2982:. Part of the proposal is to overcome the "80–20 rule" that requires the U.S. to purchase 80 percent of its legal opium from India and Turkey to include Afghanistan, by establishing a second-tier system of supply control that complements the current INCB regulated supply and demand system by providing poppy-based medicines to countries who cannot meet their demand under the current regulations. Senlis arranged a conference in Kabul that brought drug policy experts from around the world to meet with Afghan government officials to discuss internal security, corruption issues, and legal issues within Afghanistan. In June 2007, the council launched a "Poppy for Medicines" project that provides a technical blueprint for the implementation of an integrated control system within Afghan village-based poppy for medicine projects: the idea promotes the economic diversification by redirecting proceeds from the legal cultivation of poppy and production of poppy-based medicines. There has been criticism of the Senlis report findings by Macfarlan Smith, who argue that though they produce morphine in Europe, they were never asked to contribute to the report.
2133:
1748:
2165:
were allowed to prescribe opiates such as morphine and heroin if they believed their patients demonstrated a medical need. Because addiction was viewed as a medical problem rather than an indulgence, doctors were permitted to allow patients to wean themselves off opiates rather than cutting off any opiate use altogether. The passing of the
Rolleston Act put the control of opium use in the hands of medical doctors instead of pharmacists. Later in the 20th century, addiction to opiates, especially heroin in young people, continued to rise and so the sale and prescription of opiates was limited to doctors in treatment centers. If these doctors were found to be prescribing opiates without just cause, then they could lose their license to practice or prescribe drugs.
1208:
1589:
805:
1779:
864:
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1921:
incarnation of law enforcement in which rural populations had their property destroyed, their land confiscated and/or were publicly tortured, humiliated and executed. Addicts sometimes turned to missionaries for treatment for their addiction, though many associated these foreigners with the drug trade. The program was counted as a substantial success, with a cessation of direct
British opium exports to China (but not Hong Kong) and most provinces declared free of opium production. Nonetheless, the success of the program was only temporary, with opium use rapidly increasing during the disorder following the death of
38:
2806:
1295:(1839–1842), in which Britain defeated China. After 1860, opium use continued to increase with widespread domestic production in China. By 1905, an estimated 25 percent of the male population were regular consumers of the drug. Recreational use of opium elsewhere in the world remained rare into late in the 19th century, as indicated by ambivalent reports of opium usage. In 1906, 41,000 tons were produced, but because 39,000 tons of that year's opium were consumed in China, overall usage in the rest of the world was much lower. These figures from 1906 have been criticized as overestimates.
1275:, prior to the extensive prohibitions that came later. In places of gathering, often tea shops, or a person's home servings of opium were offered as a form of greeting and politeness. Often served with tea (in China) and with specific and fine utensils and beautifully carved wooden pipes. The wealthier the smoker, the finer and more expensive material used in ceremony. The image of seedy underground, destitute smokers were often generated by anti-opium narratives and became a more accurate image of opium use following the effects of large scale opium prohibition in the 1880s.
2218:
1096:
2406:
1554:
1108:
was exported to Europe. In 1573, for instance, a
Venetian visitor to the Ottoman Empire observed many of the Turkish natives of Constantinople regularly drank a "certain black water made with opium" that makes them feel good, but to which they become so addicted, if they try to go without, they will "quickly die". From drinking it, dervishes claimed the drugs bestowed them with visionary glimpses of future happiness. Indeed, the Ottoman Empire supplied the West with opium long before China and India.
2745:
2575:. On November 30, 1998, the standard cutoff was increased to 2000 nanograms (two micrograms) per milliliter. Confirmation by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry will distinguish amongst opium and variants including poppy seeds, heroin, and morphine and codeine pharmaceuticals by measuring the morphine:codeine ratio and looking for the presence of noscapine and acetylcodeine, the latter of which is only found in illicitly produced heroin, and heroin metabolites such as 6-monoacetylmorphine.
939:. The text lists medicinal effects of opium, such as analgesia, hypnosis, antitussive effects, gastrointestinal effects, cognitive effects, respiratory depression, neuromuscular disturbances, and sexual dysfunction. It also refers to opium's potential as a poison. Avicenna describes several methods of delivery and recommendations for doses of the drug. This classic text was translated into Latin in 1175 and later into many other languages and remained authoritative until the 19th century.
