbagallo M, Maggi S, Stubbs B (2016). "Effect of magnesium supplementation on glucose metabolism in people with or at risk of diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of double-blind randomized controlled

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Two major classes of the enzymes that interact with Mg in the stroma during the light phase can be identified. Firstly, enzymes in the glycolytic pathway most often interact with two atoms of Mg. The first atom is as an allosteric modulator of the enzymes' activity, while the second forms part of the

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The diagram shows a schematic of a plant and the putative processes of Mg transport at the root and leaf where Mg is loaded and unloaded from the vascular tissues. Mg is taken up into the root cell wall space (1) and interacts with the negative charges associated with the cell walls and membranes. Mg

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The use of radioactive tracer elements in ion uptake assays allows the calculation of km, Ki and Vmax and determines the initial change in the ion content of the cells. Mg decays by the emission of a high-energy beta or gamma particle, which can be measured using a scintillation counter. However, the

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The metabolic state of the chloroplast changes considerably between night and day. During the day, the chloroplast is actively harvesting the energy of light and converting it into chemical energy. The activation of the metabolic pathways involved comes from the changes in the chemical nature of the

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can have a significant effect on the uptake of the ion.(Kurvits and Kirkby, 1980; The structure of root cell walls is highly permeable to water and ions, and hence ion uptake into root cells can occur anywhere from the root hairs to cells located almost in the centre of the root (limited only by the

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The chemistry of the Mg ion, as applied to enzymes, uses the full range of this ion's unusual reaction chemistry to fulfill a range of functions. Mg interacts with substrates, enzymes, and occasionally both (Mg may form part of the active site). In general, Mg interacts with substrates through inner

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pump H ions against their concentration gradient to maintain the pH differential that can be used for the transport of other ions and molecules. H ions are pumped out of the cytoplasm into the extracellular space or into the vacuole. The entry of Mg into cells may occur through one of two pathways,

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When a Mg ion has been absorbed by a cell requiring it for metabolic processes, it is generally assumed that the ion stays in that cell for as long as the cell is active. In vascular cells, this is not always the case; in times of plenty, Mg is stored in the vacuole, takes no part in the day-to-day

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Within individual plant cells, the Mg requirements are largely the same as for all cellular life; Mg is used to stabilise membranes, is vital to the utilisation of ATP, is extensively involved in the nucleic acid biochemistry, and is a cofactor for many enzymes (including the ribosome). Also, Mg is

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The chemical and biochemical properties of Mg present the cellular system with a significant challenge when transporting the ion across biological membranes. The dogma of ion transport states that the transporter recognises the ion then progressively removes the water of hydration, removing most or

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Mg is probably taken up into chloroplasts to the greatest extent during the light-induced development from proplastid to chloroplast or etioplast to chloroplast. At these times, the synthesis of chlorophyll and the biogenesis of the thylakoid membrane stacks absolutely require the divalent cation.

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For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of daily value (%DV). For magnesium labeling purposes, 100% of the daily value was 400 mg, but as of May 27, 2016, it was revised to 420 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. A

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Third, the technique of patch-clamp uses isolated sections of natural or artificial membrane in much the same manner as voltage-clamp but without the secondary effects of a cellular system. Under ideal conditions the conductance of individual channels can be quantified. This methodology gives the

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First, ion-specific microelectrodes can be used to measure the internal free ion concentration of cells and organelles. The major advantages are that readings can be made from cells over relatively long periods of time, and that unlike dyes very little extra ion buffering capacity is added to the

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A number of chelators of divalent cations have different fluorescence spectra in the bound and unbound states. Chelators for Ca are well established, have high affinity for the cation, and low interference from other ions. Mg chelators lag behind and the major fluorescence dye for Mg (mag-fura 2)

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Once in the cytoplasmic space of root cells Mg, along with the other cations, is probably transported radially into the stele and the vascular tissue. From the cells surrounding the xylem the ions are released or pumped into the xylem and carried up through the plant. In the case of Mg, which is

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The previous sections have dealt in detail with the chemical and biochemical aspects of Mg and its transport across cellular membranes. This section will apply this knowledge to aspects of whole plant physiology, in an attempt to show how these processes interact with the larger and more complex

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An article investigating the structural basis of interactions between clinically relevant antibiotics and the 50S ribosome appeared in Nature in October 2001. High-resolution X-ray crystallography established that these antibiotics associate only with the 23S rRNA of a ribosomal subunit, and no

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activity on and off by changes in the local concentration of Mg. Although the concentration of free cytoplasmic Mg is on the order of 1 mmol/L, the total Mg content of animal cells is 30 mmol/L and in plants the content of leaf endodermal cells has been measured at values as high as

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appear in virtually every metabolic pathway: Specific binding of Mg to biological membranes is frequently observed, Mg is also used as a signalling molecule, and much of nucleic acid biochemistry requires Mg, including all reactions that require release of energy from ATP. In nucleotides, the

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Mg is the coordinating metal ion in the chlorophyll molecule, and in plants where the ion is in high supply about 6% of the total Mg is bound to chlorophyll. Thylakoid stacking is stabilised by Mg and is important for the efficiency of photosynthesis, allowing phase transitions to occur.

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Second, the technique of two-electrode voltage-clamp allows the direct measurement of the ion flux across the membrane of a cell. The membrane is held at an electric potential and the responding current is measured. All ions passing across the membrane contribute to the measured current.

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has also been shown to bind Na, K, Mn and Fe. The transport of ions is dependent on both the concentration gradient of the ion and the electric potential (ΔΨ) across the membrane, which will be affected by the charge on the membrane surface. For example, the specific binding of Mg to the

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Plant stress responses can be observed in plants that are under- or over-supplied with Mg. The first observable signs of Mg stress in plants for both starvation and toxicity is a depression of the rate of photosynthesis, it is presumed because of the strong relationships between Mg and

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Although many foods contain magnesium, it is usually found in low levels. As with most nutrients, daily needs for magnesium are unlikely to be met by one serving of any single food. Eating a wide variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains will help ensure adequate intake of magnesium.

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Mg is essential for plant growth and is present in higher plants in amounts on the order of 80 μmol g dry weight. The amounts of Mg vary in different parts of the plant and are dependent upon nutritional status. In times of plenty, excess Mg may be stored in vascular cells (Stelzer

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take Mg by a similar system. The mechanism and the molecular basis for the release of Mg from vacuoles and from the cell is not known. Likewise, the light-regulated Mg concentration changes in chloroplasts are not fully understood, but do require the transport of H ions across the

1525:(AES) modifications also allows the determination of the total ion content of biological samples. These techniques are more sensitive than flame AAS and are capable of measuring the quantities of multiple ions simultaneously. However, they are also significantly more expensive. 1563:

In spite of the mechanistic difficulty, Mg must be transported across membranes, and a large number of Mg fluxes across membranes from a variety of systems have been described. However, only a small selection of Mg transporters have been characterised at the molecular level.

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contain large amounts of Mg and the stabilisation provided is essential to the complexation of this ribo-protein. A large number of enzymes involved in the biochemistry of nucleic acids bind Mg for activity, using the ion for both activation and catalysis. Finally, the

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Findling, R. L.; Maxwell, K; Scotese-Wojtila, L; Huang, J; Yamashita, T; Wiznitzer, M (1997). "High-dose pyridoxine and magnesium administration in children with autistic disorder: an absence of salutary effects in a double-blind, placebo-controlled study".

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are polyanionic surfaces. This has important implications for the transport of ions, in particular because it has been shown that different membranes preferentially bind different ions. Both Mg and Ca regularly stabilize membranes by the cross-linking of

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had stated in their paper that older pea chloroplasts showed less significant changes in Mg content than those used to form their conclusions. The relative proportion of immature chloroplasts present in the preparations may explain these observations.

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A Mg deficit can be caused by the lack of the ion in the media (soil), but more commonly comes from inhibition of its uptake. Mg binds quite weakly to the negatively charged groups in the root cell walls, so that excesses of other cations such as K,

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all of the water at a selective pore before releasing the ion on the far side of the membrane. Due to the properties of Mg, large volume change from hydrated to bare ion, high energy of hydration and very low rate of ligand exchange in the inner

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Schlünzen, Frank; Zarivach, Raz; Harms, Jörg; Bashan, Anat; Tocilj, Ante; Albrecht, Renate; Yonath, Ada; Franceschi, François (2001). "Structural basis for the interaction of antibiotics with the peptidyl transferase centre in eubacteria".

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Dai, Qi; Zhu, Xiangzhu; Manson, JoAnn E; Song, Yiqing; Li, Xingnan; Franke, Adrian A; Costello, Rebecca B; Rosanoff, Andrea; Nian, Hui; Fan, Lei; Murff, Harvey; Ness, Reid M; Seidner, Douglas L; Yu, Chang; Shrubsole, Martha J (2018-12-01).

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Ishijima, S.; Uchibori, A.; Takagi, H.; Maki, R.; Ohnishi, M. (2003). "Light-induced increase in free Mg concentration in spinach chloroplasts: Measurement of free Mg by using a fluorescent probe and intensity of stromal alkalinization".

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actually has a higher affinity for Ca. This limits the application of this dye to cell types where the resting level of Ca is < 1 μM and does not vary with the experimental conditions under which Mg is to be measured. Recently, Otten

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The homeostasis of Mg within single plant cells is maintained by processes occurring at the plasma membrane and at the vacuole membrane (see Figure 2). The major driving force for the translocation of ions in plant cells is ΔpH.

6176:- Includes full text papers and textbook chapters by leading magnesium authorities Mildred Seelig, Jean Durlach, Burton M. Altura and Bella T. Altura. Links to over 300 articles discussing magnesium and magnesium deficiency. 1270:

11.4) is used to allow both hydrolysis and condensation reactions (most common ones being phosphate ester hydrolysis and phosphoryl transfer) that would otherwise require pH values greatly removed from physiological values.

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Mousain-Bosc M, Roche M, Polge A, Pradal-Prat D, Rapin J, Bali JP (Mar 2006). "Improvement of neurobehavioral disorders in children supplemented with magnesium-vitamin B6. I. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorders".

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Mousain-Bosc M, Roche M, Polge A, Pradal-Prat D, Rapin J, Bali JP (Mar 2006). "Improvement of neurobehavioral disorders in children supplemented with magnesium-vitamin B6. II. Pervasive developmental disorder-autism".

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In plants, and more recently in animals, magnesium has been recognized as an important signaling ion, both activating and mediating many biochemical reactions. The best example of this is perhaps the regulation of

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has been shown to be a Mg channel. The mechanisms of Mg transport by the remaining proteins are beginning to be uncovered with the first three-dimensional structure of a Mg transport complex being solved in 2004.

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has twice as much magnesium as white bread because the magnesium-rich germ and bran are removed when white flour is processed. The table of food sources of magnesium suggests many dietary sources of magnesium.

49:(ATP), the main source of energy in cells, must bind to a magnesium ion in order to be biologically active. What is called ATP is often actually Mg-ATP. As such, magnesium plays a role in the stability of all 1156:

molecule. The later effects of magnesium deficiency on plants are a significant reduction in growth and reproductive viability. Magnesium can also be toxic to plants, although this is typically seen only in

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Weber S, Schneider L, Peters M, Misselwitz J, Rönnefarth G, Böswald M, Bonzel KE, Seeman T, Suláková T, Kuwertz-Bröking E, Gregoric A, Palcoux JB, Tasic V, Manz F, Schärer K, Seyberth HW, Konrad M (2001).

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Stelzer, R.; Lehmann, H.; Krammer, D.; Luttge, U. (1990). "X-Ray microprobe analysis of vacuoles of spruce needle mesophyll, endodermis and transfusion parenchyma cells at different seasons of the year".

169:) is rare, and is more common as a drug side-effect (such as chronic alcohol or diuretic use) than from low food intake per se, but it can occur in people fed intravenously for extended periods of time. 5730:

Dorenstouter, H.; Pieters, G.A.; Findenegg, G. R. (1985). "Distribution of magnesium between chloroplhyll and other photosynthetic functions in magnesium deficient 'sun' and 'shade' leaves of poplar".

