Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

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issues and a number of disputes over verification persisted. First, the Soviet verification proposal was deemed by the West to be too reliant on self-inspection, with control posts primarily staffed by citizens of the country housing the posts and a minimal role for officials from the international supervisory body. The West insisted that half of a control post staff be drawn from another nuclear state and half from neutral parties. Second, the Soviet Union required that the international supervisory body, the Control Commission, require unanimity before acting; the West rejected the idea of giving Moscow a veto over the commission's proceedings. Finally, the Soviet Union preferred temporary inspection teams drawn from citizens of the country under inspection, while the West insisted on permanent teams composed of inspectors from the Control Commission.

1622:. Concern that a comprehensive ban would retard modernization of the Soviet arsenal may have pushed Khrushchev towards a partial ban. Counteracting the move towards a partial ban was Khrushchev's interest in reducing spending on testing, as underground testing was more expensive than the atmospheric tests the Soviet Union had been conducting; Khrushchev preferred a comprehensive ban as it would have eliminated the cost of testing entirely. Furthermore, there was internal concern about nuclear proliferation, particularly regarding the prospect of France and China crossing the threshold and the possibility of a multilateral NATO nuclear force, which was seen as a step towards West Germany acquiring nuclear weapons (the first Soviet test ban proposal in 1955 was made in the same month than West Germany joined NATO). 904:

over land following a suspicious event (with the inspection plane being provided and controlled by the state under inspection). The experts determined that such a scheme would be able to detect 90% of underground detonations, accurate to 5 kilotons, and atmospheric tests with a minimum yield of 1 kiloton. The US had initially advocated for 650 posts, versus a Soviet proposal of 100–110. The final recommendation was a compromise forged by the British delegation. In a widely publicized and well-received communiqué dated 21 August 1958, the conference declared that it "reached the conclusion that it is technically feasible to set up ... a workable and effective control system for the detection of violations of a possible agreement on the worldwide cessation of nuclear weapons tests."

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data, but insisted on conditions that were seen as excessively strict. The Soviets also recognized the theory behind decoupling, but dismissed its practical applications. The working group closed in December with no progress and significant hostility. Eisenhower issued a statement blaming "the recent unwillingness of the politically guided Soviet experts to give serious scientific consideration to the effectiveness of seismic techniques for the detection of underground nuclear explosions." Eisenhower simultaneously declared that the US would not be held to its testing moratorium when it expired on 31 December 1959, though pledged to not test if Geneva talks progressed. The Soviet Union followed by reiterating its decision to not test as long as Western states did not test.

1395: 1155:, or half a dozen other nations successfully test an atomic bomb, the security of both Russians and Americans is dangerously weakened." He had also claimed that renewed testing would be "damaging to the American image" and might threaten the "existence of human life." On the campaign trail, Kennedy's test-ban proposal consisted of a continued US testing moratorium, expanded efforts to reach a comprehensive agreement, limit any future tests to those minimizing fallout, and expand research on fallout. Notably, early in his term, Kennedy also presided over a significant increase in defense spending, which was reciprocated by the Soviet Union shortly thereafter, thus placing the test-ban negotiations in the context of an accelerating arms race. 1679: 1198:, as well as the Soviet decision to resume testing in August (attributed by Moscow to a changed international situation and French nuclear tests), Kennedy faced mounting pressure from the Department of Defense and nuclear laboratories to set aside the dream of a test ban. In June 1961, following stalled talks in Geneva, Kennedy had argued that Soviet negotiating behavior raised "a serious question about how long we can safely continue on a voluntary basis a refusal to undertake tests in this country without any assurance that the Russians are not testing." Whether or not the Soviet Union had actually conducted secret tests was a matter of debate within the Kennedy administration. A team led by physicist 1162:, a lead US envoy, offered a new proposal in an attempt to bridge the gap between the two sides. The early Kennedy proposal largely grew out of later Eisenhower efforts, with a ban on all tests but low-yield underground ones (below magnitude 4.75), which would be subject to a three-year moratorium. The US and UK proposed 20 on-site inspections per annum, while the Soviet Union proposed three. The verification procedures included in the Anglo-American plan were unacceptable to Tsarapkin, who responded with separate proposals rejected by the Western powers. Specifically, the Soviet Union proposed a "troika" mechanism: a monitoring board composed of representatives of the West, the Soviet Union, and 1594: 1871:

the number of Soviet detonations fell from 218 in the preceding decade to 157 in the following decade, as the Soviet Union was never able to meet the pace of US underground explosions. China and France, both nonsignatories, conducted 53 tests between 1963 and 1973. In all, 436 tests were conducted between the signing of the PTBT and 1 July 1973, compared to 499 tests between 16 July 1945 and the signing of the PTBT. In the 1960s and the 1970s, China conducted 22 atmospheric tests and France conducted 50. The last atmospheric test was conducted by China in 1980, after French atmospheric testing stopped in 1974. Public opposition to nuclear testing continued after the treaty's enactment.

1132: 1918: 1426:... where a fresh start is badly needed—is in a treaty to outlaw nuclear tests. The conclusion of such a treaty—so near and yet so far—would check the spiraling arms race in one of its most dangerous areas. It would place the nuclear powers in a position to deal more effectively with one of the greatest hazards which man faces in 1963, the further spread of nuclear arms. It would increase our security—it would decrease the prospects of war. Surely this goal is sufficiently important to require our steady pursuit, yielding neither to the temptation to give up the whole effort nor the temptation to give up our insistence on vital and responsible safeguards. 1186:

that the test ban be considered in the context of "general and complete disarmament," arguing that a test ban on its own was unimportant; Kennedy said the US could only agree with a guarantee that a disarmament agreement would be reached quickly (the Vienna demands thus amounted to a reversal of both sides' earlier positions). Kennedy also disagreed that a test ban was itself insignificant; the world could expect many more countries in the coming years to cross the nuclear threshold without a test ban. Ultimately, the two leaders left Vienna without clear progress on the subject. The Soviet Union would drop the general-disarmament demand in November 1961.

6772: 409: 10428: 6779: 762:(PSAC), which had the effect of eroding the AEC's monopoly over scientific advice. In stark contrast to the AEC, PSAC promoted a test ban and argued against Strauss's claims concerning its strategic implications and technical feasibility. In late 1957, the Soviet Union made a second offer of a three-year moratorium without inspections, but lacking any consensus within his administration, Eisenhower rejected it. In early 1958, the discord within American circles, particularly among scientists, was made clear in hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Nuclear Disarmament, chaired by Senator 1333:, who argued that atmospheric testing had severe consequences for human health. Khrushchev had been concerned by a partial ban due to the greater US experience in underground tests; by 1962, the US had conducted 89 such tests and the Soviet Union just two (the Soviet focus had been on cheaper, larger-yield atmospheric tests). For this reason, many in the Soviet weapons industry argued that a partial ban would give the US the advantage in nuclear capabilities. Khrushchev would later recount that he saw test-ban negotiations as a prime venue for ameliorating tensions after the crisis in Cuba. 10131: 1052:, chair of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, argued that the Soviet system would be unable to prevent secret tests. That year, the AEC published a report arguing that the continuing testing moratorium risked "free world supremacy in nuclear weapons," and that renewed testing was critical for further weapons development. The joint committee also held hearings in April which cast doubt on the technical feasibility and cost of the proposed verification measures. Additionally, Teller continued to warn of the dangerous consequences of a test ban and the Department of Defense (including 11168: 1422:

human nature but on a gradual evolution in human institutions—on a series of concrete actions and effective agreements which are in the interest of all concerned." Second, Kennedy appealed for a new attitude towards the Soviet Union, calling Americans to not "see only a distorted and desperate view of the other side, not to see conflict as inevitable, accommodations as impossible and communication as nothing more than an exchange of threats." Finally, Kennedy argued for a reduction in Cold War tensions, with a test ban serving as a first step towards complete disarmament:

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approved amendments permitting greater collaboration in late June. Following Soviet assent on 30 August 1958 to the one-year moratorium, the three countries conducted a series of tests in September and October. At least 54 tests were conducted by the US and 14 by the Soviet Union in this period. On 31 October 1958 the three countries initiated test-ban negotiations (the Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests) and agreed to a temporary moratorium (the Soviet Union joined the moratorium shortly after this date). The moratorium would last for close to three years.

865:) undertook a review of US test-ban policy, determining that a successful system for detecting underground tests could be created. At the recommendation of Dulles (who had recently come to support a test ban), the review prompted Eisenhower to propose technical negotiations with the Soviet Union, effectively detaching test-ban negotiations from negotiations over a halt to nuclear weapons production (the one-time US demand). In explaining the policy shift, Eisenhower privately said that continued resistance to a test ban would leave the US in a state of "moral isolation." 839:, a series of atmospheric, surface-level, and underwater nuclear tests. Eisenhower instead insisted that any moratorium be linked to reduced production of nuclear weapons. In April 1958, the US began Operation Hardtack I as planned. The Soviet declaration concerned the British government, which feared that the moratorium might lead to a test ban before its own testing program was completed. Following the Soviet declaration, Eisenhower called for an international meeting of experts to determine proper control and verification measures—an idea first proposed by British 1551:

significant latitude in reaching a "Soviet-American understanding" vis-à-vis China. Secret Sino-Soviet talks in July 1963 revealed further discord between the two communist powers, as the Soviet Union released a statement that it did not "share the views of the Chinese leadership about creating 'a thousand times higher civilization' on the corpses of hundreds of millions of people." The Soviet Union also issued an ideological critique of China's nuclear policy, declaring that China's apparent openness to nuclear war was "in crying contradiction to the idea of

1107:, which believed that both testing and possession of nuclear weapons was dangerous. Second, there was the "finite containment" camp, populated by scientists like Hans Bethe, which was concerned by perceived Soviet aggression but still believed that a test ban would be workable with adequate verification measures. Third, the "infinite containment" camp, of which Strauss, Teller, and members of the defense establishment were members, believed that any test ban would grant the Soviet Union the ability to conduct secret tests and move ahead in the arms race. 10095: 1726:, had made their support for the treaty conditional on four "safeguards": (1) a continued, aggressive underground testing program, (2) continued nuclear research programs, (3) continued readiness to resume atmospheric tests, and (4) improved verification equipment. Kennedy emphasized that the US would retain the ability to use nuclear weapons in war, would not be bound by the treaty if the Soviets violated it, and would continue an aggressive underground testing program. Kennedy also stressed that a ban would be a key step in preventing nuclear war. 12371: 12301: 11650: 11313: 10119: 34: 10847: 11887: 12514: 12502: 12490: 11918: 11720: 10440: 10321: 9981: 595:, dubbed the "father of the hydrogen bomb," both sought to tamp down on these fears, arguing that fallout were fairly harmless and that a test ban would enable the Soviet Union to surpass the US in nuclear capabilities. Teller also suggested that testing was necessary to develop nuclear weapons that produced less fallout. Support in the US public for a test ban to continue to grow from 20% in 1954 to 63% by 1957. Moreover, widespread antinuclear protests were organized and led by theologian and 10225: 10452: 10333: 9993: 12597: 12585: 959:, a disarmament expert with experience dating back to the 1946 Baruch Plan. The Geneva Conference began with a Soviet draft treaty grounded in the Geneva System. The three nuclear weapons states (the "original parties") would abide by a test ban, verified by the Geneva System, and work to prevent testing by potential nuclear states (such as France). This was rejected by Anglo-American negotiators due to fears that the verification provisions were too vague and the Geneva System too weak. 12537: 12344: 12069: 12057: 11436: 1626:

the Soviet ambassador to the US, Mikhail A. Menshikov, reportedly asked whether the US could "deliver the French." Both Kennedy and Macmillan personally called on de Gaulle to join, offering assistance to the French nuclear program in return. Nevertheless, on 29 July 1963, France announced it would not join the treaty. It was followed by China two days later. China viewed the treaty as demonstrating a re-alignment by the United States and the Soviet Union against China, with Marshal

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this could only happen after verifiable tests had been banned and a seismic research group (the Seismic Research Program Advisory Group) convened. The Soviet Union responded positively to the counterproposal and the research group convened on 11 May 1960. The Soviet Union also offered to keep an underground ban out of the treaty under negotiation. In May 1960, there were high hopes that an agreement would be reached at an upcoming summit of Eisenhower, Khrushchev, Macmillan, and

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monitoring and when on-site inspections—a US demand and Soviet concern—would be permitted. The experts also deemed detection of outer-space tests (tests more than 50 kilometers (31 mi) above the earth's surface) to be impractical. Additionally, the size of the Geneva System may have rendered it too expensive to be put into effect. The 30 August report, which contained details on these limitations, received significantly less public attention than the 21 August communiqué.

1840: 457:, the Soviet Union, and the US). This proposal, which closely reflected a prior Anglo-French proposal, was initially part of a comprehensive disarmament proposal meant to reduce conventional arms levels and eliminate nuclear weapons. Despite the closeness of the Soviet proposal to earlier Western proposals, the US reversed its position on the provisions and rejected the Soviet offer "in the absence of more general control agreements," including limits on the production of 10249: 10237: 685: 995:

1959—would be banned first, with negotiations on underground and outer-space tests continuing. This proposal was turned down on 23 April 1959 by Khrushchev, calling it a "dishonest deal." On 26 August 1959, the US announced it would extend its year-long testing moratorium to the end of 1959, and would not conduct tests after that point without prior warning. The Soviet Union reaffirmed that it would not conduct tests if the US and UK continued to observe a moratorium.

11593: 11145: 10813: 520: 12549: 12390: 11301: 11277: 11265: 7529: 6378: 12265: 12241: 11507: 11336: 11109: 908: 12033: 1014:, a physicist, was introduced into discussions by Wadsworth. The report specifically concerned whether the Geneva System could be improved without increasing the number of control posts. Berkner's proposed measures were seen as highly costly and the technical findings themselves were accompanied by a caveat about the panel's high degree of uncertainty given limited data. Around the same time, analysis conducted by the Livermore National Laboratory and 421:

1947 and 1954, the US and Soviet Union discussed their demands within the United Nations Commission for Conventional Disarmament. A series of events in 1954, including the Castle Bravo test and spread of fallout from a Soviet test over Japan, redirected the international discussion on nuclear policy. Additionally, by 1954, both US and Soviet Union had assembled large nuclear stockpiles, reducing hopes of complete disarmament. In the early years of the

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sought 12–20 such stations and the Soviet Union rejected any more than three. On 28 December 1962, Kennedy lowered the US demand to 8–10 stations. On 19 February 1963, the number was lowered further to seven, as Khrushchev continued to insist on no more than three. Kennedy was willing to reduce the number to six, though this was not clearly communicated to the Soviet Union. On 20 April 1963, Khrushchev withdrew support for three inspections entirely.

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the parties to the treaty from conducting, permitting, or encouraging any nuclear explosion in the atmosphere, outer space, or underwater as well as "any other nuclear explosion" that threatens to send nuclear debris into another state's territory. The wording "any other nuclear explosion" prohibited peaceful nuclear explosions because of the difficulty in differentiating those from military tests without expanded verification measures.

176: 12313: 11631: 11574: 12081: 11997: 11863: 11851: 11839: 11825: 11813: 10975: 10167: 11612: 10789: 10758: 10417: 10107: 11985: 10381: 10273: 10179: 10155: 9969: 1003:. Khrushchev agreed to the latter and was noncommittal on the former. A working group in Geneva would eventually devise a costly system of 5–6 satellites orbiting at least 18,000 miles (29,000 km) above the earth, though it could not say with certainty that such a system would be able to determine the origin of a high-altitude test. US negotiators also questioned whether high-altitude tests could evade detection via 11555: 11543: 11531: 12206: 11011: 10405: 1096:

technology. Some, including Kistiakowsky, would eventually raise concerns about the ability of inspections and monitors to successfully detect tests. The primary product of negotiations under Eisenhower was the testing moratorium without any enforcement mechanism. Ultimately, the goal of a comprehensive test ban would be abandoned in favor of a partial ban due to questions over seismic detection of underground tests.

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appearing to legitimize governments lacking universal recognition. Article 4 reflects the compromise struck by Gromyko and Harriman in Moscow on departure from the treaty. It recognizes the sovereign right of states to withdraw from treaties, as Khrushchev argued, but explicitly grants parties the right to withdraw if "extraordinary events... have jeopardized the supreme interests of its country," per the US demand.

10393: 10285: 10213: 9957: 12021: 880:, who had led the British delegation to the Manhattan Project. Whereas the US approached the conference solely from a technical perspective, Penney was specifically instructed by Macmillan to attempt to achieve a political agreement. This difference in approach was reflected in the broader composition of the US and UK teams. US experts were primarily drawn from academia and industry. Fisk was a vice president at 12573: 12561: 12194: 12182: 12156: 11377: 11348: 11253: 11241: 11222: 1228: 1329:. After years of dormant or lethargic negotiations, American and British negotiators subsequently forged a strong working relationship and with Soviet negotiators found common ground on test restrictions later in 1962. After years of pursuing a comprehensive ban, Khrushchev was convinced to accept a partial ban, partly due to the efforts of Soviet nuclear scientists, including Kurchatov, Sakharov, and 1040:

underground tests under magnitude 4.75 be banned for a period of four-to-five years, subject to extension. Second, it sought to prohibit all outer-space tests, whether within detection range or not. Finally, the Soviet Union insisted that the inspection quota be determined on a political basis, not a scientific one. The Soviet offer faced a mixed reception. In the US, Senator Hubert Humphrey and the

364:, but nevertheless had a long-term policy goal of banning on nuclear weapons production. As a first step in this direction, Bush proposed an international agency dedicated to nuclear control. Bush unsuccessfully argued in 1952 that the US pursue a test ban agreement with the Soviet Union before testing its first thermonuclear weapon, but his interest in international controls was echoed in the 1946 492:, Eisenhower's special assistant for disarmament, argued that the US should prioritize a test ban as a first step towards comprehensive arms control, conditional on the Soviet Union accepting on-site inspections, over full disarmament. Stassen's suggestion was dismissed by others in the administration over fears that the Soviet Union would be able to conduct secret tests. On the advice of Dulles, 1386:

atmospheric and underwater tests. The effect of the resolution was to bolster the general push for a test ban, though Kennedy initially was concerned that it would damage attempts to secure a comprehensive ban, and had administration figures (including the Joint Chiefs of Staff) reiterate a call for a comprehensive ban. That same spring of 1963, however, Kennedy had sent antinuclear activist

425:, the US approach to nuclear control reflected a strain between an interest in controlling nuclear weapons and a belief that dominance in the nuclear arena, particularly given the size of Soviet conventional forces, was critical to US security. Interest in nuclear control and efforts to stall proliferation of weapons to other states grew as the Soviet Union's nuclear capabilities increased. 1949:, with Gorbachev initiating a testing moratorium in 1985. In December 1986, the US indicated support for the "long-term objective" of a comprehensive ban, followed by the commencement of testing negotiations between the US and Soviet Union in November 1987. In December 1987, the US and the Soviet Union agreed to a joint program of experiments on detecting underground tests. In August 1988, 1571:

explicit clause concerning withdrawal from the agreement be added to the treaty; Khrushchev believed that each state had a sovereign right to withdraw, which should simply be assumed. Harriman informed Gromyko that without a clause governing withdrawal, which he believed the US Senate would demand, the US could not assent. Ultimately, the two sides settled upon compromise language:

2055:). The 10-kiloton underground detonation produced a fissure in the ground, which allowed radioactive gas to escape into the atmosphere. Radioactive material released by the fissure reached an altitude of 10,000 feet (3,000 m) and exposed 86 workers to radiation but none at excessive levels. The incident has since been described as one of the "world's worst nuclear disasters." 1563:

testing and instead proposed a non-aggression pact. Under instruction from Washington, Harriman replied that the US would explore the possibility of a non-aggression pact in good faith, but indicated that while a test ban could be quickly completed, a non-aggression pact would require lengthy discussions. Additionally, such a pact would complicate the issue of Western access to

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would come at a significant moral cost to the US, given broad public opposition to the plan, and claimed that further tests were largely unnecessary, with the US already having an adequate nuclear arsenal. Arthur Dean believed that public opposition to atmospheric testing was so great that the US would have to halt such tests within four years even without an agreement.

1738:, and Senator Everett Dirksen, who had initially been skeptical of the treaty. Eisenhower's science advisor and former PSAC head, George Kistiakowsky, endorsed the treaty. Former President Harry S. Truman also lent his support. Supporters of the deal mounted a significant pressure campaign, with active lobbying in favor by a range of civilian groups, including the 869:

a degree, a concession to the Soviet Union, as a test ban would be explored independent of the previously demanded cutoff in fissionable-material production. Khrushchev initially declined the invitation, but eventually agreed "in spite of the serious doubts" he had after Eisenhower suggested a technical agreement on verification would be a precursor to a test ban.

342:, which had a yield of 50 megatons and remains the most powerful man-made explosion in history, though due to a highly efficient detonation fallout was relatively limited. Between 1951 and 1958, the US conducted 166 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 82, and Britain conducted 21; only 22 underground tests were conducted in this period (all by the US). 1224:

the resumption of talks in Geneva in March 1961. In January 1962, Bethe, who had once supported a test ban, publicly argued that a ban was "no longer a desirable goal" and the US should test weapons developed by its laboratories. In contrast to Soviet laboratories, US laboratories had been relatively inactive on nuclear weapons issues during the moratorium.

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mass destruction on earth ... Yesterday a shaft of light cut into the darkness." Kennedy expressed hope that the test ban would be the first step towards broader rapprochement, limit nuclear fallout, restrict nuclear proliferation, and slow the arms race in such a way that fortifies US security. Kennedy concluded his address in reference to a Chinese

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US to demand that the production cut-off be closely timed with the testing moratorium, betting that the Soviet Union would reject this. London also encouraged the US to delay its disarmament plan, in part by moving the start of the moratorium back to November 1958. At the same time, Macmillan linked British support for a test ban to a revision of the

1290:, had advised Kennedy in June 1961 that resumed testing "would cause us the gravest difficulties in Asia, Africa and elsewhere." Similarly, Hubert Humphrey described the moratorium as "a ray of hope to millions of worried people." Its termination, Humphrey warned, "might very well turn the political tides in the world in behalf of the Soviets." 1302:

Kennedy restricted atmospheric tests to those tests which were "absolutely necessary," not feasible underground, and minimized fallout. The condition that testing would resume only if the Soviet Union continued to oppose the Anglo-American proposal also served as a concession to dissenting voices within his administration and to Macmillan.

