1611:
879:
888:
693:
2301:"Genomic inference reveals that Scythians in the east and the west of the steppe zone can best be described as a mixture of Yamnaya-related ancestry and an East Asian component. Demographic modelling suggests independent origins for eastern and western groups with ongoing gene-flow between them, plausibly explaining the striking uniformity of their material culture. We also find evidence that significant gene-flow from east to west Eurasia must have occurred early during the Iron Age." and "The blend of EHG and Caucasian elements in carriers of the Yamnaya culture was formed on the European steppe and exported into Central Asia and Siberia". We therefore considered an alternative model in which we treat them as a mix of Yamnaya and the Han (Supplementary Table 25). This model fits all of the Iron Age Scythian groups, consistent with these groups having ancestry related to East Asians not found in the other populations. Alternatively, the Iron Age Scythian groups can also be modelled as a mix of Yamnaya and the north Siberian Nganasan (Supplementary Note 2, Supplementary Table 26).
1035:
1591:
996:
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ornamental plaques, and belt buckles. The daggers from Ordos sites such as
Taohongbala and Maoqinggou are different from those of the Shang and early Zhou periods. A new and rapidly spread ornamental feature is the dagger pommel with facing bird heads, or Antennae Style. This motif is very common to the north and west, and is found widely in South Siberia. (...) The consensus today is that the nomadic cultures of the Northern Zone in the late Warring States were directly linked to earlier inhabitants such as those of the lower strata of Taohongbala and Maoqinggou. There is no doubt, however, that the culture represented by these earlier sites expanded tremendously and, in certain areas such as the northeast, replaced earlier cultures such as Upper Xiajiadian.
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899:
1647:
1140:
314:
1011:
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an east
Eurasian origin includes the kurgan Arzhan 1 in Tuva, which is considered the earliest Scythian kurgan. Dating of additional burial sites situated in east and west Eurasia confirmed eastern kurgans as older than their western counterparts. Additionally, elements of the characteristic 'Animal Style' dated to the tenth century BCE were found in the region of the Yenisei river and modern-day China, supporting the early presence of Scythian culture in the East.
40:
4237:
328:
859:
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320:
1838:, p. 348: "From the first millennium b.c., we have abundant historical, archaeological and linguistic sources for the location of the territory inhabited by the Iranian peoples. In this period the territory of the northern Iranians, they being equestrian nomads, extended over the whole zone of the steppes and the wooded steppes and even the semi-deserts from the Great Hungarian Plain to the Ordos in northern China."
4247:
1553:. It is generally thought to be their homeland; however, when exactly they came to occupy the region is unclear and archaeological finds suggest it might have been much earlier than traditionally thought. The Xiongnu regained their homeland up to China's borders, more than ten years after their expulsion, during the post-Qin chaos when Meng Tian had died and convicts stationed to guard the borders returned home.
985:, but this is an impossibility since the Xiongnu were not yet in the region in the 4th century BCE and could not have imported these designs to northwestern China, and furthermore these styles actually disappeared soon after the arrival of the Xiongnu. They should instead be attributed to the pre-Xiongnu nomads would occupied the Ordos at that time, including possibly the
1610:
2228:
The Saka culture in
Xinjiang, the Shajing culture in Gansu, the Ordos complex in Inner Mongolia, and the Upper Xiajiadian culture of Liaoning, all point to a transition from mixed agropastoral to predominantly or exclusively pastoral nomadic cultures. From the seventh century onwards, objects related
2373:
The origin of the widespread
Scythian culture has long been debated in Eurasian archaeology. The northern Black Sea steppe was originally considered the homeland and centre of the Scythians until Terenozhkin formulated the hypothesis of a Central Asian origin. On the other hand, evidence supporting
1583:
Belt plaques in the shape of a kneeling horse in gilded silver, were made in North China for
Xiongnu patrons in 3rd-1st century BCE. Belt buckles with animal combat scenes were made in the 2nd-1st century BCE, mainly by North China workshops for the Xiongnu. These plates were inspired by the art of
2432:
BRONZE PRODUCTION. Bronze objects from
Scythian sites in northern China comprise fairly typical nomadic objects, which have a wide distribution throughout the Eurasian steppe belt. Among these the most characteristic are the straight blade double-edged dagger, horse gear, large ritual cauldrons,
929:
In
Northeast Asia, adjacent to the Ordos-style bronze dagger culture are the Liaoning-style bronze dagger and the Slender bronze dagger, which influence each other.Influenced by the Ordos-style bronze dagger, the Antenna-style bronze dagger was established in South Manchuria, Korea, and Northern
921:
The material used was bronze, in contrast to the silver and gold which appeared from the 4th century BC, together with the mounted-horse culture. Chariot ornaments disappeared from graves around that time. The artifacts were probably created in the foundries of the pre-Dynastic
1590:
2173:, p. 125 "The Mongoloid types of the Transbaikal area and Central and Eastern Mongolia are strongly contrasted with the Europoid type displayed at the same time by the Scythian nomads occupying Western Mongolia and their predecessors of the Bronze age."
1560:. It is thought the Xiongnu also occupied the Ordos area during the same period, when they came in direct contact with the Chinese. From there, the Xiongnu conducted numerous devastating raids into Chinese territory (167, 158, 142, 129 BCE).
829:
and modern-day China in the 10th century BC. The rapid spread of
Scythian culture, from the Eastern Scythians to the Western Scythians, is also confirmed by significant east-to-west gene flow across the steppes during the 1st millennium BC.
938:
Around the 4th century BC, grave goods starting to change markedly. The chariot, which had been a central funerary artifact among nomadic people, was replaced by the horse. The iconography of grave artifacts became clearly derived from
1823:, p. 369 "From that time until the HAN dynasty the Ordos steppe was the home of semi-nomadic Indo-European peoples whose culture can be regarded as an eastern province of a vast Eurasian continuum of Scytho-Siberian cultures."
917:
Several Ordos artifacts from the 6-5th century BC reflect a nomadic culture based on the chariot rather than the mounted horse. These include chariot ornaments for chariot yokes, which have been excavated in nomadic tombs.
1034:
1010:
995:
685:. Its relationship with the Xiongnu is controversial; for some scholars they are the same and for others different. Many buried metal artefacts have emerged on the surface of the land as a result of the progressive
2316:
Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin (3 March 2017).
2244:
Unterländer, Martina; Palstra, Friso; Lazaridis, Iosif; Pilipenko, Aleksandr; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Groß, Melanie; Sell, Christian; Blöcher, Jens; Kirsanow, Karola; Rohland, Nadin; Rieger, Benjamin (3 March 2017).
212:
The Ordos
Plateau was covered by grass, bushes, and trees and was sufficiently watered by numerous rivers and streams to produce rich grazing lands. At the time, it contained the best pasture lands on the
3241:
878:
962:
found at the southern edge of the Ordos desert exemplifies the new "intrusive style" introduced by the Ordos nomads. The motif of the "raptor-headed creature" is earlier documented from the
887:
232:. Some authors date the arrival from the north and west of these nomads practicing mounted warfare to the 4th century BC, corresponding roughly to the period of the conquests of
692:
837:
culture at the eastern edge of the Ordos area is also considered as a "Scythian culture", which ultimately disappeared in the 3rd-2nd centuries BCE with the onset of the
1022:
669:
The Ordos are mainly known from their skeletal remains and artifacts. The Ordos culture of about 500 BCE to 100 CE is known for its "Ordos bronzes", blade weapons,
2389:
Masters of the Steppe: The Impact of the
Scythians and Later Nomad Societies of Eurasia: Proceedings of a conference held at the British Museum, 27-29 October 2017
971:
3473:
3418:
2229:
to improved horse management and horse riding, such as the bit, cheekpieces, horse masks, and bell ornaments, became ever more widespread and sophisticated.