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Maggio, Marcello; De Vita, Francesca; Lauretani, Fulvio; Nouvenne, Antonio; Meschi, Tiziana; Ticinesi, Andrea; Dominguez, Ligia J.; Barbagallo, Mario; Dall'Aglio, Elisabetta; Ceda, Gian Paolo (2014).

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Maggio, Marcello; De Vita, Francesca; Lauretani, Fulvio; Nouvenne, Antonio; Meschi, Tiziana; Ticinesi, Andrea; Dominguez, Ligia J.; Barbagallo, Mario; Dall'Aglio, Elisabetta; Ceda, Gian Paolo (2014).

1742:(1984) found that Mg did move in and out of isolated chloroplasts from young pea plants, but Gupta and Berkowitz (1989) were unable to reproduce the result using older spinach chloroplasts. Deshaies 3758:

Weber S, Hoffmann K, Jeck N, Saar K, Boeswald M, Kuwertz-Broeking E, Meij II, Knoers NV, Cochat P, Suláková T, Bonzel KE, Soergel M, Manz F, Schaerer K, Seyberth HW, Reis A, Konrad M (2000).

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by AtMHX). Transport of Mg into cells may use either the negative ΔΨ or the ΔpH. The transport of Mg into mitochondria probably uses ΔΨ as in the mitochondria of yeast, and it is likely that

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Higher dietary intakes of magnesium correspond to lower diabetes incidence. For people with diabetes or at high risk of diabetes, magnesium supplementation lowers fasting glucose.

244:) is erratic and of poorer efficiency, since it depends on the neutralization and solution of the salt by the acid of the stomach, which may not be (and usually is not) complete. 236:. Magnesium is absorbed with reasonable efficiency (30% to 40%) by the body from any soluble magnesium salt, such as the chloride or citrate. Magnesium is similarly absorbed from 2519:"Dose-Response Relationship between Dietary Magnesium Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies" 1282:(adenosine triphosphate), the main source of energy in cells, must be bound to a magnesium ion in order to be biologically active. What is called ATP is often actually Mg-ATP. 696:

Because magnesium readily dissolves in water, refined foods, which are often processed or cooked in water and dried, in general, are poor sources of the nutrient. For example,

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Scott, B. J.; Robson, A. D. (1990b). "Changes in the content and form of magnesium in the first trifoliate leaf of subterranean clover under altered or constant root supply".

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and thus exert greater pull on water molecules, preventing passage through the channel (even though the magnesium itself is smaller). Thus, Mg ions block Ca channels such as (

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Tolbert, L.; Haigler, T; Waits, MM; Dennis, T (1993). "Brief report: lack of response in an autistic population to a low dose clinical trial of pyridoxine plus magnesium".

115:. This availability, in combination with a useful and very unusual chemistry, may have led to its utilization in evolution as an ion for signaling, enzyme activation, and 1324:

Magnesium ions can be critical in maintaining the positional integrity of closely clustered phosphate groups. These clusters appear in numerous and distinct parts of the

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is very rare. Infants, which have less ability to excrete excess magnesium even when healthy, should not be given magnesium supplements, except under a physician's care.

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interactions are formed with a subunit's protein portion. The article stresses that the results show "the importance of putative Mg ions for the binding of some drugs".

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A balance of magnesium is vital to the well-being of all organisms. Magnesium is a relatively abundant ion in Earth's crust and mantle and is highly bioavailable in the

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Lu YK, Chen YR, Yang CM, Ifuku K (1995). "Influence of Fe- and Mg-deficiency on the thylakoid membranes of a chlorophyll-deficient ch5 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana".

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as described above, with irregular heartbeats, high blood pressure (a sign in humans but not some experimental animals such as rodents), insomnia, and muscle spasms (

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Heldt, H.W.; Werdan, K.; Milovancev, M.; Geller, G. (1973). "Alkalization of the chloroplast stroma caused by light-dependent proton flux into the thylakoid space".

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Seiler, R. H.; Ramirez, O.; Brest, A. N.; Moyer, J. H. (1966). "Serum and erythrocytic magnesium levels in congestive heart failure: effect of hydrochlorothiazide".

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Plants deficient in magnesium show stress responses. The first observable signs of both magnesium starvation and overexposure in plants is a decrease in the rate of

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Lelord, G.; Muh, JP; Barthelemy, C; Martineau, J; Garreau, B; Callaway, E (1981). "Effects of pyridoxine and magnesium on autistic symptoms--initial observations".

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in the needles on the lower branches of the tree. This is because Mg has been recovered from these tissues and moved to growing (green) needles higher in the tree.

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contains less of the ion. Dietary surveys do not assess magnesium intake from water, which may lead to underestimating total magnesium intake and its variability.

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are often referred to as the "powerhouses of the cell" because their primary role is generating energy for cellular processes. They achieve this by breaking down

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of the Mg ion has a very tightly bound inner shell of six water molecules and a relatively tightly bound second shell containing 12–14 water molecules (Markham

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Whether Mg is able to move into and out of chloroplasts after this initial developmental phase has been the subject of several conflicting reports. Deshaies

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Heenan, D.P.; Campbell, L.C. (1981). "Influence of potassium and manganese on growth and uptake of magnesium by soybeans (Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv Bragg".

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envelope has been implicated in a loss of photosynthetic efficiency by the blockage of K uptake and the subsequent acidification of the chloroplast stroma.

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prevent the occurrence of diarrhea. Since the kidneys of adult humans excrete excess magnesium efficiently, oral magnesium poisoning in adults with normal

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Green, V.; Pituch, K.; Itchon, J.; Choi, A.; O'Reilly, M.; Sigafoos, J. (2006). "Internet Survey of Treatments Used by Parents of Children with Autism".

240:, although the sulfate in these salts adds to their laxative effect at higher doses. Magnesium absorption from the insoluble oxide and hydroxide salts ( 5452:"Effect of ionophores A-23187 and nigericin on the light induced redistribution of magnesium potassium and hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane" 2383:

Slutsky, I.; Abumaria, N.; Wu, L. J.; Huang, C.; Zhang, L.; Li, B.; Zhao, X.; Govindarajan, A.; Zhao, M. G.; Zhuo, M.; Tonegawa, S.; Liu, G. (2010).

5759:"Surface Charge-Mediated Effects of Mg2+ on K+ Flux across the Chloroplast Envelope Are Associated with Regulation of Stromal pH and Photosynthesis" 1694:

transporter (such as AtMHX). The H-ATPases are dependent on Mg (bound to ATP) for activity, so that Mg is required to maintain its own homeostasis.

2145: 6179: 4963:"The bacterial magnesium transporter CorA can functionally substitute for its putative homologue Mrs2p in the yeast inner mitochondrial membrane" 5045:"Effects of Magnesium on Intact Chloroplasts: I. EVIDENCE FOR ACTIVATION OF (SODIUM) POTASSIUM/PROTON EXCHANGE ACROSS THE CHLOROPLAST ENVELOPE" 3760:"Familial hypomagnesaemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis maps to chromosome 3q27 and is associated with mutations in the PCLN-1 gene" 5499:

Krause, G. H. (1977). "Light-induced movement of magnesium ions in intact chloroplasts. Spectroscopic determination with Eriochrome Blue SE".

6630: 3651:"Leaf Phosphate Status, Photosynthesis, and Carbon Partitioning in Sugar Beet: III. Diurnal Changes in Carbon Partitioning and Carbon Export" 1701:

maintain a constant ΔpH across the plasma membrane and the vacuole membrane. Mg is transported into the vacuole using the energy of ΔpH (in

3731:

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Raju, B.; Murphy, E.; Levy, L. A.; Hall, R. D.; London, R. E. (1989). "A fluorescent indicator for measuring cytosolic free magnesium".

1102:, it has been shown that different cell types maintain different concentrations of magnesium. It seems likely that the same is true for 6212: 2992:"Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" 1247:, who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1915 for the purification and structure of chlorophyll binding with sixth number of carbon 188: 2959:, pp.190-249 in "Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride". National Academy Press. 1997. 2622:

Liu, Man; Jeong, Euy-Myoung; Liu, Hong; Xie, An; So, Eui Young; Shi, Guangbin; Jeong, Go Eun; Zhou, Anyu; Dudley, Samuel C. (2019).

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Mg toxicity stress is more difficult to develop. When Mg is plentiful, in general the plants take up the ion and store it (Stelzer

4548:

Otten, P.A.; London, R.E.; Levy, L. A. (2001). "4-Oxo-4H-quinolizine-3-carboxylic acids as Mg selective, fluorescent indicators".

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Martineau, J.; et al. (1985). "Vitamin B6, magnesium, and combined B6-Mg: therapeutic effects in childhood autism." Biol".

1199:

30-100mM (bound), 0.01-1mM (free), in budding yeast 50mM, in mammalian cell 10mM (bound), 0.5mM (free) and in blood plasma 1mM.

1141:

strains of bacteria, healthy rates are maintained only with exposure to very high external concentrations of the ion. In yeast,

3843:"Disruption of TRPM6/TRPM7 complex formation by a mutation in the TRPM6 gene causes hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia" 3008: 213: 2036: 5854: 5826: 4670: 4644: 3715: 3258: 2904:"Effects of magnesium supplementation on testosterone levels of athletes and sedentary subjects at rest and after exhaustion" 2292: 2121: 2080: 2017: 1183:

Overexposure to magnesium may be toxic to individual cells, though these effects have been difficult to show experimentally.

4104:"Quantitation of cation binding to wheat germ ribosomes: influences on subunit association equilibria and ribosome activity" 1406:, 1990), much of which buffered in storage compartments. The cytoplasmic concentration of free Mg is buffered by binding to 19: 5004:"Effect of divalent cations on cation fluxes across the chloroplast envelope and on photosynthesis of intact chloroplasts" 2104:

Romani, Andrea, M.P. (2013). "Magnesium in Health and Disease". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K. O. Sigel (eds.).

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A schematic of a plant cell is shown including the four major compartments currently recognised as interacting with Mg.

5536:"Evidence of a Low Stromal Mg2+ Concentration in Intact Chloroplasts in the Dark: I. STUDIES WITH THE IONOPHORE A23187" 4933:

Hope, A. B.; Stevens, P. G. (1952). "Electrical potential differences in bean roots on their relation to salt uptake".

3489:"Magnesium transport in Salmonella typhimurium: genetic characterization and cloning of three magnesium transport loci" 1911: 1768: 2991: 1168:

Space-filling model of the chlorophyll a molecule, with the magnesium ion (bright-green) visible at the center of the

6149: 3910: 394:

Overall, maintaining adequate levels of both magnesium and vitamin D is essential for optimal health and well-being.

3981:

Romani, A. M. P.; Maguire, M. E. (2002). "Hormonal regulation of Mg transport and homeostasis in eukaryotic cells".

1227:

triple-phosphate moiety of the compound is invariably stabilized by association with Mg in all enzymatic processes.

726:). However, as noted, symptoms of low magnesium from pure dietary deficiency are thought to be rarely encountered. 37:

is an essential element in biological systems. Magnesium occurs typically as the Mg ion. It is an essential mineral

3841:

Chubanov V, Waldegger S, Mederos y Schnitzler M, Vitzthum H, Sassen MC, Seyberth HW, Konrad M, Gudermann T (2004).

3802:"Novel paracellin-1 mutations in 25 families with familial hypomagnesemia with hypercalciuria and nephrocalcinosis" 3028:"Federal Register May 27, 2016 Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels. FR page 33982" 6184: 5309:"Development and Use of Chlorotetracycline Fluorescence as a Measurement Assay of Chloroplast Envelope-Bound Mg2+" 5177:

Fork, D.C. (1986). "The control by state transitions of the distribution of excitation energy in photosynthesis".

4202:"Hexahydrated magnesium ions bind in the deep major groove and at the outer mouth of A-form nucleic acid duplexes" 3132:"Spectrochemical Analysis of Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Copper, and Zinc in Normal Human Erythrocytes" 1755:. During the dark period, if these enzymes were active a wasteful cycling of products and substrates would occur. 261:

In 2021, magnesium salts were the 211th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2

6821: 6552: 2788:"Magnesium status and supplementation influence vitamin D status and metabolism: results from a randomized trial" 1841: 411:

Studies have shown that significant gains in testosterone occur after taking 10 mg magnesium/kg body weight/day.