480:, a chemist and participant in the Manhattan Project, who was skeptical of Warren's then-theoretical claims. Warren's arguments were lent credence in the scientific community and public by the Castle Bravo test of 1954. Eisenhower, as president, first explicitly expressed interest in a comprehensive test ban that year, arguing before the 1313:

national command, but international supervision, and required on-site inspections. This was rejected by the Soviet Union due to the inspection requirement. The alternative proposal included a partial test ban—underground tests would be excluded—to be verified by national detection mechanisms, without supervision by a supranational body.

587:). This survey was a scientist and citizen led campaign which used "modern media advocacy techniques to communicate complex issues" to inform public discourse. Its research findings confirmed a significant build-up of strontium-90 in bones of babies and helped galvanise public support for a ban on atmospheric nuclear testing in the US. 644:, which forced the evacuation of 10,000 people after an explosion at a nuclear plant. Around the same time, 219 Soviet scientists signed Pauling's antinuclear petition. Soviet political elites did not share the concerns of others in the Soviet Union. However; Kurchatov unsuccessfully called on Khrushchev to halt testing in 1958. 978:

be perceived in the public as a political ploy. In early 1959, Wadsworth told Tsarapkin of new US skepticism towards the Geneva System. While the Geneva experts believed the system could detect underground tests down to five kilotons, the US now believed that it could only detect tests down to 20 kilotons (in comparison, the

2062:, monitoring and collecting data on French atmospheric tests over the Pacific Ocean, which may have amounted to co-operation with the French program. Declassified documents also indicate that the US and the UK circumvented the prescribed verification system in 1964–65 by establishing a series of additional control posts in 1362:, who served as an intermediary; officially, Cousins was traveling to Rome on a personal basis, but from the Vatican he continued to the Soviet Union. Through Cousins' shuttle diplomacy in 1962 and 1963, the pontiff remained at the center of negotiations and helped ease misunderstandings between the two world leaders. 1567:. Harriman also took the opportunity to propose a non-proliferation agreement with would bar the transfer of nuclear weapons between countries. Khrushchev said that such an agreement should be considered in the future, but in the interim, a test ban would have the same effect on limiting proliferation. 876:, aimed at studying means of detecting nuclear tests. The conference included scientists from the US, Britain, the Soviet Union, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Poland, and Romania. The US delegation was led by James Fisk, a member of PSAC, the Soviets by Evgenii Fedorov, and the British delegation by 1994:

Early compliance with the PTBT was believed to be good, but there have been a number of accidental releases of nuclear debris into the atmosphere by parties to the treaty. Additionally, "venting" of underground tests by the US and the Soviet Union also continued to release radioactive debris into the

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system. Third, it was argued that the Soviet Union led the US in high-yield weapons (recall the Soviet Tsar Bomba test of 1961), which required atmospheric testing banned by the treaty, while the US led the Soviet Union in low-yield weapons, which were tested underground and would be permitted by the

1613:

In a speech in Moscow following the agreement, Khrushchev declared that the treaty would not end the arms race and by itself could not "avert the danger of war," and reiterated his proposal of a NATO-Warsaw Pact non-aggression accord. For Khrushchev, the test ban negotiations had long been a means of

1604:

The agreement was initialed on 25 July 1963, just 10 days after negotiations commenced. The following day, Kennedy delivered a 26-minute televised address on the agreement, declaring that since the invention of nuclear weapons, "all mankind has been struggling to escape from the darkening prospect of

1305:

Kennedy portrayed resumed testing as a necessary for the image of US resolve. If the US failed to respond to the Soviet test series, Kennedy explained, Moscow would "chalk it up, not to goodwill, but to a failure of will—not to our confidence in Western superiority, but to our fear of world opinion."

1281:

Despite Teller's reassurances, Kennedy himself "hated the idea of reopening the race" and was uneasy with continued production of fallout, a negative consequence of resumed testing that its opponents within the administration stressed. Opponents of the tests also argued that renewed atmospheric tests

1223:

A report on the 1961 Soviet tests, published by a group of American scientists led by Hans Bethe, determined "that laboratories had probably been working full speed during the whole moratorium on the assumption that tests would at some time be resumed," with preparations likely having begun prior to

1209:

Two weeks after the lifting of the Soviet moratorium in August 1961, and after another failed Anglo-American attempt to have the Soviet Union agree to an atmospheric-test ban, the US restarted testing on 15 September 1961. Kennedy specifically limited such testing to underground and laboratory tests,

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between Kennedy and Khrushchev, Robert F. Kennedy spoke with the Soviet ambassador to the US, who suggested that progress on a test ban was possible in a direct meeting between the leaders. President Kennedy subsequently announced to the press that he had "strong hopes" for progress on a test ban. In

1026:

eventually led Tsarapkin to propose a technical working group in November 1959 that would consider the issues of on-site inspections and seismic decoupling in the "spirit of Camp David." Within the working group, Soviet delegates allowed for the timing of on-site inspections to be grounded in seismic

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To break the deadlock over verification, Macmillan proposed a compromise in February 1959 whereby each of the original parties would be subject to a set number of on-site inspections each year. In May 1959, Khrushchev and Eisenhower agreed to explore Macmillan's quota proposal, though Eisenhower made

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shot) would further complication verification provisions as US scientists, including Hans Bethe (who backed a ban), became convinced that the Geneva findings were too optimistic regarding detection of underground tests, though Macmillan warned that using the data to block progress on a test ban might

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and Ernest Lawrence, both physicists who had worked on the Manhattan Project. Conversely, British delegates largely held government positions. The Soviet delegation was composed primarily of academics, though virtually all of them had some link to the Soviet government. The Soviets shared the British

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laboratories) was the dominant voice in the administration on nuclear affairs, with Teller's concerns over detection mechanisms also influencing Eisenhower. Unlike some others within the US scientific community, Strauss fervently advocated against a test ban, arguing that the US must maintain a clear

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Administration testimony sought to counteract these arguments. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara announced his "unequivocal support" for the treaty before the Foreign Relations Committee, arguing that US nuclear forces were secure and clearly superior to those of the Soviet Union, and that any major

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Additionally, the Soviet Union had once been ready to support a control commission under the aegis of the UN, Khrushchev explained, but it could no longer do so given perceived bias in recent UN action in the Congo. Instead, Khrushchev reiterated the troika proposal. Furthermore, Khrushchev insisted

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Upon assuming the presidency in January 1961, John F. Kennedy was committed to pursuing a comprehensive test ban and ordered a review of the American negotiating position in an effort to accelerate languishing talks, believing Eisenhower's approach to have been "insufficient." In making his case for

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Shortly after the Soviet proposal, Macmillan met with Eisenhower at Camp David to devise a response. The Anglo-American counterproposal agreed to ban small underground tests (those under magnitude 4.75) on a temporary basis (a duration of roughly 1 year, versus the Soviet proposal of 4–5 years), but

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had an official yield of 13 kilotons). As a result, the Geneva detection regime and the number of control posts would have to be significantly expanded, including new posts within the Soviet Union. The Soviets dismissed the US argument as a ruse, suggesting that the Hardtack data had been falsified.

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The Gore letter did spur some progress in negotiations, as the Soviet Union allowed in late November 1958 for explicit control measures to be included in the text of the drafted treaty. By March 1959, the negotiators had agreed upon seven treaty articles, but they primarily concerned uncontroversial

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In May 1958, Britain had informed the US that it would be willing to join a testing moratorium on 31 October 1958, by which point it would have finished its hydrogen-bomb testing, conditional on the US providing Britain with nuclear information following amendment of the McMahon Act. The US Congress

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On 8 April 1958, still resisting Khrushchev's call for a moratorium, Eisenhower invited the Soviet Union to join these technical negotiations in the form of a conference on the technical aspects of a test-ban, specifically the technical details of ensuring compliance with a ban. The proposal was, to

724:

In August 1957, the US assented to a two-year testing moratorium proposed by the Soviet Union, but required that it be linked to restrictions on the production of fissionable material with military uses, a condition that the Soviet Union rejected. While Eisenhower insisted on linking a test ban to a

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In the spring of 1957, the US National Security Council had explored including a one-year test moratorium and a "cut-off" of fissionable-material production in a "partial" disarmament plan. The British government, then led by Macmillan, had yet to fully endorse a test ban. Accordingly, it pushed the

405:, was not a significant figure in the Truman administration on nuclear questions, he did support Truman's nuclear control policy, including the Baruch Plan's provision for an international control agency, provided that the control system was accompanied by "a system of free and complete inspection." 1870:

The decade following ratification of the PTBT (1963–1972) featured more US nuclear tests than the decade prior (1953–1962). In the following decade, the US conducted 385 nuclear tests and 23 peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs), as opposed to 268 tests and three PNEs in the prior decade. In contrast,

1866:

are known or believed to have acquired nuclear weapons. However, the PTBT has been credited with slowing proliferation because of the greater expense associated with underground tests. Kennedy had warned in 1963 that without a test ban, there could be 10 nuclear states by 1970 and 15 to 20 by 1975.

1804:

Per the compromise forged by US delegates Adrian S. Fisher and John McNaughton in Moscow, Article 3 of the treaty allows states to deposit instruments of ratification or accession with the government of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, or United States, thereby avoiding the issue of the treaty

1800:

The treaty declares as its "principal aim the speediest possible achievement of an agreement on general and complete disarmament under strict international control" and explicitly states the goal of achieving a comprehensive test ban (one that bans underground tests). The treaty permanently forbids

1653:

held hearings on the treaty. The Kennedy administration largely presented a united front in favor of the deal. Leaders of the once-opposed Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and AEC acknowledged that the treaty would be of net benefit, though Teller, former members of the JCS and AEC, and the commander of

1589:

for the treaty, allowing individual states to sign only the agreement held by the government of their choice in association with other like-minded states. This solution, which overcame one of the more challenging roadblocks in the negotiations, also served to allay mounting concerns from Macmillan,

1500:

Heading into the negotiations, there was still no resolution within the Kennedy Administration of the question of whether to pursue a comprehensive or partial ban. In an effort to achieve the former, Britain proposed reducing the number of mandated inspections to allay Soviet concerns, but Harriman

1369:

On 13 November 1962, Tsarapkin indicated that the Soviet Union would accept a proposal drafted by US and Soviet experts involving automated test detection stations ("black boxes") and a limited number of on-site inspections. The two sides disagreed over the number of black boxes, however, as the US

1336:

Shocked by how close the world had come to thermonuclear war, Khrushchev proposed easing of tensions with the US. In a letter to President Kennedy dated 30 October 1962, Khrushchev outlined a range of bold initiatives to forestall the possibility of nuclear war, including proposing a non-aggression

1083:

in Soviet airspace in May 1960. The Paris summit was abruptly cancelled and the Soviet Union withdrew from the seismic research group, which subsequently dissolved. Meetings of the Geneva Conference continued until December, but little progress was made as Western-Soviet relations continued to grow

923:

Nevertheless, pleased by the findings, the Eisenhower administration proposed negotiations on a permanent test ban and announced it would self-impose a year-long testing moratorium if Britain and the Soviet Union did the same. This decision amounted to a victory for John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles

919:

The technical findings, released on 30 August 1958 in a report drafted by the Soviet delegation, were endorsed by the US and UK, which proposed that they serve as the basis for test-ban and international-control negotiations. However, the experts' report failed to address precisely who would do the

903:

The Conference of Experts was characterized as "highly professional" and productive. By the end of August 1958, the experts devised an extensive control program, known as the "Geneva System," involving 160–170 land-based monitoring posts, plus 10 additional sea-based monitors and occasional flights

716:

in late 1957 that Eisenhower quickly moved to expand nuclear collaboration with the UK via presidential directives and the establishment of bilateral committees on nuclear matters. In early 1958, Eisenhower publicly stated that amendments to the McMahon Act were a necessary condition of a test ban,

238:

Negotiations initially focused on a comprehensive ban, but that was abandoned because of technical questions surrounding the detection of underground tests and Soviet concerns over the intrusiveness of proposed verification methods. The impetus for the test ban was provided by rising public anxiety

1985:

was signed and superseded the PTBT, but the PTBT is still in effect for states not party to the CTBT. The CTBT has yet to enter into force, as 8 required states have not ratified the treaty, including the US and China. France, Russia, and the UK have ratified the CTBT. The technology for detecting

1933:

In October 1977, the original parties to the PTBT renewed discussion of a comprehensive test ban in Geneva. Through the end of the 1970s, the US, the UK, and Soviet Union reached agreement on draft provisions prohibiting all testing, temporarily banning PNEs, and establishing a verification system

1625:

It was not until after the agreement was reached that the negotiators broached the question of France and China joining the treaty. Harriman proposed to Khrushchev that the US lobby France while the Soviet Union pursued a Chinese signature. "That's your problem," Khrushchev said in reply. Earlier,

1550:

in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Khrushchev began the test-ban talks of 1958 with minimal prior discussion with China, and the two countries' agreement on military-technology cooperation was terminated in June 1959. Prior to the Moscow negotiations of the summer of 1963, Kennedy granted Harriman

1521:

On 2 July 1963, Khrushchev proposed a partial ban on tests in the atmosphere, outer space, and underwater, which would avoid the contentious issue of detecting underground tests. Notably, Khrushchev did not link this proposal to a moratorium on underground tests (as had been proposed earlier), but

1297:, swayed Kennedy. Foster argued that if the US failed to respond to the Soviet test series, Moscow could order a second test series, which could give the Soviet Union a significant advantage. Furthermore, a second test series, without US reciprocation, could damage the push for a test ban and make 1095:

Eisenhower would leave office with an agreement out of reach, as Eisenhower's technical advisors, upon whom he relied heavily, became mired in the complex technical questions of a test ban, driven in part by a strong interest among American experts to lower the error rate of seismic test detection

420:

The Soviet Union dismissed the Baruch Plan as a US attempt to secure its nuclear dominance, and called for the US to halt weapons production and release technical information on its program. The Acheson–Lilienthal paper and Baruch Plan would serve as the basis for US policy into the 1950s. Between

291:

Much of the stimulus for the treaty was increasing public unease about radioactive fallout as a result of above-ground or underwater nuclear testing, particularly given the increasing power of nuclear devices, as well as concern about the general environmental damage caused by testing. In 1952–53,

1562:

with Khrushchev in attendance. Khrushchev reiterated that the Anglo-American inspection plan would amount to espionage, effectively dismissing the possibility of a comprehensive ban. Following the script of his 3 July 1963 speech, Khrushchev did not demand a simultaneous moratorium on underground

1421:

to "the most important topic on earth: world peace" and proceeded to make his case for the treaty. Kennedy first called on Americans to dispel the idea that peace is unattainable. "Let us focus instead on a more practical, more attainable peace," Kennedy said, "based not on a sudden revolution in

1385:

calling for Kennedy to propose another partial ban to the Soviet Union involving national monitoring and no on-site inspections. Absent Soviet agreement, the resolution called for Kennedy to continue to "pursue it with vigor, seeking the widest possible international support" while suspending all

1118:

characterizes negotiations of the 1950s as "an embarrassing series of American reversals," suggesting a lack of real US commitment to arms control efforts. The historian Robert Divine also attributed the failure to achieve a deal to Eisenhower's "lack of leadership," evidenced by his inability to

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and China) could join the agreement. The US proposed asserting that accession to the treaty would not indicate international recognition. This was rejected by the Soviet Union. Eventually, with Kennedy's approval, US envoys Fisher and McNaughton devised a system whereby multiple government would

1430:

Kennedy proceeded to announce an agreement with Khrushchev and Macmillan to promptly resume comprehensive test-ban negotiations in Moscow and a US decision to unilaterally halt atmospheric tests. The speech was well received by Khrushchev, who later called it "the greatest speech by any American

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inspections, he still was set on achieving a test ban. In March 1963, Kennedy had also held a press conference in which he re-committed to negotiations with the Soviet Union as a means of preventing rapid nuclear proliferation, which he characterized as "the greatest possible danger and hazard."

1312:

By March 1962, the trilateral talks in Geneva had shifted to 18-party talks at the UN Disarmament Conference. On 27 August 1962, within that conference, the US and UK offered two draft treaties to the Soviet Union. The primary proposal included a comprehensive ban verified by control posts under

994:

On 13 April 1959, facing Soviet opposition to on-site detection systems for underground tests, Eisenhower proposed moving from a single, comprehensive test ban to a graduated agreement where atmospheric tests—those up to 50 km (31 mi) high, a limit Eisenhower would revise upward in May

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ratification of any agreement less likely. On 2 March 1962, building on the November 1961 announcement, Kennedy promised to resume atmospheric testing by the end of April 1962 if Moscow continued to resist the Anglo-American test-ban proposal. To an extent, the announcement was a compromise, as

1782:

On 3 September 1963, the Foreign Relations Committee approved the treaty by a 16–1 vote. On 24 September 1963, the US Senate voted 80–14 to approve ratification of the treaty, exceeding the necessary two-thirds majority by 14 votes. The Soviet Union ratified the treaty the following day with a

1481:. In Britain, Macmillan initially wanted David Ormsby-Gore, who had just completed a term as foreign minister, to lead his delegation, but there were concerns that Ormsby-Gore would appear to be a US "stooge" (Kennedy described him as "the brightest man he ever knew"). Instead, Macmillan chose 1039:

Tsarapkin responded positively to the US proposal, though was wary of the prospect of allowing underground tests registering below magnitude 4.75. In its own proposal offered 19 March 1960 the Soviet Union accepted most US provisions, with certain amendments. First, the Soviet Union asked that

834:

approved a decision to halt nuclear testing, conditional on other nuclear powers doing the same. Khrushchev then called on Eisenhower and Macmillan to join the moratorium. Despite the action being met with widespread praise and an argument from Dulles that the US should reciprocate, Eisenhower

647:

On 14 June 1957, following Eisenhower's suggestion that existing detection measures were inadequate to ensure compliance, the Soviet Union put forth a plan for a two-to-three-year testing moratorium. The moratorium would be overseen by an international commission reliant on national monitoring

1570:

Following initial discussions, Gromyko and Harriman began examining drafts of a test-ban agreement. First, language in the drafted preamble appeared to Harriman to prohibit the use of nuclear weapons in self-defense, which Harriman insisted be clarified. Harriman additionally demanded that an

1182:. Khrushchev privately believed allowing three inspections to be a significant concession to the West, as other Soviet officials preferred an even less intrusive system, and was angered by US resistance. Khrushchev later told his son, "hold out a finger to them—they chop off your whole hand." 1030:

In early 1960, Eisenhower indicated his support for a comprehensive test ban conditional on proper monitoring of underground tests. On 11 February 1960, Wadsworth announced a new US proposal by which only tests deemed verifiable by the Geneva System would be banned, including all atmospheric,

672:

generated from atmospheric nitrogen and the contemporary risk models at the time, along with the assumption that the world population is "thirty billion persons" in a few thousand years. In 1961, Sakharov was part of the design team for a 50 megaton "clean bomb", which has become known as the

766:. The hearings featured conflicting testimony from the likes of Teller and Linus Pauling, as well as from Harold Stassen, who argued that a test ban could safely be separated from broader disarmament, and AEC members, who argued that a cutoff in nuclear production should precede a test ban. 1545:

expressed to the Soviet Union his belief that China could withstand a first nuclear strike and more than 100 million casualties. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union assisted the Chinese nuclear program, but stopped short of providing China with an actual nuclear bomb, which was followed by

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to Moscow to meet with Khrushchev, where he explained that the political situation in the US made it very difficult for Kennedy agree to a comprehensive ban with Khrushchev's required terms. Cousins also assured Khrushchev that though Kennedy had rejected Khrushchev's offer of three yearly

1018:

at Teller's instruction found that the seismic effect of an underground test could be artificially dampened (referred to as "decoupling") to the point that a 300-kiloton detonation would appear in seismic readings as a one-kiloton detonation. These findings were largely affirmed by pro-ban

1273:

privately acknowledged that such tests were "not really necessary." Teller continued to advocate for atmospheric tests, as well, arguing in early 1962 that nuclear fallout was nothing be concerned about. Teller also argued that testing was necessary to continued advancement of US nuclear

826:

in 1956, Khrushchev declared that nuclear war should no longer be seen as "fatalistically inevitable." Simultaneously, however, Khrushchev expanded and advanced the Soviet nuclear arsenal at a cost to conventional Soviet forces (e.g., in early 1960, Khrushchev announced demobilization of

1729:

The testimonies of the Joint Chiefs were seen as particularly effective in allaying concerns, as were the reassurances issued by Kennedy, who had acquired a reputation for resoluteness against the Soviet Union in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis. Additionally, a number of prominent

1269:, the PSAC chairman, opposed resuming atmospheric tests. On the side advocating resumption were the AEC, Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Joint Chiefs of Staff (which had called for renewed atmospheric tests in October 1961), and Department of Defense, though then-Secretary of Defense 745:

Despite Eisenhower's interest in a deal, his administration was hamstrung by discord among US scientists, technicians, and politicians. At one point, Eisenhower complained that "statecraft was becoming a prisoner of scientists." Until 1957, Strauss's AEC (including its Los Alamos and

1365:

Kennedy's response to Khrushchev's proposals was lukewarm but Kennedy expressed to Cousins that he felt constrained in exploring these issues due to pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus. However Kennedy pursued negotiations for a partial nuclear test ban.

1823:, which succeeded to the treaty in 2006. As of 2015, 126 states were party to the treaty, with 10 other states having signed but not deposited instruments of ratification. There are 60 states that have not signed the PTBT, including the nuclear states of China, France, and 1609:

that he had used with Khrushchev in Vienna two years prior. "'A journey of a thousand miles must begin with a single step,'" Kennedy said. "And if that journey is a thousand miles, or even more, let history record that we, in this land, at this time, took the first step."

1973:

petitioned to transform the PTBT into a comprehensive ban by extending the treaty to underground tests. At a conference on the plan in January 1991, the US indicated that it would not permit efforts to achieve a comprehensive ban by consensus with amendments to the PTBT.

1035:

would also be barred, subject to revision as research on detection continued. Adopting Macmillan's quota compromise, the US proposed each nuclear state be subject to roughly 20 on-site inspections per year (the precise figure based on the frequency of seismic events).

561:. In their view, testing was necessary if the UK nuclear program were to continue to develop. This opposition was tempered by concern that resistance to a test ban might lead the US and Soviet Union to pursue an agreement without Britain having any say in the matter. 1007:. Concerning Macmillan's compromise, the Soviet Union privately suggested it would accept a quota of three inspections per year. The US argued that the quota should be set according to scientific necessity (i.e., be set according to the frequency of seismic events). 1590:

which were relayed to Washington, that an agreement would once again be derailed. Finally, in an original Soviet draft, the signature of France would have been required for the treaty to come into effect. At Harriman's insistence, this requirement was removed.