1575:
in 127 BCE. Prior to this campaign, there were already earlier commanderies established by Qin and Zhao before they were overrun by the Xiongnu in 209 BCE.
3907:
771:
Recent archeological and genetic data suggests that the Western and Eastern Scythians of the 1st millennium BC originated independently, but both combine
291:, who consolidated their eastern empire by the end of the 3rd century BC. yet on other occasions Chinese sources often just classified the Xiongnu as a
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4088:
4041:
4018:
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2446:
2010:
1646:
1556:
As the Xiongnu expanded southward into Yuezhi territory around 160 BCE under Modun, the Yuezhi in turn defeated the Sakas and pushed them away at
1016:
Gold stag with eagle's head, characteristic of the new style introduced by the Ordos nomads. Excavated at the southern border of the Ordos desert.
4169:
2057:
in the east, and to the west we have the Loufan and shared borders with Qin and Han. Nevertheless, we have no mounted archers ready for action."
3093:. Seattle : Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, in association with University of Washington Press. pp. 22 & 90.
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292:
1616:
Belt plaque with design of wrestling men, Ordos region and western part of North China, 2nd century BC, bronze - Ethnological Museum, Berlin
4348:
4283:
3466:
2427:
The Cambridge History of Ancient China From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC. Chapter 13THE NORTHERN FRONTIER IN PRE-IMPERIAL CHINA
1139:
1101:
and Han peoples. The Ordos culture covered, geographically, regions later occupied by the Han, including areas just north of the later
911:, 6th century BC, and chariot yoke ornaments, Ordos, (5-4th century BC)Bronze sword distribution in Bronze culture around Ordos culture
313:
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335:
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1724:
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of the 1st millennium BC, are to be found among Eastern Scythians rather than their Western counterparts: eastern Scythian
2125:
account, both from the 1970s. Bunker, 200, sees them as the same, or rather the Ordos people as a subgroup of the Xiongnu.
1622:
3496:
1074:
origins and character of the Ordos culture are unknown, the population appears to have been significantly influenced by
4663:
3491:
3315:
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3160:
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or Northern Asian motifs. The new iconography of this period, combined with the fact that it first appears in southern
4373:
3501:
3369:
3291:
3191:
2618:
Coatsworth, John; Cole, Juan; Hanagan, Michael P.; Perdue, Peter C.; Tilly, Charles; Tilly, Louise (16 March 2015).
1120:, who reportedly drove them westward, out of China; a subgroup of the Yuezhi is widely believed to have migrated to
3088:
2030:
4276:
3129:
Andreeva, Petya (2020). "Animal Style at the Penn Museum: Rethinking Portable Steppe Art and Its Visual Tropes".
2161:, p. 125 "Europoid faces in some depictions of the Ordos, which should be attributed to a Scythian affinity"
4688:
4643:
4443:
3595:
3343:
3335:
2828:
2046:
1522:
1116:, although nothing is known of relations between the two. (The Yuezhi were later vanquished by the Xiongnu and
1083:
728:
suggests the Ordos culture had "a Scythian affinity". Other scholars have associated it with the Yuezhi or the
138:
4250:
3445:
1533:
729:
189:
130:
3428:. Language and Linguistics Monograph Series (53). Taipei, Taiwan: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.
2021:
at our borders. Yet we have no strong army to help us, surely we will lose the country. What is to be done?"
4493:
2776:
981:
These artifacts, such as those depicting raptor-headed mythological creatures, are often attributed to the
841:. Their culture expanded tremendously, and in the northeast of China replaced earlier cultures such as the
2702:
4612:
4582:
4388:
1075:
951:
to the west of the Ordos, suggests that these horse-mounted nomads came from Northern Asia and southern
251:
This also roughly corresponds to the period when mounted warfare was introduced in the Chinese state of
4543:
4269:
3208:
3152:
4428:
4338:
4207:
3585:
3561:
1767:
1676:
1517:(1994) contends that pre-241-BCE references to the Xiongnu are anachronistic substitutions for the
966:, and is part of a Eurasian symbolic system known from around the 7th century BC and identified in
761:
2509:
898:
4577:
3439:
3325:
3142:
3048:
975:
736:). The weapons found in tombs throughout the steppes of the Ordos are very close to those of the
721:
178:
673:
for tent-poles, horse gear, and small plaques and fittings for clothes and horse harness, using
3243:
History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Dawn of Civilization: Earliest Times to 700 B. C.
1740:
1161:
3283:
3181:
Nomadic art of the eastern Eurasian steppes: the Eugene V. Thaw and other New York collections
2672:
2619:
2387:
2118:
1714:
3067:
2723:
2645:
1542:
959:
256:
3047:
Kim, Moon-Ja (Professor, Dept. of Clothing & Textiles, Suwon University, Korea) (2006).
2122:
1004:
tattoo design with zoomorphic symbols, 4th century BC. A precursor of the new Ordos designs.
4528:
4458:
4240:
4212:
4133:
3810:
3426:
Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text
3402:
2713:'s northern borders. He often stationed at Dai and Wild Goose Gate, prepared the Xiongnu."
2621:
Global Connections: Volume 1, To 1500: Politics, Exchange, and Social Life in World History
2330:
2258:
2050:
2038:
2018:
1568:
1514:
713:
2882:, Kāití's countries, those listed peoples' countries exist side-by-side in the Northwest."
8:
4648:
4453:
4383:
4343:
4323:
4123:
4098:
4058:
3764:
3301:
3275:
3148:
Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present
3029:
2042:
1769:
Inner Asia and the Spatial Politics of Empire: Archaeology, Mobility, and Culture Contact
1678:
Inner Asia and the Spatial Politics of Empire: Archaeology, Mobility, and Culture Contact
1564:
1450:
1293:
1102:
974:
was also excavated in the Ordos, and dated to the 3rd century BC. New techniques such as
775:-related ancestry, which spread eastwards from the area of the European steppes, with an
725:
508:
233:
3362:
The Original Xiongnu, An Archaeological Exploration of the Xiongnu's History and Culture
2984:
2467:
2334:
2262:
19:
This article is about the Bronze and Iron Age culture. For the Paleolithic culture, see
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3517:
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2318:
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2246:
1271:
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2795:. The Xiongnu chanyu was Touman; Touman could not win against Qin, so he fled north."
978:
were also introduced from the west across Eurasia and would then be adopted by China.
867:
4518:
4513:
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4418:
4363:
4358:
4328:
4226:
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3311:
3287:
3254:
3212:
3187:
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3094:
2878:、開題之國、列人之國並在西北。" translation: "Within the Seas: south-eastern corner westwards. The
2678:
2651:
2625:
2393:
2364:
2346:
2292:
2274:
2183:
1994:
1848:
1784:
1746:
1720:
1693:
1499:
1227:
1094:-speaking nomadic tribe located to the east, suggesting that the two had close ties.