217: 4024:

Black, C. B.; Cowan, J.A. (1995). J.A. Cowan (ed.). "Magnesium-dependent enzymes in nucleic acid biochemistry".

408:

It is theorized that the process of making testosterone from cholesterol, needs magnesium to function properly.

6716: 6205: 1508: 1218:) and the most abundant free divalent cation — as a result, it is deeply and intrinsically woven into cellular 1191:

function. Healthy animals rapidly excrete excess magnesium in the urine and stool. Urinary magnesium is called

606: 420: 273:

Magnesium can affect muscle relaxation through direct action on cell membranes. Mg ions close certain types of

3579:"The nuclear gene MRS2 is essential for the excision of group II introns from yeast mitochondrial transcripts 3538:"Overexpression of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae magnesium transport system confers resistance to aluminum ion" 6994: 2974: 1435: 1321:(enzymes containing only RNA) is Mg dependent (e.g. the yeast mitochondrial group II self splicing introns). 4200:

Robinson, Howard; Gao, Yi-Gui; Sanishvili, Ruslan; Joachimiak, Andrzej; Wang, Andrew H.-J. (15 April 2000).

384:

They contribute to muscle contraction and relaxation, impacting physical performance and overall well-being.

361:

have a synergistic relationship in the body, meaning they work together to optimize each other's functions:

6616: 1522: 424: 4583:

Gunzel, D.; Schlue, W.-R. (2002). "Determination of i - an update on the use of Mg-selective electrodes".

2415: 7060: 6187:- description of research studies regarding supplementation with magnesium and other therapies for autism 4153:"Cloning and characterization of MgtE, a putative new class of Mg2+ transporter from Bacillus firmus OF4" 4044:

Black, C.B.; Cowan, J. A. (1995). J.A. Cowan (ed.). "Magnesium-dependent enzymes in general metabolism".

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Stepura OB, Martynow AI (February 2008). "Magnesium orotate in severe congestive heart failure (MACH)".

7019: 3112: 2371: 2341:"Enhancement of Synaptic Plasticity through Chronically Reduced Ca2+ Flux during Uncorrelated Activity" 1514: 1389: 1261: 5648:"Competitive Al3+ Inhibition of Net Mg2+ Uptake by Intact Lolium multiflorum Roots : I. Kinetics" 1544:, these steps are probably more difficult than for most other ions. To date, only the ZntA protein of 7045: 6874: 6198: 1337: 285:. With an excess of magnesium, more channels will be blocked and nerve cells activity will decrease. 5716: 5225: 4456: 4418: 3967: 1624:, 1990; and in times of starvation Mg is redistributed, in many plants, from older to newer leaves. 6588: 6131: 6127: 6111: 428: 251: 2969: 343:. This process ultimately produces adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy currency. 6593: 3027: 5862: 6886: 6455: 6225: 5809:

Romani, Andrea M.P. (2013). "Magnesium Homeostasis in Mammalian Cells". In Banci, Lucia (ed.).

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Warren, M. A.; Kucharski, L. M.; Veenstra, A.; Shi, L.; Grulich, P. F.; Maguire, M. E. (2004).

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Shaul, O.; Hilgemann, D. W.; de-Almeida-Engler, J.; Van, M.M.; Inze, D.; Galili, G. (1999).

1137:, low levels of magnesium manifests in greatly reduced growth rates. In magnesium transport 6999: 6711: 6671: 6661: 6544: 6304: 6299: 6294: 5404: 4899: 4813: 4709: 4306: 3854: 3367: 1862: 1587: 1236: 339: 128: 5393:"Light-Dependent Redistribution of Ions in Suspensions of Chloroplast Thylakoid Membranes" 4059:

Cowan, J. A. (2002). "Structural and catalytic chemistry of magnesium-dependent enzymes".

2624:"Magnesium supplementation improves diabetic mitochondrial and cardiac diastolic function" 8: 7040: 6869: 6836: 6796: 6696: 6168: 2845:"The Interplay between Magnesium and Testosterone in Modulating Physical Function in Men" 2681:"The Interplay between Magnesium and Testosterone in Modulating Physical Function in Men" 1868: 1541: 1534: 203: 162: 146: 5408: 4903: 4817: 4713: 4310: 3858: 3444:

Shaul, O. (2002). "Magnesium transport and function in plants: the tip of the iceberg".

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Scott, B. J.; Robson, A. D. (1990). "Distribution of magnesium in subterranean clover (

5025: 4915: 4608: 4530: 4444: 4406: 4376: 4330: 4278: 4084: 4006: 3955: 3675: 3650: 3635: 3469: 3393: 3331: 3306: 3288: 3231: 2939: 2879: 2844: 2820: 2787: 2715: 2680: 2656: 2623: 2604: 2545: 2518: 2453: 2428: 2226: 2201: 2139: 1850: 1815: 1599: 1583: 419:

The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) updated Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and

278: 30:

ionic mixture, what is often just called adenosine triphosphate colloquially in biology

5597: 5560: 5535: 5427: 5392: 5069: 5044: 4825: 4781: 4756: 4732: 4697: 4226: 4201: 4177: 4152: 4128: 4103: 3911:"Cell Biology by the Numbers: What are the concentrations of different ions in cells?" 3877: 3842: 3707: 3599: 3578: 3513: 3488: 3156: 3131: 2314: 2161:"Magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium intakes and risk of stroke in male smokers" 1964: 6973: 6943: 6911: 6906: 6891: 6864: 6811: 6801: 6706: 6686: 6681: 6651: 6526: 6078: 6056: 6026: 5989: 5985: 5952: 5923: 5886: 5858: 5850: 5840: 5832: 5822: 5788: 5677: 5601: 5565: 5516: 5512: 5481: 5467: 5432: 5373: 5369: 5338: 5289: 5190: 5074: 4984: 4872: 4855: 4829: 4786: 4772: 4737: 4666: 4640: 4631: 4600: 4565: 4522: 4487: 4368: 4334: 4322: 4270: 4231: 4182: 4133: 4076: 3998: 3882: 3823: 3781: 3740: 3711: 3680: 3604: 3559: 3518: 3461: 3423: 3385: 3336: 3254: 3223: 3192: 3161: 2931: 2923: 2902:

Cinar, Vedat; Polat, Yahya; Baltaci, Abdulkerim Kasim; Mogulkoc, Rasim (April 2011).

2884: 2866: 2825: 2807: 2767: 2759: 2720: 2702: 2661: 2643: 2596: 2550: 2499: 2458: 2406: 2362: 2266: 2231: 2182: 2127: 2117: 2086: 2076: 2064:

Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride

2013: 1969: 1907: 1874: 1821: 1591: 1518: 1085: 929: 697: 247: 229: 200: 6038: 5898: 5029: 4919: 4856:"Physiological impacts of Mg deficiency in Pinus radiata: growth and photosynthesis" 4612: 4534: 4483: 4380: 4282: 4168: 4088: 4010: 3504: 3473: 3235: 2943: 2608: 6938: 6896: 6442: 6233: 6018: 5981: 5964: 5944: 5915: 5878: 5814: 5778: 5770: 5739: 5667: 5659: 5593: 5555: 5547: 5508: 5471: 5463: 5422: 5412: 5365: 5328: 5320: 5279: 5271: 5186: 5159: 5132: 5064: 5056: 5015: 4974: 4907: 4867: 4821: 4776: 4768: 4727: 4717: 4592: 4557: 4514: 4479: 4360: 4314: 4262: 4221: 4213: 4172: 4164: 4123: 4115: 4068: 3990: 3872: 3862: 3813: 3771: 3703: 3670: 3662: 3631: 3594: 3549: 3508: 3500: 3487:

Hmiel, S. P.; Snavely, M. D.; Florer, J. B.; Maguire, M. E.; Miller, C. G. (1989).

3453: 3397: 3375: 3326: 3318: 3304: 3284: 3215: 3188: 3151: 3143: 3044: 2915: 2874: 2856: 2815: 2799: 2751: 2710: 2692: 2651: 2635: 2586: 2578: 2540: 2530: 2489: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2396: 2352: 2258: 2221: 2213: 2172: 2109: 2068: 2040: 1959: 1899: 1579: 241: 192: 6001: 2284: 7009: 6901: 6841: 6806: 6691: 6676: 6534: 6480: 6316: 3414:

Berkowitz, G. A.; Wu, W. (1993). "Magnesium, potassium flux and photosynthesis".

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Fang X, Han H, Li M, Liang C, Fan Z, Aaseth J, He J, Montgomery S, Cao Y (2016).

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Mg is taken up into plants via the roots. Interactions with other cations in the

1553: 1362: 1301:

stabilises structure; this can be observed in the increased melting temperature (

1184: 638: 255: 5818: 5622:

Sharkey, T. D. (1998). A. Raghavendra (ed.). "Photosynthetic carbon reduction".

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Ergebnisse der Physiologie Biologischen Chemie und Experimentellen Pharmakologie

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4266: 3847:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3322: 2639: 2177: 2160: 1903: 1658: 1177: 1149: 983: 719: 674: 221: 207: 166: 100: 42: 5882: 5743: 4596: 4518: 4364: 4072: 3994: 3486: 3457: 2919: 1947: 7034: 7014: 6978: 6968: 6926: 6916: 6460: 6409: 5836: 5697:

Root-induced changes in the availability of micronutrients in the rhizosphere

5260:"Permeability of Chloroplast Envelopes to Mg2+: Effects on Protein Synthesis" 4979: 4962: 3840: 3622:

Kaiser, W. M. (1987). "Effects of water deficit on photosynthetic capacity".

2927: 2870: 2811: 2763: 2706: 2647: 1798: 1698: 1682: 1654: 1358: 1349: 1314: 961: 723: 326: 314: 294: 274: 84:

require the presence of magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including

72:

molecule, with the magnesium ion (bright-green) visible at the center of the

69: 50: 6958: 4351:

Maguire, M.E.; Cowan, J. A. (2002). "Magnesium chemistry and biochemistry".

4217: 4119: 3867: 3776: 3759: 2903: 2739: 1927:

Leroy, J. (1926). "Necessite du magnesium pour la croissance de la souris".

250:

may be used as adjuvant therapy in patients on optimal treatment for severe

6831: 6335: 6163: 6082: 6060: 5927: 5844: 5792: 5681: 5605: 5569: 5417: 5342: 5293: 5078: 5020: 5003: 4988: 4833: 4790: 4741: 4722: 4604: 4569: 4526: 4372: 4326: 4235: 4080: 4002: 3886: 3827: 3785: 3684: 3554: 3537: 3465: 3340: 3165: 2935: 2888: 2829: 2771: 2724: 2665: 2600: 2554: 2503: 2462: 2429:"Magnesium sulphate and other anticonvulsants for women with pre-eclampsia" 2410: 2366: 2270: 2235: 2186: 2131: 2090: 1856: 1827: 1664: 1595: 1325: 1290: 1235:

In photosynthetic organisms, Mg has the additional vital role of being the

1187:, an overabundance of magnesium in the blood, is usually caused by loss of 1142: 1119: 670: 403: 233: 196: 158: 6030: 5993: 5956: 5890: 5436: 5377: 4698:"An exchanger-like protein underlies the large Mg2+ current in Paramecium" 4491: 4399:

Metal substitution as a probe of the biological chemistry of magnesium ion

4274: 4186: 4137: 3744: 3608: 3563: 3522: 3427: 3389: 3227: 2861: 2803: 2755: 2697: 2582: 2062: 1973: 1717: 1129:

causes disease of the affected organism. In single-cell organisms such as

6879: 6816: 6517: 6424: 6419: 6392: 6290: 6285: 5729: 5663: 5520: 4961:

Bui, D.M.; Gregan, J.; Jarosch, E.; Ragnini, A.; Schweyen, R. J. (1999).

4754: 4505:

Grubbs, R. D. (2002). "Intracellular magnesium and magnesium buffering".