1019:

scientists, including Bethe. The third blow to the verification negotiations was provided by a panel chaired by Robert Bacher, which found that even on-site inspections would have serious difficulty determining whether an underground test had been conducted.

656:, protested the offer. At a meeting with Eisenhower in the White House, the group argued that testing was necessary for the US to eventually develop bombs that produced no fallout ("clean bombs"). The group repeated the oft-cited fact, which was supported by 1534:. "A test ban agreement combined with the signing of a non-aggression pact between the two groups of state will create a fresh international climate more favorable for a solution of the major problems of our time, including disarmament," Khrushchev said. 5484: 320:, more than doubling the expected yield. The Castle Bravo test resulted in the worst radiological event in US history as radioactive particles spread over more than 11,000 square kilometers (4,200 sq mi), affected inhabited areas (including 1345:

or even the disbanding these military blocs, a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and even the elimination of all nuclear weapons, resolution of the hot-button issue of Germany by both East and West formally accepting the existence of

813:

Khrushchev was personally troubled by the power of nuclear weapons and would later recount that he believed the weapons could never be used. In the mid-1950s, Khrushchev took a keen interest in defense policy and sought to inaugurate an era of

9790: 274:

on 5 August 1963 before it was opened for signature by other countries. The treaty formally went into effect on 10 October 1963. Since then, 123 other states have become party to the treaty. Ten states have signed but not ratified the treaty.

2030:. Roughly 20% of the radioactive debris produced by the 140-kiloton detonation was released into the atmosphere, with some fallout occurring over Japan. The US complained to Moscow, but no subsequent action was taken. On 25 April 1966, the 9796: 465:. The May 1955 proposal is now seen as evidence of Khrushchev's "new approach" to foreign policy, as Khrushchev sought to mend relations with the West. The proposal would serve as the basis of the Soviet negotiating position through 1957. 484:, "We could put on the spot if we accepted a moratorium ... Everybody seems to think that we're skunks, saber-rattlers and warmongers. We ought not miss any chance to make clear our peaceful objectives." Then-Secretary of State 810:, cited as "the nation's most powerful military man." On 27 March 1958, Khrushchev forced Bulganin to resign and succeeded him as Premier. Between 1957 and 1960, Khrushchev had his firmest grip on power, with little real opposition. 806:. The attempted ouster, which was foiled in June, was followed by a series of actions by Khrushchev to consolidate power. In October 1957, still feeling vulnerable from Anti-Party Group's ploy, Khrushchev forced out defense minister 1575:

Each Party shall in exercising its national sovereignty have the right to withdraw from the Treaty if it decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interests of its

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nuclear advantage via regular testing and that the negative environmental impacts of such tests were overstated. Furthermore, Strauss repeatedly emphasized the risk of the Soviet Union violating a ban, a fear Eisenhower shared.

355:

In 1945, Britain and Canada made an early call for an international discussion on controlling atomic power. At the time, the US had yet to formulate a cohesive policy or strategy on nuclear weapons. Taking advantage of this was

1614:

improving the Soviet Union's global image and reducing strain in relations with the West. There are also some indications that military experts within the Soviet Union saw a test ban as a way to restrict US development of

1358:, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with President Kennedy, and Cousins met with Khrushchev for four hours in December 1962. Cousins' secret mission was aided by 639:

and collected data on the prevalence of strontium-90, which indicated that strontium-90 levels in western Russia approximately matched those in the eastern US. Rising Soviet concern was punctuated in September 1957 by the

8990: 1250:, with US testing grounds in the Pacific having largely been exhausted. Macmillan agreed to seek to give US permission "if the situation did not change." Christmas Island was ultimately opened to US use by February 1962. 12462: 9928: 9713: 1513:

would have been an option, had they not already been removed in the wake of the Cuban Missile Crisis. In meetings prior to the negotiations, Kennedy informed Harriman that he would be willing to make concessions on the

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organizations. Jerome Wiesner, the chairman of PSAC, later said that this public advocacy was a primary motivation for Kennedy's push for a test ban. Civil opposition to the deal was less prominent, though the

990:

In early 1959, a roadblock to an agreement was removed as Macmillan and Eisenhower, over opposition from the Department of Defense, agreed to consider a test ban separately from broader disarmament endeavors.

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during the Manhattan Project, exerted significant influence over the report, particularly in its recommendation of an international body that would control production of and research on the world's supply of

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stations, but, importantly, would involve no on-the-ground inspections. Eisenhower initially saw the deal as favorable, but eventually came to see otherwise. In particular, Strauss and Teller, as well as

397:

in June 1946. The Baruch Plan proposed that an International Atomic Development Authority would control all research on and material and equipment involved in the production of atomic energy. Though

12854: 1354:, and US recognition of the government of mainland China. The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other issues through peaceful negotiations. Khrushschev invited 1819:

By 15 April 1964, six months after the PTBT went into effect, more than 100 states had joined the treaty as signatories and 39 had ratified or acceded to it. The most recent party to the PTBT is

1123:

would similarly suggest that Eisenhower never formulated a cohesive test ban policy, noting his ability to "believe in two mutually contradictory and inconsistent propositions at the same time."

668:

when nuclear devices are detonated in the air. A one-megaton clean bomb, Sakharov estimated, would cause 6,600 deaths over 8,000 years, figures derived largely from estimates on the quantity of

11778: 8365: 900:, and inspection of radioactive debris. The Soviet delegation expressed confidence in each method, while Western experts argued that a more comprehensive compliance system would be necessary. 9933:

Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs

9268: 1114:

writes that by early 1960, a test ban had become "the major goal of his Presidency, indeed of his entire career," and would be "his final and most lasting gift to his country." Conversely,

12107: 11695: 8348: 1417:, but Kennedy opted instead for test-ban negotiations without preconditions. On 10 June 1963, in an effort to reinvigorate and recontextualize a test ban, President Kennedy dedicated his 437:

made the first call for a "standstill agreement" on nuclear testing, who saw a testing moratorium as a stepping stone to more comprehensive arms control agreements. In the same year, the

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that the failure to achieve a test ban in 1960 "was all the fault of the American 'big hole' obsession and the consequent insistence on a wantonly large number of on-site inspections."

618:

The AEC would eventually concede, as well, that even low levels of radiation were harmful. It was a combination of rising public support for a test ban and the shock of the 1957 Soviet

2815:

Reiss, L. Z. (24 November 1961). "Strontium-90 Absorption by Deciduous Teeth: Analysis of teeth provides a practicable method of monitoring strontium-90 uptake by human populations".

255:. Though the PTBT did not halt proliferation or the arms race, its enactment did coincide with a substantial decline in the concentration of radioactive particles in the atmosphere. 7941: 1934:

including on-site inspections. However, the sides remained at odds over the precise details of verification, and the talks would permanently disband with the departure of President

1147:

a test ban, Kennedy drew a direct link between continued testing and nuclear proliferation, calling it the "'Nth-country' problem." While a candidate, Kennedy had argued, "For once

664:

published a pair of widely circulated academic papers challenging the claim of Teller and others that a clean, fallout-free nuclear bomb could be developed, due to the formation of

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had responded skeptically to the limited arms-control suggestion of Nehru, whose proposal for a test ban was discarded by the National Security Council for being "not practical."

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first proposed talks on the subject in February 1955. On 10 May 1955, the Soviet Union proposed a test ban before the UN Disarmament Commission's "Committee of Five" (Britain,

13274: 9035: 7205: 11749: 7885: 1489:, a special advisor to Kennedy, believed that Hogg was "ill prepared on the technicalities of the problem and was consumed by a desire to get a treaty at almost any cost." 1166:

that would require unanimity before acting (effectively giving the Soviet Union veto authority). In May 1961, Kennedy attempted via secret contact between Attorney General

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reported that while the Soviet Union could have secretly tested weapons, there was no evidence indicating that it actually had. Panofsky's findings were dismissed by the

999:

further test-ban negotiations conditional on the Soviet Union dropping its Control Commission veto demand and participating in technical discussions on identification of

12467: 9718: 7110: 6153: 12844: 9030: 12804: 10496: 8423: 1435:," though was met with some skepticism within the US. The speech was endorsed by Humphrey and other Democrats, but labeled a "dreadful mistake" by Republican Senator 12049: 11867: 8264: 7180: 7150: 1501:

believed such a reduction would have to be paired with other concessions that Khrushchev would be able to show off within the Soviet Union and to China. Withdrawing

1253:

On this matter of resumed atmospheric tests, Kennedy lacked the full backing of his administration and allies. In particularly, Macmillan, Adlai Stevenson (then the

12799: 10767: 6455: 857:, was a key factor in Eisenhower's eventual decision to initiate test-ban negotiations in 1958. In the spring of 1958, chairman Killian and the PSAC staff (namely 823: 13104: 12974: 12994: 12472: 12452: 11690: 11464: 9843: 9832: 9723: 9703: 8343: 709: 572:, were supportive of antinuclear efforts. France, which was in the midst of developing its own nuclear weapon, also firmly opposed a test ban in the late 1950s. 6512: 13194: 12729: 10690: 8796: 8302: 7961: 7083: 1814: 952: 142: 1103:

later argued that Eisenhower faced three camps in the push for a test ban. The first was the "control" camp, led by figures like Linus Pauling and astronomer

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The PTBT was a first of a series of nuclear arms control treaties in the second half of 20th century. The PTBT has been considered the stepping stone to the

13189: 1977:

Throughout the 1990s, progress accelerated towards a comprehensive test ban treaty (CTBT). Following a series of international meetings on the subject, the

1461:

was first considered the likely choice for chief US negotiator in Moscow, but his name was withdrawn after he turned out to be unavailable over the summer.

892:

At particular issue was the ability of sensors to differentiate an underground test from an earthquake. There were four techniques examined: measurement of

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made clear their firm opposition. The opponents' argument centered on four themes. First, banning atmospheric tests would prevent the US from ensuring the

5444: 1986:

underground tests has significantly improved since the 1950s and 1960s, with monitors detecting tests down to 1 kiloton with a high degree of confidence.

973:

Additionally, despite the initial positive response to the Geneva experts' report, data gathered from Hardtack operations of 1958 (namely the underground

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As the nuclear powers pursued a test ban agreement, they also sought to contend with a rising communist China, which at the time was pursuing its own

822:, proved fruitless, and Khrushchev saw test-ban negotiations as an opportunity to present the Soviet Union as "both powerful and responsible." At the 12824: 12699: 11547: 10191: 9195: 8956: 8507: 8250: 7566: 7307: 7277: 7088: 6447: 5469:. Report on the Health Consequences to the American Population from Nuclear Weapons Tests Conducted by the United States and Other Nations (Report). 1894:(NPT) of 1968, which explicitly referred to the progress provided by the PTBT. In addition to the NPT, the PTBT was followed within ten years by the 660:, that the Soviet Union could conduct secret nuclear tests. In 1958, at the request of Igor Kurchatov, Soviet nuclear physicist and weapons designer 627:

There was also increased environmental concern in the Soviet Union. In the mid-1950s, Soviet scientists began taking regular radiation readings near

12447: 11212: 10781: 9698: 9638: 7611: 4744: 1858:" in the early 1960s), but it did not halt nuclear proliferation. One year after the PTBT's entry into force, the nonsignatory China conducted the 962:

Shortly after the Geneva Conference began in the fall of 1958, Eisenhower faced renewed domestic opposition to a comprehensive test ban as Senator

704:(McMahon Act), which prohibited sharing of nuclear information with foreign governments. Eisenhower, eager to mend ties with Britain following the 334:

upon whom "ashes of death" had rained. In the same year, a Soviet test sent radioactive particles over Japan. Around the same time, victims of the

5641: 3966: 12734: 12724: 9561: 9100: 8169: 7138: 6253: 6146: 5159: 4317: 1854:

The PTBT's ratification coincided with the beginning of a steep decline in the amount of radioactive particles in the atmosphere (following the "

928:), and PSAC, who had argued within the Eisenhower administration for separating a test ban from larger disarmament efforts, and a defeat for the 2855: 611:, the latter of whom organized an anti-test petition signed by more than 9,000 scientists across 43 countries (including the infirm and elderly 11891: 11729: 11602: 11340: 11020: 10805: 8593: 8583: 7895: 7851: 7247: 6942: 6722: 6459: 1254: 1075:

in February) and the Soviet Union having largely accepted the Macmillan-Eisenhower proposal. But US-Soviet relations soured after an American

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approved Resolution 50/64, which appealed for states to follow the PTBT and called for conclusion of the CTBT talks. In September 1996, the

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Governments of the United States of America, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

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Declassified US documents indicate that the US may have violated the PTBT's ban on atmospheric testing in 1972 by, at the instruction of

1772: 840: 1022:

In September 1959, Khrushchev visited the US While the test ban was not a focus on conversations, a positive meeting with Eisenhower at

13224: 12954: 12577: 12482: 11305: 11187: 10727: 10683: 10347: 9891: 9743: 9733: 9215: 9080: 8497: 7820: 7606: 7232: 6903: 6795: 6485: 6476: 6139: 5470: 3019: 1494: 2007:, and is generally safer than other forms of testing. However, underground testing may also cause long-lived radionuclides, including 966:

argued in a widely circulated letter that a partial ban would be preferable due to Soviet opposition to strong verification measures.

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Pietrobon, Allen. (2016)"The Role of Norman Cousins and Track II Diplomacy in the Breakthrough to the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty."

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shot complicated the push for a comprehensive test ban, as underground tests could not be as easily identified as atmospheric tests.

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Vienna, Khrushchev suggested that three inspections per year would have to be the limit, as anything more frequent would constitute

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The Conference on the Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests convened in Geneva at Moscow's request (the Western participants had proposed

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Ultimately, Kennedy sided with those arguing for resumed testing. In particular, an argument by William C. Foster, the head of the

509: 505: 476:, the Manhattan Project's chief physician, concerning the detrimental health effects of atmospheric testing, agreeing instead with 402: 5511: 1377:

called for the Soviet proposal to be discarded in favor of the Geneva System. On 27 May 1963, 34 US Senators, led by Humphrey and

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overcome paralyzing differences among US diplomats, military leaders, national security experts, and scientists on the subject.

445:, called on the UN to ban testing of thermonuclear weapons. 1955 marks the beginning of test-ban negotiations, as Soviet leader 13349: 12919: 12694: 12565: 11686: 11621: 11056: 10622: 9205: 8995: 8971: 8573: 8339: 7951: 7317: 7190: 6831: 6284: 5518: 1448: 747: 493: 7586: 5367: 13264: 13174: 12664: 12432: 12425: 11855: 11583: 11025: 10676: 10617: 9911: 9838: 9826: 9683: 9676: 9583: 9427: 9305: 8917: 8269: 8094: 7946: 7559: 7257: 6278: 6259: 6080: 6059: 6035: 6004: 5980: 5945: 5921: 5900: 5876: 5846: 5800: 5779: 5755: 5729: 5708: 5687: 5392: 4959: 1995:

atmosphere. Fully contained underground tests were not wholly "clean" either. Underground testing reduced the risk caused by

1982: 1719: 1474: 1465:, a former ambassador to the Soviet Union well respected in Moscow, was chosen instead. The US delegation would also include 1044:(which was typically seen as supportive of a test ban) saw it as a clear step towards an agreement. Conversely, AEC chairman 232: 1779:." Polling in late August 1963 indicated that more than 60% of Americans supported the deal while less than 20% opposed it. 1325:, which brought the two superpowers to the edge of nuclear war and prompted both Kennedy and Khrushchev to seek accelerated 1246:, appealing for a final and permanent halt to tests. Kennedy, conversely, used the meeting to request permission to test on 13269: 13184: 13129: 12674: 12553: 12245: 11896: 11511: 10991: 10612: 7834: 7195: 6863: 6667: 6600: 1394: 948: 5180: 2474: 12879: 12714: 12704: 12669: 11172: 10817: 10501: 9471: 8816: 7267: 6914: 6909: 6568: 1863: 1707: 1294: 1071:

A test ban seemed particularly close in 1960, with Britain and France in accord with the US (though France conducted its

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broader disarmament effort (e.g., the production cut-off), Moscow insisted on independent consideration of a test ban.

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dismissed the plan as a "gimmick"; the Soviet Union had just completed a testing series and the US was about to begin

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visited the US for medical care, which attracted significant public attention. In 1961, the Soviet Union tested the

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Keeping the US in a position of strength, Kennedy argued, would be necessary for a test ban to ever come about.

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Stone, Oliver and Peter Kuznick, "The Untold History of the United States" (Gallery Books, 2012), page 313-14,

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MacDonald, Julia M. (2015). "Eisenhower's Scientists: Policy Entrepreneurs and the Test-Ban Debate 1954–1958".

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Stone, Oliver and Peter Kuznick, "The Untold History of the United States" (Gallery Books, 2012), page 313-14

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underwater, and outer-space tests within detection range. Underground tests measuring more than 4.75 on the

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Stone, Oliver and Peter Kuznick, "The Untold History of the United States" (Gallery Books, 2012), page 313

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On 1 July 1958, responding to Eisenhower's call, the nuclear powers convened the Conference of Experts in

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and a Soviet intelligence officer to settle on 15 inspections per year. This was rejected by Khrushchev.

803: 554: 504:, Eisenhower rejected the idea of considering a test ban outside general disarmament efforts. During the 5746:

Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy during the Cold War

2782: 13394: 13314: 13294: 13204: 13144: 13124: 13084: 13034: 13024: 13009: 12984: 12949: 12939: 12909: 12839: 12654: 11970: 11044: 10637: 10506: 10159: 10099: 9866: 9784: 8164: 8070: 7890: 7861: 7678: 7631: 7376: 7312: 6968: 6800: 6312: 6211: 2157: 1903: 1675:. Teller declared that the treaty would be a "step away from safety and possibly ... toward war." 1672: 1418: 462: 4368: 2851: 13384: 13309: 13179: 12929: 12834: 11739: 10979: 10918: 10580: 10337: 10147: 9578: 9115: 7868: 7646: 7636: 7297: 6987: 6742: 6199: 6110: 5990: 5340: 3520: 2339: 1911: 1739: 1486: 701: 6771: 6610: 5133: 12394: 12073: 10880: 10533: 10123: 9973: 9906: 9573: 9546: 9173: 9075: 8931: 8835: 7725: 7596: 7532: 7454: 7155: 7143: 6737: 6401: 6337: 5007: 2089:

in the southern Atlantic may have been an atmospheric nuclear test in contravention of the PTBT by

2039: 1768: 1409:, advised the President to make a test ban conditional on the Soviet Union withdrawing troops from 1220:— Kennedy announced and dedicated funds to a renewed atmospheric testing program in November 1961. 944: 1060:, until recently its top two officials) pushed to continue testing and expand missile stockpiles. 12375: 12037: 11989: 11440: 10647: 10632: 10068: 9961: 9941: 9802: 9766: 9526: 9422: 9153: 8912: 8502: 8440: 8279: 8044: 7878: 7575: 7394: 7210: 6732: 6357: 5812:"Diplomats, Scientists, and Politicians: The United States and the Nuclear Test Ban Negotiations" 5344: 5155: 4240: 1615: 1199: 1049: 539: 204: 10427: 9849: 8896: 5868: 2783:"Scientist-citizen advocacy in the atomic age: A case study of the Baby Tooth Survey, 1958-1963" 12085: 12013: 11802: 11428: 11015: 10575: 10476: 9551: 9536: 9521: 9110: 8875: 8870: 8801: 8375: 8255: 8206: 7929: 7776: 7685: 7448: 7242: 7052: 4719: 2940: 1759: 1751: 1283: 881: 734: 408: 301: 7292: 5811: 5615: 2969:(June 1958). "Radioactive carbon from nuclear explosion and nonthreshold biological effects". 1454:

Due to prior experience in arms control and his personal relationship with Khrushchev, former

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but under mounting pressure as Soviet tests continued — during the time period of the Soviet

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in July and angry exchanges at the UN in September. Macmillan would later claim to President

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The degree of Eisenhower's interest in a test ban is a matter of some historical dispute.

553:) also quietly resisted a test ban, despite the British public favoring a deal, until the 8: 12097: 11771: 11616: 11578: 11362: 11317: 11245: 10513: 10111: 10039: 10029: 10002: 9045: 8865: 8642: 8620: 8551: 8408: 8284: 8144: 8077: 8024: 7924: 7660: 7406: 7388: 7200: 7042: 6747: 6595: 6332: 6223: 4951: 4611: 1978: 1686: 1659: 1523: 1462: 1406: 1274:

capabilities, particularly in terms of the mobility of its weapons and, accordingly, its

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The proliferation of thermonuclear weapons coincided with a rise in public concern about

477: 297: 2430: 2038:) experienced a venting malfunction and produced a radioactive plume headed towards the 12305: 11922: 11597: 11357: 10528: 10421: 10265: 9861: 9808: 9772: 9334: 9050: 8699: 8184: 7484: 7466: 7332: 7322: 7105: 6836: 6322: 6024: 6019: 5861: 5673: 5522: 5100: 5041:"Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water" 2986: 2221: 1895: 1444: 1111: 791: 513: 485: 473: 6131: 3799: 1722:, also testified in favor of the deal. Taylor and other members of the JCS, including 10313: 10205: 10019: 9317: 8513: 8319: 8179: 8107: 7705: 7518: 7496: 7460: 7032: 6757: 6580: 6327: 6076: 6055: 6031: 6000: 5976: 5941: 5917: 5896: 5872: 5842: 5835: 5796: 5775: 5751: 5744: 5739: 5725: 5704: 5700:

A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics – Volume 1

5683: 5567: 5040: 4955: 4715: 2832: 2494: 1942: 1715: 1690: 1634: 1627: 1619: 1555:," as a nuclear war would "not distinguish between imperialists and working people." 1547: 1382: 1167: 1139: 1115: 1080: 1065: 1057: 862: 600: 596: 584: 558: 542: 446: 438: 361: 252: 201:

Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water

27:

Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water

2990: 1706:, the chairman of the AEC, also gave his support to the treaty in testimony, as did 818:

with the West. Initial efforts to reach accords, such as on disarmament at the 1955

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of 1956, was receptive to Macmillan's conditions, but the AEC and the congressional

11197: 10652: 10642: 10171: 10024: 9778: 9364: 9346: 9299: 8754: 8598: 7993: 7766: 7756: 7700: 7436: 7412: 7400: 7382: 7185: 6999: 6947: 6585: 5966: 5830: 4741:"Sharing the Bomb among Friends: The Dilemmas of Sino-Soviet Strategic Cooperation" 4294:. Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization 2978: 2824: 2677: 2438: 2434: 2363:. Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization 2226: 1734:

came out in support of the deal, including Eisenhower, Eisenhower's vice president

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Republican, warned that the renewed negotiations might end in "virtual surrender."

