350:
539:; not every proxy is applicable to every paleosol. Most proxies are applicable to Phanerozoic paleosols (not older), as landscape processes changed dramatically after the rise of land plants. Seasonality (the presence and strength of seasons) requires a more nuanced reconstruction approach. Proposed seasonality proxies primarily rely on a soil wetting/drying process, during which pedogenic carbonate can form; like other proxies, this tool is continually being tested and refined.
248:
39:
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458:
442:
31:
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deeply than the order level regarding paleosols. However, despite these drawbacks, the USDA soil taxonomy is still the most comprehensive and influential soil classification system to date. To distinguish and identify paleosols from one another, certain diagnostic horizons and features need to be taken into account. For instance, all paleosols have an A horizon, but histosols have an O horizon above the A horizon.
450:
532:(MAAT) are two commonly-reconstructed variables which, along with seasonality and in conjunction with other paleoenvironmental tools, can be used to describe past terrestrial climates. A suite of paleoclimatic proxies exist and while they vary in focus, many rely on changes in chemical composition throughout a soil profile that occur during weathering, burial, and post-burial processes.
346:
material as the soil forms. Signs of early successional vegetation of grasses and other herbs and shrubs. Root traces are diagnostic of this type of paleosol because of the small amount of alteration from their parent material in other respects. However, for
Entisols of Ordivician age or older, a peak in magnetic susceptibility is indicative of an Entisol.
551:, so their chemical composition is affected by the composition of the atmosphere through both direct and indirect pathways. The oxidation of paleosols has been used as an indicator of atmospheric oxygen, which has risen over Earth's history. Paleosols have also been used to reconstruct atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, based on modern studies of
426:
highly weathered aluminous minerals such as gibbsite are common in the profile. Low-base status is attributed to a long formation time. Form mostly on older parts of landscapes, such as rolling hills of bedrock, high alluvial terraces, and plateau tops. Natural vegetation consists of coniferous or hardwood forests.
402:
sediments. Found principally in humid climates in which clay and soluble salts are dissolved and washed out of the profile and most common in temperate regions. Characteristic vegetation are conifer forests and other kinds of evergreen woody vegetation that can tolerate low nutrient levels and high soil acidity.
378:
properties and the aforementioned weathering products typically alter during burial, sometimes to distinctive minerals like celadonite and clinoptilolite. At least 60% recognizable pyroclastic fragments in thin sections are characteristic of this paleosol. This paleosol forms in and around volcanoes.
509:
Soils with ground ice or other permafrost features within one meter of the surface. In paleosols, locations of ice can be preserved as clastic dikes, freeze banding, or other deformations created by ground ice. Tillites and other glacigenic deposits are indicative of
Gelisols. These soils form under
275:
Consequently, our modern soil classification system cannot be readily applied to paleosols. For example, a modern alfisol—broadly defined as a forest soil—would not have existed prior to the evolution of trees. More problematically, it is specifically defined by chemical properties that would not be
295:
The USDA soil taxonomy does come with drawbacks, including an emphasis on observable features, new nomenclature, and hierarchical organization. The emphasis on observable features can make the soil taxonomy similar in appearance to a legal document. The hierarchical structure cannot be applied more
588:
produced by many plants such as grasses. Both pollen and phytolith fossils from different plant species have characteristic shapes that can be traced back to their parent plants. Over long geological time scales, phytoliths may not necessarily be preserved in paleosols due to ability of the poorly
513:
Many other factors, such as ped structures, such as the presence of blocky, angular or granular peds and fabric type, like clinobimasepic plasmic fabric, are structures that can help one identify if they are dealing with a paleosol. Some of these structures are very helpful when narrowing down the
497:
Forms in arid to semi-arid regions, and that lack of rain allows for the creation of shallow calcareous, gypsiferous, or salty horizons. These cements form large nodules or continuous layers. Light-colored, soft, and often vesicular surface horizon. Subsurface horizons are not cemented with any of
389:
Organic-rich soils with thick peaty horizons, that form in cool, well drained localities or low-lying, permanently waterlogged areas. The primary formation process is accumulation of peat (organic matter), meaning organic matter is produced faster than it can decompose in the soil. The leaching or