1057:
alleviating a wide range of ailments. Due to the constipation often produced by the consumption of opium, it was one of the most effective treatments for cholera, dysentery, and diarrhea. As a cough suppressant, opium was used to treat bronchitis, tuberculosis, and other respiratory illnesses. Opium was additionally prescribed for rheumatism and insomnia. Medical textbooks even recommended its use by people in good health, to "optimize the internal equilibrium of the human body".
3020:
1903:
1634:
1387:, involving a pipe made from bamboo rimmed with silver, stuffed with palm slices and hair, fed by a clay bowl in which a globule of molten opium was held over the flame of an oil lamp. This elaborate procedure, requiring the maintenance of pots of opium at just the right temperature for a globule to be scooped up with a needle-like skewer for smoking, formed the basis of a craft of "paste-scooping" by which servant girls could become prostitutes as the opportunity arose.
2904:) per kilogram. Some additional money is made by drying the poppy heads and collecting poppy seeds, and a small fraction of opium beyond the quota may be consumed locally or diverted to the black market. The opium paste is dried and processed into government opium and alkaloid factories before it is packed into cases of 60 kilograms for export. Purification of chemical constituents is done in India for domestic production, but typically done abroad by foreign importers.
3131:
2156:. Upon his arrival the colonies were losing millions of francs each year. Determined to put them on a paying basis he levied taxes on various products, opium among them. The Vietnamese, Cambodians and Laotians who could or would not pay these taxes, lost their houses and land, and often became day laborers. Evidently, resorting to this means of gaining income gave France a vested interest in the continuation of opium use among the population of Indochina.
3146:
1299:
3076:, a special oil lamp with a distinct funnel-like chimney to channel heat into a small area. The smoker would lie on his or her side in order to guide the pipe-bowl and the tiny pill of opium over the stream of heat rising from the chimney of the oil lamp and inhale the vaporized opium fumes as needed. Several pills of opium were smoked at a single session depending on the smoker's tolerance to the drug. The effects could last up to twelve hours.
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960:
1501:
2817:, it enters the country, perhaps through its Central Asian neighbors which do not participate. A counternarcotics law passed in December 2005 requires Afghanistan to develop registries or regulations for tracking, storing, and owning acetic anhydride. In November 2023, a U.N report showed that in the entirety of Afghanistan, poppy cultivation dropped by over 95%, removing it from its place as being the world's largest opium producer.
2437:
2169:
opium-based products came into effect just after the beginning of the twentieth century, physicians in the US considered opium a miracle drug that could help with many ailments. Therefore, the ban on said products was more a result of negative connotations towards its use and distribution by
Chinese immigrants who were heavily persecuted during this particular period in history. As the 19th century progressed however, doctor
572:
2832:
2608:, meaning a lancet) and carries three or four blades three millimeters apart, which are scored upward along the pod. Incisions are made three or four times at intervals of two to three days, and each time the "poppy tears", which dry to a sticky brown resin, are collected the following morning. One acre harvested in this way can produce three to five kilograms of raw opium. In the
1443:. Britain's All-India Opium Act of 1878 formalized ethnic restrictions on the use of opium, limiting recreational opium sales to registered Indian opium-eaters and Chinese opium-smokers only and prohibiting its sale to workers from Burma. Likewise, in San Francisco, Chinese immigrants were permitted to smoke opium, so long as they refrained from doing so in the presence of whites.
2341:. From 1898 to 1910 heroin was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. Because the lethal dose of heroin was viewed as a hundred times greater than its effective dose, heroin was advertised as a safer alternative to other opioids. By 1902, sales made up 5 percent of the company's profits, and "heroinism" had attracted media attention.
1039:, which Paracelsus has been credited with developing. During his lifetime, Paracelsus was viewed as an adventurer who challenged the theories and mercenary motives of contemporary medicine with dangerous chemical therapies, but his therapies marked a turning point in Western medicine. In the 1660s, laudanum was recommended for pain, sleeplessness, and diarrhea by
1630:(BEIC), as a strict monopoly of the British government. There was an extensive and complicated system of BEIC agencies involved in the supervision and management of opium production and distribution in India. Bengal opium was highly prized, commanding twice the price of the domestic Chinese product, which was regarded as inferior in quality.