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and under pressure to bring on a dedicated science advisor, Eisenhower created the

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On 19 September 1957, the US conducted the first contained underground test at the

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approved expanded nuclear collaboration in 1958 and until after Britain had tested

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Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization

2059: 2052: 2046: 1831:, an ideological ally of China during the PTBT's enactment, also has not signed. 1711: 1682: 1667: 1597: 1440: 1436: 1398: 1359: 1270: 1235: 1135: 1089: 1053: 963: 787: 763: 661: 653: 649: 612: 576: 369: 244: 6188:

Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean

6097: 5069:"Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty & Partial Test Ban Treaty Membership" 12136: 11798: 10668: 10557: 10439: 10320: 9980: 9949: 9291: 9158: 8759: 8672: 8667: 8603: 8428: 7975: 7673: 7368: 7222: 6702: 6545: 6347: 6106: 5886: 5280: 5096: 5068: 4445:, vol. 11, (Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office, 1997), pages 309–317 3385: 2408: 1922: 1763: 1502: 1490: 1458: 1387: 1378: 1355: 1330: 1266: 1104: 1072: 1045: 569: 489: 442: 321: 317: 263: 208: 125: 5466: 2335: 12643: 10543: 10468: 10451: 10373: 10332: 10014: 9992: 9125: 9055: 8139: 8130: 7935: 7478: 7327: 7175: 6697: 6649: 6621: 6537: 5765: 2193: 2086: 1946: 1735: 1326: 1275: 1217: 1174: 1100: 1032: 1011: 940: 893: 885: 807: 779: 678: 657: 608: 604: 592: 588: 579:

debris contaminating food sources, particularly the threat of high levels of

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Cooperation Among Democracies: The European Influence on U.S. Foreign Policy

774:

In the summer of 1957, Khrushchev was at acute risk of losing power, as the

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launch that encouraged Eisenhower to take steps towards a test ban in 1958.

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Message from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, 30 October 1962, in

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Gromyko and Harriman debated how states not universally recognized (e.g.,

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The Improbable Triumvirate: John F. Kennedy, Pope John, Nikita Khrushchev

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European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites

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was founded in 1971 in opposition to a planned underground test on the

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In 1954, just weeks after the Castle Bravo test, Indian prime minister

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Eisenhower, Science Advice, and the Nuclear Test-Ban Debate, 1945–1963

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A notable atmospheric release of radioactive gas followed the Soviet

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European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

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Sachs, Jeffrey D. (2013) "JFK and the future of global leadership."

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The US suspension of atmospheric tests was lifted on 25 April 1962.

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as "assertive, ambiguous, semiliterate and generally unimpressive."

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European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities

8064: 7988: 7800: 7490: 6527: 6241: 5004:"Nuclear Testing and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) Timeline" 3191: 2105:– US organization dedicated to monitoring nuclear treaty compliance 2075: 1880: 422: 413: 6393: 5837:

Political Innovation in America: The Politics of Policy Initiation

4802: 4800: 4775: 4773: 2042:; the AEC determined that the test did not threaten human health. 1373:

Progress was further complicated in early 1963, as a group in the

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The Other Side of the Table: The Soviet Approach to Arms Control

5975:. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. 4985: 4983: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4062: 717:

framing the policy shift in the context of US commitment to its

389:. A version of the Acheson-Lilienthal plan was presented to the 10380: 10308: 10272: 10200: 10154: 10118: 10106: 9968: 8734: 8159: 6631: 5485:"Page 3: Effects of Nuclear Weapon Testing by the Soviet Union" 5295: 4797: 4770: 4758: 4696: 4657: 4514: 4078: 4047: 3568: 3094: 3092: 3090: 3042: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2090: 1954: 1887:

without permission to demand the Soviet Union to stop testing.

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over the magnitude of nuclear tests, particularly tests of new

5721:

Unarmed Forces: The Transnational Movement to End the Cold War

4950:. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: 4674: 4672: 4647: 4645: 4643: 4143: 4141: 3420: 3418: 3292: 3290: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2123:– US project that ended shortly after ratification of the PTBT 1158:

On 21 March 1961, test-ban negotiations resumed in Geneva and

915:) conducted shortly before the start of the moratorium in 1958 12494: 12380: 10404: 10392: 10284: 10212: 10130: 9956: 9611: 9352: 8451:

Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research

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European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications

5554:. August 1998. Archived from the original on 10 November 2008 5512:"Three-dimensional Simulation of the Baneberry Nuclear Event" 5225: 5114: 4980: 4927: 4881: 4879: 4395: 4192: 4059: 3683: 3681: 3589:"The Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Nuclear Explosions" 2923: 2921: 2852:"Edward Teller, 'Father of the Hydrogen Bomb,' is dead at 95" 1914:

prohibited underground tests with yields above 150 kilotons.

1637:, Soviet foreign minister Gromyko, and US Secretary of State 1506: 1316: 1148: 12855:

Treaties of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1964–1971)

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and South Africa, both of which were parties to the treaty.

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International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board

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of John F. Kennedy's announcement of the test-ban agreement

6030:. New York and London: Council on Foreign Relations Press. 5210: 4968: 4903: 4812: 4785: 4684: 4669: 4640: 4577: 4138: 4035: 4011: 3999: 3898: 3618: 3558: 3556: 3415: 3287: 2735: 2295: 2067: 1958: 1527: 1414: 1410: 718: 568:

also opposed a test ban, though some scientists, including

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shot at the Nevada Test Site on 18 December 1970 (part of

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Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications

6125: 5002:

Kimball, Daryl G.; Taheran, Shervin (22 September 2015).

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and became the world's fifth nuclear power. Since China,

1558:

The negotiations were inaugurated on 15 July 1963 at the

1321:

In October 1962, the US and Soviet Union experienced the

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presidential elections, Eisenhower fended off challenger

4891: 4531: 4529: 4504: 4502: 4459:. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. pp. 93–102. 4412: 4410: 4331: 4274: 4272: 4270: 4255: 3717: 3666: 3654: 3642: 3630: 3608: 3606: 3553: 3543: 3541: 3539: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3335: 3333: 3331: 3329: 3314: 3164: 3154: 3152: 3150: 1084:

more antagonistic through the summer, punctuated by the

235:(CTBT), which succeeded the PTBT for ratifying parties. 9833:

International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement

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International Telecommunications Satellite Organization

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European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization

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Treaties of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic

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AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe

5913:

Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race

3934: 3910: 3862: 3075: 2947: 2759: 2725: 2723: 2384:"Tsar Bomba: The World's Most Powerful Nuclear Weapon" 2336:"The Making of the Limited Test Ban Treaty, 1958–1963" 1941:

Momentum towards a comprehensive ban re-emerged under

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nuclear test in space (1962). Such tests in space and

1815:

List of parties to the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

1787:. On 10 October 1963, the treaty entered into effect. 1714:, the longtime director of the Los Alamos Laboratory. 10596:

Students for the Exploration and Development of Space

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Regional African Satellite Communication Organization

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missile silos and, second, from developing a capable

849:

The advocacy of PSAC, including that of its chairmen

8393:

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

6016:"Soviet Policy Toward a Nuclear Test Ban: 1958–1963" 5750:. Oxford and New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 5588:"The Worst Nuclear Disasters – Photo Gallery – TIME" 5445:"General Overview of the Effects of Nuclear Testing" 4837:

Address to the Nation on the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

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Burr, William; Montford, Hector L. (3 August 2003).

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characterizing the treaty as "targeted against us."

1443:, the leader of the Senate Republicans. Dirksen and 1189: 13340:

Treaties of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic

6753:

Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961

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A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House

4948:

The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History

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United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations

516:, who ran in large part on support for a test ban. 10603:Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies 9714:International Space Exploration Coordination Group 8383:European Telecommunications Satellite Organization 8361:European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment 6182:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 6023: 5860: 5834: 5743: 5368:"In Remotest Nevada, a Joint U.S. and Soviet Test" 3967:"Arthur H. Dean, Envoy to Korea Talks, Dies at 89" 3826: 2045:Another accidental release occurred following the 1892:Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 1710:, the Department of Defense's lead scientist, and 889:goal of achieving an agreement at the conference. 798:(effectively the leader of the Soviet Union) with 13275:Treaties of the Republic of the Sudan (1956–1969) 9844:International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' 9704:International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' 7308:John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School 5697:Burns, Richard Dean; Siracusa, Joseph M. (2013). 4708: 4443:Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963 247:. A test ban was also seen as a means of slowing 12641: 10698: 9699:Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee 7181:U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development 4745:Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars 2441:. Archived from the original on 21 February 2003 2154:"Limited or Partial Test Ban Treaty (LTBT/PTBT)" 2148: 2146: 2144: 2142: 1771:announced opposition to the deal along with the 1242:In December 1961, Macmillan met with Kennedy in 428: 12800:Treaties of the military dictatorship in Brazil 9827:International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement 8354:European Telecommunications Standards Institute 8228:European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010) 7139:John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum 6254:Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty 5160:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 5091: 5089: 4995: 4318:John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum 2849: 2481:. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007 2407: 2208: 2111:– US aircraft used to detect nuclear explosions 468:Eisenhower had supported nuclear testing after 416:test of 1952, an early thermonuclear detonation 9111:Re-establishment of the National Space Council 7896:Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility 7852:European Cooperation for Space Standardization 6224:South Pacific Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty 5867:. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. p. 5771:American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy 5487:. CTBTO Preparatory Commission. Archived from 5393:"Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)" 5181:"16 October 1964 – First Chinese Nuclear Test" 5001: 4614:. Archived from the original on 16 August 2016 4607:American University's Spring Commencement 1963 1673:peaceful, civilian uses of nuclear detonations 328:), and sickened Japanese fishermen aboard the 292:the US and Soviet Union detonated their first 258:The PTBT was signed by the governments of the 13195:Treaties of the Socialist Republic of Romania 12845:Treaties of the Republic of China (1949–1971) 12805:Treaties of the People's Republic of Bulgaria 12730:Treaties extended to the Netherlands Antilles 12616:Timeline of first orbital launches by country 10684: 9662:Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 9634:Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 8469:Creation of the British National Space Centre 7857:European Space Research and Technology Centre 7767: 7757: 7560: 7443:Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington 6813:Report to the American People on Civil Rights 6409: 6147: 6102:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 5940:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 5809: 5774:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 5696: 5633: 5120: 5045:United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs 4989: 4933: 4732: 4198: 4186: 4159: 4132: 4120: 4108: 4096: 4072: 3952: 3928: 3892: 3766: 3141: 3098: 3003: 2959: 2900: 2753: 2699: 2583: 2306: 2217:"A-bombs vs. H-bombs: What's the difference?" 2139: 1644: 794:launched an attempt to replace Khrushchev as 372:to help construct US nuclear weapons policy. 296:(hydrogen bombs), far more powerful than the 38:Participation in the Partial Test Ban Treaty 7908:European Space Security and Education Centre 6297:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons 5930: 5810:Jacobson, Harold Karan; Stein, Eric (1966). 5086: 3624: 3574: 3499: 3424: 3380: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3296: 3048: 2741: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2333: 1748:National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy 1633:On 5 August 1963, British Foreign Secretary 1010:In June 1959, a report of a panel headed by 712:were firmly opposed. It was not until after 13105:Treaties of the Mongolian People's Republic 12975:Treaties of the Hungarian People's Republic 9749:Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization 9709:International Mobile Satellite Organization 9589:Politics of the International Space Station 8224:EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space 7574: 5989: 5795:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5717: 5301: 5231: 5063: 5061: 4909: 4885: 4818: 4806: 4791: 4779: 4764: 4702: 4690: 4678: 4663: 4651: 4583: 4547: 4520: 4493: 4401: 4389: 4355: 4349: 4147: 4084: 4053: 4041: 4029: 4017: 4005: 3993: 3904: 3778: 3463: 3451: 3436: 3409: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3366: 3364: 3362: 3360: 3358: 3356: 3354: 3020:"Nuclear Testing and Conscience, 1957–1963" 2634: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2315: 2277: 2188: 2186: 2184: 2182: 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 1989: 1773:International Council of Christian Churches 1419:commencement address at American University 932:and AEC, which had argued to the contrary. 368:, which had been commissioned by President 231:), though the latter may also refer to the 12995:Treaties of the Iraqi Republic (1958–1968) 10691: 10677: 9744:Arab Satellite Communications Organization 9734:Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group 9081:Development of the Commercial Crew Program 8498:Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 7821:European Launcher Development Organisation 7567: 7553: 6416: 6402: 6154: 6140: 6128:program on reported Soviet arms violations 5471:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4714: 3386:"Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Chronology" 1317:Cuban Missile Crisis and beyond: 1962–1963 1216:50 Mt+ test detonation on 30 October over 538:The British governments of 1954–58 (under 9821:Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space 9667:Committee on Earth Observation Satellites 9607:International Civil Aviation Organization 9149:International Traffic in Arms Regulations 9046:Launch of the Space Launch System program 9041:Cancellation of the Constellation program 7253:John F. Kennedy Federal Building (Boston) 6871:U.S. House of Representatives elections: 6723:Status of Women (Presidential Commission) 6248:United States – Russia mutual detargeting 5892:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 5548:"Nuclear Testing at the Nevada Test Site" 5365: 5035: 5033: 5031: 5029: 4721:Excerpt from Chairman Khrushchev's Speech 4457:John F. Kennedy and the Politics of Faith 2776: 2774: 2665: 2652: 360:, who had initiated and administered the 13190:Treaties of the Polish People's Republic 12825:Treaties of the Central African Republic 9201:Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society 6887:U.S. Senate elections in Massachusetts: 6230:Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty 5962:, focuses on American University speech. 5841:. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 5724:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 5607: 5274: 5272: 5270: 5268: 5266: 5074:. Nuclear Threat Initiative. 8 June 2015 5058: 3351: 3239: 2965: 2401: 2312: 2214: 2171: 2115:National technical means of verification 1916: 1838: 1685:signs the PTBT on 7 October 1963 before 1677: 1592: 1393: 1226: 1130: 906: 796:General Secretary of the Communist Party 683: 518: 407: 403:Chief of Staff of the United States Army 282: 9850:Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol 8972:2002 National missile defense directive 8325:Council of European Aerospace Societies 8207:Western European Union Satellite Centre 7166:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 6318:Timeline of nuclear weapons development 6267:African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty 6068: 6044: 5965: 5672: 5156:"The Technical Details: The Bomb Spike" 4974: 4830: 4738: 4600: 4469: 4454: 4227: 3940: 3916: 3868: 3754: 3723: 3711: 3699: 3687: 3672: 3660: 3648: 3636: 3612: 3562: 3547: 3475: 3345: 3320: 3308: 3281: 3209: 3197: 3170: 3069: 2953: 2927: 2876: 2765: 2529:. Arms Control Association. 1 June 2006 2245: 2243: 2103:Air Force Technical Applications Center 1883:. In 1982, a Greenpeace ship docked at 1600:announces the agreement on 26 July 1963 391:United Nations Atomic Energy Commission 12735:Treaties of the Kingdom of Afghanistan 12725:Treaties extended to the Faroe Islands 12642: 10623:International Astronautical Federation 9404: 8932:Launch of the Mars Exploration Program 8340:European Committee for Standardization 7952:Future Launchers Preparatory Programme 7248:Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts 6832:Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts 6285:Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone 6054:. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co. 6013: 5909: 5895:. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. 5885: 5855: 5829: 5788: 5764: 5738: 5682:. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. 5519:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 5503: 5026: 4939: 4921: 4897: 4870: 4858: 4824: 4596: 4594: 4592: 4571: 4559: 4535: 4508: 4416: 4337: 4306: 4292:"1963–1977: Limits on Nuclear Testing" 4278: 4261: 4225: 4223: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4209: 4207: 4171: 3880: 3856: 3844: 3832: 3820: 3742: 3510: 3508: 3487: 3233: 3221: 3185: 3158: 3122: 3110: 3081: 3014: 3012: 2912: 2888: 2771: 2729: 2714: 2646: 2622: 2610: 2595: 2571: 2559: 2547: 2519: 2513: 2381: 2289: 1671:treaty. Fourth, the ban would prevent 770:Khrushchev and a moratorium: 1958–1961 760:President's Science Advisory Committee 10672: 10618:International Academy of Astronautics 9839:International Docking System Standard 9684:International Cospas-Sarsat Programme 9677:International Planetary Data Alliance 9584:International Space Station programme 9306:Fractional Orbital Bombardment System 9216:Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society 8508:UK Global Navigation Satellite System 8270:European Union Aviation Safety Agency 7947:Space Situational Awareness Programme 7548: 7258:John F. Kennedy International Airport 6397: 6279:Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty 6260:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 6135: 5972:Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban 5639: 5614:Broad, William J. (8 December 2008). 5613: 5580: 5417: 5385: 5313: 5263: 5243: 5201: 4945: 4284: 3964: 3586: 2850:Joel N. Shurkin (24 September 2003). 2814: 2375: 1983:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 1720:Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 953:Minister of State for Foreign Affairs 947:, an envoy to the UN, the British by 233:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty 12700:Soviet Union–United States relations 10613:Coalition for Deep Space Exploration 8628:Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest 7835:European Space Research Organisation 7313:John F. Kennedy University (defunct) 6601:Migration and Refugee Assistance Act 5366:Blakeslee, Sandra (18 August 1988). 5278: 4361: 2780: 2467: 2240: 2034:underground test in Nevada (part of 1775:, which rejected a "covenant with a 1439:and "another case of concession" by 1194:Following the setback in Vienna and 472:. In 1947, he rejected arguments by 243:(hydrogen bombs), and the resulting 139:126, plus 10 signed but not ratified 40: 13370:Treaties of the Yemen Arab Republic 12885:Treaties of the Republic of Dahomey 12710:Treaties entered into force in 1963 9472:United Rocket and Space Corporation 9126:Launch of the Lunar Gateway project 9006:Launch of the Constellation program 8730:Launch of the Space Shuttle Program 6569:Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 6423: 6162:Nuclear weapons limitation treaties 5863:President Kennedy: Profile of Power 5640:Weiss, Leonard (8 September 2015). 4589: 4204: 3784: 3505: 3388:. Federation of American Scientists 3009: 2971:The Soviet Journal of Atomic Energy 2858:from the original on 1 January 2017 2353: 1929:stopped completely with the treaty. 1413:and abiding by a 1962 agreement on 1295:Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 13: 12895:Treaties of the Dominican Republic 12830:Treaties of the Dominion of Ceylon 12790:Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina 12690:Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower 10566:Air & Space Forces Association 9206:Antennas & Propagation Society 8414:Indian Human Spaceflight Programme 8335:European Civil Aviation Conference 6218:Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty 5999:. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin. 5509: 4739:Jersild, Austin (8 October 2013). 4233:"Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Ratified" 2361:"30 October 1961 – The Tsar Bomba" 2121:Project Orion (nuclear propulsion) 2026:of 15 January 1965 in present-day 1649:Between 8 and 27 August 1963, the 1339:North Atlantic Treaty Organization 1126: 832:Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union 14: 13406: 13225:Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro 12955:Treaties of the Kingdom of Greece 9639:General Assembly Fourth Committee 9627:Space Generation Advisory Council 9061:Mars Exploration Joint Initiative 8235:EU Agency for the Space Programme 7984:Mars Exploration Joint Initiative 7957:Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle 7784:Chinese Lunar Exploration Program 7726:Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine 6908:Democratic National Conventions: 6728:University of Alabama integration 6091: 6072:The Making of the Test Ban Treaty 5679:Eisenhower: Soldier and President 5647:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 3796:Federation of American Scientists 2479:Natural Resources Defense Council 2418:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1790: 1190:Lifting the moratorium: 1961–1962 1042:Federation of American Scientists 603:, whose appeals were endorsed by 13060:Treaties of the Kingdom of Libya 12595: 12583: 12571: 12559: 12547: 12535: 12512: 12500: 12488: 12388: 12369: 12342: 12330: 12311: 12299: 12275: 12263: 12251: 12239: 12227: 12204: 12192: 12180: 12166: 12154: 12142: 12130: 12091: 12079: 12067: 12055: 12043: 12031: 12019: 12007: 11995: 11983: 11964: 11952: 11940: 11928: 11916: 11904: 11885: 11873: 11861: 11849: 11837: 11823: 11811: 11718: 11648: 11629: 11610: 11591: 11572: 11553: 11541: 11529: 11517: 11505: 11493: 11470: 11458: 11446: 11434: 11422: 11410: 11387: 11375: 11346: 11334: 11311: 11299: 11275: 11263: 11251: 11239: 11220: 11166: 11143: 11119: 11107: 11050: 11038: 11009: 10997: 10985: 10973: 10961: 10936: 10924: 10912: 10900: 10888: 10869: 10857: 10845: 10811: 10799: 10787: 10775: 10756: 10744: 10628:International Astronomical Union 10450: 10438: 10426: 10415: 10403: 10391: 10379: 10355: 10331: 10319: 10307: 10295: 10283: 10271: 10259: 10247: 10235: 10223: 10211: 10199: 10177: 10165: 10153: 10141: 10129: 10117: 10105: 10093: 9991: 9979: 9967: 9955: 9451:Medvedev modernisation programme 9154:Full-spectrum dominance doctrine 8822:1985 anti-satellite missile test 8486:Space Innovation and Growth Team 8231:European GNSS Agency (2010–2021) 7913:European Space Operations Centre 7874:ESA Centre for Earth Observation 7528: 7527: 6777: 6770: 6377: 6376: 6109:relating to the test ban at the 5616:"The Hidden Travels of The Bomb" 5540: 5477: 5459: 5437: 5411: 5359: 5333: 5307: 5237: 5195: 5173: 5148: 5126: 4478: 4463: 4448: 4431: 4422: 3965:Krebs, Albin (1 December 1987). 3958: 3591:. Los Alamos National Laboratory 2382:Morton, Ella (30 October 2014). 2215:Kageyama, Yuri (28 March 2016). 1834: 1702:Soviet tests would be detected. 1522:said it should be followed by a 1263:United States Information Agency 1001:high-altitude nuclear explosions 943:). The US delegation was led by 926:Director of Central Intelligence 710:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy 350: 215:. It is also abbreviated as the 174: 32: 13320:Treaties of Trinidad and Tobago 13045:Treaties of the Kingdom of Laos 12740:Treaties of Antigua and Barbuda 9877:Astronomical naming conventions 8802:Strategy of Technology doctrine 8574:Establishment of Cape Canaveral 8492:Creation of the UK Space Agency 7942:European Space Policy Institute 7902:European Space Astronomy Centre 7303:John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge 6920:U.S. presidential election 1960 6693:Federal housing segregation ban 6574:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 6448:U.S. Senator from Massachusetts 6206:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 6176:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 6075:. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. 6051:Khrushchev: The Man and His Era 5703:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 5665: 5279:Burr, William (2 August 2013). 3580: 3254:Defense Threat Reduction Agency 2933: 2843: 2808: 1785:Presidium of the Supreme Soviet 1497:, served as Moscow's emissary. 884:Laboratories and was joined by 677:, detonated over the island of 345: 22:Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 13345:Treaties of the United Kingdom 12875:Treaties of the Czech Republic 12720:Treaties extended to Greenland 10608:British Interplanetary Society 10571:Alliance for Space Development 9694:Global Standards Collaboration 9617:Office for Outer Space Affairs 9144:China exclusion policy of NASA 8812:Space Station Freedom proposal 8725:Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law 7795:Planetary Exploration of China 7619:Planetary protection principle 6440:President of the United States 6382:Category:Arms control treaties 5467:"Fallout from Nuclear Weapons" 5447:. CTBTO Preparatory Commission 5183:. CTBTO Preparatory Commission 4474:. New York City: W. W. Norton. 3587:Malik, John (September 1985). 2439:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456341 2109:Boeing WC-135 Constant Phoenix 1808: 378:Los Alamos National Laboratory 199:), formally known as the 1963 1: 13350:Treaties of the United States 12920:Treaties of Equatorial Guinea 12695:Presidency of John F. Kennedy 9791:US-USSR Cooperation Agreement 9121:Launch of the Artemis program 9051:Redesign of the Orion program 8967:Aerospace Industry Commission 8663:Launch of the Mariner program 8388:European Southern Observatory 8088:Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015) 7017:John F. Kennedy document hoax 7011:Happy Birthday, Mr. President 7005:Coretta Scott King phone call 6943:Birthplace and childhood home 6826:A rising tide lifts all boats 6713:Presidential Medal of Freedom 6194:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty 5991:Schlesinger, Arthur Meier Jr. 5816:Michigan Legal Studies Series 5718:Evangelista, Matthew (1999). 3212:, pp. 347–348, 350, 352. 3024:American Institute of Physics 2829:10.1126/science.134.3491.1669 2251:"1 March 1954 – Castle Bravo" 2127: 1908:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty 1795: 824:20th Communist Party Congress 429:After Castle Bravo: 1954–1958 278: 13265:Treaties of the Soviet Union 13175:Treaties of Papua New Guinea 10700:Public-sector space agencies 9872:Extraterrestrial real estate 9412:Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission 9312:Soviet crewed lunar programs 9221:Vehicular Technology Society 9211:Broadcast Technology Society 8986:Vision for Space Exploration 8903:Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission 8861:Space Exploration Initiative 8807:Strategic Defense Initiative 8760:Launch of the Viking program 8673:Launch of the Apollo program 8668:Launch of the Gemini project 8520:Defence in a Competitive Age 8457:Start of the Ariel programme 8371:European Patent Organisation 7216:Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences 6668:Communications Satellite Act 5341:"The Flawed Test Ban Treaty" 3200:, pp. 361–362, 364–365. 2411:; Smirnov, Yuri (May 1993). 2132: 1641:signed the final agreement. 1548:increasingly tense relations 911:US test detonation (part of 16:1963 international agreement 7: 13270:Treaties of Francoist Spain 13185:Treaties of the Philippines 13130:Treaties of the Netherlands 12675:Nuclear technology treaties 9689:Group on Earth Observations 9672:Committee on Space Research 9116:Creation of the Space Force 9036:Kennedy Space Center speech 8679:We choose to go to the Moon 8610:Introduction to Outer Space 8330:European Broadcasting Union 7118:Gravesite and Eternal Flame 6976:Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana 6899:1960 presidential primaries 6807:We choose to go to the Moon 6673:Community Mental Health Act 6069:Terchek, Ronald J. (1970). 5824:Journal of Cold War Studies 5473:. May 2005. pp. 20–21. 5283:. National Security Archive 2941:"Too Dumb to Meter, Part 7" 2096: 2019:, to seep into the ground. 1495:Minister of Foreign Affairs 1405:One of Kennedy's advisors, 804:Premier of the Soviet Union 566:military–industrial complex 500:, and Secretary of Defense 336:atomic bombing of Hiroshima 211:except for those conducted 10: 13411: 12880:Treaties of Czechoslovakia 12715:Treaties extended to Aruba 12705:Treaties concluded in 1963 12670:Non-proliferation treaties 10638:Space Exploration Alliance 9867:Common heritage of mankind 9785:Space Liability Convention 9557:North Korean space program 9483:2015 Creation of Roscosmos 8947:Launch of the X-37 program 8797:Citizens' Advisory Council 7891:European Data Relay System 7862:Concurrent Design Facility 7607:Space Debris Working Group 6904:1960 presidential campaign 6837:State of the Union Address 6801:American University speech 6688:Federal affirmative action 6518:Presidential Proclamations 6313:History of nuclear weapons 6212:Seabed Arms Control Treaty 3256:. May 2015. Archived from 2158:Atomic Heritage Foundation 1904:Seabed Arms Control Treaty 1812: 1645:After the Moscow agreement 1456:Assistant Secretary of War 827:1.2 million troops). 754:On 7 November 1957, after 461:and protections against a 300:tested and deployed since 287:Castle Bravo fallout plume 54: Acceded or succeeded 12965:Treaties of Guinea-Bissau 12660:1963 in the United States 12610: 12527: 12403: 12361: 12219: 11797: 11679: 11672: 11485: 11402: 11326: 11158: 11099: 11083: 11076: 10951: 10837: 10830: 10736: 10713: 10706: 10581:Space Frontier Foundation 10556: 10467: 10076: 10067: 10008:Launch market competition 9940: 9757: 9647: 9599: 9579:Ugandan space initiatives 9514: 9464: 9443: 9395: 9374: 9327: 9279: 9255: 9242: 9235: 9139: 9099: 9019: 8955: 8884: 8849: 8785: 8768: 8743: 8708: 8688: 8651: 8633:Launch of Project Mercury 8582: 8540: 8531: 8439: 8401: 8293: 8197: 8129: 8087: 8011: 7930:Ariane launcher programme 7869:European Astronaut Centre 7827:Europa launcher programme 7811: 7768: 7758: 7714: 7659: 7647:The Spaceguard Foundation 7582: 7506: 7367: 7298:John F. Kennedy Arboretum 7231: 7126: 7066: 7025: 6935: 6862: 6786: 6768: 6743:Oil Pollution Act of 1961 6658: 6645:Moscow–Washington hotline 6554: 6470: 6431: 6371: 6305: 6200:Threshold Test Ban Treaty 6167: 6111:National Security Archive 5916:. New York, NY: Vintage. 5789:Greene, Benjamin (2006). 5572:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 5397:Nuclear Threat Initiative 5121:Burns & Siracusa 2013 4990:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4934:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4632:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4455:Lacroix, Patrick (2021). 