425:
Base-poor forest soils that are similar to
Alfisols at first glance. However, Ultisols are more deeply weathered of mineral nutrients. There should not be any calcareous material anywhere within an Ultisol profile and have molecular weathering ratios of alumina/bases of more than 2. Kaolinite and
531:
Palaeosols are frequently used as palaeoclimatological tools for gauging the climate in which they formed. Because rates and styles of weathering are dependent on climatic factors, paleosols can be used to reconstruct variables of past climate. Mean annual precipitation (MAP) and air temperature
413:
Base-rich forested soils that have a light-colored surface horizon over a clayey subsurface horizon, rich in exchangeable cations. If paleosols contain nodules of carbonate in a horizon deep within the profile, such base saturation can be assumed. If lacking in carbonate nodules, Alfisols can be
401:
A subsurface horizon enriched with iron and aluminum oxides or organic matter is characteristic of
Spodosols. Displays opaque cements that form distinctive radially cracked, concretionary rims to abundant quartz grains in thin sections. Spodosols form on hilly bedrock or low, rolling quartz-rich
485:
Well-developed, base-rich, surface horizon of intimately mixed clay and organic matter. An abundance of fine root traces and crumb ped structures are characteristic of this paleosol. The surface horizon characteristic of this paleosol is created by fine root systems of grassy vegetation and the
365:
These soils represent a stage of formation beyond
Entisols, but not to the degree of development in other soil orders. Typically can be imagined as having a light-colored surface horizon over a moderately weathered subsurface horizon. Forms in low-rolling parts of landscapes in and around steep
291:
attempts to use the measurable properties and objective features within soils to classify them. The methodology developed a hierarchical structure among the different soil taxa, classifying the soils initially at a general level, then assigning soils to progressively more limited subdivisions.
437:
Deeply weathered soils with texturally uniform profiles. Dominated by kaolinitic clays or other base-poor oxides such as gibbsite or boehmite. Contains molecular weathering ratios of alumina/bases of 10 or more. These soils have deeply weathered mottled horizons. Characteristic of this type of
345:
This soil has a very slight degree of soil formation. Original crystalline, metamorphic, or sedimentary features of the parent material experienced little alteration from soil formation. Most are found on young geomorphic surfaces such as flood plains and on steep slopes where erosion removes
473:
These are uniform, thick, clayey soils that have deep, wide cracks. Cracking can produce a hummock-and-swale topography. Mostly composed of smectitic clays. Most
Vertisols are found on intermediate to basaltic materials. Found mainly in flat terrain at the foot of gentle slopes. Climate and
377:
These are soils of volcanic ash of siliceous nature, consisting of bubbles or shards of volcanic glass with a high internal surface area. This soil weathers rapidly to imogolite and smectite. Thus they are highly fertile, rich in organic matter, and have particularly low bulk density. These
438:
paleosol is a stable microstructure of sand-sized spherical micropeds of iron-stained lay. Very old, often amounting to tens of millions of years. Found on stable continental locations on gentle slopes of plateaus, terraces, and plains. The natural vegetation for
Oxisols is a rainforest.
140:
In soil science the definition differs slightly: paleosols are soils formed long ago that have no relationship in their chemical and physical characteristics to the present-day climate or vegetation. Such soils are found within extremely old continental
366:
mountain fronts. Shrubby woodlands of pole trees that form during recolonization of disturbed ground by forests are particularly characteristic of this paleosol. Open woodlands and wooded grasslands are also characteristic of this paleosol.
304:
Rye & Holland (1998) laid out five criteria for identifying a paleosol. While this was prompted by the need for more stringent identification of
Precambrian paleosols, it is applicable to paleosols of any age. The criteria are:
276:
preserved in the rock record. While modern soil orders are often used to describe paleosols in a qualitative sense, a paleosol-specific naming scheme has been proposed, although it is only used sporadically in the literature.
575:
Paleosols are an important archive of information about ancient ecosystems and various components of fossil soils can be used to study past plant life. Paleosols often contain ancient plant materials such as
227:
levels orders of magnitude lower than in temperate regions with younger soils. Ecological studies have shown that this has forced highly specialised evolution amongst
Australian flora to obtain minimal
1085:
Breecker, D.O.; Sharp, Z.D.; McFadden, L.D. (2009-03-01). "Seasonal bias in the formation and stable isotopic composition of pedogenic carbonate in modern soils from central New Mexico, USA".