776:
543:
384:
353:
221:
83:
3233:
2772:. quote: "後秦滅六國，而始皇帝使蒙恬將十萬之眾北擊胡，悉收河南地。…… 匈奴單于曰頭曼，頭曼不勝秦，北徙。" translation: "Later on,
1145:
1078:. However, the art of the Ordos culture appears to have similarities to that of the
793:
On the other hand, archaeological evidence now tends to suggest that the origins of
4678:
4592:
4587:
4533:
4498:
4463:
4448:
4398:
4378:
4368:
4333:
4318:
4006:
3963:
3951:
3929:
3867:
3862:
3850:
3805:
3776:
3754:
3633:
3539:
3237:
2871:
2354:
2338:
2319:"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe"
2282:
2266:
2247:"Ancestry and demography and descendants of Iron Age nomads of the Eurasian Steppe"
1776:
1685:
1507:
1383:
842:
794:
733:
495:
193:
20:
2808:
1097:
The Ordos population was also in contact – and reportedly often at war – with the
220:
Equestrian nomads from the north-west occupied the area previously settled by the
4693:
4523:
4438:
4423:
4408:
4189:
4118:
4107:
4075:
4051:
4046:
3793:
3744:
3672:
3621:
3329:
3305:
3202:
3146:
1431:
1328:
1172:
1071:
1001:
963:
940:
783:
745:
705:
701:
686:
471:
410:
397:
274:
181:
61:
4433:
3451:
2447:"A SURVEY OF BRONZE AND EARLY IRON AGE TOOLS AND WEAPONS FROM NORTHERN MONGOLIA"
2425:
933:
240:. They came in several waves from Central Asia and Southern Siberia through the
173:
from c. 800 BCE to 150 BCE. The Ordos culture is known for significant finds of
113:
4597:
4567:
4538:
4473:
4230:
4184:
4146:
3996:
3986:
3980:
3934:
3879:
3845:
3815:
3749:
3739:
3703:
2851:
1503:
1482:
1370:
1183:
717:
373:
299:
273:(林胡 "Forest Nomads"), who stimulated the interest of the Zhao king with their "
241:
158:
118:
87:
2087:
Ancient China and its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History
1780:
1689:
204:
dynasties, the area came under the control of contemporaneous Chinese states.
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4572:
4508:
4503:
4488:
4483:
4403:
4113:
4083:
3840:
3687:
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3650:
3529:
3236:(1992). "The Emergence of the Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages". In
2925:
2847:
2839:
2820:
2788:
2780:
2769:
2350:
2278:
1982:
1538:
1518:
1339:
1280:
1194:
1125:
1079:
826:
787:
482:
438:
265:
95:
3419:"Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words"
2223:
Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China (Cambridge History of Ancient China)
4302:
4179:
3956:
3912:
3769:
3721:
3682:
2792:
2728:
ChinaKnowledge.de - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art
2710:
2404:
In the eastern end of the Scythian world in northern China, in the area of
2368:
2296:
2184:"The genetic and linguistic evidence for the xiongnu-yenisseian hypothesis"
1849:"The genetic and linguistic evidence for the xiongnu-yenisseian hypothesis"
1597:
1584:
the steppes, but the design was flattened and compressed within the frame.
1550:
1315:
1106:
923:
821:
803:
678:
674:
598:
563:
552:
530:
252:
237:
214:
174:
91:
50:
4393:
4063:
3944:
3895:
3566:
3544:
3522:
2773:
2014:
1998:
1546:
1527:
1350:
1207:
716:. Because the people represented in archaeological finds tend to display
682:
201:
197:
105:
3204:
Social Complexity in Prehistoric Eurasia: Monuments, Metals and Mobility
2342:
2270:
1521:
instead. They are also mentioned in Chinese sources, official ones like
39:
4553:
4310:
4292:
4011:
3939:
3655:
3638:
3626:
3579:
3549:
1596:
Belt buckle with paired felines attacking ibexes, derived from earlier
1511:
1462:
1458:
1405:
1112:
To the west of the Ordos culture was another Indo-European people, the
1059:
908:
834:
779:-related component, which most closely corresponds to the modern North
613:
244:
before settling in the Ordos region. They may have interacted with the
166:
146:
65:
24:
4035:
3900:
3872:
3405:
2784:
1557:
1474:
1054:
858:
737:
585:
3380:
3000:
2998:
2315:
2243:
790:, to varying degrees, but generally higher among Eastern Scythians.
696:
Belt plaque, with a tiger subduing an ibex, Ordos, 6-5th century BCE
228:
from the 6th to the 2nd century BCE before being driven away by the
4624:
4413:
3855:
3441:
The Relief Plaques of Eastern Eurasia and China - The Ordos Bronzes
2885:
2855:
2405:
2221:
1572:
1571:, and the Han colonized the area of the Ordos as the commandery of
1478:
1454:
1247:
1041:
765:
757:
447:
319:
170:
2033:, "King Wuling spends his day in idleness", quote: "自常山以至代、上黨，東有燕、
1394:
574:
4163:
3823:
3798:
3643:
2995:
2703:
Vol. 81 "Stories about Lian Po and Lin Xiangru - Addendum: Li Mu"
2451:
Ancient cultures of Mongolia, Southern Siberia and Northern China
1601:
1495:
1466:
1361:
1121:
982:
952:
944:
838:
808:
798:
780:
772:
287:
229:
150:
23:. For the history of human settlement in the Ordos Plateau, see
3786:
3250:
2843:
2816:
2787:
to lead a multitude of 100,000 north to attack the barbarians (
1418:
1238:
1113:
1098:
1063:
986:
819:) are older than western Scythian kurgans, and elements of the
812:
709:
670:
364:
245:
225:
154:
3406:"Ji Hu: Indigenous Inhabitants of Shaanbei and Western Shanxi"
3010:
2092:
4261:
3781:
3759:
3732:
3660:
3381:"Yuezhi et Kouchans, Pièges et dangers des sources chinoises"
3107:
2831:
2824:
2706:
2698:
2462:
2460:
1978:
1486:
1470:
1306:
1218:
1117:
948:
934:
Introduction of new metallurgy and style (4th-3rd century BC)
749:
646:
626:
344:
162:
3410:
Opuscula Altaica: Essays Presented in Honor of Henry Schwarz
3383:. In Bopearachchi, Osmund; Boussac, Marie-Françoise (eds.).
2490:
848:
145:) was a material culture occupying a region centered on the
3331:
The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture
2928:
quote: "十餘年而蒙恬死，諸侯畔秦，中國擾亂，諸秦所徙適戍邊者皆復去，於是匈奴得寬，復稍度河南與中國界於故塞。"
2617:
1716:
The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture
1449:
Territory of the Xiongnu in the 2nd century BC (before the
967:
816:
753:
741:
185:
2732:
2457:
2060:
2931:
2599:
1028:
Nomadic gold crown excavated in the Ordos, 3rd century BC
281:). Sometimes, Chinese sources clearly differentiated the
3201:
Hanks, Brian K.; Linduff, Katheryn M. (30 August 2009).
2815:、樓煩、月氏、孅犁、其龍、東胡，請令以橐駝、白玉、野馬、騊駼、駃騠、良弓為獻。" translation: "(
1131:
2960:
2958:
2478:
2386:
Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (21 January 2021).
1713:
Maenchen-Helfen, Otto; Helfen, Otto (1 January 1973).
2904:
2858:, wild horses taotu jueti, good bows as tributes."
2555:
harvnb error: no target: CITEREFKiyotaka_Nishie2019 (
1712:
744:. The Ordos culture has strong similarities with the
117:
Bronze statuette of a man, Ordos, 3-1st century BCE.
3385:
Afghanistan, Ancien carrefour entre l'est et l'ouest
2955:
2850:, (I) ask (your Majesty) to command (them) to bring
1049:
3300:
2705:text: "李牧者，趙之北邊良將也。常居代鴈門，備匈奴。" translation: "About
1959:
1820:
1652:
Horse attacked by tiger, Ordos, 4th-1st century BCE
700:The Ordos are thought to be the easternmost of the
2140:
3481:
2943:
2536:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPark_Sun_Mi2020 (
1058:The Ordos people were located at the doorstep of
4635:
3090:Traders and raiders on China's northern frontier
2979:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2430:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 885–966.
2226:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 951–952.
3324:
2550:
2410:there is a Scythian culture known as Maoqinggou
2146:
1745:. Seoul Selection. 18 July 2016. p. 1959.
1719:. University of California Press. p. 371.