3818: 3801: 3178: 2567: 1706: 1373: 1240: 1215: 1153: 1115: 891: 686: 650: 646: 630: 254:, increasing survival rate and improving clinical symptoms and patient's 237: 112: 96: 53:

compounds in the cells, including those associated with the synthesis of

5813:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. pp. 69–118. 5774: 5551: 5485: 5324: 5275: 5060: 3730: 3095:"SELF Nutrition Data - Food Facts, Information & Calorie Calculator" 2591: 2494: 2478:"Effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: a meta-analysis" 2477: 1195:. Characteristic concentrations of magnesium in model organisms are: in 6767: 6414: 6281: 6221: 6022: 5948: 5355: 4911: 4677:

for descriptions of the methodology as applied to analytical chemistry.

4250: 3666: 3576: 3273: 3219: 3045:"Daily Value Reference of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD)" 2108:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 49–79. 1691: 1686:

via channels using the ΔΨ (negative inside) across this membrane or by

1545: 1443: 1427: 1219: 1164: 1063: 782: 708: 704: 654: 177: 89: 64: 6608: 5582: 5163: 5136: 4561: 3147: 3129: 2535: 1690:

with H ions. To transport the Mg ion into the vacuole requires a Mg/H

1293:

have an important range of interactions with Mg. The binding of Mg to

390:

They support a healthy immune system and may help reduce inflammation.

6402: 6173: 4854:

Laing, W.; Greer, D.; Sun, O.; Beets, P.; Lowe, A.; Payn, T. (2000).

4695: 4318: 3380: 3355: 1836: 1775: 1711: 1687: 1572: 1442:

is typically dependent on Mg, whereas the analogous enzyme for other

1419: 1407: 1398: 1353: 1329: 1318: 1125:

Magnesium is very important in cellular function. Deficiency of the

999: 907: 766: 750: 358: 352: 225: 184: 116: 34: 23: 4469: 3248: 6851: 6759: 6743: 6383: 6370: 6340: 6330: 6276: 6251: 6130:

external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into

5867: 5257: 4960: 4437:

Physical methods for studying the biological chemistry of magnesium

1309: 1274: 1138: 1130: 1126: 1079: 330: 180: 173: 154: 142: 38: 2426: 2202:"Magnesium Sulfate for the Treatment of Eclampsia: A Brief Review" 2159:

Larsson S. C.; Virtanen M. J.; Mars M.; et al. (March 2008).

2158: 2072: 2067:. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 1997. pp. 190–191. 6859: 6503: 6498: 6465: 6067: 6045: 4150: 3697: 2385:"Enhancement of Learning and Memory by Elevating Brain Magnesium" 1945: 1752: 1385: 1367: 1333: 1169: 1158: 1093: 1047: 1031: 967: 875: 846: 830: 824: 734: 715: 678: 642: 375: 334: 150: 73: 3353: 3094: 714:

Too much magnesium may make it difficult for the body to absorb

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Marschner, H. (1991). Y. Waisel; A. Eshel; U. Kafikfai (eds.).

4199: 3307:"Cloning and characterization of a novel Mg(2+)/H(+) exchanger" 1643: 1223: 1188: 1111: 1103: 1099: 1075: 945: 662: 658: 282: 88:

enzymes utilizing or synthesizing ATP, or those that use other

81: 4853: 3798: 3070:"Top 10 Foods Highest in Magnesium + Printable One Page Sheet" 2842: 2678: 2106:

Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases

1661:(9) is unknown. Mg may return to the roots in the phloem sap. 1598:) and have been shown to affect gap junction channels forming 729:

Following are some foods and the amount of magnesium in them:

6470: 6450: 5179:

Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology

1725: 1308:) of double-stranded DNA in the presence of Mg. In addition, 1208: 1134: 319:

Magnesium is essential as part of the process that generates

134: 5934: 5390: 4547: 4295: 3130:

Valberg, L. S.; Holt, J.M.; Paulson, E.; Szivek, J. (1965).

1614: 1458: 1152:. This is due to the central position of the Mg ion in the 6493: 6488: 6387: 6271: 5756: 4696:

Haynes, W. J.; Kung, C.; Saimi, Y.; Preston, R. R. (2002).

2427:

Duley L, Gülmezoglu AM, Henderson-Smart DJ, Chou D (2010).

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table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at

172:

The most common symptom of excess oral magnesium intake is

3899:

Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Online Edition

3648: 3251:

The Elemental Composition of Human Tissues and Body Fluids

2738:

Uwitonze, Anne Marie; Razzaque, Mohammed S. (2018-03-01).

6008: 5449: 2901: 1575: 1439: 1431: 1365:

head groups of lipids. However, the envelope membrane of

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Gardner, R. C. (2003). "Genes for magnesium transport".

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Wiesenberger, G.; Waldherr, M.; Schweyen, R. J. (1992).

3535: 2740:"Role of Magnesium in Vitamin D Activation and Function" 5258:

Deshaies, R. J.; Fish, L. E.; Jagendorf, A. T. (1984).

4255:

Journal of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry

3249:

Iyengar, G.V.; Kollmer, W. E.; Bowen, H. J. M. (1978).

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Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals

1846:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1844: – Condition of low level of magnesium in the body 1832:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

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most direct measurement of the action of ion channels.

2382: 2338: 2037:"Definition: magnesium from Online Medical Dictionary" 1397:≤ 10) and this can be exploited by the cell to switch 1332:. For instance, hexahydrated Mg ions bind in the deep 6360: 5905: 5645: 5306: 4151:

Smith, R. L.; Thompson, L.J.; Maguire, M. E. (1995).

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Introduction to the biological chemistry of magnesium

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Grunes, D. L.; Stout, P. R.; Brownwell, J.R. (1970).

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Slutsky, I.; Sadeghpour, S.; Li, B.; Liu, G. (2004).

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in the chloroplast that then cause oxidative damage.

133:

Inadequate magnesium intake frequently causes muscle

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Structure and function of the photosynthesising cell

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Tevelev, A.; Cowan, J. A. (1995). J.A. Cowan (ed.).

3980: 1946:

Lusk, J.E.; Williams, R.J.P.; Kennedy, E.P. (1968).

1929:

Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Biologie

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Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics

5358:

Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics

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Australian Journal of Scientific Research, Series B

4582: 4396: 4350: 3354:Thomas, R.C.; Coles, J. A.; Deitmer, J. W. (1991). 2744:

The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association

2475: 1853: – Questionable IV vitamin alternative therapy 293:Intravenous magnesium sulphate is used in treating 95:In plants, magnesium is necessary for synthesis of 5723: 5118: 4932: 4630: 4430: 4428: 2026: 337:, through a series of chemical reactions known as 6114:may not follow Knowledge's policies or guidelines 5626:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 111–122. 5042: 5001: 4624: 4622: 4043: 3570: 3409: 3407: 3113:"Food Composition Databases Show Foods List12006" 2003: 300: 41:(i.e., element) for life and is present in every 7032: 6220: 5617: 5615: 4023: 2784: 2737: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1995: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1987: 1985: 1983: 1605: 1275:Essential role in the biological activity of ATP 5688: 5238: 4680: 4425: 4392: 4390: 4346: 4344: 4248: 3529: 3413: 2248: 228:. Such preparations are usually in the form of 6241: 5576: 4885: 4883: 4619: 4039: 4037: 4035: 3649:Rao, I. M.; Sharp, R. E.; Boyer, J.S. (1987). 3404: 2621: 2516: 1948:"Magnesium and the growth of Escherichia coli" 1797:, which all leads to the production of oxygen 1567: 1336:and at the outer mouth of A-form nucleic acid 1094:Biological range, distribution, and regulation 645:provide magnesium because of the abundance of 7056:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements 6624: 6206: 5612: 5443: 5391:Hind, G.; Nakatani, H. Y.; Izawa, S. (1974). 5251: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4843: 4757:"The CorA Mg2+ Transporter Is a Homotetramer" 4095: 3941: 3939: 3937: 3935: 3933: 3931: 3834: 3806:Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 3439: 3437: 3300: 3298: 1980: 1811:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements 1582:are usually in almost all senses opposite to 1502: 1449: 5757:Wu, W.; Peters, J.; Berkowitz, G.A. (1991). 5639: 5197: 4797: 4387: 4341: 3724: 3267: 3242: 3123: 2242: 2199: 2144:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1644:Distributing magnesium ions within the plant 1472: 1145:magnesium deficiency also leads to disease. 5527: 5492: 5450:Bulychev, A. A.; Vredenberg, W. J. (1980). 5152:Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 5143: 5125:Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 5112: 4995: 4880: 4748: 4689: 4576: 4498: 4032: 4017: 3974: 3691: 3615: 3347: 3206:Walser, M. (1967). "Magnesium metabolism". 3199: 3172: 2152: 1611:environment of the multicellular organism. 1343: 6631: 6617: 6213: 6199: 5349: 5300: 5036: 4840: 4541: 4435:Drakenberg, T. (1995). J. A. Cowan (ed.). 4434: 4144: 4102:Sperazza, J. M.; Spremulli, L. L. (1983). 4052: 3928: 3792: 3751: 3480: 3434: 3295: 2792:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1726:Magnesium, chloroplasts and photosynthesis 1463: 414: 368:Vitamin D influences magnesium absorption. 214:Pharmaceutical preparations with magnesium 6150:Learn how and when to remove this message 5971: 5782: 5694: 5671: 5559: 5475: 5426: 5416: 5384: 5332: 5283: 5170: 5068: 5019: 4978: 4926: 4871: 4780: 4731: 4721: 4663:Atomic Absorption and Plasma Spectroscopy 4653: 4463: 4242: 4225: 4176: 4127: 3876: 3866: 3817: 3775: 3674: 3598: 3553: 3536:MacDiarmid, C.W.; Gardner, R. C. (1998). 3512: 3379: 3330: 3155: 2878: 2860: 2819: 2714: 2696: 2655: 2590: 2544: 2534: 2493: 2452: 2400: 2356: 2315:"Magnesium Salts - Drug Usage Statistics" 2225: 2176: 2007: 1963: 1920: 1673:metabolic processes of the cell (Stelzer 1615:Nutritional requirements and interactions 1459:Measuring magnesium in biological samples 5750: 5624:Photosynthesis: A Comprehensive Treatise 4954: 3642: 3049:Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD) 2193: 1939: 1716: 1663: 1384:The Mg ion tends to bind only weakly to 1163: 629: 63: 18: 6638: 6398:Iron-responsive element-binding protein 5621: 5586:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics 5307:Gupta, A. S.; Berkowitz, G. A. (1989). 5232: 5203: 4803: 3946:Cowan, J. A. (1995). J.A. Cowan (ed.). 3908: 1485: 1202: 216:are used to treat conditions including 191:etc.) are much better-tolerated by the 7033: 5908:Research in Developmental Disabilities 5808: 5533: 5498: 4639:. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates Inc. 4504: 3621: 3205: 3020: 3016:, European Food Safety Authority, 2006 2849:International Journal of Endocrinology 2685:International Journal of Endocrinology 2476:Kass L, Weekes J, Carpenter L (2012). 2103: 1896:Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia 1668:Figure 1: Magnesium in the whole plant 1528: 1243:molecule. This role was discovered by 6612: 6194: 5241:Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica 4665:. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. 4637:Ionic channels of excitable membranes 4628: 4058: 4046:The Biological Chemistry of Magnesium 4026:The Biological Chemistry of Magnesium 3945: 3443: 3253:. Weinheim, New York: Verlag Chemie. 3062: 2200:Euser, A. G.; Cipolla, M. J. (2009). 1926: 1894:"Magnesium (In Biological Systems)". 1865: – Use of Potassium by organisms 1830: – Pore-forming membrane protein 1753:ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase 1721:Figure 2: Magnesium in the plant cell 45:type in every organism. For example, 6094: 5646:Rengel, Z.; Robinson, D. L. (1989). 5176: 4660: 4289: 4193: 2295:from the original on 15 January 2024 1898:. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2006. 1871: – Use of Selenium by organisms 910:, 70% cocoa (1 oz) = 73 mg 689:are also good sources of magnesium. 6729: (Core six elements) 1818: – Use of calcium by organisms 1762: 718:. Not enough magnesium can lead to 277:, which conduct positively charged 268: 199:of the older compounds used, while 13: 5456:American Journal of Neuroradiology 5043:Huber, S.C.; Maury, W. J. (1980). 3764:European Journal of Human Genetics 3636:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1987.tb04631.x 3289:10.1111/j.1438-8677.1990.tb00183.x 2039:. 25 December 2007. Archived from 2010:Mineral Nutrition in Higher Plants 1877: – Use of sodium by organisms 1837:Magnesium deficiency (agriculture) 1824: – Use of Iodine by organisms 1769:magnesium deficiency (agriculture) 1176:In animals, magnesium deficiency ( 649:molecules, which contain the ion. 14: 7072: 6090: 3136:Journal of Clinical Investigation 2908:Biological Trace Element Research 6099: 5636:Section 8.5.6 of Marschner, 1995 5630: 5208:. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 5191:10.1146/annurev.arplant.37.1.335 5002:Demmig, B.; Gimmler, H. (1979). 4951:Section 8.5.2 in Marschner, 1995 4873:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00616.x 4806:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 4773:10.1128/JB.186.14.4605-4612.2004 4251:"Magnesium metabolism: a review" 1285: 707:can also provide magnesium, but 6553:Phosphoric acids and phosphates 6169:List of foods rich in Magnesium 5103: 5094: 5085: 4967:Journal of Biological Chemistry 4945: 4484:10.1152/ajpcell.1989.256.3.C540 4169:10.1128/jb.177.5.1233-1238.1995 3902: 3893: 3505:10.1128/jb.171.9.4742-4751.1989 3105: 3087: 3037: 3001: 2984: 2977:, Office of Dietary Supplements 2962: 2950: 2895: 2836: 2778: 2731: 2672: 2615: 2561: 2510: 2469: 2420: 2376: 2332: 2307: 2277: 1952:Journal of Biological Chemistry 1842:Magnesium deficiency (medicine) 1207:Mg is the fourth-most-abundant 625: 397: 378:absorption and bone metabolism. 308: 288: 137:, and has been associated with 122: 6717:Biological aspects of fluorine 5109:Section 2.4 in Marschner, 1995 5100:Section 3.3 in Marschner, 1995 5091:Section 2.7 in Marschner, 1995 5008:Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 4249:Ebel, H.; Gunther, T. (1980). 3181:American Journal of Cardiology 2445:10.1002/14651858.CD000025.pub2 2097: 2055: 1887: 1509:atomic absorption spectroscopy 1230: 1072:, non fat (1 cup) = 27 mg 634:Some good sources of magnesium 607:European Food Safety Authority 421:Recommended Dietary Allowances 301:Diabetes and glucose tolerance 1: 6995:Composition of the human body 6286:Ferroportin (SLC11A3/SLC40A1) 5802: 5598:10.1016/S0003-9861(03)00038-9 4826:10.1016/S1369-5266(03)00032-3 3708:10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60272-2 3600:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)50522-1 2975:National Institutes of Health 2012:. San Diego: Academic Press. 1965:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)93417-4 1606:Plant physiology of magnesium 425:Tolerable upper intake levels 365:Magnesium activates vitamin D 16:Use of Magnesium by organisms 5986:10.1016/0006-3223(85)90019-8 5513:10.1016/0005-2728(77)90088-3 5468:10.1016/0005-2728(76)90006-2 5370:10.1016/0005-2728(73)90137-0 5123:L.) in relation to supply". 3193:10.1016/0002-9149(66)90372-9 2402:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.12.026 2358:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.11.013 2263:10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.11.022 2218:10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.527788 1523:atomic emission spectroscopy 1418:In biological systems, only 1413: 964:(2 tablespoons) = 50 mg 346: 7: 7005:Mineral (Essential element) 5819:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_4 2981:Updated: September 26, 2018 2114:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_3 1804: 1568:Ligand ion channel blockade 1379: 612: 374:They play crucial roles in 106: 92:to synthesize DNA and RNA. 68:Space-filling model of the 10: 7077: 7020:Uranium in the environment 5920:10.1016/j.ridd.2004.12.002 5732:Journal of Plant Nutrition 5699:. New York: Marcel Dekker. 5204:Gregory, R. P. F. (1989). 4267:10.1515/cclm.1980.18.5.257 2640:10.1172/jci.insight.123182 2433:Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2178:10.1001/archinte.168.5.459 1904:10.1002/0471743984.vse4741 1766: 1532: 1515:Inductively coupled plasma 1503:By absorption spectroscopy 1450:Importance in drug binding 1250: 401: 350: 312: 126: 6987: 6875:Acute beryllium poisoning 6850: 6787: 6725: 6644: 6579: 6561: 6543: 6525: 6516: 6479: 6441: 6379: 6353: 6315: 6261: 6250: 6232: 5744:10.1080/01904168509363409 4659:See Chapters 5 and 6 in 4472:Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 3909:Milo, Ron; Philips, Rob. 3700:Grass tetany of ruminants 2920:10.1007/s12011-010-8676-3 1859: – Skeletal disorder 1473:By fluorescent indicators 1402:100 mmol/L (Stelzer 827:(3 oz) = 103 mg 429:Dietary Reference Intakes 6589:Calcium-sensing receptor 6336:Calreticulin/mobilferrin 6180:Dietary Reference Intake 5811:Metallomics and the Cell 4980:10.1074/jbc.274.29.20438 3323:10.1093/emboj/18.14.3973 1881: 1344:Cell membranes and walls 1082:(1 oz) = 24 mg 252:congestive heart failure 165:. Acute deficiency (see 6594:Calcium-binding protein 5883:10.1023/A:1025861522935 4761:Journal of Bacteriology 4686:Hille, 1992. Chapter 11 4597:10.1023/A:1016074714951 4519:10.1023/A:1016026831789 4365:10.1023/A:1016058229972 4157:Journal of Bacteriology 4073:10.1023/A:1016022730880 3995:10.1023/A:1016082900838 3868:10.1073/pnas.0305252101 3777:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200475 3493:Journal of Bacteriology 3458:10.1023/A:1016091118585 1586:ions, because they are 1517:(ICP) using either the 1464:By radioactive isotopes 1222:. Indeed, Mg-dependent 415:Dietary recommendations 265:million prescriptions. 232:or chloride when given 176:. Supplements based on 6887:Chlorine gas poisoning 5534:Portis, A. R. (1981). 5418:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1484 5121:Trifolium subterranean 5021:10.1515/znc-1979-3-413 4723:10.1073/pnas.242603999 4550:Bioconjugate Chemistry 4206:Nucleic Acids Research 4108:Nucleic Acids Research 3555:10.1074/jbc.273.3.1727 3356:"Homeostatic muffling" 3099:nutritiondata.self.com 2008:Marschner, H. (1995). 