4364:"Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty" 4199:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4187:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4160:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4133:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4121:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4109:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4097:Jacobson & Stein 1966 4073:Burns & Siracusa 2013 3953:Jacobson & Stein 1966 3929:Burns & Siracusa 2013 3893:Burns & Siracusa 2013 3767:Jacobson & Stein 1966 3521:Nuclear Threat Initiative 3142:Burns & Siracusa 2013 3099:Burns & Siracusa 2013 3004:Burns & Siracusa 2013 2901:Burns & Siracusa 2013 2754:Burns & Siracusa 2013 2700:Burns & Siracusa 2013 2584:Jacobson & Stein 1966 2499:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 2475:"Archive of Nuclear Data" 2459:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 2340:National Security Archive 2307:Burns & Siracusa 2013 2194:"Limited Test Ban Treaty" 1912:Threshold Test Ban Treaty 1740:United Automobile Workers 1487:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. 702:Atomic Energy Act of 1946 482:National Security Council 366:Acheson–Lilienthal Report 173: 168: 157: 149: 135: 116: 108: 100: 92: 82: 48: Signed and ratified 31: 26: 13390:1963 in the Soviet Union 13365:Treaties of West Germany 13255:Treaties of South Africa 13235:Treaties of Sierra Leone 13160:Treaties of Pahlavi Iran 12900:Treaties of East Germany 12665:India–Pakistan relations 10534:Reconnaissance satellite 9907:International Designator 9574:Philippine space program 9522:Australian space program 9174:Office of Space Commerce 9164:House Committee on Space 9076:Space Shuttle retirement 9031:2009 Augustine Committee 8866:1990 Augustine Committee 8012:Horizon 2000 (1985–1995) 7597:Space traffic management 7455:Patricia Kennedy Lawford 7156:Civil Rights Act of 1964 7144:Profile in Courage Award 6738:All-Channel Receiver Act 6708:Pilot Food Stamp Program 6338:Nuclear weapons delivery 6014:Strode, Rebecca (1990). 5958:89.6 (2013): 1379–1387. 5910:Rhodes, Richard (2008). 5134:"Ending Nuclear Testing" 5008:Arms Control Association 4470:Cousins, Norman (1972). 4123:, pp. 344–345, 347. 3996:, pp. 305–306, 369. 3502:, pp. 114–115, 119. 2903:, pp. 247–249, 305. 2196:. US Department of State 2040:Midwestern United States 1990:Violations and accidents 1769:Veterans of Foreign Wars 1616:tactical nuclear weapons 1276:second-strike capability 945:James Jeremiah Wadsworth 691:(second from left) with 559:its first hydrogen bombs 494:Atomic Energy Commission 13290:Treaties of Switzerland 13260:Treaties of South Korea 13135:Treaties of New Zealand 13015:Treaties of Ivory Coast 12915:Treaties of El Salvador 12765:Treaties of the Bahamas 12685:Nuclear weapons testing 10648:Space Force Association 10633:Lunar Explorers Society 9803:Registration Convention 9767:Partial Test Ban Treaty 9648:Other intergovernmental 9562:Pakistani space program 9527:Brazilian space program 8897:Faster, better, cheaper 8700:1967 Outer Space Treaty 8503:Space Industry Act 2018 8280:European Defence Agency 7936:Vega launcher programme 7879:Living Planet Programme 7602:Space debris management 7576:Politics of outer space 7395:Patrick Bouvier Kennedy 7318:John F. Kennedy Stadium 7151:Twenty-fourth Amendment 6733:Voter Education Project 6358:Nuclear weapons testing 5345:The Heritage Foundation 4946:Crean, Jeffrey (2024). 4369:Encyclopædia Britannica 4241:Congressional Quarterly 2854:. Stanford University. 2669:Foreign Policy Analysis 1200:Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky 1173:Ahead of the June 1961 1050:Clinton Presba Anderson 463:surprise nuclear strike 225:Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 217:Limited Test Ban Treaty 193:Partial Test Ban Treaty 180:Partial Test Ban Treaty 13375:Treaties of Yugoslavia 13300:Treaties of Tanganyika 13230:Treaties of Seychelles 13210:Treaties of San Marino 13110:Treaties of Montenegro 13090:Treaties of Mauritania 13070:Treaties of Madagascar 13065:Treaties of Luxembourg 12945:Treaties of the Gambia 12860:Treaties of Costa Rica 12820:Treaties of Cape Verde 12770:Treaties of Bangladesh 12680:Nuclear weapons policy 10576:National Space Society 10477:Space domain awareness 9650:or inter-agency bodies 9552:Lebanese space program 9537:Japanese space program 9478:2014 Military doctrine 9456:2010 Military doctrine 8876:National Space Council 8871:Hubble Space Telescope 8643:Launch of X-15 program 8564:Aerobee rocket program 8514:2021 Integrated Review 8376:European Patent Office 8296:initiatives and bodies 7686:Billionaire space race 7612:Space Debris Committee 7512:← Dwight D. Eisenhower 7449:Eunice Kennedy Shriver 7243:Harvard Kennedy School 7161:Apollo 11 Moon landing 7054:A Nation of Immigrants 6528:Presidential limousine 5321:. IAEA. pp. 8, 18 4362:Freedman, Lawrence D. 4314:"Cuban Missile Crisis" 3247:"Operation HARDTACK I" 2413:"The Khariton Version" 1930: 1910:in 1972. In 1974, the 1851: 1783:unanimous vote of the 1760:Unitarian Universalist 1752:Women Strike for Peace 1698: 1601: 1578: 1428: 1402: 1401:at American University 1284:John Kenneth Galbraith 1239: 1143: 916: 830:On 31 March 1958, the 696: 564:Members of the Soviet 535: 417: 288: 13360:Treaties of Venezuela 13240:Treaties of Singapore 13140:Treaties of Nicaragua 13095:Treaties of Mauritius 12990:Treaties of Indonesia 12960:Treaties of Guatemala 12755:Treaties of Australia 12745:Treaties of Argentina 12650:Arms control treaties 10658:The Planetary Society 10487:Anti-satellite weapon 9882:ITU Radio Regulations 9532:Emirati space program 9263:Operation Osoaviakhim 9131:Executive Order 13959 9011:Operation Burnt Frost 8942:Decadal Planning Team 8424:Indian ASAT programme 8419:Space Activities Bill 7841:European Space Agency 7813:ESA Science Programme 7624:Post-detection policy 7431:Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. 7419:Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. 7111:attending dignitaries 6683:Executive Order 11110 6564:Alliance for Progress 6501:Judicial appointments 6353:Nuclear proliferation 6343:Nuclear weapon design 6107:Internal US documents 5956:International Affairs 5552:Brookings Institution 5420:"The Test Ban Treaty" 5316:"The Test Ban Treaty" 5246:"The Test Ban Treaty" 5204:"The Test Ban Treaty" 3714:, pp. 22–23, 33. 1920: 1842: 1681: 1656:Strategic Air Command 1596: 1573: 1447:, the second-ranking 1424: 1397: 1230: 1204:Joint Chiefs of Staff 1196:Berlin Crisis of 1961 1134: 955:, and the Soviets by 930:Department of Defense 913:Operation Hardtack II 910: 687: 522: 411: 374:J. Robert Oppenheimer 294:thermonuclear weapons 286: 249:nuclear proliferation 241:thermonuclear weapons 13305:Treaties of Thailand 13280:Treaties of Suriname 13250:Treaties of Slovenia 13245:Treaties of Slovakia 13165:Treaties of Pakistan 13080:Treaties of Malaysia 12970:Treaties of Honduras 12925:Treaties of Eswatini 12850:Treaties of Colombia 12795:Treaties of Botswana 12622:Soviet space program 10080:units and formations 10050:Project Harvest Moon 9797:Satellite Convention 9657:African Space Agency 9567:Space programme 2040 9547:Kenyan space program 9542:Kazakh space program 8475:Outer Space Act 1986 8463:Black Arrow launcher 8246:Copernicus programme 8219:EU/ESA Space Council 7847:EU/ESA Space Council 7738:Chinese ASAT program 7211:U.S. five cent stamp 7171:Kennedy Space Center 6819:Ich bin ein Berliner 6627:Cuban Missile Crisis 6617:Bay of Pigs Invasion 6523:Presidential pardons 5932:Risse-Kappen, Thomas 5097:"Radiocarbon Dating" 3144:, pp. 249, 305. 2781:Gerl, Ellen (2014). 1900:Treaty of Tlatelolco 1323:Cuban Missile Crisis 1099:Political scientist 1068:of France in Paris. 837:Operation Hardtack I 502:Charles Erwin Wilson 459:fissionable material 439:British Labour Party 399:Dwight D. Eisenhower 316:) had a yield of 15 120:Ratification by the 104:Moscow, Soviet Union 13355:Treaties of Uruguay 13325:Treaties of Tunisia 13215:Treaties of Senegal 13150:Treaties of Nigeria 13120:Treaties of Myanmar 13115:Treaties of Morocco 13055:Treaties of Liberia 13050:Treaties of Lebanon 13020:Treaties of Jamaica 13000:Treaties of Ireland 12980:Treaties of Iceland 12935:Treaties of Finland 12905:Treaties of Ecuador 12890:Treaties of Denmark 12865:Treaties of Croatia 12785:Treaties of Bolivia 12775:Treaties of Belgium 12760:Treaties of Austria 12750:Treaties of Armenia 11772:Guiana Space Centre 10514:Kinetic bombardment 10040:Space manufacturing 10030:Space-based economy 10003:Private spaceflight 9423:Shuttle–Mir program 8991:Aldridge Commission 8913:Shuttle–Mir program 8621:Space Act Agreement 8552:Operation Paperclip 8409:Department of Space 8402:Indian space policy 8285:Europe by Satellite 8213:EU Satellite Centre 7925:Guiana Space Centre 7669:Cold War space race 7587:Spacefaring nations 7519:Lyndon B. Johnson → 7407:Tatiana Schlossberg 7389:John F. Kennedy Jr. 7206:U.S. postage stamps 7201:Kennedy half dollar 7191:Cultural depictions 7044:Profiles in Courage 6748:Revenue Act of 1962 6596:Trade Expansion Act 6456:U.S. Representative 6333:Nuclear disarmament 6020:Mandelbaum, Michael 5826:18.1 (2016): 60–79. 5674:Ambrose, Stephen E. 5510:Antoun, Tarabay H. 5304:, pp. 168–170. 4977:, pp. 135–136. 4952:Bloomsbury Academic 4809:, pp. 907–908. 4782:, pp. 906–907. 4767:, pp. 905–906. 4705:, pp. 903–904. 4666:, pp. 902–903. 4612:American University 4574:, pp. 228–229. 4523:, pp. 899–900. 4189:, pp. 347–348. 4162:, pp. 346–347. 4135:, pp. 345–346. 4111:, pp. 342–343. 4099:, pp. 343–344. 4087:, pp. 455–456. 4056:, pp. 369–370. 3955:, pp. 339–341. 3931:, pp. 306–307. 3883:, pp. 192–193. 3690:, pp. 504–505. 3577:, pp. 118–119. 3311:, pp. 458–459. 3051:, pp. 112–114. 2930:, pp. 457–458. 2823:(3491): 1669–1673. 2431:1993BuAtS..49d..20K 2036:Operation Flintlock 1979:UN General Assembly 1687:W. Averell Harriman 1524:non-aggression pact 1463:W. Averell Harriman 1407:Walt Whitman Rostow 1337:treaty between the 1288:ambassador to India 1005:radiation shielding 957:Semyon K. Tsarapkin 896:, seismic signals, 855:George Kistiakowsky 851:James Rhyne Killian 778:composed of former 478:James Bryant Conant 68: Non-signatory 23: 13380:Treaties of Zambia 13335:Treaties of Uganda 13330:Treaties of Turkey 13285:Treaties of Sweden 13220:Treaties of Serbia 13200:Treaties of Rwanda 13170:Treaties of Panama 13155:Treaties of Norway 13100:Treaties of Mexico 13075:Treaties of Malawi 13040:Treaties of Kuwait 13030:Treaties of Jordan 13005:Treaties of Israel 12870:Treaties of Cyprus 12815:Treaties of Canada 12780:Treaties of Bhutan 10529:Military satellite 10367:Ranks and insignia 9862:Space jurisdiction 9809:Bogota Declaration 9773:Outer Space Treaty 9269:list of scientists 8557:list of scientists 8199:EU Space Programme 7485:John F. Fitzgerald 7467:Jean Kennedy Smith 7377:Jacqueline Bouvier 7323:Kennedy Expressway 7293:Runnymede memorial 7094:in popular culture 6995:Castle Hot Springs 6533:Presidential yacht 6323:Nuclear deterrence 5740:Gaddis, John Lewis 5620:The New York Times 5425:. IAEA. p. 17 5372:The New York Times 5251:. IAEA. p. 18 5101:Utrecht University 4716:Khrushchev, Nikita 3971:The New York Times 3263:on 19 October 2016 2983:10.1007/BF01515403 2222:The Globe and Mail 1931: 1896:Outer Space Treaty 1852: 1699: 1602: 1445:Charles A. Halleck 1403: 1240: 1144: 1112:Stephen E. Ambrose 1073:first nuclear test 917: 792:Vyacheslav Molotov 697: 536: 486:John Foster Dulles 474:Stafford L. Warren 418: 304:. In 1954, the US 289: 21: 13395:Alec Douglas-Home 13315:Treaties of Tonga 13295:Treaties of Syria 13205:Treaties of Samoa 13145:Treaties of Niger 13125:Treaties of Nepal 13085:Treaties of Malta 13035:Treaties of Kenya 13025:Treaties of Japan 13010:Treaties of Italy 12985:Treaties of India 12950:Treaties of Ghana 12940:Treaties of Gabon 12910:Treaties of Egypt 12840:Treaties of Chile 12655:Cold War treaties 12637: 12636: 12357: 12356: 11668: 11667: 11072: 11071: 10954:and the Caribbean 10826: 10825: 10666: 10665: 10552: 10551: 10544:Satellite jamming 10020:Space advertising 9510: 9509: 9506: 9505: 9391: 9390: 9231: 9230: 8851:George H. W. Bush 8320:Council of Europe 8241:Galileo programme 8193: 8192: 8180:Comet Interceptor 7706:Space competition 7542: 7541: 7497:Billie and Debbie 7461:Robert F. Kennedy 7288:Portland memorial 7268:Brooklyn memorial 7058: 7048: 7038: 7034:Why England Slept 6796:Inaugural address 6766: 6765: 6758:Wetlands Loan Act 6581:Flexible response 6391: 6390: 6328:Nuclear arms race 6082:978-94-011-8689-6 6061:978-0-393-32484-6 6037:978-0-87609-071-8 6006:978-0-618-21927-8 5982:978-0-520-04961-1 5967:Seaborg, Glenn T. 5947:978-0-691-01711-2 5923:978-0-375-71394-1 5902:978-0-684-82414-7 5878:978-0-671-89289-0 5848:978-0-300-03428-8 5831:Polsby, Nelson W. 5802:978-0-8047-5445-3 5781:978-1-4008-7546-7 5757:978-0-19-503097-6 5731:978-0-8014-8784-2 5710:978-1-4408-0095-5 5689:978-0-671-74758-9 5234:, pp. 85–86. 4961:978-1-350-23394-2 4900:, pp. 28–29. 4404:, pp. 81–82. 4340:, pp. 23–24. 4264:, pp. 19–20. 3847:, pp. 61–63. 3726:, pp. 22–24. 3675:, pp. 20–21. 3663:, pp. 17–19. 3651:, pp. 19–20. 3639:, pp. 17–18. 3625:Risse-Kappen 1995 3575:Risse-Kappen 1995 3565:, pp. 15–16. 3524:. 26 October 2011 3500:Risse-Kappen 1995 3439:, pp. 60–61. 3425:Risse-Kappen 1995 3323:, pp. 11–12. 3297:Risse-Kappen 1995 3173:, pp. 10–11. 3049:Risse-Kappen 1995 3030:on 20 August 2016 2943:. 1 January 2013. 2915:, pp. 31–32. 2742:Risse-Kappen 1995 2682:10.1111/fpa.12018 2649:, pp. 10–11. 2637:, pp. 91–93. 2574:, pp. 57–58. 2562:, pp. 12–14. 1943:Mikhail Gorbachev 1906:in 1971, and the 1864:four other states 1716:Maxwell D. Taylor 1691:Lyndon B. Johnson 1635:Alec Douglas-Home 1168:Robert F. Kennedy 1164:nonaligned states 1116:John Lewis Gaddis 1066:Charles de Gaulle 1058:Donald A. Quarles 949:David Ormsby-Gore 863:Isidor Isaac Rabi 841:Foreign Secretary 601:Albert Schweitzer 597:Nobel Peace Prize 585:Baby Tooth Survey 583:in milk (see the 543:Winston Churchill 447:Nikita Khrushchev 362:Manhattan Project 253:nuclear arms race 203:, prohibited all 189: 188: 76: 75: 62: Only signed 13402: 13385:1963 in politics 13310:Treaties of Togo 13180:Treaties of Peru 12930:Treaties of Fiji 12835:Treaties of Chad 12620:Preceded by the 12600: 12599: 12598: 12588: 12587: 12586: 12576: 12575: 12574: 12564: 12563: 12562: 12552: 12551: 12550: 12540: 12539: 12538: 12517: 12516: 12515: 12505: 12504: 12503: 12493: 12492: 12491: 12393: 12392: 12391: 12374: 12373: 12372: 12347: 12346: 12345: 12335: 12334: 12333: 12316: 12315: 12314: 12304: 12303: 12302: 12280: 12279: 12278: 12268: 12267: 12266: 12256: 12255: 12254: 12244: 12243: 12242: 12232: 12231: 12230: 12209: 12208: 12207: 12197: 12196: 12195: 12185: 12184: 12183: 12171: 12170: 12169: 12159: 12158: 12157: 12147: 12146: 12145: 12135: 12134: 12133: 12096: 12095: 12094: 12084: 12083: 12082: 12072: 12071: 12070: 12060: 12059: 12058: 12048: 12047: 12046: 12036: 12035: 12034: 12024: 12023: 12022: 12012: 12011: 12010: 12000: 11999: 11998: 11988: 11987: 11986: 11969: 11968: 11967: 11957: 11956: 11955: 11945: 11944: 11943: 11933: 11932: 11931: 11921: 11920: 11919: 11909: 11908: 11907: 11890: 11889: 11888: 11878: 11877: 11876: 11866: 11865: 11864: 11854: 11853: 11852: 11842: 11841: 11840: 11828: 11827: 11826: 11816: 11815: 11814: 11723: 11722: 11721: 11677: 11676: 11653: 11652: 11651: 11634: 11633: 11632: 11615: 11614: 11613: 11596: 11595: 11594: 11577: 11576: 11575: 11558: 11557: 11556: 11546: 11545: 11544: 11534: 11533: 11532: 11522: 11521: 11520: 11510: 11509: 11508: 11498: 11497: 11496: 11475: 11474: 11473: 11463: 11462: 11461: 11451: 11450: 11449: 11439: 11438: 11437: 11427: 11426: 11425: 11415: 11414: 11413: 11392: 11391: 11390: 11380: 11379: 11378: 11351: 11350: 11349: 11339: 11338: 11337: 11316: 11315: 11314: 11304: 11303: 11302: 11280: 11279: 11278: 11268: 11267: 11266: 11256: 11255: 11254: 11244: 11243: 11242: 11225: 11224: 11223: 11171: 11170: 11169: 11148: 11147: 11146: 11124: 11123: 11122: 11112: 11111: 11110: 11081: 11080: 11055: 11054: 11053: 11043: 11042: 11041: 11014: 11013: 11012: 11002: 11001: 11000: 10990: 10989: 10988: 10978: 10977: 10976: 10966: 10965: 10964: 10941: 10940: 10939: 10929: 10928: 10927: 10917: 10916: 10915: 10905: 10904: 10903: 10893: 10892: 10891: 10874: 10873: 10872: 10862: 10861: 10860: 10850: 10849: 10848: 10835: 10834: 10816: 10815: 10814: 10804: 10803: 10802: 10792: 10791: 10790: 10780: 10779: 10778: 10761: 10760: 10759: 10749: 10748: 10747: 10711: 10710: 10693: 10686: 10679: 10670: 10669: 10653:Space Foundation 10643:Space Fellowship 10455: 10454: 10443: 10442: 10430: 10420: 10419: 10408: 10407: 10396: 10395: 10384: 10383: 10360: 10359: 10336: 10335: 10324: 10323: 10312: 10311: 10300: 10299: 10288: 10287: 10276: 10275: 10264: 10263: 10252: 10251: 10240: 10239: 10228: 10227: 10216: 10215: 10204: 10203: 10182: 10181: 10170: 10169: 10158: 10157: 10146: 10145: 10134: 10133: 10122: 10121: 10110: 10109: 10098: 10097: 10074: 10073: 10025:Space technology 9996: 9995: 9984: 9983: 9972: 9971: 9960: 9959: 9902:COSPAR standards 9779:Rescue Agreement 9402: 9401: 9253: 9252: 9240: 9239: 8599:Project Vanguard 8538: 8537: 8009: 8008: 7994:Aurora programme 7980:Mars and beyond 7771: 7770: 7761: 7760: 7732:Shuguang program 7701:Space propaganda 7628:Asteroid impact 7569: 7562: 7555: 7546: 7545: 7531: 7530: 7437:Rosemary Kennedy 7413:Jack Schlossberg 7401:Rose Schlossberg 7383:Caroline Kennedy 7278:Hyannis memorial 7056: 7046: 7036: 7000:Hammersmith Farm 6948:Kennedy Compound 6781: 6774: 6698:Fifty-mile hikes 6586:Kennedy Doctrine 6552: 6551: 6513:Executive Orders 6463: 6451: 6443: 6418: 6411: 6404: 6395: 6394: 6380: 6379: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6133: 6132: 6086: 6065: 6046:Taubman, William 6041: 6029: 6010: 5986: 5951: 5927: 5906: 5882: 5866: 5852: 5840: 5819: 5806: 5785: 5761: 5749: 5735: 5714: 5693: 5659: 5658: 5656: 5654: 5637: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5626: 5611: 5605: 5604: 5602: 5600: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5571: 5563: 5561: 5559: 5544: 5538: 5537: 5535: 5533: 5527: 5521:. Archived from 5516: 5507: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5496: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5463: 5457: 5456: 5454: 5452: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5432: 5430: 5424: 5418:Delcoigne, G.C. 5415: 5409: 5408: 5406: 5404: 5389: 5383: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5352: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5320: 5314:Delcoigne, G.C. 5311: 5305: 5302:Evangelista 1999 5299: 5293: 5292: 5290: 5288: 5276: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5256: 5250: 5244:Delcoigne, G.C. 5241: 5235: 5232:Evangelista 1999 5229: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5208: 5202:Delcoigne, G.C. 5199: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5177: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5152: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5141: 5136:. United Nations 5130: 5124: 5118: 5112: 5111: 5109: 5107: 5093: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5073: 5065: 5056: 5055: 5053: 5051: 5037: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5019: 5014:on 21 April 2020 5010:. Archived from 4999: 4993: 4987: 4978: 4972: 4966: 4965: 4943: 4937: 4931: 4925: 4919: 4913: 4910:Schlesinger 2002 4907: 4901: 4895: 4889: 4886:Evangelista 1999 4883: 4874: 4868: 4862: 4856: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4834:(26 July 1963). 4832:Kennedy, John F. 4828: 4822: 4819:Schlesinger 2002 4816: 4810: 4807:Schlesinger 2002 4804: 4795: 4792:Schlesinger 2002 4789: 4783: 4780:Schlesinger 2002 4777: 4768: 4765:Schlesinger 2002 4762: 4756: 4755: 4753: 4751: 4736: 4730: 4729: 4712: 4706: 4703:Schlesinger 2002 4700: 4694: 4691:Schlesinger 2002 4688: 4682: 4679:Schlesinger 2002 4676: 4667: 4664:Schlesinger 2002 4661: 4655: 4652:Schlesinger 2002 4649: 4638: 4637: 4631: 4623: 4621: 4619: 4604:(10 June 1963). 4602:Kennedy, John F. 4598: 4587: 4584:Schlesinger 2002 4581: 4575: 4569: 4563: 4557: 4551: 4548:Evangelista 1999 4545: 4539: 4533: 4524: 4521:Schlesinger 2002 4518: 4512: 4506: 4497: 4494:Evangelista 1999 4491: 4485: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4452: 4446: 4435: 4429: 4426: 4420: 4414: 4405: 4402:Evangelista 1999 4399: 4393: 4390:Evangelista 1999 4387: 4381: 4380: 4378: 4376: 4359: 4353: 4350:Evangelista 1999 4347: 4341: 4335: 4329: 4328: 4326: 4324: 4310: 4304: 4303: 4301: 4299: 4288: 4282: 4276: 4265: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4250: 4248: 4229: 4202: 4196: 4190: 4184: 4175: 4169: 4163: 4157: 4151: 4148:Schlesinger 2002 4145: 4136: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4100: 4094: 4088: 4085:Schlesinger 2002 4082: 4076: 4070: 4057: 4054:Schlesinger 2002 4051: 4045: 4042:Schlesinger 2002 4039: 4033: 4030:Evangelista 1999 4027: 4021: 4018:Schlesinger 2002 4015: 4009: 4006:Schlesinger 2002 4003: 3997: 3994:Schlesinger 2002 3991: 3982: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3962: 3956: 3950: 3944: 3938: 3932: 3926: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3905:Schlesinger 2002 3902: 3896: 3890: 3884: 3878: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3811: 3809: 3807: 3798:. Archived from 3788: 3782: 3779:Schlesinger 2002 3776: 3770: 3764: 3758: 3752: 3746: 3740: 3727: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3691: 3685: 3676: 3670: 3664: 3658: 3652: 3646: 3640: 3634: 3628: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3601: 3600: 3598: 3596: 3584: 3578: 3572: 3566: 3560: 3551: 3545: 3534: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3512: 3503: 3497: 3491: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3464:Evangelista 1999 3461: 3455: 3452:Evangelista 1999 3449: 3440: 3437:Evangelista 1999 3434: 3428: 3422: 3413: 3410:Evangelista 1999 3407: 3398: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3382: 3349: 3343: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3285: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3270: 3268: 3262: 3251: 3243: 3237: 3231: 3225: 3219: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3195: 3189: 3183: 3174: 3168: 3162: 3156: 3145: 3139: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3085: 3084:, pp. 2, 6. 