1124:, where it constituted the ruling elite of the
177:and may represent the easternmost extension of
2896:sfn error: no target: CITEREFPulleyblank1994 (
2743:sfn error: no target: CITEREFPulleyblank1994 (
2674:The European Handbook of Central Asian Studies
2385:
2103:sfn error: no target: CITEREFPulleyblank1994 (
2071:sfn error: no target: CITEREFPulleyblank1994 (
1873:
1871:
1869:
1600:. Ordos, 3rd century BC. Usually described as
645:General location of the Ordos culture and the
4277:
3467:
2970:
2650:. Oxford University Press. 2002. p. 51.
2201:
1993:、樓煩、秦、韓之邊，而無彊兵之救，是亡社稷，柰何？" translation: "Now
1831:
1829:
1506:commanderies before 265 BCE, just before the
3310:. Macmillan International Higher Education.
3200:
3186:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
3072:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2823::) When rectifying the north, the Kongtong,
2392:. Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. p. 523.
1877:
1797:
1105:and straddling the northernmost hook of the
677:decoration with relationships both with the
3364:. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia University Press.
2891:
2872:"Classic of Regions Within the Seas: South"
2738:
2624:. Cambridge University Press. p. 138.
2531:
2098:
2066:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1866:
1765:
1674:
1578:
4284:
4270:
3474:
3460:
3416:
3274:
2937:
2605:
2207:
2170:
2158:
1883:
1826:
1803:
1498:'s early appearance was recorded north of
958:Gold and silver replaced tinned bronze. A
955:through Gansu, probably in several waves.
38:
2527:
2525:
2523:
2444:
2358:
2286:
1895:
1040:Gold belt buckle in Scythian style, from
849:Early bronze artifacts (6-5th century BC)
3232:
3141:
3128:
3086:
2544:
2423:
1930:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1889:
1835:
1628:Silver horse, Ordos, 4th–1st century BCE
1545:before it was occupied by the states of
1053:
691:
305:
112:
4654:Archaeological cultures of Central Asia
3401:
3387:. Turnhout: Brepols. pp. 421–539.
3378:
2811:". Quotes: "... 正北空同、大夏、莎車、姑他、旦略、豹胡、代翟、
2589:
2587:
2574:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2311:
2309:
2239:
2237:
1965:
1733:
1640:Belt buckle, Ordos, 3rd–1st century BCE
708:, just to the east of the better-known
681:of regions much further west, and also
4636:
3176:
3113:
3087:So, Jenny F.; Bunker, Emma C. (1995).
3016:
3004:
2964:
2677:. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 403.
2593:
2578:
2520:
2496:
2484:
2134:
1953:
1924:
1901:
1337:
1313:
926:for the nomadic herders of the Ordos.
550:
528:
4265:
3455:
2670:
2219:
2213:
2089:. Cambridge University Press. p. 129.
1907:
1429:
1392:
1381:
1368:
1359:
1348:
1304:
1291:
1278:
1269:
1256:
1245:
1236:
1225:
1216:
1205:
1192:
1181:
1159:
1150:
1132:Arrival of the Xiongnu (circa 160 BC)
611:
572:
561:
519:
506:
493:
480:
469:
456:
445:
436:
421:
408:
395:
371:
362:
351:
342:
333:
327:
2584:
2563:
2306:
2234:
1416:
1403:
1326:
1170:
624:
596:
583:
541:
382:
157:to the north, all located in modern
4246:
3307:Macmillan Dictionary of Archaeology
3046:
3040:
2445:Matsumoto, Keita (1 January 2021).
2417:
1816:
1814:
1812:
825:are first attested in areas of the
657:), and contemporary Asian polities
13:
3359:
2949:
2910:
2438:
2379:
259:, by groups called by the Chinese
14:
4705:
3433:
2926:Vol. 110 "Account of the Xiongnu"
2770:Vol. 110 "Account of the Xiongnu"
1050:Contact with neighbouring peoples
4669:Archaeological cultures of China
4245:
4236:
4235:
4225:
3049:"A Study on the Scythian Buckle"
2809:Explaining the King's Gatherings
2031:Stratagems of the Warring States
1809:
1645:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1589:
1144:
1138:
1033:
1021:
1009:
994:
897:
886:
877:
866:
857:
720:features, also earlier noted by
326:
318:
312:
149:(corresponding to the region of
3080:
3022:
2916:
2861:
2827:, Shache, Guta, Danlüe, Baohu,
2798:
2791:); he took all lands south the
2760:
2751:
2716:
2691:
2664:
2638:
2611:
2502:
2176:
2164:
2152:
2128:
2111:
2079:
2053:, our lands border Yan and the
2024:
1971:
651:
298:, which was a blanket term for
4444:Liaoning bronze dagger culture
4291:
3336:University of California Press
2039:Jennifer Dodgson's translation
1841:
1759:
1706:
1668:
1523:Records of the Grand Historian
1087:
269:(東胡 "Eastern Nomads") and the
142:
134:
1:
4674:Archaeology of Inner Mongolia
3482:Prehistoric cultures of China
1766:Honeychurch, William (2015).
1675:Honeychurch, William (2015).
1657:
1534:Classic of Mountains and Seas
1453:of 133 BC – 89 AD): includes
714:Indo-European-speaking people
658:
207:
4494:South-Western Iberian Bronze
3030:"Metropolitan Museum of Art"
2985:"Metropolitan Museum of Art"
2468:"Metropolitan Museum of Art"
1997:is at our heart and belly ,
1662:
1062:, and were just east of the
907:Scythian-style daggers from
7:
4659:Bronze Age cultures of Asia
3056:Journal of Fashion Business
3007:, pp. 29, 101 item 68.
2709:, he was a good general at
2408:to the northwest of Ordos,
1525:, and unofficial ones like
960:Gold stag with eagle's head
811:(such as the Altaic kurgan
10:
4710:
4544:Wilburton-Wallington Phase
3379:Thierry, François (2005).
3209:Cambridge University Press
3153:Princeton University Press
3122:
2779:six other states, and the
1983:"Hereditary House of Zhao"
1742:The Silk Road Encyclopedia
18:
4664:Iron Age cultures of Asia
4621:
4552:
4429:Indus Valley Civilisation
4339:Armorican Tumulus culture
4309:
4299:
4221:
4208:Yellow River civilization
4198:
4155:
4132:
4097:
4074:
4027:
3972:
3888:
3833:
3713:
3614:
3510:
3487:
3417:Schuessler, Axel (2014).
2757:Schuessler (2014), p. 264
2424:Di Cosmo, Nicola (2008).
2220:Cosmo, Nicola Di (1999).
1781:10.1007/978-1-4939-1815-7
1690:10.1007/978-1-4939-1815-7
101:
79:
71:
56:
46:
37:
3889:Middle and Upper Yangtze
3240:; Masson, V. M. (eds.).
3183:(fully available online)
3177:Bunker, Emma C. (2002).
3143:Beckwith, Christopher I.
2722:Theobald, Ulrich (2019)
2085:Di Cosmo, Nicola. 2002.
1878:Hanks & Linduff 2009
1821:Macmillan Education 2016
1579:Xiongnu period artifacts
1469:, and parts of northern
762:Upper Xiajiadian culture
325:
188:, or may be linkable to
4389:Deverel–Rimbury culture
3019:, p. 106, item 74.
2894:, p. 516, 519-523.
2510:"Finial British Museum"
2037:之境，西有樓煩、秦、韓之邊，而無騎射之備。"
1537:as having occupied the
1066:in the 3rd century BCE.
797:, characterized by its
722:Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen
3973:Lower Yangtze and Huai
3596:Liaoning bronze dagger
3116:, p. 104 item 72.
2671:Fauve, Jeroen (2021).