498:
the aforementioned cements. Mostly found in low-lying areas because steep slopes in arid regions tend to be eroded back to bedrock. Vegetation is sparse and includes prickly shrubs and cacti.
1402:
Zhang, Z.; Zhao, M.; Eglinton, G.; Lu, H.; Huang, C.Y. (2006). "Leaf wax lipids as paleovegetational and paleoenvironmental proxies for the
Chinese Loess Plateau over the last 170 kyr".
189:
for a new soil, but it is so unweatherable that only a very poorly developed soil can exist in present dry climates, especially when they have become much drier during glacial periods in the
514:
paleosol that is being identified. However, any paleosol should be verified geochemically before use in proxy-based reconstructions; post-deposition alteration processes, such as potassium
414:
distinguished by the abundance of base rich clays or by molecular weathering ratios of alumina/bases of less than 2. These soils are not found at the poles or on high mountain tops.
264:
in Earth's history, with rare paleosols older than 2.5 billion years. Geology, biology, and the atmosphere all changed significantly over that time, with dramatic shifts at the
474:
vegetation are dry and sparse enough that alkaline reactions can be maintained. Vegetation ranges from grassland to open woodland, with wooded grassland being common.
208:. Here, present climates allow, effectively, the maintenance of the old soils in climates under which they could not have formed from the parent material during the
1443:. (Sub-) Commission on Paleopedology (Report). International Union of Soil Science & International Union for Quaternary Research. IUSS Commission 1.6.
608:, which are better adapted to hotter and drier conditions. Other methods for detecting past plant life in paleosols are based on identifying the remains of
323:
In the field, physical signs of a paleosol include evidence of horizonation (e.g., color and textural changes), bedrock incorporated into a finer overlying
334:
Below is a list of soils and some of their diagnostic features that provides a framework for telling these paleosols, or even modern soils, apart:
196:
In other parts of Australia and in many parts of Africa, drying out of former soils has not been so severe. This has led to large areas of relict
510:
polar desert, tundra, and taiga vegetation. Includes a surprising array of histic epipedons, desert pavements, salic, and calcic horizons.
555:
gas exchange, carbon isotopes in pedogenic carbonate nodules, and mass-balance approaches taking multiple atmospheric gases (typically
390:
formation of gley minerals (pyrite or siderite) overprinting prior soil or sedimentary features is associated with peat accumulation.
236:
is not occurring makes ecologically sustainable management even more difficult. However, paleosols often contain the most exceptional
955:
Sheldon, Nathan D.; Tabor, Neil J. (2009-06-01). "Quantitative paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic reconstruction using paleosols".
1486:
1763:
843:
620:
As records of previous Earth surfaces that can be stacked on one another, paleosol sequences are also useful in the field of
815:
Soil Survey, Staff (1975). "Soil taxonomy, a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys".
1469:
181:
to dry out in such a manner that a very hard crust is formed. This process has occurred so extensively in most parts of
1747:
1752:
679:
1367:
Cerling, T.E. (1984). "The stable isotopic composition of modern soil carbonate and its relationship to climate".
1757:
133:, and geology in general, it is the typical and accepted practice to use the term "paleosol" to designate such "
1768:
793:
1332:
Kurmann, M.H. (1985). "An opal phytolith and palynomorph study of extant and fossil soils in Kansas (USA)".
486:
burrowing activity of many soil invertebrate species. Mollisols are found in low, rolling, or flat country.
319:
up-profile changes in chemistry, texture, and mineralogy consistent with terrestrial weathering processes.
2079:
1788:
1773:
1042:(2005-04-01). "Pedogenic carbonate proxies for amount and seasonality of precipitation in paleosols".
17:
1783:
1778:
1741:
1462:
638:
567:) into account. These methods are being actively developed in the field of early Earth research.
772:
Mack, Greg H.; James, W. Calvin; Monger, H. Curtis (1993-02-01). "Classification of paleosols".