3079: 3073: 3067: 3052: 3046: 3040: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3026:. Archived from 3016: 3007: 3001: 2995: 2994: 2967:Sakharov, Andrei 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2937: 2931: 2925: 2916: 2910: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2812: 2806: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2787: 2778: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2727: 2718: 2712: 2703: 2697: 2686: 2685: 2663: 2650: 2644: 2638: 2635:Evangelista 1999 2632: 2626: 2620: 2614: 2608: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2575: 2569: 2563: 2557: 2551: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2523: 2517: 2511: 2505: 2504: 2498: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2471: 2465: 2464: 2458: 2450: 2448: 2446: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2396: 2394: 2379: 2373: 2372: 2370: 2368: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2331: 2310: 2304: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2278:Schlesinger 2002 2275: 2266: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2247: 2238: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2227:Associated Press 2212: 2206: 2205: 2203: 2201: 2190: 2169: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2150: 1704:Glenn T. Seaborg 1664:LGM-30 Minuteman 1553:Marxism–Leninism 1479:William R. Tyler 1467:Adrian S. Fisher 1431:President since 1259:State Department 1248:Christmas Island 1151:, or France, or 1016:RAND Corporation 982:bomb dropped on 800:Nikolai Bulganin 784:Lazar Kaganovich 776:Anti-Party Group 730:Nevada Test Site 642:Kyshtym disaster 551:Harold Macmillan 532:Operation Castle 435:Jawaharlal Nehru 314:Operation Castle 205:test detonations 178: 177: 67: 61: 53: 47: 41: 36: 24: 20: 13410: 13409: 13405: 13404: 13403: 13401: 13400: 13399: 12640: 12639: 12638: 12633: 12606: 12596: 12594: 12584: 12582: 12572: 12570: 12560: 12558: 12548: 12546: 12536: 12534: 12523: 12513: 12511: 12501: 12499: 12489: 12487: 12399: 12389: 12387: 12370: 12368: 12353: 12343: 12341: 12331: 12329: 12312: 12310: 12300: 12298: 12276: 12274: 12264: 12262: 12252: 12250: 12240: 12238: 12228: 12226: 12215: 12205: 12203: 12193: 12191: 12181: 12179: 12167: 12165: 12155: 12153: 12143: 12141: 12131: 12129: 12092: 12090: 12080: 12078: 12068: 12066: 12056: 12054: 12044: 12042: 12032: 12030: 12020: 12018: 12008: 12006: 11996: 11994: 11984: 11982: 11965: 11963: 11953: 11951: 11941: 11939: 11929: 11927: 11917: 11915: 11905: 11903: 11886: 11884: 11874: 11872: 11862: 11860: 11850: 11848: 11838: 11836: 11824: 11822: 11812: 11810: 11793: 11719: 11717: 11664: 11649: 11647: 11630: 11628: 11611: 11609: 11592: 11590: 11573: 11571: 11554: 11552: 11542: 11540: 11530: 11528: 11518: 11516: 11506: 11504: 11494: 11492: 11481: 11471: 11469: 11459: 11457: 11447: 11445: 11435: 11433: 11423: 11421: 11411: 11409: 11398: 11388: 11386: 11376: 11374: 11347: 11345: 11335: 11333: 11322: 11312: 11310: 11300: 11298: 11276: 11274: 11264: 11262: 11252: 11250: 11240: 11238: 11221: 11219: 11167: 11165: 11154: 11144: 11142: 11120: 11118: 11108: 11106: 11095: 11068: 11051: 11049: 11039: 11037: 11010: 11008: 10998: 10996: 10986: 10984: 10974: 10972: 10962: 10960: 10953: 10947: 10937: 10935: 10925: 10923: 10913: 10911: 10901: 10899: 10889: 10887: 10870: 10868: 10858: 10856: 10846: 10844: 10822: 10812: 10810: 10800: 10798: 10788: 10786: 10776: 10774: 10757: 10755: 10745: 10743: 10732: 10715: 10702: 10697: 10667: 10662: 10548: 10524:Missile defense 10463: 10449: 10437: 10414: 10402: 10390: 10378: 10354: 10330: 10318: 10306: 10294: 10282: 10270: 10258: 10246: 10234: 10222: 10210: 10198: 10176: 10164: 10152: 10140: 10128: 10116: 10104: 10092: 10079: 10063: 10057:Asteroid mining 10045:Lunar resources 9990: 9978: 9966: 9954: 9936: 9929:ISECG standards 9892:ODCWG standards 9887:CCSDS standards 9856:Artemis Accords 9753: 9649: 9643: 9595: 9502: 9460: 9439: 9387: 9370: 9323: 9318:Voskhod program 9287:Sputnik program 9275: 9247: 9245: 9236:USSR and Russia 9227: 9135: 9102: 9095: 9022: 9015: 8958: 8951: 8887: 8880: 8852: 8845: 8788: 8781: 8771: 8764: 8746: 8739: 8711: 8704: 8691: 8684: 8654: 8647: 8585: 8578: 8543: 8533:US space policy 8527: 8443:space programme 8442: 8435: 8397: 8295: 8289: 8256:EUSST programme 8251:EGNOS programme 8189: 8125: 8114:LISA Pathfinder 8083: 8025:Cassini–Huygens 8007: 7918:ESTRACK network 7807: 7790:Mars and beyond 7717: 7710: 7655: 7578: 7573: 7543: 7538: 7502: 7425:Rose Fitzgerald 7409:(granddaughter) 7403:(granddaughter) 7363: 7352:John F. Kennedy 7343:John F. Kennedy 7335:John F. Kennedy 7283:London memorial 7273:Dallas memorial 7234: 7227: 7122: 7106:Riderless horse 7062: 7021: 6931: 6858: 6788: 6782: 6776: 6775: 6762: 6654: 6550: 6474: 6466: 6454: 6446: 6435: 6427: 6425:John F. Kennedy 6422: 6392: 6387: 6367: 6363:Nuclear warfare 6301: 6163: 6160: 6094: 6089: 6083: 6062: 6038: 6007: 5983: 5948: 5924: 5903: 5887:Rhodes, Richard 5879: 5857:Reeves, Richard 5849: 5803: 5782: 5758: 5732: 5711: 5690: 5668: 5663: 5662: 5652: 5650: 5638: 5634: 5624: 5622: 5612: 5608: 5598: 5596: 5586: 5585: 5581: 5565: 5564: 5557: 5555: 5546: 5545: 5541: 5531: 5529: 5525: 5514: 5508: 5504: 5494: 5492: 5491:on 7 March 2021 5483: 5482: 5478: 5465: 5464: 5460: 5450: 5448: 5443: 5442: 5438: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5416: 5412: 5402: 5400: 5391: 5390: 5386: 5376: 5374: 5364: 5360: 5350: 5348: 5347:. 27 March 1984 5339: 5338: 5334: 5324: 5322: 5318: 5312: 5308: 5300: 5296: 5286: 5284: 5277: 5264: 5254: 5252: 5248: 5242: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5216: 5214: 5206: 5200: 5196: 5186: 5184: 5179: 5178: 5174: 5164: 5162: 5154: 5153: 5149: 5139: 5137: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5119: 5115: 5105: 5103: 5095: 5094: 5087: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5066: 5059: 5049: 5047: 5039: 5038: 5027: 5017: 5015: 5000: 4996: 4988: 4981: 4973: 4969: 4962: 4944: 4940: 4932: 4928: 4920: 4916: 4908: 4904: 4896: 4892: 4884: 4877: 4869: 4865: 4857: 4853: 4843: 4841: 4829: 4825: 4817: 4813: 4805: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4778: 4771: 4763: 4759: 4749: 4747: 4737: 4733: 4718:(2 July 1963). 4713: 4709: 4701: 4697: 4689: 4685: 4677: 4670: 4662: 4658: 4650: 4641: 4625: 4624: 4617: 4615: 4599: 4590: 4582: 4578: 4570: 4566: 4558: 4554: 4546: 4542: 4534: 4527: 4519: 4515: 4507: 4500: 4492: 4488: 4483: 4479: 4468: 4464: 4453: 4449: 4436: 4432: 4427: 4423: 4415: 4408: 4400: 4396: 4388: 4384: 4374: 4372: 4360: 4356: 4348: 4344: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4320: 4312: 4311: 4307: 4297: 4295: 4290: 4289: 4285: 4277: 4268: 4260: 4256: 4246: 4244: 4231: 4230: 4205: 4197: 4193: 4185: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4158: 4154: 4146: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4119: 4115: 4107: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4071: 4060: 4052: 4048: 4040: 4036: 4028: 4024: 4016: 4012: 4004: 4000: 3992: 3985: 3975: 3973: 3963: 3959: 3951: 3947: 3939: 3935: 3927: 3923: 3915: 3911: 3903: 3899: 3891: 3887: 3879: 3875: 3867: 3863: 3855: 3851: 3843: 3839: 3831: 3827: 3819: 3815: 3805: 3803: 3802:on 5 March 2016 3790: 3789: 3785: 3777: 3773: 3769:, pp. 345. 3765: 3761: 3753: 3749: 3741: 3730: 3722: 3718: 3710: 3706: 3698: 3694: 3686: 3679: 3671: 3667: 3659: 3655: 3647: 3643: 3635: 3631: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3604: 3594: 3592: 3585: 3581: 3573: 3569: 3561: 3554: 3546: 3537: 3527: 3525: 3514: 3513: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3462: 3458: 3450: 3443: 3435: 3431: 3423: 3416: 3408: 3401: 3391: 3389: 3384: 3383: 3352: 3344: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3288: 3280: 3276: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3249: 3245: 3244: 3240: 3236:, pp. 5–6. 3232: 3228: 3220: 3216: 3208: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3184: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3161:, pp. 6–8. 3157: 3148: 3140: 3129: 3121: 3117: 3109: 3105: 3097: 3088: 3080: 3076: 3068: 3055: 3047: 3043: 3033: 3031: 3018: 3017: 3010: 3002: 2998: 2964: 2960: 2956:, pp. 8–9. 2952: 2948: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2926: 2919: 2911: 2907: 2899: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2859: 2848: 2844: 2813: 2809: 2799: 2797: 2785: 2779: 2772: 2764: 2760: 2752: 2748: 2740: 2736: 2728: 2721: 2713: 2706: 2698: 2689: 2664: 2653: 2645: 2641: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2617: 2609: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2586:, pp. 5–7. 2582: 2578: 2570: 2566: 2558: 2554: 2546: 2542: 2532: 2530: 2525: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2492: 2491: 2484: 2482: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2452: 2451: 2444: 2442: 2409:Khariton, Yulii 2406: 2402: 2392: 2390: 2380: 2376: 2366: 2364: 2359: 2358: 2354: 2344: 2342: 2332: 2313: 2305: 2296: 2288: 2284: 2276: 2269: 2259: 2257: 2249: 2248: 2241: 2231: 2229: 2213: 2209: 2199: 2197: 2192: 2191: 2172: 2162: 2160: 2152: 2151: 2140: 2135: 2130: 2099: 2060:Henry Kissinger 2053:Operation Emery 1992: 1837: 1817: 1811: 1798: 1793: 1712:Norris Bradbury 1668:missile defense 1647: 1539:nuclear program 1475:John McNaughton 1441:Everett Dirksen 1437:Barry Goldwater 1381:, introduced a 1360:Pope John XXIII 1341:(NATO) and the 1319: 1271:Robert McNamara 1192: 1129: 1127:Renewed efforts 1090:John F. Kennedy 1054:Neil H. McElroy 964:Albert Gore Sr. 788:Georgy Malenkov 772: 764:Hubert Humphrey 662:Andrei Sakharov 654:Mark Muir Mills 650:Ernest Lawrence 613:Albert Einstein 577:nuclear fallout 514:Adlai Stevenson 496:(AEC) chairman 431: 393:(UNAEC) as the 370:Harry S. Truman 353: 348: 318:megatons of TNT 281: 245:nuclear fallout 209:nuclear weapons 175: 140: 112:10 October 1963 78: 77: 69: 65: 63: 59: 55: 51: 49: 45: 17: 12: 11: 5: 13408: 13398: 13397: 13392: 13387: 13382: 13377: 13372: 13367: 13362: 13357: 13352: 13347: 13342: 13337: 13332: 13327: 13322: 13317: 13312: 13307: 13302: 13297: 13292: 13287: 13282: 13277: 13272: 13267: 13262: 13257: 13252: 13247: 13242: 13237: 13232: 13227: 13222: 13217: 13212: 13207: 13202: 13197: 13192: 13187: 13182: 13177: 13172: 13167: 13162: 13157: 13152: 13147: 13142: 13137: 13132: 13127: 13122: 13117: 13112: 13107: 13102: 13097: 13092: 13087: 13082: 13077: 13072: 13067: 13062: 13057: 13052: 13047: 13042: 13037: 13032: 13027: 13022: 13017: 13012: 13007: 13002: 12997: 12992: 12987: 12982: 12977: 12972: 12967: 12962: 12957: 12952: 12947: 12942: 12937: 12932: 12927: 12922: 12917: 12912: 12907: 12902: 12897: 12892: 12887: 12882: 12877: 12872: 12867: 12862: 12857: 12852: 12847: 12842: 12837: 12832: 12827: 12822: 12817: 12812: 12807: 12802: 12797: 12792: 12787: 12782: 12777: 12772: 12767: 12762: 12757: 12752: 12747: 12742: 12737: 12732: 12727: 12722: 12717: 12712: 12707: 12702: 12697: 12692: 12687: 12682: 12677: 12672: 12667: 12662: 12657: 12652: 12635: 12634: 12632: 12631: 12624: 12618: 12611: 12608: 12607: 12605: 12604: 12592: 12580: 12568: 12556: 12544: 12531: 12529: 12525: 12524: 12522: 12521: 12509: 12497: 12485: 12480: 12475: 12470: 12465: 12460: 12455: 12450: 12445: 12440: 12435: 12430: 12429: 12428: 12418: 12413: 12407: 12405: 12401: 12400: 12398: 12397: 12385: 12384: 12383: 12365: 12363: 12359: 12358: 12355: 12354: 12352: 12351: 12339: 12327: 12326: 12325: 12308: 12296: 12295: 12294: 12289: 12272: 12260: 12248: 12236: 12223: 12221: 12217: 12216: 12214: 12213: 12201: 12189: 12177: 12176: 12175: 12151: 12139: 12127: 12126: 12125: 12120: 12115: 12110: 12105: 12088: 12076: 12064: 12052: 12040: 12028: 12016: 12004: 11992: 11980: 11979: 11978: 11961: 11949: 11937: 11925: 11913: 11901: 11900: 11899: 11882: 11870: 11858: 11846: 11834: 11833: 11832: 11807: 11805: 11795: 11794: 11792: 11791: 11786: 11781: 11776: 11775: 11774: 11769: 11768: 11767: 11757: 11752: 11747: 11742: 11737: 11732: 11715: 11710: 11705: 11704: 11703: 11693: 11683: 11681: 11674: 11670: 11669: 11666: 11665: 11663: 11662: 11645: 11644: 11643: 11626: 11625: 11624: 11607: 11606: 11605: 11588: 11587: 11586: 11569: 11568: 11567: 11550: 11538: 11526: 11514: 11502: 11489: 11487: 11483: 11482: 11480: 11479: 11467: 11455: 11443: 11431: 11419: 11406: 11404: 11403:Southeast Asia 11400: 11399: 11397: 11396: 11384: 11372: 11371: 11370: 11365: 11360: 11343: 11330: 11328: 11324: 11323: 11321: 11320: 11308: 11296: 11295: 11294: 11289: 11272: 11260: 11248: 11236: 11235: 11234: 11217: 11216: 11215: 11210: 11205: 11204: 11203: 11200: 11195: 11190: 11180: 11162: 11160: 11156: 11155: 11153: 11152: 11140: 11139: 11138: 11133: 11116: 11103: 11101: 11097: 11096: 11094: 11093: 11087: 11085: 11078: 11074: 11073: 11070: 11069: 11067: 11066: 11065: 11064: 11047: 11035: 11034: 11033: 11028: 11023: 11006: 10994: 10982: 10970: 10957: 10955: 10949: 10948: 10946: 10945: 10933: 10921: 10909: 10897: 10885: 10884: 10883: 10866: 10854: 10841: 10839: 10832: 10828: 10827: 10824: 10823: 10821: 10820: 10808: 10796: 10784: 10772: 10771: 10770: 10753: 10740: 10738: 10734: 10733: 10731: 10730: 10725: 10719: 10717: 10708: 10704: 10703: 10696: 10695: 10688: 10681: 10673: 10664: 10663: 10661: 10660: 10655: 10650: 10645: 10640: 10635: 10630: 10625: 10620: 10615: 10610: 10605: 10600: 10599: 10598: 10593: 10588: 10583: 10578: 10568: 10562: 10560: 10558:Space advocacy 10554: 10553: 10550: 10549: 10547: 10546: 10541: 10536: 10531: 10526: 10521: 10516: 10511: 10510: 10509: 10504: 10499: 10494: 10484: 10479: 10473: 10471: 10465: 10464: 10462: 10461: 10460: 10459: 10447: 10445:United Kingdom 10435: 10424: 10412: 10400: 10388: 10374:Space commands 10371: 10370: 10369: 10364: 10352: 10351: 10350: 10345: 10328: 10326:United Kingdom 10316: 10304: 10292: 10280: 10268: 10256: 10244: 10232: 10220: 10208: 10196: 10195: 10194: 10189: 10174: 10162: 10150: 10138: 10126: 10114: 10102: 10084: 10082: 10071: 10069:Militarisation 10065: 10064: 10062: 10061: 10060: 10059: 10054: 10053: 10052: 10042: 10037: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10012: 10011: 10010: 10005: 10000: 9988: 9986:United Kingdom 9976: 9964: 9950:Space industry 9946: 9944: 9942:Commercial use 9938: 9937: 9935: 9934: 9931: 9926: 9921: 9916: 9915: 9914: 9912:IPDA standards 9909: 9899: 9897:CEOS standards 9894: 9889: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9859: 9853: 9847: 9841: 9836: 9830: 9824: 9818: 9812: 9806: 9800: 9794: 9788: 9782: 9776: 9770: 9763: 9761: 9755: 9754: 9752: 9751: 9746: 9741: 9736: 9731: 9726: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9680: 9679: 9669: 9664: 9659: 9653: 9651: 9645: 9644: 9642: 9641: 9636: 9631: 9630: 9629: 9624: 9614: 9609: 9603: 9601: 9600:United Nations 9597: 9596: 9594: 9593: 9592: 9591: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9570: 9569: 9559: 9554: 9549: 9544: 9539: 9534: 9529: 9524: 9518: 9516: 9515:Other policies 9512: 9511: 9508: 9507: 9504: 9503: 9501: 9500: 9499: 9498: 9493: 9491:MARS-500 study 9485: 9480: 9475: 9468: 9466: 9462: 9461: 9459: 9458: 9453: 9447: 9445: 9441: 9440: 9438: 9437: 9436: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9414: 9408: 9406: 9399: 9393: 9392: 9389: 9388: 9386: 9385: 9378: 9376: 9372: 9371: 9369: 9368: 9362: 9356: 9350: 9347:Salyut program 9344: 9338: 9331: 9329: 9325: 9324: 9322: 9321: 9315: 9309: 9303: 9300:Vostok program 9297: 9296: 9295: 9292:Sputnik crisis 9283: 9281: 9277: 9276: 9274: 9273: 9272: 9271: 9259: 9257: 9250: 9237: 9233: 9232: 9229: 9228: 9226: 9225: 9224: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9208: 9203: 9193: 9188: 9183: 9178: 9177: 9176: 9166: 9161: 9159:Budget of NASA 9156: 9151: 9146: 9140: 9137: 9136: 9134: 9133: 9128: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9107: 9105: 9097: 9096: 9094: 9093: 9091:2015 Space Act 9088: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9033: 9027: 9025: 9017: 9016: 9014: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8998: 8993: 8988: 8983: 8977:Space Shuttle 8974: 8969: 8963: 8961: 8957:George W. Bush 8953: 8952: 8950: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8937:1998 Space Act 8934: 8929: 8928: 8927: 8926: 8925: 8915: 8905: 8900: 8892: 8890: 8882: 8881: 8879: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8857: 8855: 8847: 8846: 8844: 8843: 8838: 8833: 8827:Space Shuttle 8824: 8819: 8817:1984 Space Act 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8793: 8791: 8783: 8782: 8780: 8779: 8776: 8774: 8766: 8765: 8763: 8762: 8757: 8751: 8749: 8741: 8740: 8738: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8716: 8714: 8706: 8705: 8703: 8702: 8696: 8694: 8686: 8685: 8683: 8682: 8675: 8670: 8665: 8659: 8657: 8649: 8648: 8646: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8624: 8623: 8613: 8606: 8604:Sputnik crisis 8601: 8596: 8590: 8588: 8580: 8579: 8577: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8560: 8559: 8548: 8546: 8535: 8529: 8528: 8526: 8525: 8524: 8523: 8511: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8489: 8483: 8477: 8472: 8466: 8460: 8454: 8447: 8445: 8437: 8436: 8434: 8433: 8432: 8431: 8429:Mission Shakti 8421: 8416: 8411: 8405: 8403: 8399: 8398: 8396: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8379: 8378: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8357: 8356: 8346: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8311: 8310: 8299: 8297: 8294:Other European 8291: 8290: 8288: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8261: 8260: 8259: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8232: 8229: 8221: 8216: 8210: 8203: 8201: 8195: 8194: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8136: 8134: 8127: 8126: 8124: 8123: 8116: 8111: 8104: 8103: 8102: 8091: 8089: 8085: 8084: 8082: 8081: 8074: 8067: 8062: 8055: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8036: 8035: 8021: 8015: 8013: 8006: 8005: 8004: 8003: 8002: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7989:MARS-500 study 7986: 7978: 7976:ESA Television 7973: 7972: 7971: 7970: 7969: 7959: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7933: 7927: 7922: 7921: 7920: 7910: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7882: 7881: 7871: 7866: 7865: 7864: 7854: 7849: 7838: 7832: 7831: 7830: 7817: 7815: 7809: 7808: 7806: 7805: 7804: 7803: 7801:MARS-500 study 7798: 7787: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7774: 7764: 7748: 7747: 7746: 7735: 7729: 7722: 7720: 7712: 7711: 7709: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7682: 7681: 7676: 7674:Sputnik crisis 7665: 7663: 7657: 7656: 7654: 7653: 7652: 7651: 7650: 7649: 7639: 7634: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7615: 7614: 7609: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7583: 7580: 7579: 7572: 7571: 7564: 7557: 7549: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7536: 7523: 7522: 7515: 7507: 7504: 7503: 7501: 7500: 7494: 7488: 7482: 7476: 7470: 7464: 7458: 7452: 7446: 7440: 7434: 7428: 7422: 7416: 7410: 7404: 7398: 7392: 7386: 7380: 7373: 7371: 7365: 7364: 7362: 7361: 7356: 7354: (CVN-79) 7347: 7338: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7239: 7237: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7225: 7223:Operation Sail 7220: 7219: 7218: 7213: 7208: 7203: 7198: 7188: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7147: 7146: 7136: 7130: 7128: 7124: 7123: 7121: 7120: 7115: 7114: 7113: 7108: 7098: 7097: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7084:media coverage 7081: 7070: 7068: 7064: 7063: 7061: 7060: 7050: 7040: 7029: 7027: 7023: 7022: 7020: 7019: 7014: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6992: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6978: 6967:Navy service: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6939: 6937: 6933: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6928: 6927: 6917: 6912: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6885: 6880: 6875: 6868: 6866: 6860: 6859: 6857: 6856: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6834: 6829: 6822: 6815: 6810: 6803: 6798: 6792: 6790: 6784: 6783: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6763: 6761: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6703:Food for Peace 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6664: 6662: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6638:Soviet Union: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6624: 6619: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6583: 6578: 6577: 6576: 6566: 6560: 6558: 6556:Foreign policy 6549: 6548: 6546:Situation Room 6543: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6509: 6508: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6482: 6480: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6452: 6444: 6432: 6429: 6428: 6421: 6420: 6413: 6406: 6398: 6389: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6372: 6369: 6368: 6366: 6365: 6360: 6355: 6350: 6348:Nuclear ethics 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6309: 6307: 6303: 6302: 6300: 6299: 6293: 6287: 6281: 6275: 6269: 6263: 6262:(not in force) 6256: 6250: 6244: 6238: 6232: 6226: 6220: 6214: 6208: 6202: 6196: 6190: 6184: 6178: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6159: 6158: 6151: 6144: 6136: 6130: 6129: 6119: 6113: 6104: 6093: 6092:External links 6090: 6088: 6087: 6081: 6066: 6060: 6042: 6036: 6011: 6005: 5987: 5981: 5963: 5952: 5946: 5928: 5922: 5907: 5901: 5883: 5877: 5853: 5847: 5827: 5820: 5807: 5801: 5786: 5780: 5766:Gilpin, Robert 5762: 5756: 5736: 5730: 5715: 5709: 5694: 5688: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5632: 5606: 5579: 5539: 5528:on 27 May 2010 5502: 5476: 5458: 5436: 5410: 5384: 5358: 5332: 5306: 5294: 5262: 5236: 5224: 5194: 5172: 5147: 5125: 5123:, p. 532. 5113: 5085: 5057: 5025: 4994: 4992:, p. 464. 4979: 4967: 4960: 4938: 4936:, p. 465. 4926: 4914: 4912:, p. 908. 4902: 4890: 4875: 4863: 4851: 4823: 4821:, p. 910. 4811: 4796: 4794:, p. 907. 4784: 4769: 4757: 4731: 4707: 4695: 4693:, p. 906. 4683: 4681:, p. 905. 4668: 4656: 4654:, p. 904. 4639: 4588: 4586:, p. 900. 4576: 4564: 4552: 4540: 4525: 4513: 4498: 4486: 4477: 4462: 4447: 4430: 4421: 4406: 4394: 4382: 4354: 4342: 4330: 4305: 4283: 4266: 4254: 4203: 4201:, p. 349. 4191: 4176: 4164: 4152: 4150:, p. 455. 4137: 4125: 4113: 4101: 4089: 4077: 4075:, p. 307. 4058: 4046: 4044:, p. 369. 4034: 4022: 4020:, p. 356. 4010: 4008:, p. 348. 3998: 3983: 3957: 3945: 3933: 3921: 3909: 3907:, p. 304. 3897: 3895:, p. 250. 3885: 3873: 3871:, p. 504. 3861: 3849: 3837: 3825: 3823:, p. 193. 3813: 3783: 3781:, p. 452. 3771: 3759: 3747: 3728: 3716: 3704: 3692: 3677: 3665: 3653: 3641: 3629: 3627:, p. 118. 3617: 3602: 3579: 3567: 3552: 3535: 3504: 3492: 3480: 3468: 3456: 3441: 3429: 3427:, p. 115. 3414: 3399: 3350: 3325: 3313: 3301: 3299:, p. 114. 3286: 3274: 3238: 3226: 3214: 3202: 3190: 3175: 3163: 3146: 3127: 3115: 3103: 3101:, p. 249. 3086: 3074: 3053: 3041: 3008: 3006:, p. 152. 2996: 2977:(6): 757–762. 2958: 2946: 2932: 2917: 2905: 2893: 2881: 2869: 2842: 2807: 2770: 2768:, p. 457. 2758: 2756:, p. 248. 2746: 2744:, p. 112. 2734: 2719: 2704: 2702:, p. 305. 2687: 2651: 2639: 2627: 2625:, p. 121. 2615: 2600: 2588: 2576: 2564: 2552: 2540: 2518: 2506: 2466: 2400: 2374: 2352: 2311: 2309:, p. 247. 2294: 2292:, p. 542. 2282: 2280:, p. 450. 2267: 2239: 2207: 2170: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2129: 2126: 2125: 2124: 2118: 2112: 2106: 2098: 2095: 1991: 1988: 1945:and President 1927:high-altitudes 1923:Starfish Prime 1836: 1833: 1813:Main article: 1810: 1807: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1791:Implementation 1789: 1646: 1643: 1505:missiles from 1503:PGM-19 Jupiter 1491:Andrei Gromyko 1459:John J. McCloy 1388:Norman Cousins 1379:Thomas J. Dodd 1356:Norman Cousins 1331:Yulii Khariton 1318: 1315: 1267:Jerome Wiesner 1191: 1188: 1128: 1125: 1105:Harlow Shapley 1046:John A. McCone 894:acoustic waves 882:Bell Telephone 878:William Penney 771: 768: 570:Igor Kurchatov 490:Harold Stassen 443:Clement Attlee 441:, then led by 430: 427: 376:, who had led 352: 349: 347: 344: 322:Rongelap Atoll 280: 277: 264:United Kingdom 187: 186: 171: 170: 166: 165: 159: 155: 154: 151: 147: 146: 137: 133: 132: 126:United Kingdom 118: 114: 113: 110: 106: 105: 102: 98: 97: 94: 90: 89: 84: 80: 79: 74: 73: 64: 58: 56: 50: 44: 39: 37: 29: 28: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 13407: 13396: 13393: 13391: 13388: 13386: 13383: 13381: 13378: 13376: 13373: 13371: 13368: 13366: 13363: 13361: 13358: 13356: 13353: 13351: 13348: 13346: 13343: 13341: 13338: 13336: 13333: 13331: 13328: 13326: 13323: 13321: 13318: 13316: 13313: 13311: 13308: 13306: 13303: 13301: 13298: 13296: 13293: 13291: 13288: 13286: 13283: 13281: 13278: 13276: 13273: 13271: 13268: 13266: 13263: 13261: 13258: 13256: 13253: 13251: 13248: 13246: 13243: 13241: 13238: 13236: 13233: 13231: 13228: 13226: 13223: 13221: 13218: 13216: 13213: 13211: 13208: 13206: 13203: 13201: 13198: 13196: 13193: 13191: 13188: 13186: 13183: 13181: 13178: 13176: 13173: 13171: 13168: 13166: 13163: 13161: 13158: 13156: 13153: 13151: 13148: 13146: 13143: 13141: 13138: 13136: 13133: 13131: 13128: 13126: 13123: 13121: 13118: 13116: 13113: 13111: 13108: 13106: 13103: 13101: 13098: 13096: 13093: 13091: 13088: 13086: 13083: 13081: 13078: 13076: 13073: 13071: 13068: 13066: 13063: 13061: 13058: 13056: 13053: 13051: 13048: 13046: 13043: 13041: 13038: 13036: 13033: 13031: 13028: 13026: 13023: 13021: 13018: 13016: 13013: 13011: 13008: 13006: 13003: 13001: 12998: 12996: 12993: 12991: 12988: 12986: 12983: 12981: 12978: 12976: 12973: 12971: 12968: 12966: 12963: 12961: 12958: 12956: 12953: 12951: 12948: 12946: 12943: 12941: 12938: 12936: 12933: 12931: 12928: 12926: 12923: 12921: 12918: 12916: 12913: 12911: 12908: 12906: 12903: 12901: 12898: 12896: 12893: 12891: 12888: 12886: 12883: 12881: 12878: 12876: 12873: 12871: 12868: 12866: 12863: 12861: 12858: 12856: 12853: 12851: 12848: 12846: 12843: 12841: 12838: 12836: 12833: 12831: 12828: 12826: 12823: 12821: 12818: 12816: 12813: 12811: 12808: 12806: 12803: 12801: 12798: 12796: 12793: 12791: 12788: 12786: 12783: 12781: 12778: 12776: 12773: 12771: 12768: 12766: 12763: 12761: 12758: 12756: 12753: 12751: 12748: 12746: 12743: 12741: 12738: 12736: 12733: 12731: 12728: 12726: 12723: 12721: 12718: 12716: 12713: 12711: 12708: 12706: 12703: 12701: 12698: 12696: 12693: 12691: 12688: 12686: 12683: 12681: 12678: 12676: 12673: 12671: 12668: 12666: 12663: 12661: 12658: 12656: 12653: 12651: 12648: 12647: 12645: 12630:participation 12629: 12625: 12623: 12619: 12617: 12613: 12612: 12609: 12603: 12593: 12591: 12581: 12579: 12569: 12567: 12557: 12555: 12545: 12543: 12533: 12532: 12530: 12526: 12520: 12510: 12508: 12498: 12496: 12486: 12484: 12481: 12479: 12476: 12474: 12471: 12469: 12466: 12464: 12461: 12459: 12456: 12454: 12451: 12449: 12446: 12444: 12441: 12439: 12436: 12434: 12433:Cospas-Sarsat 12431: 12427: 12424: 12423: 12422: 12419: 12417: 12414: 12412: 12409: 12408: 12406: 12402: 12396: 12386: 12382: 12379: 12378: 12377: 12367: 12366: 12364: 12360: 12350: 12340: 12338: 12328: 12324: 12321: 12320: 12319: 12309: 12307: 12297: 12293: 12290: 12288: 12285: 12284: 12283: 12273: 12271: 12261: 12259: 12249: 12247: 12237: 12235: 12225: 12224: 12222: 12218: 12212: 