2647:Atlas of World History
1985:quote: "今中山在我腹心，北有燕，東有
1076:Indo-European cultures
1067:
801:burial mounds and its
697:
275:archery from horseback
122:
16:Archaeological culture
4689:Scytho-Siberian world
4644:Indo-European peoples
3403:Pulleyblank, Edwin G.
3326:Maenchen-Helfen, Otto
2499:, p. 69 item 35.
2323:Nature Communications
2251:Nature Communications
1543:Warring States period
1057:
695:
306:Early characteristics
257:Warring States period
116:
4459:Mumun pottery period
4213:Yangtze civilization
3276:Lebedynsky, Yaroslav
3253:. pp. 346–370.
2551:Kiyotaka Nishie 2019
2147:Maenchen-Helfen 1973
1569:Emperor Gaozu of Han
1446:class=notpageimage|
641:class=notpageimage|
4454:Minoan civilization
4384:Deer stones culture
4344:Atlantic Bronze Age
4324:Aegean civilization
3714:Middle Yellow River
3360:Ma, Liqing (2005).
3302:Macmillan Education
2913:, pp. 220–225.
2783:dispatched general
2343:10.1038/ncomms14615
2335:2017NatCo...814615U
2271:10.1038/ncomms14615
2263:2017NatCo...814615U
1604:despite early date.
1103:Great Wall of China
1044:M2 (4th–3rd c. BCE)
726:Iaroslav Lebedynsky
234:Alexander the Great
139:traditional Chinese
34:
4603:Leyla-Tepe culture
4560:and Transcaucasia)
4374:Chinese Bronze Age
4354:Bronze Age Britain
3834:Lower Yellow River
3615:Upper Yellow River
3511:Northeastern China
2846:, Xianli, Qilong,
2553:, pp. 173–193
2534:, pp. 159–185
2514:The British Museum
2149:, pp. 369–375
2101:, p. 519-520.
1880:, pp. 284–286
1473:including Western
1122:South Central Asia
1068:
972:nomadic gold crown
768:to the northeast.
698:
131:simplified Chinese
123:
47:Geographical range
32:
4631:
4630:
4514:Terramare culture
4469:Nordic Bronze Age
4419:Hallstatt culture
4364:Canegrate culture
4359:Bronze Age Europe
4329:Andronovo culture
4259:
4258:
4203:Liao civilization
3394:978-2-503-51681-3
3260:978-92-3-102719-2
3145:(16 March 2009).
3100:978-0-295-97473-6
3034:www.metmuseum.org
2989:www.metmuseum.org
2874:text: "海內東南陬以西者。
2684:978-3-8382-1518-1
2657:978-0-19-521921-0
2631:978-1-316-29777-3
2487:, pp. 64–65.
2472:www.metmuseum.org
2399:978-1-78969-648-6
1790:978-1-4939-1814-0
1752:978-1-62412-076-3
1726:978-0-520-01596-8
1699:978-1-4939-1814-0
1515:Edwin Pulleyblank
947:and southeastern
752:to the west, the
656:
545:MACEDONIAN EMPIRE
263:(胡, "Nomads") or
222:Zhukaigou culture
111:
110:
84:Zhukaigou culture
4701:
4561:
4534:Urnfield culture
4499:Srubnaya culture
4464:Mycenaean Greece
4449:Lusatian culture
4399:Ewart Park Phase
4379:Cycladic culture
4369:Catacomb culture
4334:Apennine culture
4319:Abashevo culture
4286:
4279:
4272:
4263:
4262:
4249:
4248:
4239:
4238:
4229:
3586:Upper Xiajiadian
3562:Lower Xiajiadian
3476:
3469:
3462:
3453:
3452:
3429:
3423:
3413:
3398:
3375:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3321:
3297:
3284:Éditions Errance
3271:
3269:
3267:
3248:
3229:
3227:
3225:
3197:
3173:
3171:
3169:
3138:
3117:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3071:
3063:
3053:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3026:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2993:
2992:
2981:
2968:
2962:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2901:
2892:Pulleyblank 1994
2889:
2883:
2865:
2859:
2805:Lost Book of Shu
2802:
2796:
2764:
2758:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2739:Pulleyblank 1994
2736:
2730:
2720:
2714:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2582:
2581:, pp. 23–24
2576:
2561:
2560:
2548:
2542:
2541:
2532:Park Sun Mi 2020
2529:
2518:
2517:
2506:
2500:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2475:
2464:
2455:
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2435:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2383:
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2313:
2304:
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2290:
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2231:
2217:
2211:
2205:
2199:
2198:
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2180:
2174:
2168:
2162:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2099:Pulleyblank 1994
2096:
2090:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2067:Pulleyblank 1994
2064:
2058:
2028:
2022:
1975:
1969:
1963:
1957:
1956:, pp. 27–28
1951:
1928:
1922:
1905:
1904:, pp. 26–29
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1859:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1824:
1818:
1807:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1774:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1710:
1704:
1703:
1683:
1672:
1649:
1637:
1625:
1613:
1593:
1508:Zhao-Xiongnu War
1440:
1438:
1427:
1425:
1414:
1412:
1401:
1399:
1390:
1388:
1379:
1377:
1366:
1364:
1357:
1355:
1346:
1344:
1335:
1333:
1324:
1322:
1311:
1309:
1302:
1300:
1289:
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1276:
1274:
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1265:
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1252:
1243:
1241:
1234:
1232:
1223:
1221:
1214:
1212:
1203:
1201:
1190:
1188:
1179:
1177:
1168:
1166:
1157:
1155:
1148:
1142:
1089:
1037:
1025:
1013:
998:
970:burial sites. A
901:
890:
881:
870:
861:
843:Upper Xiajiadian
795:Scythian culture
730:Palaeo-Siberians
663:
660:
655:
654:
650:
635:
633:
622:
620:
609:
607:
594:
592:
581:
579:
570:
568:
559:
557:
548:
546:
539:
537:
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524:
517:
515:
504:
502:
491:
489:
478:
476:
467:
465:
454:
452:
443:
441:
434:
432:
419:
417:
406:
404:
393:
391:
380:
378:
369:
367:
360:
358:
349:
347:
340:
338:
330:
329:
322:
316:
248:in the process.
190:Palaeo-Siberians
144:
136:
42:
35:
31:
21:Ordosian culture
4709:
4708:
4704:
4703:
4702:
4700:
4699:
4698:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4617:
4613:Khojaly–Gadabay
4583:Shulaveri-Shomu
4559:
4558:(North Caucasus
4557:
4556:
4548:
4529:Únětice culture
4524:Tumulus culture
4439:Karasuk culture
4424:Helladic period
4414:Argaric culture
4409:Glazkov culture
4305:
4295:
4290:
4260:
4255:
4217:
4194:
4151:
4128:
4093:
4070:
4023:
3968:
3884:
3829:
3709:
3610:
3506:
3483:
3480:
3444:- video by Sir
3436:
3421:
3395:
3372:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3318:
3294:
3265:
3263:
3261:
3246:
3234:Harmatta, János
3223:
3221:
3219:
3194:
3167:
3165:
3163:
3125:
3120:
3112:
3108:
3101:
3085:
3081:
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3045:
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3028:
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3023:
3015:
3011:
3003:
2996:
2983:
2982:
2971:
2963:
2956:
2948:
2944:
2938:Lebedynsky 2007
2936:
2932:
2921:
2917:
2909:
2905:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2866:
2862:
2803:
2799:
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2756:
2752:
2742:
2737:
2733:
2721:
2717:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2669:
2665:
2658:
2644:
2643:
2639:
2632:
2616:
2612:
2606:Lebedynsky 2007
2604:
2600:
2592:
2585:
2577:
2564:
2554:
2549:
2545:
2535:
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2521:
2508:
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2422:
2418:
2400:
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2380:
2314:
2307:
2242:
2235:
2218:
2214:
2208:Lebedynsky 2007
2206:
2202:
2192:
2190:
2182:
2181:
2177:
2171:Lebedynsky 2007
2169:
2165:
2159:Lebedynsky 2007
2157:
2153:
2145:
2141:
2133:
2129:
2116:
2112:
2102:
2097:
2093:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2065:
2061:
2029:
2025:
1976:
1972:
1964:
1960:
1952:
1931:
1923:
1908:
1900:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1876:
1867:
1857:
1855:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1834:
1827:
1819:
1810:
1804:Lebedynsky 2007
1802:
1798:
1791:
1775:. p. 112.