1722: 1669: 1590:too, but have greater 1173: 1088:(1 slice) = 23 mg 635: 620:Reference Daily Intake 436:Reference Daily Intake 321:adenosine triphosphate 139:cardiovascular disease 77: 47:adenosine triphosphate 31: 28:adenosine triphosphate 6860:Argyria (Silver) 6702:Molybdenum in biology 6571:Magnesium transporter 6362:Iron-binding proteins 6326:Duodenal cytochrome B 6174:The Magnesium Website 4218:10.1093/nar/28.8.1760 4120:10.1093/nar/11.9.2665 3624:Physiologia Plantarum 2756:10.7556/jaoa.2018.037 2583:10.1038/ejcn.2016.154 2285:"The Top 300 of 2021" 1720: 1667: 1424:reverse transcriptase 1167: 1066:(1 Tbsp) = 32 mg 633: 402:Further information: 351:Further information: 313:Further information: 127:Further information: 67: 22: 7000:Lithium (medication) 6712:Arsenic biochemistry 6672:Manganese in biology 6662:Potassium in biology 6657:Magnesium in biology 6563:Magnesium metabolism 6545:Phosphate metabolism 6295:Transferrin receptor 6164:Magnesium Deficiency 6120:improve this article 5664:10.1104/pp.91.4.1407 4478:(3 Pt 1): C540–548. 3819:10.1681/ASN.V1291872 1863:Potassium in biology 1486:By electrophysiology 1203:Biological chemistry 602:* = Adequate intake 340:cellular respiration 218:magnesium deficiency 195:and do not have the 129:Magnesium deficiency 6870:Beryllium poisoning 6697:Selenium in biology 6639:Elements in biology 6132:footnote references 6011:J Autism Dev Disord 5937:J Autism Dev Disord 5871:J Autism Dev Disord 5775:10.1104/pp.97.2.580 5552:10.1104/pp.67.5.985 5409:1974PNAS...71.1484H 5325:10.1104/pp.89.3.753 5276:10.1104/pp.74.4.956 5061:10.1104/pp.65.2.350 4973:(29): 20438–20443. 4904:1981PlSoi..61..447H 4818:2003COPB....6..263G 4714:2002PNAS...9915717H 4708:(24): 15717–15722. 4661:Dean, J.R. (1997). 4311:2001Natur.413..814S 3915:book.bionumbers.org 3859:2004PNAS..101.2894C 3372:1991Natur.350R.564T 2862:10.1155/2014/525249 2804:10.1093/ajcn/nqy274 2698:10.1155/2014/525249 2495:10.1038/ejcn.2012.4 1869:Selenium in biology 1600:electrical synapses 1542:coordination sphere 1535:Magnesium transport 1529:Magnesium transport 1245:Richard Willstätter 862:Whole wheat flour ( 439: 204:dietary supplements 163:cerebral infarction 147:high blood pressure 7061:Biological systems 6964:Thallium poisoning 6667:Calcium in biology 6581:Calcium metabolism 6185:Healing Thresholds 6023:10.1007/BF01066428 5949:10.1007/BF01531686 4912:10.1007/BF02182025 4629:Hille, B. (1992). 3667:10.1104/pp.92.1.29 3416:Magnesium Research 3220:10.1007/BF02269144 3074:HealthAliciousNess 1816:Calcium in biology 1723: 1670: 1174: 821:cup) = 107 mg 808:cup) = 110 mg 795:cup) = 125 mg 779:cup) = 151 mg 763:cup) = 162 mg 747:cup) = 303 mg 636: 460:Birth to 6 months 434: 78: 32: 7028: 7027: 6974:Toxic heavy metal 6959:Selenium toxicity 6944:Mercury poisoning 6912:Fluoride toxicity 6907:Cadmium poisoning 6892:Chromium toxicity 6865:Arsenic poisoning 6707:Iodine in biology 6687:Copper in biology 6682:Cobalt in biology 6652:Sodium in biology 6606: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6527:Sodium metabolism 6512: 6511: 6443:Copper metabolism 6437: 6436: 6433: 6432: 6349: 6348: 6160: 6159: 6152: 5855:978-94-007-5561-1 5828:978-94-007-5560-4 5738:(12): 1088–1101. 5164:10.1071/AR9900511 5137:10.1071/AR9900499 4767:(14): 4605–4612. 4672:978-0-471-97255-6 4646:978-0-87893-322-8 4562:10.1021/bc000087d 3717:978-0-12-000722-6 3593:(10): 6963–6969. 3317:(14): 3973–3980. 3260:978-0-89573-003-9 3148:10.1172/JCI105151 2577:(12): 1354–1359. 2536:10.3390/nu8110739 2165:Arch. Intern. Med 2123:978-94-007-7499-5 2082:978-0-309-06403-3 2019:978-0-12-473542-2 1958:(10): 2618–2624. 1875:Sodium in biology 1822:Iodine in biology 1592:electronegativity 1519:mass spectrometry 1086:Whole wheat bread 1060:cup) = 32 mg 1044:cup) = 36 mg 1028:cup) = 37 mg 1012:cup) = 39 mg 996:cup) = 41 mg 980:cup) = 46 mg 958:cup) = 59 mg 942:cup) = 60 mg 926:cup) = 73 mg 904:cup) = 75 mg 888:cup) = 79 mg 872:cup) = 83 mg 859:cup) = 89 mg 843:cup) = 99 mg 737:seeds, no hulls ( 698:whole-wheat bread 600: 599: 248:Magnesium orotate 230:magnesium sulfate 201:sustained-release 7068: 7046:Plant physiology 6939:Lithium toxicity 6897:Cobalt poisoning 6633: 6626: 6619: 6610: 6609: 6523: 6522: 6358: 6357: 6259: 6258: 6248: 6247: 6239: 6238: 6234:Transition metal 6226:Metal metabolism 6215: 6208: 6201: 6192: 6191: 6155: 6148: 6144: 6141: 6135: 6103: 6102: 6095: 6086: 6064: 6042: 6005: 5968: 5931: 5902: 5849:electronic-book 5848: 5797: 5796: 5786: 5763:Plant Physiology 5754: 5748: 5747: 5727: 5721: 5720: 5714: 5710: 5708: 5700: 5692: 5686: 5685: 5675: 5658:(4): 1407–1413. 5652:Plant Physiology 5643: 5637: 5634: 5628: 5627: 5619: 5610: 5609: 5580: 5574: 5573: 5563: 5540:Plant Physiology 5531: 5525: 5524: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5479: 5447: 5441: 5440: 5430: 5420: 5403:(4): 1484–1488. 5388: 5382: 5381: 5353: 5347: 5346: 5336: 5313:Plant Physiology 5304: 5298: 5297: 5287: 5264:Plant Physiology 5255: 5249: 5248: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5223: 5219: 5217: 5209: 5201: 5195: 5194: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5147: 5141: 5140: 5116: 5110: 5107: 5101: 5098: 5092: 5089: 5083: 5082: 5072: 5049:Plant Physiology 5040: 5034: 5033: 5023: 5014:(3–4): 233–241. 4999: 4993: 4992: 4982: 4958: 4952: 4949: 4943: 4942: 4930: 4924: 4923: 4887: 4878: 4877: 4875: 4851: 4838: 4837: 4801: 4795: 4794: 4784: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4735: 4725: 4693: 4687: 4684: 4678: 4676: 4657: 4651: 4650: 4634: 4626: 4617: 4616: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4545: 4539: 4538: 4502: 4496: 4495: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4454: 4450: 4448: 4440: 4439:. New York: VCH. 4432: 4423: 4422: 4416: 4412: 4410: 4402: 4401:. New York: VCH. 4394: 4385: 4384: 4348: 4339: 4338: 4319:10.1038/35101544 4305:(6858): 814–21. 4293: 4287: 4286: 4246: 4240: 4239: 4229: 4212:(8): 1760–1766. 4197: 4191: 4190: 4180: 4163:(5): 1233–1238. 4148: 4142: 4141: 4131: 4114:(9): 2665–2679. 4099: 4093: 4092: 4056: 4050: 4049: 4048:. New York: VCH. 4041: 4030: 4029: 4028:. New York: VCH. 4021: 4015: 4014: 3978: 3972: 3971: 3965: 3961: 3959: 3951: 3950:. New York: VCH. 3943: 3926: 3925: 3923: 3921: 3906: 3900: 3897: 3891: 3890: 3880: 3870: 3853:(9): 2894–2899. 3838: 3832: 3831: 3821: 3812:(9): 1872–1881. 3796: 3790: 3789: 3779: 3755: 3749: 3748: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3695: 3689: 3688: 3678: 3655:Plant Physiology 3646: 3640: 3639: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3602: 3574: 3568: 3567: 3557: 3548:(3): 1727–1732. 3533: 3527: 3526: 3516: 3499:(9): 4742–4751. 3484: 3478: 3477: 3441: 3432: 3431: 3411: 3402: 3401: 3383: 3381:10.1038/350564b0 3351: 3345: 3344: 3334: 3302: 3293: 3292: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3159: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3117:ndb.nal.usda.gov 3109: 3103: 3102: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3055: 3041: 3035: 3034: 3032: 3024: 3018: 3017: 3015: 3005: 2999: 2998: 2996: 2988: 2982: 2980: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2899: 2893: 2892: 2882: 2864: 2840: 2834: 2833: 2823: 2798:(6): 1249–1258. 2782: 2776: 2775: 2735: 2729: 2728: 2718: 2700: 2676: 2670: 2669: 2659: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2594: 2565: 2559: 2558: 2548: 2538: 2514: 2508: 2507: 2497: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2456: 2439:(11): CD000025. 2424: 2418: 2414: 2404: 2380: 2374: 2370: 2360: 2336: 2330: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2311: 2305: 2304: 2302: 2300: 2281: 2275: 2274: 2246: 2240: 2239: 2229: 2212:(4): 1169–1175. 2197: 2191: 2190: 2180: 2156: 2150: 2149: 2143: 2135: 2101: 2095: 2094: 2059: 2053: 2052: 2050: 2048: 2033: 2024: 2023: 2005: 1978: 1977: 1967: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1924: 1918: 1917: 1891: 1847: 1833: 1763:Magnesium stress 1580:cellular biology 1237:coordinating ion 1059: 1058: 1054: 1043: 1042: 1038: 1027: 1026: 1022: 1011: 1010: 1006: 995: 994: 990: 979: 978: 974: 957: 956: 952: 941: 940: 936: 925: 924: 920: 903: 902: 898: 887: 886: 882: 871: 870: 866: 858: 857: 853: 842: 841: 837: 820: 819: 815: 807: 806: 802: 794: 793: 789: 778: 777: 773: 762: 761: 757: 746: 745: 741: 639:Green vegetables 440: 433: 388:Immune function: 382:Muscle function: 275:calcium channels 269:Nerve conduction 264: 242:milk of magnesia 193:digestive system 7076: 7075: 7071: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7066: 7065: 7031: 7030: 7029: 7024: 7010:Oxygen toxicity 6983: 6902:Copper toxicity 6846: 6783: 6721: 6692:Zinc in biology 6677:Iron in biology 6640: 6637: 6607: 6598: 6575: 6557: 6539: 6508: 6481:Zinc metabolism 6475: 6429: 6375: 6345: 6317:Iron(III) oxide 6311: 6253: 6243:Iron metabolism 6228: 6219: 6156: 6145: 6139: 6136: 6117: 6108:This article's 6104: 6100: 6093: 5829: 5805: 5800: 5755: 5751: 5728: 5724: 5712: 5711: 5702: 5701: 5693: 5689: 5644: 5640: 5635: 5631: 5620: 5613: 5581: 5577: 5532: 5528: 5497: 5493: 5448: 5444: 5389: 5385: 5354: 5350: 5305: 5301: 5256: 5252: 5237: 5233: 5221: 5220: 5211: 5210: 5202: 5198: 5175: 5171: 5148: 5144: 5117: 5113: 5108: 5104: 5099: 5095: 5090: 5086: 5041: 5037: 5000: 4996: 4959: 4955: 4950: 4946: 4931: 4927: 4888: 4881: 4852: 4841: 4802: 4798: 4753: 4749: 4694: 4690: 4685: 4681: 4673: 4658: 4654: 4647: 4627: 4620: 4581: 4577: 4546: 4542: 4503: 4499: 4468: 4464: 4452: 4451: 4442: 4441: 4433: 4426: 4414: 4413: 4404: 4403: 4395: 4388: 4349: 4342: 4294: 4290: 4247: 4243: 4198: 4194: 4149: 4145: 4100: 4096: 4057: 4053: 4042: 4033: 4022: 4018: 3979: 3975: 3963: 3962: 3953: 3952: 3944: 3929: 3919: 3917: 3907: 3903: 3898: 3894: 3839: 3835: 3797: 3793: 3756: 3752: 3729: 3725: 3718: 3696: 3692: 3647: 3643: 3620: 3616: 3575: 3571: 3534: 3530: 3485: 3481: 3442: 3435: 3412: 3405: 3352: 3348: 3303: 3296: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3247: 3243: 3204: 3200: 3177: 3173: 3128: 3124: 3111: 3110: 3106: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3078: 3076: 3068: 3067: 3063: 3053: 3051: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3030: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3013: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2994: 2990: 2989: 2985: 2968: 2967: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2900: 2896: 2841: 2837: 2783: 2779: 2736: 2732: 2677: 2673: 2620: 2616: 2571:Eur J Clin Nutr 2566: 2562: 2515: 2511: 2482:Eur J Clin Nutr 2474: 2470: 2425: 2421: 2381: 2377: 2337: 2333: 2323: 2321: 2313: 2312: 2308: 2298: 2296: 2283: 2282: 2278: 2251:Int. J. Cardiol 2247: 2243: 2198: 2194: 2157: 2153: 2137: 2136: 2124: 2102: 2098: 2083: 2061: 2060: 2056: 2046: 2044: 2035: 2034: 2027: 2020: 2006: 1981: 1944: 1940: 1925: 1921: 1914: 1893: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1851:Myers' cocktail 1845: 1831: 1807: 1795:carbon fixation 1785: 1771: 1765: 1728: 1646: 1634:Casparian strip 1617: 1608: 1570: 1554:hydration shell 1537: 1531: 1505: 1488: 1475: 1466: 1461: 1452: 1416: 1395: 1382: 1346: 1307: 1288: 1277: 1268: 1253: 1233: 1205: 1185:Hypermagnesemia 1096: 1091: 1056: 1052: 1051: 1040: 1036: 1035: 1024: 1020: 1019: 1008: 1004: 1003: 992: 988: 987: 984:Sunflower seeds 976: 972: 971: 954: 950: 949: 938: 934: 933: 922: 918: 917: 900: 896: 895: 884: 880: 879: 868: 864: 863: 855: 851: 850: 839: 835: 834: 817: 813: 812: 804: 800: 799: 798:Oat bran, raw ( 791: 787: 786: 775: 771: 770: 759: 755: 754: 743: 739: 738: 628: 615: 417: 406: 400: 355: 349: 317: 311: 303: 291: 271: 262: 256:quality of life 131: 125: 109: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7074: 7064: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7026: 7025: 7023: 7022: 7017: 7012: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6991: 6989: 6985: 6984: 6982: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6954:Nickel allergy 6951: 6949:Metal toxicity 6946: 6941: 6936: 6934:Lead poisoning 6931: 6930: 6929: 6922:Iron poisoning 6919: 6914: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6889: 6884: 6883: 6882: 6877: 6867: 6862: 6856: 6854: 6848: 6847: 6845: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6793: 6791: 6785: 6784: 6782: 6781: 6773: 6765: 6757: 6749: 6741: 6732: 6730: 6723: 6722: 6720: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6684: 6679: 6674: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6648: 6646: 6642: 6641: 6636: 6635: 6628: 6621: 6613: 6604: 6603: 6600: 6599: 6597: 6596: 6591: 6585: 6583: 6577: 6576: 6574: 6573: 6567: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6555: 6549: 6547: 6541: 6540: 6538: 6537: 6531: 6529: 6520: 6514: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6507: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6485: 6483: 6477: 6476: 6474: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6447: 6445: 6439: 6438: 6435: 6434: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6395: 6390: 6380: 6377: 6376: 6374: 6373: 6367: 6365: 6355: 6351: 6350: 6347: 6346: 6344: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6322: 6320: 6313: 6312: 6310: 6309: 6308: 6307: 6302: 6288: 6279: 6274: 6272:DMT1 (SLC11A2) 6268: 6266: 6263:Iron(II) oxide 6256: 6245: 6236: 6230: 6229: 6218: 6217: 6210: 6203: 6195: 6189: 6188: 6182: 6177: 6171: 6166: 6158: 6157: 6112:external links 6107: 6105: 6098: 6092: 6091:External links 6089: 6088: 6087: 6065: 6043: 6017:(1): 193–199. 