2084:
2055:
93:
In geology and paleontology, a paleosol is a former soil preserved by burial underneath either
908:"Flood basalt hosted palaeosols: Potential palaeoclimatic indicators of global climate change"
648:
327:(corestones), and evidence of surface processes (e.g., root traces, organic matter, burrows,
265:
241:
182:
1380:
1909:
1411:
1376:
1341:
1288:
1239:
1188:
1094:
1051:
1011:
964:
919:
781:
704:
695:
Kraus, M.J. (1999). "Paleosols in clastic sedimentary rocks: Their geologic applications".
593:
518:, can change a paleosol's chemistry without dramatically altering its physical appearance.
201:
8:
1478:
548:
536:
284:
43:
1415:
1345:
1292:
1243:
1192:
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1024:
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999:
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923:
785:
708:
2029:
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was formerly dominant) and to the formation of torrox soils (a suborder of oxisols) in
716:
2074:
1944:
1388:
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1314:
1306:
1257:
1204:
1151:
1110:
1067:
1039:
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937:
882:
839:
797:
754:
675:
667:
1423:
1200:
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27:
Soil buried under sediment or not representative of current environmental conditions
1949:
1419:
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1349:
1296:
1247:
1196:
1143:
1102:
1059:
1019:
972:
927:
874:
789:
712:
609:
137:" found buried within sedimentary and volcanic deposits exposed in all continents.
130:
535:
Their use depends on factors such as post-burial alteration, parent material, and
2014:
1999:
1859:
1277:"Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere: Evidence from Cenozoic and Mesozoic paleosols"
621:
205:
186:
1989:
1934:
556:
233:
220:
166:
118:
932:
907:
2068:
2034:
1919:
1310:
1261:
1208:
1130:
1114:
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984:
941:
861:
801:
633:
145:, or in small scattered locations in outliers of other ancient rock domains.
126:
114:
67:
55:
2019:
1964:
1155:
886:
732:
The Future Eaters: An ecological history of the Australian lands and people
515:
237:
110:
87:
83:
1301:
1276:
1175:
Sheldon, Nathan D. (2006-06-10). "Precambrian paleosols and atmospheric CO
1147:
878:
758:
30:
2024:
2004:
1924:
1904:
1884:
1874:
1869:
643:
552:
261:
47:
600:
in organic matter in paleosols reflects the proportions of plants using
38:
2009:
1959:
1914:
1899:
1864:
1834:
1700:
1607:
1572:
1547:
1252:
1223:
581:
457:
224:
190:
158:
122:
1447:
1318:
745:
Tilman, David (1982). "Resource Competition and Community Structure".
1994:
1939:
1879:
1642:
1637:
1627:
1562:
1532:
1512:
1106:
1063:
592:
Another indicator of plant community composition in paleosols is the
349:
324:
279:
Until a paleosol-specific naming scheme is fully adopted, many paleo-
269:
213:
200:
in quite dry climates in the far southern inland of Australia (where
71:
441:
287:
provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The
1894:
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1705:
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as to restrict soil development—the former soil is effectively the
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98:
94:
1929:
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1824:
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1507:
1502:
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564:
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162:
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over the last 50 million years, soils formed under tropical
154:
79:
1224:"Quantifying and understanding the uncertainty of atmospheric CO
604:, which grow in cooler and wetter climates, versus plants using
247:
2039:
1974:
1715:
1710:
1612:
585:
577:
560:
449:
197:
170:
142:
1000:"Paleosols as Indicators of paleoenvironment and paleoclimate"
1954:
328:
102:
1440:
1984:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
106:
75:
838:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. pp. 83–86.
429:
1969:
794:
10.1130/0016-7606(1993)105<0129:COP>2.3.CO;2
316:
soft-sediment deformation at the top of the profile, and
78:
that formed in the past. The definition of the term in
461:
Clinobimasepic plasmic fabric in a Cretaceous paleosol
272:, when complex animals and land plants proliferated.
1084:
494:
Horizons: A, sometimes Bt, Bk, sometimes By, & C
482:
Horizons: A, sometimes Bt, Bk, sometimes By, & C
410:
Horizons: A, sometimes E, Bt, sometimes Bk, & C
1401:
612:, which are slow to break down in soils over time.