1772:
1764:
1760:
1753:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1684:. p. 112.
1681:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1653:
1650:
1641:
1638:
1629:
1626:
1617:
1614:
1605:
1594:
1581:
1565:Han–Xiongnu War
1500:Wild Goose Gate
1492:
1491:
1490:
1451:Han–Xiongnu War
1448:
1442:
1441:
1435:
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1419:
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1402:
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1244:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1219:
1217:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1195:
1193:
1191:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1134:
1072:ethnolinguistic
1052:
1045:
1038:
1029:
1026:
1017:
1014:
1005:
999:
964:Pazyryk culture
936:
915:
914:
913:
912:
904:
903:
902:
893:
892:
891:
883:
882:
873:
872:
871:
863:
862:
851:
784:Nganasan people
756:culture of the
746:Shajing culture
732:(specifically,
706:Eurasian Steppe
702:Iranian peoples
689:of the region.
687:desertification
667:
666:
665:
664:
661:
652:
643:
637:
636:
627:
625:
623:
614:
612:
610:
603:
599:
597:
595:
586:
584:
582:
575:
573:
571:
566:
564:
562:
560:
555:
553:
551:
549:
544:
542:
540:
534:
531:
529:
527:
522:
520:
518:
509:
507:
505:
496:
494:
492:
483:
481:
479:
472:
470:
468:
462:
459:
457:
455:
448:
446:
444:
439:
437:
435:
428:
424:
422:
420:
411:
409:
407:
401:
398:
396:
394:
388:
385:
383:
381:
374:
372:
370:
365:
363:
361:
354:
352:
350:
345:
343:
341:
336:
334:
332:
331:
323:
308:
210:
182:Eurasian nomads
94:
90:
86:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4707:
4697:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4629:
4628:
4622:
4619:
4618:
4616:
4615:
4610:
4605:
4600:
4598:Maykop culture
4595:
4590:
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4564:
4562:
4550:
4549:
4547:
4546:
4541:
4539:Wessex culture
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4474:Okunev culture
4471:
4466:
4461:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4315:
4313:
4307:
4306:
4300:
4297:
4296:
4289:
4288:
4281:
4274:
4266:
4257:
4256:
4254:
4253:
4243:
4233:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4216:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4195:
4193:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4159:
4157:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4149:
4144:
4138:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4103:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4086:
4080:
4078:
4072:
4071:
4069:
4068:
4067:
4066:
4056:
4055:
4054:
4044:
4039:
4031:
4029:
4028:Southern China
4025:
4024:
4022:
4021:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4004:
3999:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3976:
3974:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3961:
3960:
3959:
3949:
3948:
3947:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3922:
3921:
3920:
3910:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3882:
3877:
3876:
3875:
3865:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3848:
3843:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3827:
3820:
3819:
3818:
3816:Xiaoshuangqiao
3813:
3803:
3802:
3801:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3784:
3774:
3773:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3725:
3717:
3715:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3664:
3663:
3658:
3648:
3647:
3646:
3641:
3631:
3630:
3629:
3618:
3616:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3576:
3571:
3570:
3569:
3559:
3554:
3553:
3552:
3547:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3526:
3525:
3514:
3512:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3478:
3471:
3464:
3456:
3450:
3449:
3435:
3434:External links
3432:
3431:
3430:
3414:
3399:
3393:
3376:
3370:
3357:
3344:
3322:
3317:978-1349075898
3316:
3298:
3292:
3272:
3259:
3230:
3218:978-0521517126
3217:
3198:
3192:
3174:
3162:978-1400829941
3161:
3139:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3106:
3099:
3079:
3039:
3021:
3009:
2994:
2969:
2954:
2952:, p. 224.
2942:
2940:, p. 131.
2930:
2915:
2903:
2884:
2860:
2797:
2759:
2750:
2741:, p. 520.
2731:
2715:
2690:
2683:
2663:
2656:
2637:
2630:
2610:
2608:, p. 124.
2598:
2583:
2562:
2543:
2519:
2501:
2489:
2477:
2456:
2437:
2416:
2398:
2378:
2305:
2233:
2212:
2200:
2175:
2163:
2151:
2139:
2127:
2110:
2091:
2078:
2069:, p. 518.
2059:
2023:
2001:to the north,
1970:
1958:
1929:
1906:
1894:
1882:
1865:
1840:
1825:
1808:
1796:
1789:
1758:
1751:
1732:
1725:
1705:
1698:
1666:
1664:
1661:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1651:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1608:
1606:
1595:
1588:
1580:
1577:
1483:Inner Mongolia
1444:
1443:
1143:
1137:
1136:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1039:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1008:
1006:
1000:
993:
935:
932:
906:
905:
896:
895:
894:
885:
884:
876:
875:
874:
865:
864:
856:
855:
854:
853:
852:
850:
847:
644:
639:
638:
324:
317:
311:
310:
309:
307:
304:
300:nomadic people
242:Gansu corridor
226:Shimao culture
209:
206:
184:, such as the
159:Inner Mongolia
119:British Museum
109:
108:
103:
99:
98:
88:Shimao culture
81:
77:
76:
75:c. 800–150 BCE
73:
69:
68:
58:
54:
53:
48:
44:
43:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4706:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4626:
4620:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4596:
4594:
4591:
4589:
4586:
4584:
4581:
4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4555:
4551:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4504:Tagar culture
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4489:Samus culture
4487:
4485:
4484:Penard Period
4482:
4480:
4479:Ordos culture
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4455:
4452:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4442:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4404:Ezero culture
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4298:
4294:
4287:
4282:
4280:
4275:
4273:
4268:
4267:
4264:
4252:
4244:
4242:
4234:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4223:
4220:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4200:
4197:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4161:
4160:
4158:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4131:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4109:
4105:
4104:
4102:
4100:
4096:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4077:
4073:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4057:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4037:
4033:
4032:
4030:
4026:
4020:
4017:
4013:
4010:
4009:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3978:
3977:
3975:
3971:
3965:
3962:
3958:
3955:
3954:
3953:
3950:
3946:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3919:
3916:
3915:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3902:
3899:
3898:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3881:
3878:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3857:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3807:
3804:
3800:
3797:
3796:
3795:
3792:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3778:
3775:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3738:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3726:
3723:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3649:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3632:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3623:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3613:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3581:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3524:
3521:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3486:
3477:
3472:
3470:
3465:
3463:
3458:
3457:
3454:
3447:
3446:John Boardman
3443:
3442:
3438:
3437:
3427:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3377:
3373:
3371:7-81074-796-7
3367:
3363:
3358:
3347:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3313:
3309:
3308:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3293:9782877723466
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3262:
3256:
3252:
3245:
3244:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3220:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3205:
3199:
3195:
3193:9780300096880
3189:
3185:
3184:
3180:
3175:
3164:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3126:
3115:
3110:
3102:
3096:
3092:
3091:
3083:
3075:
3069:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3043:
3035:
3031:
3025:
3018:
3013:
3006:
3001:
2999:
2990:
2986:
2980:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2967:, p. 29.