6006: 5980:(5): 467–478. 5969: 5943:(2): 219–230. 5932: 5903: 5877:(4): 467–478. 5865: 5827: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5798: 5769:(2): 580–587. 5749: 5722: 5687: 5638: 5629: 5611: 5592:(1): 126–132. 5575: 5546:(5): 985–989. 5526: 5507:(3): 500–510. 5491: 5442: 5383: 5364:(2): 224–241. 5348: 5319:(3): 753–761. 5299: 5270:(4): 956–961. 5250: 5231: 5196: 5169: 5158:(3): 511–519. 5142: 5131:(3): 499–510. 5111: 5102: 5093: 5084: 5055:(2): 350–354. 5035: 4994: 4953: 4944: 4925: 4898:(3): 447–456. 4879: 4839: 4812:(3): 263–267. 4796: 4747: 4688: 4679: 4671: 4652: 4645: 4618: 4591:(3): 237–249. 4575: 4556:(2): 203–212. 4540: 4513:(3): 251–259. 4497: 4462: 4424: 4386: 4359:(3): 203–210. 4340: 4288: 4261:(5): 257–270. 4241: 4192: 4143: 4094: 4067:(3): 225–235. 4051: 4031: 4016: 3989:(3): 271–283. 3973: 3927: 3901: 3892: 3833: 3791: 3770:(6): 414–422. 3750: 3739:(2): 385–402. 3723: 3716: 3690: 3641: 3614: 3569: 3528: 3479: 3452:(3): 309–323. 3433: 3422:(3): 257–265. 3403: 3346: 3294: 3283:(4): 415–423. 3266: 3259: 3241: 3198: 3187:(6): 786–791. 3171: 3142:(3): 379–389. 3122: 3104: 3086: 3061: 3036: 3019: 3000: 2983: 2961: 2949: 2894: 2835: 2777: 2750:(3): 181–189. 2730: 2671: 2634:(1): e123182. 2614: 2560: 2509: 2468: 2419: 2375: 2331: 2306: 2276: 2241: 2192: 2151: 2122: 2096: 2081: 2054: 2025: 2018: 1979: 1938: 1919: 1913:978-0471743989 1912: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1879: 1878: 1872: 1866: 1860: 1854: 1848: 1839: 1834: 1825: 1819: 1813: 1806: 1803: 1783: 1767:Main article: 1764: 1761: 1727: 1724: 1659:transfer cells 1645: 1642: 1616: 1613: 1607: 1604: 1569: 1566: 1533:Main article: 1530: 1527: 1504: 1501: 1487: 1484: 1474: 1471: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1451: 1448: 1415: 1412: 1393: 1381: 1378: 1363:phosphorylated 1350:cell membranes 1345: 1342: 1305: 1287: 1284: 1276: 1273: 1266: 1252: 1249: 1232: 1229: 1214:in cells (per 1204: 1201: 1178:hypomagnesemia 1150:photosynthesis 1095: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1083: 1073: 1067: 1061: 1045: 1029: 1013: 997: 981: 965: 959: 943: 927: 911: 905: 889: 873: 860: 844: 828: 822: 811:Cocoa powder ( 809: 796: 780: 764: 748: 731: 720:hypomagnesemia 675:dark chocolate 627: 624: 614: 611: 598: 597: 595: 593: 590: 587: 583: 582: 579: 576: 573: 570: 566: 565: 562: 559: 556: 553: 549: 548: 545: 542: 539: 536: 532: 531: 529: 527: 524: 521: 517: 516: 514: 512: 509: 506: 502: 501: 499: 497: 494: 491: 487: 486: 484: 482: 479: 476: 472: 471: 469: 467: 464: 461: 457: 456: 453: 450: 447: 444: 416: 413: 399: 396: 392: 391: 385: 379: 369: 366: 357:Magnesium and 348: 345: 310: 307: 302: 299: 290: 287: 270: 267: 222:hypomagnesemia 208:renal function 167:hypomagnesemia 124: 121: 108: 105: 101:photosynthesis 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7073: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7021: 7018: 7016: 7015:Soil salinity 7013: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6992: 6990: 6986: 6980: 6979:Zinc toxicity 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6969:Tin poisoning 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6928: 6927:Iron overload 6925: 6924: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6917:Halotolerance 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6888: 6885: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6853: 6849: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6792: 6790: 6786: 6780: 6778: 6774: 6772: 6770: 6766: 6764: 6762: 6758: 6756: 6754: 6750: 6748: 6746: 6742: 6740: 6738: 6734: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6724: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6683: 6680: 6678: 6675: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6647: 6643: 6634: 6629: 6627: 6622: 6620: 6615: 6614: 6611: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6586: 6584: 6582: 6578: 6572: 6569: 6568: 6566: 6564: 6560: 6554: 6551: 6550: 6548: 6546: 6542: 6536: 6533: 6532: 6530: 6528: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6515: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6486: 6484: 6482: 6478: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6461:Ceruloplasmin 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6410:Ceruloplasmin 6408: 6404: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6385: 6382: 6381: 6378: 6372: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6359: 6356: 6352: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6314: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6297: 6296: 6292: 6289: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252:Absorption in 6249: 6246: 6244: 6240: 6237: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6216: 6211: 6209: 6204: 6202: 6197: 6196: 6193: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6161: 6154: 6151: 6143: 6133: 6129: 6128:inappropriate 6125: 6121: 6115: 6113: 6106: 6097: 6096: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6066: 6062: 6058: 6054: 6050: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5991: 5987: 5983: 5979: 5975: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5876: 5872: 5866: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5807: 5806: 5794: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5726: 5718: 5706: 5698: 5691: 5683: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5642: 5633: 5625: 5618: 5616: 5607: 5603: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5579: 5571: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5530: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5478: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5446: 5438: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5394: 5387: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5352: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5303: 5295: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5254: 5246: 5242: 5235: 5227: 5215: 5207: 5200: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5180: 5173: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5146: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5115: 5106: 5097: 5088: 5080: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5039: 5031: 5027: 5022: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4957: 4948: 4940: 4936: 4929: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4886: 4884: 4874: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4844: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4800: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4751: 4743: 4739: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4692: 4683: 4674: 4668: 4664: 4656: 4648: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4625: 4623: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4579: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4544: 4536: 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4512: 4508: 4501: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4466: 4458: 4446: 4438: 4431: 4429: 4420: 4408: 4400: 4393: 4391: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4347: 4345: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4292: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4245: 4237: 4233: 4228: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4196: 4188: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4147: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4098: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4055: 4047: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4027: 4020: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3984: 3977: 3969: 3957: 3949: 3942: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3932: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3896: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3837: 3829: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3795: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3754: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3727: 3719: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3694: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3618: 3610: 3606: 3601: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3587:J. Biol. Chem 3584: 3582: 3573: 3565: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3542:J. Biol. Chem 3539: 3532: 3524: 3520: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3440: 3438: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3408: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3382: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3366:(6319): 564. 3365: 3361: 3357: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3333: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3301: 3299: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3277:Botanica Acta 3270: 3262: 3256: 3252: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3175: 3167: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3118: 3114: 3108: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3075: 3071: 3065: 3050: 3046: 3040: 3029: 3023: 3012: 3011: 3004: 2993: 2987: 2978: 2976: 2971: 2965: 2958: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2881: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2781: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2734: 2726: 2722: 2717: 2712: 2708: 2704: 2699: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2675: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2618: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2564: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2542: 2537: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2513: 2505: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2479: 2472: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2423: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2395:(2): 165–77. 2394: 2390: 2386: 2379: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2359: 2354: 2351:(5): 835–49. 2350: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2320: 2316: 2310: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2280: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2245: 2237: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2188: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2171:(5): 459–65. 