1129:
860:
542:
417:
1334:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
674:(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Blackwell Science.
2066:
1228:concentrations determined from calcic paleosols"
465:
405:
1128:Rye, Rob; Holland, Heinrich D. (October 1998).
859:Rye, Rob; Holland, Heinrich D. (October 1998).
771:
526:
393:
219:Paleosols in this sense are always exceedingly
369:
42:Etched section of paleosol from the Atlantic,
1463:
1004:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
547:Soils form in near-constant contact with the
268:(2.42 billion years ago) and during the
954:
501:
477:
113:), which in the case of older deposits have
814:
337:
255:
1470:
1456:
1127:
998:Tabor, Neil J.; Myers, Timothy S. (2015).
997:
858:
398:Horizons: A, E, sometimes Bh, Bs, & C
357:
1300:
1251:
1038:
1023:
931:
833:
666:
489:
445:Blocky angular peds in an Eocene paleosol
260:The record of paleosols extends into the
1221:
729:
456:
448:
440:
381:
348:
246:
37:
29:
1477:
1366:
1331:
1274:
1174:
817:Handbook U.S. Department of Agriculture
434:Horizons: A, Bo, sometimes Bv, & C
430:Oxisol (tropical deeply-weathered soil)
14:
2067:
1764:Canadian system of soil classification
905:
744:
453:Granular peds in an Oligocene paleosol
422:Horizons: A, sometimes E, Bt, & C
386:Horizons: O, A, sometimes Bg, & C
362:Horizons: A, sometimes E, Bw, & C
165:) have become exposed to increasingly
153:Because of the changes in the Earth's
86:is slightly different from its use in
1451:
753:. Princeton University Press: 1–296.
694:
353:Cartoons of U.S. Taxonomy soil orders
251:Key to soil orders of the US Taxonomy
46:, Bahamas, indicating the top of the
1232:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
906:Sayyed, M. R. G. (1 November 2014).
342:Horizons (top-to-bottom): A & C
1369:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1025:10.1146/annurev-earth-060614-105355
506:Horizons: A, sometimes By, & C
24:
1748:Unified Soil Classification System
615:
283:have stuck to using the taxonomic
50:Grotto Beach Formation (limestone)
34:Paleosols sequence, Tuscany, Italy
25:
2096:
1753:AASHTO Soil Classification System
1433:
299:
2051:
2050:
747:Monographs in Population Biology
596:. The ratio of different carbon
589:crystalline silica to dissolve.
1424:10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.03.009
1395:
1360:
1325:
1268:
1215:
1201:10.1016/j.precamres.2006.02.004
1168:
1121:
1078:
1032:
991:
977:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.03.004
948:
543:Paleoatmosphere reconstructions
521:
418:Ultisol (base-poor forest soil)
1769:Australian Soil Classification
1760:(French classification system)
899:
852:
827:
808:
765:
738:
723:
688:
660:
570:
13:
1:
717:10.1016/S0012-8252(99)00026-4
654:
466:Vertisol (swelling clay soil)
406:Alfisol (fertile forest soil)
148:
1389:10.1016/0012-821X(84)90089-X
1354:10.1016/0031-0182(85)90055-0
1275:Cerling, T.E. (1991-04-01).
527:Paleoclimate reconstructions
394:Spodosol (sandy forest soil)
169:climates which cause former
7:
1789:List of vineyard soil types
1281:American Journal of Science
1136:American Journal of Science
867:American Journal of Science
836:Soils of the Past (3rd ed.)
627:
584:, a biomineralized form of
370:Andisol (volcanic ash soil)
10:
2101:
1774:Polish Soil Classification
1404:Quaternary Science Reviews
1131:"[no title cited]"
862:"[no title cited]"
2048:
1798:Non-systematic soil types
1797:
1734:
1661:
1485:
933:10.1016/j.gsf.2013.08.005
730:Flannery, Tim F. (1994).
594:carbon isotopic signature
502:Gelisol (permafrost soil)
478:Mollisol (grassland soil)
470:Horizons: A, Bw, & C
374:Horizons: A, Bw, & C
1784:List of U.S. state soils
834:Retallack, G.J. (2019).