12202: 12200: 12190: 12188: 12178: 12174: 12164: 12163: 12162: 12152: 12150: 12140: 12138: 12128: 12124: 12121: 12119: 12116: 12114: 12111: 12109: 12106: 12104: 12101: 12100: 12099: 12089: 12087: 12077: 12075: 12065: 12063: 12053: 12051: 12041: 12039: 12029: 12027: 12017: 12015: 12005: 12003: 11993: 11991: 11981: 11977: 11974: 11973: 11972: 11962: 11960: 11950: 11948: 11938: 11936: 11926: 11924: 11914: 11912: 11902: 11898: 11895: 11894: 11893: 11883: 11881: 11871: 11869: 11859: 11857: 11847: 11845: 11835: 11831: 11821: 11820: 11819: 11809: 11808: 11806: 11804: 11800: 11796: 11790: 11787: 11785: 11782: 11780: 11777: 11773: 11770: 11766: 11763: 11762: 11761: 11758: 11756: 11753: 11751: 11748: 11746: 11743: 11741: 11738: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11727: 11726: 11716: 11714: 11711: 11709: 11706: 11702: 11699: 11698: 11697: 11694: 11692: 11688: 11685: 11684: 11682: 11678: 11675: 11671: 11660: 11656: 11646: 11642: 11639: 11638: 11637: 11627: 11623: 11620: 11619: 11618: 11608: 11604: 11601: 11600: 11599: 11589: 11585: 11582: 11581: 11580: 11570: 11566: 11563: 11562: 11561: 11551: 11549: 11539: 11537: 11527: 11525: 11515: 11513: 11503: 11501: 11491: 11490: 11488: 11484: 11478: 11468: 11466: 11456: 11454: 11444: 11442: 11432: 11430: 11420: 11418: 11408: 11407: 11405: 11401: 11395: 11385: 11383: 11373: 11369: 11366: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11355: 11354: 11344: 11342: 11332: 11331: 11329: 11325: 11319: 11309: 11307: 11297: 11293: 11290: 11288: 11285: 11284: 11283: 11273: 11271: 11261: 11259: 11249: 11247: 11237: 11233: 11230: 11229: 11228: 11218: 11214: 11211: 11209: 11206: 11201: 11199: 11196: 11194: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11185: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11175: 11174: 11164: 11163: 11161: 11157: 11151: 11141: 11137: 11134: 11132: 11129: 11128: 11127: 11117: 11115: 11105: 11104: 11102: 11098: 11092: 11089: 11088: 11086: 11082: 11079: 11075: 11063: 11060: 11059: 11058: 11048: 11046: 11036: 11032: 11029: 11027: 11024: 11022: 11019: 11018: 11017: 11007: 11005: 10995: 10993: 10983: 10981: 10971: 10969: 10959: 10958: 10956: 10952:Latin America 10950: 10944: 10934: 10932: 10922: 10920: 10910: 10908: 10898: 10896: 10886: 10882: 10879: 10878: 10877: 10867: 10865: 10855: 10853: 10843: 10842: 10840: 10838:North America 10836: 10833: 10829: 10819: 10809: 10807: 10797: 10795: 10785: 10783: 10773: 10769: 10766: 10765: 10764: 10754: 10752: 10742: 10741: 10739: 10735: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10720: 10718: 10712: 10709: 10705: 10701: 10694: 10689: 10687: 10682: 10680: 10675: 10674: 10671: 10659: 10656: 10654: 10651: 10649: 10646: 10644: 10641: 10639: 10636: 10634: 10631: 10629: 10626: 10624: 10621: 10619: 10616: 10614: 10611: 10609: 10606: 10604: 10601: 10597: 10594: 10592: 10589: 10587: 10584: 10582: 10579: 10577: 10574: 10573: 10572: 10569: 10567: 10564: 10563: 10561: 10559: 10555: 10545: 10542: 10540: 10537: 10535: 10532: 10530: 10527: 10525: 10522: 10520: 10517: 10515: 10512: 10508: 10507:United States 10505: 10503: 10500: 10498: 10495: 10493: 10490: 10489: 10488: 10485: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10474: 10472: 10470: 10469:Space warfare 10466: 10458: 10457:United States 10453: 10448: 10446: 10441: 10436: 10434: 10429: 10425: 10423: 10418: 10413: 10411: 10406: 10401: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10376: 10375: 10372: 10368: 10365: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10340: 10339: 10338:United States 10334: 10329: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10315: 10310: 10305: 10303: 10298: 10293: 10291: 10286: 10281: 10279: 10274: 10269: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10255: 10250: 10245: 10243: 10238: 10233: 10231: 10226: 10221: 10219: 10214: 10209: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10193: 10190: 10188: 10185: 10184: 10180: 10175: 10173: 10168: 10163: 10161: 10156: 10151: 10149: 10144: 10139: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10125: 10120: 10115: 10113: 10108: 10103: 10101: 10096: 10091: 10090: 10089: 10086: 10085: 10083: 10081: 10078:Space forces, 10075: 10072: 10070: 10066: 10058: 10055: 10051: 10048: 10047: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10038: 10036: 10033: 10032: 10031: 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10015:Space tourism 10013: 10009: 10006: 10004: 10001: 9999: 9998:United States 9994: 9989: 9987: 9982: 9977: 9975: 9970: 9965: 9963: 9958: 9953: 9952: 9951: 9948: 9947: 9945: 9943: 9939: 9932: 9930: 9927: 9925: 9924:GEO standards 9922: 9920: 9919:GSC standards 9917: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9904: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9857: 9854: 9851: 9848: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9834: 9831: 9828: 9825: 9822: 9819: 9816: 9813: 9810: 9807: 9804: 9801: 9798: 9795: 9792: 9789: 9786: 9783: 9780: 9777: 9774: 9771: 9768: 9765: 9764: 9762: 9760: 9756: 9750: 9747: 9745: 9742: 9740: 9737: 9735: 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9678: 9675: 9674: 9673: 9670: 9668: 9665: 9663: 9660: 9658: 9655: 9654: 9652: 9646: 9640: 9637: 9635: 9632: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9619: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9608: 9605: 9604: 9602: 9598: 9590: 9587: 9586: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9568: 9565: 9564: 9563: 9560: 9558: 9555: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9543: 9540: 9538: 9535: 9533: 9530: 9528: 9525: 9523: 9520: 9519: 9517: 9513: 9497: 9494: 9492: 9489: 9488: 9486: 9484: 9481: 9479: 9476: 9473: 9470: 9469: 9467: 9463: 9457: 9454: 9452: 9449: 9448: 9446: 9442: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9428:ISS programme 9426: 9424: 9421: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9409: 9407: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9394: 9383: 9380: 9379: 9377: 9373: 9366: 9363: 9360: 9359:Buran program 9357: 9354: 9351: 9348: 9345: 9342: 9339: 9336: 9335:Soyuz program 9333: 9332: 9330: 9326: 9319: 9316: 9313: 9310: 9307: 9304: 9301: 9298: 9293: 9290: 9289: 9288: 9285: 9284: 9282: 9278: 9270: 9267: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9260: 9258: 9254: 9251: 9249: 9241: 9238: 9234: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9198: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9175: 9172: 9171: 9170: 9167: 9165: 9162: 9160: 9157: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9141: 9138: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9124: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9108: 9106: 9104: 9098: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9086:2014 NASA Act 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9066:2010 NASA Act 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9056:Flexible path 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9042: 9039: 9037: 9034: 9032: 9029: 9028: 9026: 9024: 9018: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 9001:2005 NASA Act 8999: 8997: 8994: 8992: 8989: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8980: 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8964: 8962: 8960: 8954: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8924: 8921: 8920: 8919: 8918:ISS programme 8916: 8914: 8911: 8910: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8898: 8894: 8893: 8891: 8889: 8883: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8858: 8856: 8854: 8848: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8836:Rogers Report 8834: 8832: 8830: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8794: 8792: 8790: 8784: 8778: 8777: 8775: 8773: 8767: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8752: 8750: 8748: 8742: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8717: 8715: 8713: 8707: 8701: 8698: 8697: 8695: 8693: 8687: 8680: 8676: 8674: 8671: 8669: 8666: 8664: 8661: 8660: 8658: 8656: 8650: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8622: 8619: 8618: 8617: 8616:1958 NASA Act 8614: 8612: 8611: 8607: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8591: 8589: 8587: 8581: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8558: 8555: 8554: 8553: 8550: 8549: 8547: 8545: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8530: 8522: 8521: 8517: 8516: 8515: 8512: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8493: 8490: 8487: 8484: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8470: 8467: 8464: 8461: 8458: 8455: 8452: 8449: 8448: 8446: 8444: 8438: 8430: 8427: 8426: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8406: 8404: 8400: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8384: 8381: 8377: 8374: 8373: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8355: 8352: 8351: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8309: 8306: 8305: 8304: 8301: 8300: 8298: 8292: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8238: 8236: 8233: 8230: 8227: 8226: 8225: 8222: 8220: 8217: 8214: 8211: 8208: 8205: 8204: 8202: 8200: 8196: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8140:Solar Orbiter 8138: 8137: 8135: 8132: 8131:Cosmic Vision 8128: 8122: 8121: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8109: 8105: 8101: 8098: 8097: 8096: 8095:ISS programme 8093: 8092: 8090: 8086: 8080: 8079: 8075: 8073: 8072: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8060: 8056: 8054: 8053: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8034: 8033: 8029: 8028: 8027: 8026: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8016: 8014: 8010: 8000: 7997: 7995: 7992: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7982: 7981: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7968: 7965: 7964: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7954: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7937: 7934: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7903: 7900: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7880: 7877: 7876: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7863: 7860: 7859: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7836: 7833: 7828: 7825: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7818: 7816: 7814: 7810: 7802: 7799: 7796: 7793: 7792: 7791: 7788: 7785: 7782: 7778: 7777:Space station 7775: 7773: 7765: 7763: 7755: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7733: 7730: 7727: 7724: 7723: 7721: 7719: 7718:space program 7713: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7671: 7670: 7667: 7666: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7604: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7584: 7581: 7577: 7570: 7565: 7563: 7558: 7556: 7551: 7550: 7547: 7535: 7534: 7525: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7516: 7514: 7513: 7509: 7508: 7505: 7498: 7495: 7492: 7489: 7487:(grandfather) 7486: 7483: 7481:(grandfather) 7480: 7479:P. J. Kennedy 7477: 7474: 7471: 7468: 7465: 7462: 7459: 7456: 7453: 7450: 7447: 7444: 7441: 7438: 7435: 7432: 7429: 7426: 7423: 7420: 7417: 7414: 7411: 7408: 7405: 7402: 7399: 7396: 7393: 7390: 7387: 7384: 7381: 7378: 7375: 7374: 7372: 7370: 7366: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7348: 7346: 7345: (CV-67) 7344: 7339: 7337: 7336: 7331: 7329: 7328:Mount Kennedy 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7263:Boston statue 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7240: 7238: 7236: 7230: 7224: 7221: 7217: 7214: 7212: 7209: 7207: 7204: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7193: 7192: 7189: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7176:Kennedy Round 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7145: 7142: 7141: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7131: 7129: 7125: 7119: 7116: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7102: 7101:State funeral 7099: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7076: 7075: 7074:Assassination 7072: 7071: 7069: 7065: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7030: 7028: 7024: 7018: 7015: 7012: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6986: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6972: 6971: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6940: 6938: 6936:Personal life 6934: 6926: 6923: 6922: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6865: 6861: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6827: 6823: 6820: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6808: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6791: 6785: 6780: 6773: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6678:Equal Pay Act 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6663: 6661: 6657: 6651: 6650:Vienna summit 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6640:Berlin Crisis 6637: 6633: 6630: 6629: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6622:Cuban Project 6620: 6618: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6575: 6572: 6571: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6557: 6553: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6540: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6507: 6506:Supreme Court 6504: 6503: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6473: 6469: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6438: 6434: 6433: 6430: 6426: 6419: 6414: 6412: 6407: 6405: 6400: 6399: 6396: 6384: 6383: 6374: 6373: 6370: 6364: 6361: 6359: 6356: 6354: 6351: 6349: 6346: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6310: 6308: 6304: 6298: 6294: 6292: 6288: 6286: 6282: 6280: 6276: 6274: 6270: 6268: 6264: 6261: 6257: 6255: 6251: 6249: 6245: 6243: 6239: 6237: 6233: 6231: 6227: 6225: 6221: 6219: 6215: 6213: 6209: 6207: 6203: 6201: 6197: 6195: 6191: 6189: 6185: 6183: 6179: 6177: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6157: 6152: 6150: 6145: 6143: 6138: 6137: 6134: 6127: 6123: 6120: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6099: 6096: 6095: 6084: 6078: 6074: 6073: 6067: 6063: 6057: 6053: 6052: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6033: 6028: 6027: 6021: 6017: 6012: 6008: 6002: 5998: 5997: 5992: 5988: 5984: 5978: 5974: 5973: 5968: 5964: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5943: 5939: 5938: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5919: 5915: 5914: 5908: 5904: 5898: 5894: 5893: 5888: 5884: 5880: 5874: 5870: 5865: 5864: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5844: 5839: 5838: 5832: 5828: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5813: 5808: 5804: 5798: 5794: 5793: 5787: 5783: 5777: 5773: 5772: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5753: 5748: 5747: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5727: 5723: 5722: 5716: 5712: 5706: 5702: 5701: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5671: 5670: 5649: 5648: 5643: 5636: 5621: 5617: 5610: 5595: 5594: 5589: 5583: 5575: 5569: 5553: 5549: 5543: 5524: 5520: 5513: 5506: 5490: 5486: 5480: 5472: 5468: 5462: 5446: 5440: 5421: 5414: 5399:. 8 June 2015 5398: 5394: 5388: 5373: 5369: 5362: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5317: 5310: 5303: 5298: 5282: 5275: 5273: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5247: 5240: 5233: 5228: 5212: 5205: 5198: 5182: 5176: 5161: 5157: 5151: 5135: 5129: 5122: 5117: 5102: 5098: 5092: 5090: 5070: 5064: 5062: 5046: 5042: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5030: 5013: 5009: 5005: 4998: 4991: 4986: 4984: 4976: 4971: 4963: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4942: 4935: 4930: 4924:, p. 29. 4923: 4918: 4911: 4906: 4899: 4894: 4888:, p. 88. 4887: 4882: 4880: 4873:, p. 27. 4872: 4867: 4861:, p. 26. 4860: 4855: 4839: 4838: 4833: 4827: 4820: 4815: 4808: 4803: 4801: 4793: 4788: 4781: 4776: 4774: 4766: 4761: 4746: 4742: 4735: 4727: 4723: 4722: 4717: 4711: 4704: 4699: 4692: 4687: 4680: 4675: 4673: 4665: 4660: 4653: 4648: 4646: 4644: 4635: 4629: 4613: 4609: 4608: 4603: 4597: 4595: 4593: 4585: 4580: 4573: 4568: 4562:, p. 71. 4561: 4556: 4550:, p. 85. 4549: 4544: 4538:, p. 72. 4537: 4532: 4530: 4522: 4517: 4511:, p. 21. 4510: 4505: 4503: 4496:, p. 80. 4495: 4490: 4481: 4473: 4466: 4458: 4451: 4444: 4440: 4434: 4425: 4419:, p. 24. 4418: 4413: 4411: 4403: 4398: 4392:, p. 83. 4391: 4386: 4371: 4370: 4365: 4358: 4352:, p. 82. 4351: 4346: 4339: 4334: 4319: 4315: 4309: 4293: 4287: 4281:, p. 71. 4280: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4263: 4258: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4228: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4220: 4218: 4216: 4214: 4212: 4210: 4208: 4200: 4195: 4188: 4183: 4181: 4174:, p. 33. 4173: 4168: 4161: 4156: 4149: 4144: 4142: 4134: 4129: 4122: 4117: 4110: 4105: 4098: 4093: 4086: 4081: 4074: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4055: 4050: 4043: 4038: 4032:, p. 79. 4031: 4026: 4019: 4014: 4007: 4002: 3995: 3990: 3988: 3972: 3968: 3961: 3954: 3949: 3943:, p. 32. 3942: 3937: 3930: 3925: 3919:, p. 30. 3918: 3913: 3906: 3901: 3894: 3889: 3882: 3877: 3870: 3865: 3858: 3853: 3846: 3841: 3834: 3829: 3822: 3817: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3780: 3775: 3768: 3763: 3757:, p. 24. 3756: 3751: 3745:, p. 69. 3744: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3725: 3720: 3713: 3708: 3702:, p. 22. 3701: 3696: 3689: 3684: 3682: 3674: 3669: 3662: 3657: 3650: 3645: 3638: 3633: 3626: 3621: 3615:, p. 17. 3614: 3609: 3607: 3590: 3583: 3576: 3571: 3564: 3559: 3557: 3550:, p. 15. 3549: 3544: 3542: 3540: 3523: 3522: 3517: 3511: 3509: 3501: 3496: 3490:, p. 65. 3489: 3484: 3478:, p. 14. 3477: 3472: 3466:, p. 62. 3465: 3460: 3454:, p. 61. 3453: 3448: 3446: 3438: 3433: 3426: 3421: 3419: 3412:, p. 78. 3411: 3406: 3404: 3387: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3375: 3373: 3371: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3359: 3357: 3355: 3348:, p. 12. 3347: 3342: 3340: 3338: 3336: 3334: 3332: 3330: 3322: 3317: 3310: 3305: 3298: 3293: 3291: 3284:, p. 11. 3283: 3278: 3259: 3255: 3248: 3242: 3235: 3230: 3223: 3218: 3211: 3206: 3199: 3194: 3188:, p. 64. 3187: 3182: 3180: 3172: 3167: 3160: 3155: 3153: 3151: 3143: 3138: 3136: 3134: 3132: 3125:, p. 63. 3124: 3119: 3112: 3107: 3100: 3095: 3093: 3091: 3083: 3078: 3071: 3066: 3064: 3062: 3060: 3058: 3050: 3045: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3015: 3013: 3005: 3000: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2962: 2955: 2950: 2942: 2936: 2929: 2924: 2922: 2914: 2909: 2902: 2897: 2891:, p. 31. 2890: 2885: 2878: 2873: 2857: 2853: 2846: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2811: 2795: 2791: 2784: 2777: 2775: 2767: 2762: 2755: 2750: 2743: 2738: 2731: 2726: 2724: 2717:, p. 61. 2716: 2711: 2709: 2701: 2696: 2694: 2692: 2683: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2670: 2662: 2660: 2658: 2656: 2648: 2643: 2636: 2631: 2624: 2619: 2613:, p. 72. 2612: 2607: 2605: 2598:, p. 58. 2597: 2592: 2585: 2580: 2573: 2568: 2561: 2556: 2549: 2544: 2528: 2522: 2516:, p. 56. 2515: 2510: 2502: 2496: 2480: 2476: 2470: 2462: 2456: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2419: 2414: 2410: 2404: 2389: 2385: 2378: 2362: 2356: 2341: 2337: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2291: 2286: 2279: 2274: 2272: 2256: 2252: 2246: 2244: 2228: 2224: 2223: 2218: 2211: 2195: 2189: 2187: 2185: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2159: 2155: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2138: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2100: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2087:Vela incident 2083: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2056: 2054: 2050: 2049: 2043: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1997:radionuclides 1987: 1984: 1980: 1975: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1947:Ronald Reagan 1944: 1939: 1937: 1928: 1924: 1919: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1902:in 1967, the 1901: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1868: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1835:Effectiveness 1832: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1816: 1806: 1802: 1788: 1786: 1780: 1778: 1777:godless power 1774: 1770: 1765: 1764:Reform Jewish 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1736:Richard Nixon 1733: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1674: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1642: 1640: 1636: 1631: 1629: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1611: 1608: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1588: 1583: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1566: 1561: 1556: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1540: 1535: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1519: 1517: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1498: 1496: 1493:, the Soviet 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1457: 1452: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1427: 1423: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1389: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1344: 1340: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1327:rapprochement 1324: 1314: 1310: 1307: 1303: 1300: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1279: 1277: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1255:UN ambassador 1251: 1249: 1245: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1219: 1218:Novaya Zemlya 1215: 1214: 1207: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1187: 1183: 1181: 1176: 1175:Vienna summit 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1156: 1154: 1150: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1124: 1122: 1117: 1113: 1108: 1106: 1102: 1101:Robert Gilpin 1097: 1093: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1077:U-2 spy plane 1074: 1069: 1067: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1043: 1037: 1034: 1033:Richter scale 1028: 1025: 1020: 1017: 1013: 1012:Lloyd Berkner 1008: 1006: 1002: 996: 992: 988: 985: 981: 976: 971: 967: 965: 960: 958: 954: 950: 946: 942: 941:New York City 937: 933: 931: 927: 921: 914: 909: 905: 901: 899: 895: 890: 887: 886:Robert Bacher 883: 879: 875: 870: 866: 864: 860: 856: 852: 847: 845: 842: 838: 833: 828: 825: 821: 820:Geneva Summit 817: 811: 809: 808:Georgy Zhukov 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 767: 765: 761: 757: 752: 749: 743: 741: 737: 736: 731: 726: 722: 720: 715: 711: 707: 703: 695:in March 1957 694: 690: 686: 682: 680: 679:Novaya Zemlya 676: 671: 667: 663: 659: 658:Freeman Dyson 655: 651: 645: 643: 638: 634: 630: 625: 623: 622: 616: 614: 610: 609:Linus Pauling 606: 605:Pope Pius XII 602: 598: 594: 593:Edward Teller 590: 589:Lewis Strauss 586: 582: 578: 573: 571: 567: 562: 560: 556: 552: 548: 544: 541: 540:Conservatives 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 498:Lewis Strauss 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 466: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 426: 424: 415: 410: 406: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 379: 375: 371: 367: 363: 359: 358:Vannevar Bush 351:Early efforts 343: 341: 337: 333: 332: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 295: 285: 276: 273: 269: 268:United States 265: 261: 256: 254: 250: 246: 242: 236: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 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6981:Arthur Evans 6969: 6953:Hickory Hill 6787:Presidential 6718:Space policy 6660:New Frontier 6573: 6538: 6491:Inauguration 6375: 6175: 6071: 6050: 6025: 5995: 5971: 5955: 5936: 5912: 5891: 5862: 5836: 5823: 5815: 5791: 5770: 5745: 5720: 5699: 5678: 5666:Publications 5651:. 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In 1955, 1532:Warsaw Pact 1471:Carl Kaysen 1375:US Congress 1343:Warsaw Pact 1286:, then the 1160:Arthur Dean 898:radio waves 802:, then the 706:Suez Crisis 555:US Congress 401:, then the 395:Baruch Plan 213:underground 12644:Categories 12614:See also: 11327:South Asia 10931:USSPACECOM 10539:Spaceplane 9280:Khrushchev 8829:Challenger 8584:Eisenhower 8045:Cluster II 7642:Spaceguard 7632:Prediction 7499:(hamsters) 7415:(grandson) 7385:(daughter) 7233:Memorials, 6958:La Querida 6486:Transition 6472:Presidency 6124:of a 1986 4724:(Speech). 4610:(Speech). 4237:CQ Almanac 2128:References 2032:Pin Stripe 2028:Kazakhstan 2013:iodine-129 2005:iodine-131 2003:, such as 2001:half-lives 1971:Yugoslavia 1879:island of 1873:Greenpeace 1856:bomb spike 1844:Bomb pulse 1821:Montenegro 1796:Provisions 1543:Mao Zedong 1518:question. 1383:resolution 1238:in Bermuda 1213:Tsar Bomba 1140:Khrushchev 1121:Paul Nitze 1024:Camp David 980:Little Boy 924:(then the 859:Hans Bethe 693:Eisenhower 675:Tsar Bomba 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