2170: 2166: 2162: 2155: 2147: 2141: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2100: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2078: 2074: 2073:10.17226/5776 2070: 2066: 2065: 2058: 2043:on 2007-12-25 2042: 2038: 2032: 2030: 2021: 2015: 2011: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1996: 1994: 1992: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1984: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1942: 1934: 1930: 1923: 1915: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1890: 1886: 1876: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1858: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1829: 1826: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1802: 1800: 1799:free radicals 1796: 1792: 1787: 1779: 1777: 1770: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1748: 1745: 1741: 1736: 1732: 1719: 1715: 1713: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1695: 1693: 1689: 1684: 1678: 1676: 1666: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1655:plasmodesmata 1650: 1641: 1637: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1623: 1612: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1596:NMDA channels 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1574: 1565: 1561: 1559: 1555: 1550: 1547: 1543: 1536: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1510: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1483: 1481: 1470: 1456: 1447: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1387: 1377: 1375: 1370: 1369: 1364: 1360: 1355: 1351: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1315:autocatalysis 1311: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1291:Nucleic acids 1286:Nucleic acids 1283: 1281: 1272: 1269: 1265: 1259: 1258:Lewis acidity 1248: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1228: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1200: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1171: 1166: 1162: 1160: 1155: 1151: 1146: 1144: 1143:mitochondrial 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1123: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1077: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1049: 1046: 1033: 1030: 1017: 1014: 1001: 998: 985: 982: 969: 966: 963: 962:Peanut butter 960: 947: 944: 931: 928: 915: 912: 909: 906: 893: 890: 877: 874: 861: 848: 845: 832: 829: 826: 823: 810: 797: 784: 781: 768: 765: 752: 749: 736: 733: 732: 730: 727: 725: 724:fasciculation 721: 717: 712: 710: 706: 702: 699: 694: 690: 688: 684: 680: 676: 672: 671:pumpkin seeds 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 632: 623: 621: 610: 608: 603: 596: 594: 591: 588: 585: 584: 580: 577: 574: 571: 568: 567: 563: 560: 557: 554: 551: 550: 546: 543: 540: 537: 534: 533: 530: 528: 525: 522: 519: 518: 515: 513: 510: 507: 504: 503: 500: 498: 495: 492: 489: 488: 485: 483: 480: 477: 474: 473: 470: 468: 465: 462: 459: 458: 454: 451: 448: 445: 442: 441: 438:of magnesium 437: 432: 430: 426: 422: 412: 409: 405: 395: 389: 386: 383: 380: 377: 373: 370: 367: 364: 363: 362: 360: 354: 344: 342: 341: 336: 332: 328: 324: 322: 316: 315:Mitochondrion 306: 298: 296: 295:pre-eclampsia 286: 284: 280: 276: 266: 259: 257: 253: 249: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 224:, as well as 223: 219: 215: 211: 209: 205: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 179: 175: 170: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 130: 120: 118: 114: 104: 102: 98: 93: 91: 87: 83: 75: 71: 70:chlorophyll a 66: 62: 60: 56: 52: 51:polyphosphate 48: 44: 40: 36: 29: 25: 21: 6789:Deficiencies 6776: 6768: 6760: 6752: 6744: 6736: 6656: 6562: 6146: 6140:January 2018 6137: 6122:by removing 6109: 6077:(1): 53–62. 6074: 6070: 6055:(1): 46–52. 6052: 6048: 6014: 6010: 5977: 5973: 5940: 5936: 5914:(1): 70–84. 5911: 5907: 5874: 5870: 5810: 5766: 5762: 5752: 5735: 5731: 5725: 5696: 5690: 5655: 5651: 5641: 5632: 5623: 5589: 5585: 5578: 5543: 5539: 5529: 5504: 5500: 5494: 5462:(1): 48–58. 5459: 5455: 5445: 5400: 5396: 5386: 5361: 5357: 5351: 5316: 5312: 5302: 5267: 5263: 5253: 5244: 5240: 5234: 5205: 5199: 5182: 5178: 5172: 5155: 5151: 5145: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5114: 5105: 5096: 5087: 5052: 5048: 5038: 5011: 5007: 4997: 4970: 4966: 4956: 4947: 4938: 4934: 4928: 4895: 4891: 4863: 4859: 4809: 4805: 4799: 4764: 4760: 4750: 4705: 4701: 4691: 4682: 4662: 4655: 4636: 4588: 4584: 4578: 4553: 4549: 4543: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4475: 4471: 4465: 4436: 4398: 4356: 4352: 4302: 4298: 4291: 4258: 4254: 4244: 4209: 4205: 4195: 4160: 4156: 4146: 4111: 4107: 4097: 4064: 4060: 4054: 4045: 4025: 4019: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3947: 3918:. 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Retrieved 2041:the original 2009: 1955: 1951: 1941: 1932: 1928: 1922: 1895: 1889: 1857:Osteoporosis 1828:Ion channels 1790: 1788: 1780: 1772: 1757: 1749: 1743: 1739: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1707:chloroplasts 1702: 1696: 1679: 1674: 1671: 1651: 1647: 1638: 1626: 1621: 1618: 1609: 1571: 1562: 1557: 1551: 1538: 1513: 1506: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1479: 1476: 1467: 1453: 1446:prefers Mn. 1444:retroviruses 1428:lentiviruses 1417: 1403: 1390: 1383: 1366: 1359:carboxylated 1347: 1334:major groove 1326:cell nucleus 1323: 1302: 1289: 1278: 1263: 1254: 1234: 1206: 1196: 1192: 1182: 1175: 1161:conditions. 1147: 1124: 1120:Calvin cycle 1116:chloroplasts 1114:fixation in 1108: 1097: 728: 713: 709:"soft" water 705:"Hard" water 703: 695: 691: 687:whole grains 653:(especially 637: 626:Food sources 616: 604: 601: 592:320 mg 589:420 mg 581:320 mg 578:360 mg 575:320 mg 572:420 mg 569:31–50 years 564:310 mg 561:350 mg 558:310 mg 555:400 mg 552:19–30 years 547:360 mg 544:400 mg 541:360 mg 538:410 mg 535:14–18 years 526:240 mg 523:240 mg 511:130 mg 508:130 mg 481:75 mg* 478:75 mg* 475:7–12 months 466:30 mg* 463:30 mg* 418: 410: 407: 404:Testosterone 398:Testosterone 393: 387: 381: 372:Bone health: 371: 356: 338: 333:, primarily 327:Mitochondria 325: 318: 309:Mitochondria 304: 292: 289:Hypertension 279:calcium ions 272: 260: 246: 234:parenterally 212: 197:side-effects 171: 159:osteoporosis 132: 123:Human health 110: 94: 85: 79: 33: 6880:Berylliosis 6535:Na/K-ATPase 6518:Electrolyte 6425:Lactoferrin 6420:Hemosiderin 6393:Hemojuvelin 6291:Transferrin 6071:Magnes. Res 6049:Magnes. Res 5857:electronic- 5713:|work= 5222:|work= 5185:: 335–361. 4453:|work= 4415:|work= 3964:|work= 3630:: 142–149. 3214:: 185–296. 2970:"Magnesium" 2957:"Magnesium" 2628:JCI Insight 2529:(11): 739. 1703:A. thaliana 1629:rhizosphere 1374:chloroplast 1348:Biological 1241:chlorophyll 1231:Chlorophyll 1154:chlorophyll 930:Black beans 892:Swiss chard 783:Brazil nuts 685:, and some 655:Brazil nuts 647:chlorophyll 520:9–13 years 496:80 mg 493:80 mg 238:Epsom salts 153:disorders, 113:hydrosphere 97:chlorophyll 90:nucleotides 7041:Physiology 7035:Categories 6827:Molybdenum 6282:Hephaestin 6222:Metabolism 5974:Psychiatry 5803:References 4941:: 335–343. 4892:Plant Soil 4860:New Phytol 3733:Pediatrics 3079:17 January 2855:: 525249. 2691:: 525249. 2324:14 January 2299:14 January 2047:17 January 1935:: 431–433. 1714:membrane. 1546:Paramecium 1426:enzyme of 1354:cell walls 1220:metabolism 1193:magnesuria 1064:Fish sauce 1050:, cooked ( 1034:, boiled ( 1018:, boiled ( 1002:, boiled ( 986:, hulled ( 948:, cooked ( 932:, boiled ( 894:, boiled ( 878:, boiled ( 751:Chia seeds 677:, roasted 586:51+ years 505:4–8 years 490:1–3 years 455:Lactation 452:Pregnancy 178:amino acid 7051:Magnesium 6822:Manganese 6817:Potassium 6771:hosphorus 6403:Aconitase 6124:excessive 5863:1868-0402 5837:1559-0836 5715:ignored ( 5705:cite book 5224:ignored ( 5214:cite book 4866:: 47–57. 4585:BioMetals 4507:BioMetals 4455:ignored ( 4445:cite book 4417:ignored ( 4407:cite book 4353:BioMetals 4335:205022511 4061:BioMetals 3983:BioMetals 3966:ignored ( 3956:cite book 3446:BioMetals 2928:1559-0720 2871:1687-8337 2812:0002-9165 2764:1945-1997 2707:1687-8337 2648:2379-3708 2569:trials". 2523:Nutrients 2416:Full Text 2372:Full Text 2140:cite book 1776:chlorosis 1712:thylakoid 1699:H-ATPases 1683:H-ATPases 1573:Magnesium 1420:manganese 1414:Manganese 1408:chelators 1399:enzymatic 1330:cytoplasm 1319:ribozymes 1310:ribosomes 1000:Chickpeas 908:Chocolate 767:Buckwheat 359:vitamin D 353:Vitamin D 347:Vitamin D 331:nutrients 226:eclampsia 185:glycinate 183:(such as 155:migraines 117:catalysis 80:Over 300 35:Magnesium 24:Magnesium 6852:Toxicity 6837:Selenium 6797:Chromium 6645:Elements 6384:Hepcidin 6371:Ferritin 6341:Ferritin 6331:Integrin 6277:Ferritin 6254:duodenum 6083:16846101 6061:16846100 6039:21450498 5928:15919178 5899:39143708 5845:23595671 5793:16668438 5682:16667193 5606:12646275 5570:16661806 5343:16666617 5294:16663541 5079:16661188 5030:42750442 4989:10400670 4920:12271923 4834:12753976 4791:15231793 4742:12422021 4613:27877817 4605:12206390 4570:11312681 4535:20873166 4527:12206391 4381:31622669 4373:12206387 4327:11677599 4283:37427719 4236:10734195 4089:40446313 4081:12206389 4011:20835803 4003:12206393 3920:23 March 3887:14976260 3828:11518780 3786:10878661 3685:16667261 3474:32535554 3466:12206396 3341:10406802 3236:43703938 3166:14271298 2944:23626641 2936:20352370 2889:24723948 2830:30541089 2772:29480918 2725:24723948 2666:30626750 2609:24998868 2601:27530471 2555:27869762 2504:22318649 2463:21069663 2411:20152124 2367:15572114 2319:ClinCalc 2293:Archived 2289:ClinCalc 2271:18281113 2236:19211496 2187:18332289 2132:24470089 2091:23115811 1805:See also 1692:antiport 1588:bivalent 1578:(Mg) in 1521:(MS) or 1386:proteins 1380:Proteins 1338:duplexes 1317:of many 1139:knockout 1131:bacteria 1127:nutrient 1080:espresso 916:, firm ( 679:soybeans 641:such as 613:Labeling 189:lysinate 181:chelates 174:diarrhea 143:diabetes 107:Function 39:nutrient 6988:Related 6763:itrogen 6747:ydrogen 6504:SLC39A4 6499:SLC30A1 6466:SLC31A1 6118:Please 6110:use of 6031:8463199 5994:3886023 5965:7898722 5957:6765503 5891:9261669 5784:1081046 5673:1062198 5477:8333438 5437:4524652 5405:Bibcode 5378:4747067 5334:1055918 5285:1066800 4900:Bibcode 4814:Bibcode 4710:Bibcode 4492:2923192 4307:Bibcode 4275:7000968 4187:7868596 4138:6856472 3855:Bibcode 3745:5637791 3676:1062243 3609:1551905 3581:in vivo 3564:9430719 3523:2548998 3428:8292500 3398:4346618 3390:2017256 3368:Bibcode 3332:1171473 3228:4865748 2997:. 2017. 2880:3958794 2821:6693398 2716:3958794 2657:6485371 2546:5133122 2454:7061250 2227:2663594 1974:4968384 1688:symport 1491:cells. 1368:E. coli 1260:of Mg ( 1251:Enzymes 1239:in the 1224:enzymes 1197:E. coli 1170:chlorin 1159:drought 1118:in the 1100:animals 1055:⁄ 1048:Oatmeal 1039:⁄ 1032:Lentils 1023:⁄ 1007:⁄ 991:⁄ 975:⁄ 968:Walnuts 953:⁄ 937:⁄ 921:⁄ 899:⁄ 883:⁄ 876:Spinach 867:⁄ 854:⁄ 847:Cashews 838:⁄ 831:Almonds 825:Halibut 816:⁄ 803:⁄ 790:⁄ 774:⁄ 769:flour ( 758:⁄ 742:⁄ 735:Pumpkin 716:calcium 669:(e.g., 663:almonds 659:cashews 643:spinach 449:Female 376:calcium 335:glucose 283:neurons 151:anxiety 82:enzymes 74:chlorin 6832:Sodium 6812:Iodine 6802:Copper 6727:CHONPS 6081: 6059: 6037: 6029: 6002:631153 6000: 5992: 5963: 5955: 5926: 5897: 5889: 5861: 5853: 5843: 5835: 5825: 5791: 5781: 5680: 5670: 5604: 5568: 5561:425814 5558: 5521:880298 5519: 5484: 5474: 5435: 5428:388254 5425: 5376: 5341: 5331: 5292: 5282: 5077: 5070:440325 5067: 5028: 4987: 4918: 4832: 4789: 4782:438605 4779: 4740: 4733:137782 4730: 4669: 4643: 4611: 4603: 4568: 4533: 4525: 4490: 4379: 4371: 4333: 4325: 4299:Nature 4281: 4273: 4234: 4227:102818 4224: 4185: 4178:176728 4175: 4136: 4129:325916 4126: 4087: 4079: 4009: 4001: 3885: 3878:365716 3875: 3826: 3784: 3743: 3714: 3683: 3673: 3607: 3562: 3521: 3514:210275 3511: 3472: 3464: 3426: 3396: 3388: 3360:Nature 3339: 3329: 3257: 3234: 3226: 3164: 3157:292488 3154: 3054:16 May 2942: 2934: 2926: 2887: 2877: 2869: 2828: 2818: 2810: 2770: 2762: 2723: 2713: 2705: 2664: 2654: 2646: 2607: 2599: 2553: 2543: 2502: 2461: 2451: 2409: 2389:Neuron 2365: 2345:Neuron 2269: 2234: 2224: 2206:Stroke 2185: 2130: 2120: 2089: 2079: 2016: 1972: 1910: 1791:et al. 1744:et al. 1740:et al. 1675:et al. 1622:et al. 1558:et al. 1507:Flame 1480:et al. 1404:et al. 1189:kidney 1112:carbon 1104:plants 1076:Coffee 946:Quinoa 263: 161:, and 135:spasms 6779:ulfur 6755:xygen 6739:arbon 6471:ATOX1 6456:ATP7B 6451:ATP7A 6354:Other 6035:S2CID 5998:S2CID 5961:S2CID 5895:S2CID 5486:10009 5026:S2CID 4916:S2CID 4609:S2CID 4531:S2CID 4377:S2CID 4331:S2CID 4279:S2CID 4085:S2CID 4007:S2CID 3470:S2CID 3394:S2CID 3232:S2CID 3031:(PDF) 3014:(PDF) 2995:(PDF) 2940:S2CID 2605:S2CID 1882:Notes 1430:like 1216:moles 1209:metal 1172:group 1135:yeast 667:seeds 446:Male 281:into 76:group 6842:Zinc 6807:Iron 6494:TMC8 6489:TMC6 6388:HAMP 6305:TFR2 6300:TFR1 6079:PMID 6057:PMID 6027:PMID 5990:PMID 5953:PMID 5924:PMID 5887:PMID 5859:ISSN 5851:ISBN 5841:PMID 5833:ISSN 5823:ISBN 5789:PMID 5717:help 5678:PMID 5602:PMID 5566:PMID 5517:PMID 5482:PMID 5433:PMID 5374:PMID 5339:PMID 5290:PMID 5226:help 5075:PMID 4985:PMID 4830:PMID 4787:PMID 4738:PMID 4702:PNAS 4667:ISBN 4641:ISBN 4601:PMID 4566:PMID 4523:PMID 4488:PMID 4457:help 4419:help 4369:PMID 4323:PMID 4271:PMID 4232:PMID 4183:PMID 4134:PMID 4077:PMID 3999:PMID 3968:help 3922:2017 3883:PMID 3824:PMID 3782:PMID 3741:PMID 3712:ISBN 3681:PMID 3605:PMID 3560:PMID 3519:PMID 3462:PMID 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