338:Entisol (incipient soil)
256:Taxonomic classification
232:supplies. The fact that
105:) or volcanic deposits (
1779:1938 USDA soil taxonomy
1758:Référentiel pédologique
1742:FAO soil classification
1381:1984E&PSL..71..229C
1222:Breecker, D.O. (2013).
639:Paleopedological record
358:Inceptisol (young soil)
285:classification of soils
223:, containing available
490:Aridisol (desert soil)
462:
454:
446:
354:
252:
240:due to the absence of
51:
35:
1302:10.2475/ajs.291.4.377
1148:10.2475/ajs.298.8.621
1040:Retallack, Gregory J.
957:Earth-Science Reviews
879:10.2475/ajs.298.8.621
697:Earth-Science Reviews
649:Pedology (soil study)
460:
452:
444:
382:Histosol (peaty soil)
352:
266:Great Oxidation Event
250:
41:
33:
1910:Calcareous grassland
1487:World Reference Base
1181:Precambrian Research
912:Geoscience Frontiers
202:temperate rainforest
1479:Soil classification
1416:2006QSRv...25..575Z
1346:1985PPP....49..217K
1293:1991AmJS..291..377C
1244:2013GGG....14.3210B
1193:2006PreR..147..148S
1099:2009GSAB..121..630B
1056:2005Geo....33..333R
1016:2015AREPS..43..333T
969:2009ESRv...95....1S
924:2014GeoFr...5..791S
786:1993GSAB..105..129M
734:. George Braziller.
709:1999ESRv...47...41K
44:San Salvador Island
2080:Historical geology
1663:USDA soil taxonomy
1489:for Soil Resources
1253:10.1002/ggge.20189
463:
455:
447:
355:
309:Formed in situ on
289:USDA soil taxonomy
253:
52:
36:
2062:
2061:
845:978-1-119-53045-9
672:Soils of the Past
606:C4 photosynthesis
602:C3 photosynthesis
16:(Redirected from
2092:
2054:
2053:
1950:Hydrophobic soil
1472:
1465:
1458:
1449:
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1444:
1428:
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1364:
1358:
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1329:
1323:
1322:
1304:
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1266:
1265:
1255:
1238:(8): 3210–3220.
1219:
1213:
1212:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1133:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1107:10.1130/B26413.1
1093:(3–4): 630–640.
1082:
1076:
1075:
1064:10.1130/G21263.1
1036:
1030:
1029:
1027:
995:
989:
988:
952:
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762:
742:
736:
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727:
721:
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692:
686:
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664:
131:paleoclimatology
74:) is an ancient
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2015:Subaqueous soil
2000:Serpentine soil
1860:Parent material
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668:Retallack, G.J.
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622:paleoseismology
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616:Paleoseismology
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221:infertile soils
206:southern Africa
187:parent material
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1990:Prime farmland
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1945:Fuller's earth
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1935:Expansive clay
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1434:External links
1432:
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1410:(5): 575–594.
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1375:(2): 229–240.
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1340:(3): 217–235.
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1287:(4): 377–400.
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1225:
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1187:(1): 148–155.
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1167:
1142:(8): 621–672.
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1050:(4): 333–336.
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1010:(1): 333–361.
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918:(6): 791–799.
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873:(8): 621–672.
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780:(2): 129–136.
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300:Identification
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234:soil formation
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2085:Types of soil
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2056:Types of soil
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68:Great Britain
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45:
40:
32:
19:
1979:
1965:Martian soil
1407:
1403:
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1337:
1333:
1327:
1284:
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1231:
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1184:
1180:
1170:
1159:. Retrieved
1139:
1135:
1123:
1090:
1087:GSA Bulletin
1086:
1080:
1047:
1043:
1034:
1007:
1003:
993:
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901:
890:. Retrieved
870:
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777:
774:GSA Bulletin
773:
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746:
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731:
725:
703:(1): 41–70.
700:
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619:
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546:
534:
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522:Applications
516:metasomatism
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238:biodiversity
218:
195:
152:
139:
135:fossil soils
134:
111:volcanic ash
92:
88:soil science
84:paleontology
63:
59:
53:
2030:Terra rossa
2025:Terra preta
2005:Spodic soil
1925:Duplex soil
1905:Brown earth
1885:Alkali soil
1875:Rhizosphere
1870:Laimosphere
1744:(1974–1998)
1701:Inceptisols
1608:Plinthosols
1573:Kastanozems
963:(1): 1–52.