2966:
2961:
2959:
2951:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2927:
2924:
2919:
2912:
2907:
2899:
2893:
2888:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2868:Shan Hai Jing
2864:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2821:Tang of Shang
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2801:
2794:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2781:First Emperor
2778:
2775:
2771:
2768:
2763:
2754:
2746:
2740:
2735:
2729:
2725:
2719:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2701:
2700:
2694:
2686:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2667:
2659:
2653:
2649:
2648:
2641:
2633:
2627:
2623:
2622:
2614:
2607:
2602:
2595:
2590:
2588:
2580:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2567:
2558:
2552:
2547:
2539:
2533:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2498:
2493:
2486:
2481:
2473:
2469:
2463:
2461:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2434:
2429:
2428:
2420:
2413:
2411:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2391:
2390:
2382:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2312:
2310:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2240:
2238:
2230:
2225:
2224:
2216:
2210:, p. 127
2209:
2204:
2189:
2185:
2179:
2172:
2167:
2160:
2155:
2148:
2143:
2137:, p. 200
2136:
2131:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2106:
2100:
2095:
2088:
2082:
2074:
2068:
2063:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2027:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2009:to the west,
2008:
2005:to the east,
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1974:
1967:
1962:
1955:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1926:
1921:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1903:
1898:
1891:
1890:Beckwith 2009
1886:
1879:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1854:
1850:
1844:
1837:
1836:Harmatta 1992
1832:
1830:
1822:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1806:, p. 131
1805:
1800:
1792:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1771:
1770:
1762:
1754:
1748:
1744:
1743:
1736:
1728:
1722:
1718:
1717:
1709:
1701:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1679:
1671:
1667:
1648:
1643:
1636:
1631:
1624:
1619:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1592:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1561:
1559:
1554:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1539:Ordos plateau
1536:
1535:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1439:
1437:
1426:
1424:
1423:
1413:
1411:
1410:
1400:
1398:
1389:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1365:
1356:
1345:
1334:
1323:
1321:
1310:
1301:
1299:
1298:
1288:
1286:
1285:
1275:
1266:
1264:
1253:
1251:
1242:
1233:
1231:
1222:
1213:
1202:
1200:
1199:
1189:
1187:
1178:
1167:
1156:
1147:
1141:
1129:
1127:
1126:Kushan Empire
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1080:Donghu people
1077:
1073:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1043:
1036:
1031:
1024:
1019:
1012:
1007:
1003:
997:
992:
991:
990:
988:
984:
979:
977:
973:
969:
965:
961:
956:
954:
950:
946:
942:
931:
927:
925:
919:
910:
900:
889:
880:
869:
860:
846:
844:
840:
836:
831:
828:
827:Yenisei river
824:
823:
818:
814:
810:
806:
805:
800:
796:
791:
789:
788:Yenisey River
786:of the lower
785:
782:
778:
774:
769:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
719:
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707:
703:
694:
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648:
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631:
621:
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569:
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392:
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368:
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348:
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321:
315:
303:
301:
297:
295:
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284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
267:
262:
258:
255:, during the
254:
249:
247:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
218:
216:
205:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
180:
179:Indo-European
176:
172:
168:
165:) during the
164:
160:
156:
152:
148:
140:
132:
128:
127:Ordos culture
120:
115:
107:
104:
100:
97:
96:Xicha culture
93:
89:
85:
82:
78:
74:
70:
67:
63:
59:
55:
52:
51:Ordos Plateau
49:
45:
41:
36:
33:Ordos culture
30:
26:
22:
4478:
4303:Chalcolithic
3957:Panlongcheng
3770:Yangguanzhai
3722:Nanzhuangtou
3692:
3440:
3425:
3409:
3384:
3361:
3349:. Retrieved
3330:
3306:
3279:
3264:. Retrieved
3242:
3222:. Retrieved
3203:
3182:
3179:
3166:. Retrieved
3147:
3134:
3131:Orientations
3130:
3109:
3089:
3082:
3068:cite journal
3059:
3055:
3042:
3033:
3024:
3012:
2988:
2945:
2933:
2922:
2918:
2906:
2887:
2879:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2835:
2812:
2804:
2800:
2793:Yellow River
2766:
2762:
2753:
2734:
2727:
2718:
2697:
2693:
2673:
2666:
2646:
2640:
2620:
2613:
2601:
2596:, p. 30
2546:
2513:
2504:
2492:
2480:
2471:
2450:
2440:
2431:
2426:
2419:
2409:
2403:
2388:
2381:
2372:
2326:
2322:
2300:
2254:
2250:
2227:
2222:
2215:
2203:
2191:. Retrieved
2188:ResearchGate
2187:
2178:
2166:
2154:
2142:
2130:
2113:
2094:
2086:
2081:
2062:
2054:
2034:
2026:
2006:
2002:
1990:
1986:
1977:
1973:
1966:Thierry 2005
1961:
1927:, p. 26
1897:
1892:, p. 71
1885:
1856:. Retrieved
1853:ResearchGate
1852:
1843:
1799:
1768:
1761:
1741:
1735:
1715:
1708:
1677:
1670:
1598:Scythian art
1582:
1562:
1555:
1532:
1526:
1493:
1433:
1421:
1420:
1408:
1407:
1396:
1373:
1372:
1317:
1296:
1295:
1283:
1282:
1260:
1258:
1249:
1229:
1197:
1196:
1185:
1111:
1107:Yellow River
1096:
1069:
980:
957:
937:
928:
924:State of Qin
920:
916:
832:
822:Animal style
820:
804:Animal style
802:
792:
770:
699:
679:Scythian art
675:animal style
668:
629:
628:
616:
615:
601:
600:
588:
587:
576:
532:
511:
510:
498:
497:
485:
484:
473:
460:
458:
449:
426:
425:
413:
412:
399:
386:
375:
355:
293:
286:
282:
278:
270:
264:
260:
250:
238:Central Asia
219:
215:Asian Steppe
211:
196:. Under the
175:Scythian art
153:, including
126:
124:
92:Siwa culture
29:
4578:Kura–Araxes
4509:Tarim Basin
4394:Elp culture
4241:Archaeology
4124:Shirenzigou
4064:Fanchengdui
4059:Fanchengdui
3918:Tangjiagang
3896:Pengtoushan
3567:Xinglonggou
3545:Xinglonggou
3523:Xinglonggou
3492:Paleolithic
3448:, 3m 47 sec
3351:18 February
3280:Les nomades
3238:Dani, A. H.
3168:18 February
3114:Bunker 2002
3017:Bunker 2002
3005:Bunker 2002
2965:Bunker 2002
2594:Bunker 2002
2579:Bunker 2002
2497:Bunker 2002
2485:Bunker 2002
2406:Lake Daihai
2135:Bunker 2002
2043:Mount Chang
1954:Bunker 2002
1925:Bunker 2002
1902:Bunker 2002
1567:began with
1541:during the
1528:Yi Zhou Shu
1510:; however,
976:granulation
683:Chinese art
662: -325
106:Han dynasty
102:Followed by
80:Preceded by
4649:Ordos City
4638:Categories
4608:Jar-Burial
4554:Bronze Age
4434:Late Jomon
4311:Bronze Age
4293:Bronze Age
4052:Dayangzhou
4012:Guangfulin
4002:Lingjiatan
3940:Sanxingdui
3908:Chengbeixi
3698:Maoqinggou
3656:Xishanping
3639:Xishanping
3627:Xishanping
3606:Chaodaogou
3580:Xituanshan
3550:Niuheliang
3535:Zhaobaogou
3518:Xinglongwa
3502:Bronze Age
3412:: 499–531.