644:Pedogenesis
580:grains and
571:Paleobotany
553:soil carbon
281:pedologists
262:Precambrian
242:competition
48:Pleistocene
2069:Categories
2010:Stagnogley
1960:Lunar soil
1915:Dark earth
1900:Brickearth
1865:Pedosphere
1835:Soil crust
1643:Technosols
1628:Solonchaks
1548:Ferralsols
1513:Anthrosols
1161:2019-12-04
892:2019-12-04
655:References
610:leaf waxes
582:phytoliths
549:atmosphere
537:soil order
225:phosphorus
191:Quaternary
159:rainforest
149:Properties
123:Quaternary
56:geoscience
1995:Quicksand
1940:Fill dirt
1880:Bulk soil
1726:Vertisols
1716:Spodosols
1706:Mollisols
1696:Histosols
1681:Aridisols
1653:Vertisols
1648:Umbrisols
1638:Stagnosol
1603:Planosols
1598:Phaeozems
1578:Leptosols
1563:Gypsisols
1553:Fluvisols
1533:Chernozem
1528:Cambisols
1523:Calcisols
1518:Arenosols
1311:0002-9599
1262:1525-2027
1209:0301-9268
1179:levels".
1115:0016-7606
1072:0091-7613
985:0012-8252
942:1674-9871
802:0016-7606
325:lithology
270:Paleozoic
214:Paleocene
183:Australia
161:(or even
125:geology,
115:lithified
109:flows or
95:sediments
72:Australia
64:palaeosol
18:Palaeosol
2075:Pedology
1980:Paleosol
1895:Blue goo
1850:Gypcrust
1721:Ultisols
1691:Gelisols
1686:Entisols
1676:Andisols
1671:Alfisols
1633:Solonetz
1623:Retisols
1618:Regosols
1593:Nitisols
1588:Luvisols
1583:Lixisols
1568:Histosol
1558:Gleysols
1543:Durisols
1538:Cryosols
1508:Andosols
1498:Acrisols
1156:11542256
887:11542256
670:(2001).
628:See also
598:isotopes
230:nutrient
210:Mesozoic
179:alfisols
177:or even
175:ultisols
99:alluvium
60:paleosol
1930:Eluvium
1890:Bay mud
1855:Caliche
1845:Hardpan
1840:Claypan
1830:Subsoil
1825:Topsoil
1711:Oxisols
1613:Podzols
1503:Alisols
1491:(1998–)
1412:Bibcode
1377:Bibcode
1342:Bibcode
1319:5895659
1289:Bibcode
1240:Bibcode
1189:Bibcode
1095:Bibcode
1052:Bibcode
1044:Geology
1012:Bibcode
965:Bibcode
920:Bibcode
782:Bibcode
759:7162524
705:Bibcode
565:methane
311:bedrock
198:podsols
171:oxisols
163:savanna
155:climate
143:cratons
80:geology
2040:Yedoma
1975:Muskeg
1317:
1309:
1260:
1207:
1154:
1113:
1070:
983:
940:
885:
842:
823:: 754.
800:
757:
678:
586:silica
578:pollen
563:, and
561:oxygen
2020:Takir
1955:Loess
329:redox
121:. In
117:into
103:loess
1985:Peat
1820:Loam
1815:Clay
1810:Silt
1805:Sand
1315:OSTI
1307:ISSN
1258:ISSN
1205:ISSN
1152:PMID
1111:ISSN
1068:ISSN
981:ISSN
938:ISSN
883:PMID
840:ISBN
798:ISSN
755:PMID
676:ISBN
212:and
167:arid
119:rock
107:lava
82:and
76:soil
70:and
1970:Mud
1420:doi
1385:doi
1350:doi
1297:doi
1285:291
1248:doi
1197:doi
1185:147
1144:doi
1140:298
1103:doi
1091:121
1060:doi
1020:doi
973:doi
928:doi
875:doi
871:298
821:436
790:doi
778:105
713:doi
101:or
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66:in
54:In
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313:,
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20:)
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