3345:0520015967
2724:"Li Mu 李牧"
2193:1 February
1858:1 February
1658:References
1512:sinologist
1463:Kyrgyzstan
1459:Kazakhstan
1409:Sarmatians
1070:While the
909:Maoqinggou
835:Maoqinggou
777:East Asian
760:, and the
734:Yeniseians
712:, also an
617:Massagetae
427:Slab-grave
208:Background
194:Yeniseians
169:and early
147:Ordos Loop
66:Bronze Age
25:Ordos Loop
4519:Trzciniec
4175:Xichengyi
4142:Dabenkeng
4036:Zengpiyan
3992:Majiabang
3981:Kuahuqiao
3925:Qujialing
3901:Bashidang
3873:Chengziya
3811:Zhengzhou
3765:Jiangzhai
3728:Peiligang
3704:Majiayuan
3668:Zhukaigou
3601:Jinggouzi
3591:Baijinbao
3574:Laohushan
3557:Xiaoheyan
3497:Neolithic
2785:Meng Tian
2777:conquered
2351:2041-1723
2329:: 14615.
2279:2041-1723
2257:: 14615.
2051:Shangdang
2007:Forest Hu
1995:Zhongshan
1663:Citations
1558:Issyk Kul
1519:Hu people
1475:Manchuria
1230:Korgantas
1165:BACTRIANS
1060:Qin China
738:Scythians
589:Scythians
356:Korgantas
64:to early
62:Neolithic
4625:Iron Age
4593:Trialeti
4588:Colchian
4099:Xinjiang
4007:Liangzhu
3964:Feijiahe
3952:Erligang
3930:Shijiahe
3868:Longshan
3863:Dawenkou
3856:Xishuipo
3851:Yangshao
3806:Erligang
3777:Longshan
3755:Yangshao
3634:Majiayao
3540:Hongshan
3328:(1973).
3304:(2016).
3278:(2007).
3224:13 March
3062:(6): 49.
2854:, white
2369:28256537
2297:28256537
2117:Compare
2041:: "From
1573:Shuofang
1479:Xinjiang
1465:, South
1455:Mongolia
1330:SELEUCID
1092:Mongolic
1042:Xigoupan
930:Kyushu.
813:Arzhan 1
781:Siberian
766:Liaoning
758:Xinjiang
718:Europoid
499:Chandman
285:and the
224:and the
171:Iron Age
4679:Xiongnu
4251:History
4231:History
4190:Shajing
4164:Beifudi
4119:Subeshi
4047:Wucheng
3824:Huanbei
3799:Xinzhai
3794:Erlitou
3745:Dadiwan
3673:Xindian
3644:Banshan
3622:Dadiwan
3123:Sources
2950:Ma 2005
2911:Ma 2005
2880:Xiōngnú
2836:Xiongnu
2360:5337992
2331:Bibcode
2288:5337992
2259:Bibcode
1602:Xiongnu
1496:Xiongnu
1467:Siberia
1461:, East
1457:, East
1363:XIONGNU
1354:DYNASTY
1320:culture
1263:culture
1250:SABEANS
1099:pre-Han
1084:Chinese
1002:Pazyryk
983:Xiongnu
953:Siberia
945:Ningxia
839:Xiongnu
809:kurgans
799:kurgans
773:Yamnaya
704:of the
671:finials
653:
649:realm (
604:matians
567:DYNASTY
535:culture
474:Pazyryk
463:culture
450:SABEANS
429:culture
414:Subeshi
288:Xiongnu
230:Xiongnu
151:Suiyuan
4694:Yuezhi
4568:Kurgan
4185:Shanma
4147:Beinan
4134:Taiwan
4108:Xiaohe
4089:Qugong
4042:Shixia
4019:Maqiao
3997:Songze
3987:Hemudu
3945:Jinsha
3935:Baodun
3880:Yueshi
3846:Beixin
3787:Shimao
3750:Baijia
3740:Cishan
3391:
3368:
3342:
3314:
3290:
3266:29 May
3257:
3251:UNESCO
3215:
3190:
3159:
3097:
2852:camels
2848:Donghu
2844:Yuezhi
2840:Loufan
2817:Yi Yin
2681:
2654:
2628:
2453:: 332.
2396:
2367:
2357:
2349:
2295:
2285:
2277:
2055:Donghu
2011:Loufan
1787:
1749:
1723:
1696:
1385:PTOLE-
1374:Khotan
1343:EMPIRE
1341:MAURYA
1332:EMPIRE
1240:YUEZHI
1211:GREEKS
1186:Sargat
1114:Yuezhi
1086::
1064:Yuezhi
987:Yuezhi
941:Altaic
710:Yuezhi
602:Sauro-
556:EMPIRE
440:DONGHU
376:Sargat
366:YUEZHI
296:people
277:" (騎射
266:Donghu
246:Yuezhi
167:Bronze
155:Baotou
143:鄂爾多斯文化
141::
135:鄂尔多斯文化
133::
57:Period
4573:Koban
4170:Yumin
4156:Other
4114:Tarim
4084:Karuo
4076:Tibet
3841:Houli
3782:Taosi
3760:Banpo
3733:Jiahu
3693:Ordos
3688:Kayue
3678:Xicha
3661:Lajia
3651:Qijia
3530:Xinle
3422:(PDF)
3247:(PDF)
3052:(PDF)
2923:Shiji
2825:Daxia
2767:Shiji
2707:Li Mu
2699:Shiji
1979:Shiji
1773:(PDF)
1682:(PDF)
1487:Gansu
1471:China
1422:Alans
1397:MEROË
1308:WUSUN
1297:Sagly
1284:Tagar
1261:Ordos
1220:SAKAS
1209:INDO-
1198:Shule
1163:GRECO
1118:Wusun
1090:), a
949:Gansu
750:Gansu
630:Dahae
577:MEROË
554:NANDA
512:Sagly
486:Tagar
461:Ordos
389:khovo
387:Goro-
346:SAKAS
279:qíshé
271:Linhu
163:China
72:Dates
60:late
4684:Saka
4349:BMAC
4180:Siba
3913:Daxi
3683:Siwa
3389:ISBN
3366:ISBN
3353:2015
3340:ISBN
3312:ISBN
3288:ISBN
3268:2015
3255:ISBN
3226:2015
3213:ISBN
3188:ISBN
3170:2015
3157:ISBN
3137:(4).
3095:ISBN
3074:link
2898:help
2856:jade
2745:help
2711:Zhao
2679:ISBN
2652:ISBN
2626:ISBN
2557:help
2538:help
2394:ISBN
2365:PMID
2347:ISSN
2293:PMID
2275:ISSN
2195:2022
2123:this
2121:and
2119:this
2105:help
2073:help
2049:and
1860:2022
1785:ISBN
1747:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1694:ISBN
1563:The
1551:Zhao
1549:and
1531:and
1502:and
1494:The
1485:and
1436:jing
1434:Sha-
1387:MIES
1318:Dian
1176:THIA
1174:PAR-
1154:-150
968:Saka
833:The
817:Tuva
754:Saka
742:Saka
740:and
647:Saka
565:ZHOU
533:Dian
402:jing
400:Sha-
337:-325
253:Zhao
200:and
186:Saka
125:The
2829:Dai
2819:to
2807:, "
2774:Qin
2726:in
2355:PMC
2339:doi
2283:PMC
2267:doi
2047:Dai
2045:to
2019:Han
2015:Qin
1999:Yan
1989:，西有
1777:doi
1686:doi
1547:Qin
1504:Dai
1352:HAN
1273:JIN
1128:.)
815:in
764:of
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523:JIN
236:in
202:Han
198:Qin
192:or
4640::
4623:↓
4301:↑
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3338:.
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3066:{{
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2876:匈奴
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2003:Hu
1991:林胡
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