3334:
2771:, removed the Taliban and installed the interim government, the land under cultivation leapt back to 285 square miles (740 km), with Afghanistan supplanting Burma to become the world's largest opium producer once more. Opium production increased rapidly in Afghanistan from that point, reaching an all-time high in 2006. According to
1087:, a hereditary nervous system deficiency that could predispose an individual to addiction. Neurasthenia was increasingly tied in medical rhetoric to the "nervous exhaustion" suffered by many a white-collar worker in the increasingly hectic and industrialized U.S. life—the most likely potential clients of physicians.
3095:, an alcoholic tincture which was prevalently used as a pain medication and sleeping aid. Tincture of opium has been prescribed for, among other things, severe diarrhea. Taken thirty minutes prior to meals, it significantly slows intestinal motility, giving the intestines greater time to absorb fluid in the stool.
1043:, the renowned "father of English medicine" or "English Hippocrates", to whom is attributed the quote, "Among the remedies which it has pleased Almighty God to give to man to relieve his sufferings, none is so universal and so efficacious as opium." Use of opium as a cure-all was reflected in the formulation of
1929:
singled China out as the primary source of illicit opium in East and
Southeast Asia. Many local powerholders facilitated the trade during this period to finance conflicts over territory and political campaigns. In some areas food crops were eradicated to make way for opium, contributing to famines in
1790:
in China decided to strengthen their opposition to the trade by compiling data which would demonstrate the harm the drug did. Faced with the problem that many
Chinese associated Christianity with opium, partly due to the arrival of early Protestant missionaries on opium clippers, at the 1890 Shanghai
1649:
Some competition came from the newly independent United States, which began to compete in
Guangzhou, selling Turkish opium in the 1820s. Portuguese traders also brought opium from the independent Malwa states of western India, although by 1820, the British were able to restrict this trade by charging
1107:
in the 11th to 13th century brought opium with them. Opium is said to have been used for recreational purposes from the 14th century onwards in Muslim societies. Ottoman and
European testimonies confirm that from the 16th to the 19th centuries Anatolian opium was eaten in Constantinople as much as it
1010:
was introduced to
Western medicine in 1527, when Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, better known by the name Paracelsus, claimed (dubiously) to have returned from wanderings in Arabia with a famous sword, within the pommel of which he kept "Stones of Immortality" compounded from
742:
From the earliest finds, opium has appeared to have ritual significance, and anthropologists have speculated ancient priests may have used the drug as a proof of healing power. In Egypt, the use of opium was generally restricted to priests, magicians, and warriors, its invention is credited to Thoth,
2899:
is much more traditional. As of 2008, opium was collected by farmers who were licensed to grow 0.1 hectares (0.25 acres) of opium poppies, who to maintain their licences needed to sell 56 kilograms of unadulterated raw opium paste. The price of opium paste is fixed by the government according to the
2839:
Chinese production mainly trades with and profits from North
America. In 2002, they were seeking to expand through eastern United States. In the post 9/11 era, trading between borders became difficult and because new international laws were set into place, the opium trade became more diffused. Power
2483:
has estimated that current production of opium would need to increase fivefold to account for total global medical need. Solar energy panels in use in Afghanistan have allowed farmers to dig their wells deeper, leading to a bumper crop of opium year after year. In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in
1625:
China had a positive balance sheet in trading with the British, which led to a decrease of the British silver stocks. Therefore, the British tried to encourage Chinese opium use to enhance their balance, and they delivered it from Indian provinces under British control. In India, its cultivation, as
1608:
visiting the port by the 1690s. Due to the growing British demand for Chinese tea and the Chinese Emperor's lack of interest in British commodities other than silver, British traders resorted to trade in opium as a high-value commodity for which China was not self-sufficient. The English traders had
8310:
A philosophical and statistical history of the inventions and customs of ancient and modern nations in the manufacture and use of inebriating liquors; with the present practice of distillation in all its varieties: together with an extensive illustration of the consumption and effects of opium, and
2775:
statistics, Afghanistan's production of oven-dried opium increased to 1,278 tons in 2002, more than doubled by 2003, and nearly doubled again during 2004. In late 2004, the U.S. government estimated that 206,000 hectares were under poppy cultivation, 4.5 percent of the country's total cropland, and
2173:
worked to decrease the use of opium in the US by submitting the Harrison Act to congress. This act put taxes and restrictions on the sale and prescription of opium, as well as trying to stigmatize the opium poppy and its derivatives as "demon drugs", to try to scare people away from them. This act
1920:
were publicly burned, as well as coercive legal action and the granting of police powers to organizations such as the Fujian Anti-Opium Society. Smokers were required to register for licenses for gradually reducing rations of the drug. Action against opium farmers centered upon a highly repressive
1163:
written from the point of view of an addict, details the pleasures and dangers of the drug. In the book, it is not Ottoman, nor Chinese, addicts about whom he writes, but English opium users: "I question whether any Turk, of all that ever entered the paradise of opium-eaters, can have had half the
1060:
During the 18th century, opium was found to be a good remedy for nervous disorders. Due to its sedative and tranquilizing properties, it was used to quiet the minds of those with psychosis, help with people who were considered insane, and also to help treat patients with insomnia. However, despite
2164:
Before the 1920s, regulation in Britain was controlled by pharmacists. Pharmacists who were found to have prescribed opium for illegitimate uses and anyone found to have sold opium without proper qualifications would be prosecuted. With the passing of the Rolleston Act in Britain in 1926, doctors
2033:
and the perception that whites were starting to frequent the dens. This was followed by an 1891 California law requiring that narcotics carry warning labels and that their sales be recorded in a registry; amendments to the California Pharmacy and Poison Act in 1907 made it a crime to sell opiates
1906:
Map showing the amount of opium produced in China in 1908: The quote "We English, by the policy we have pursued, are morally responsible for every acre of land in China which is withdrawn from the cultivation of grain and devoted to that of the poppy; so that the fact of the growth of the drug in
1462:
and sentenced to hard labor for opium possession. Due to this, both the immigrant population and the social use of opium fell into decline. Yet despite lurid literary accounts to the contrary, 19th-century London was not a hotbed of opium smoking. The total lack of photographic evidence of opium
2584:
2011:
government is generally credited with eradicating both consumption and production of opium during the 1950s using unrestrained repression and social reform. Ten million addicts were forced into compulsory treatment, dealers were executed, and opium-producing regions were planted with new crops.
3046:
and "ack ack" (smoking of cigarettes containing tobacco mixed with heroin powder) are only 40 percent and 20 percent efficient, respectively. One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio (1.8 percent of the group dying per year). Most heroin deaths result not from
2504:
Opium poppies are popular and attractive garden plants, whose flowers vary greatly in color, size and form. A modest amount of domestic cultivation in private gardens is not usually subject to legal controls. In part, this tolerance reflects variation in addictive potency. A cultivar for opium
2168:
Abuse of opium in the United States began in the late 19th century and was largely associated with Chinese immigrants. During this time the use of opium had little stigma; the drug was used freely until 1882 when a law was passed to confine opium smoking to specific dens. Until the full ban on
2248:
The process continued until 1817, when Sertürner published his results after thirteen years of research and a nearly disastrous trial on himself and three boys. The great advantage of purified morphine was that a patient could be treated with a known dose—whereas with raw plant material, as
1056:
Eventually, laudanum became readily available and extensively used by the 18th century in Europe, especially England. Compared to other chemicals available to 18th century regular physicians, opium was a benign alternative to arsenic, mercury, or emetics, and it was remarkably successful in
1080:). Because opiates were viewed as more humane than punishment or restraint, they were often used to treat the mentally ill. Between 150,000 and 200,000 opiate addicts lived in the United States in the late 19th century and between two-thirds and three-quarters of these addicts were women.
1774:
million people consuming 39,000 tons of opium yearly. From 1880 to the beginning of the Communist era, the British attempted to discourage the use of opium in China, but this effectively promoted the use of morphine, heroin, and cocaine, further exacerbating the problem of addiction.
2697:
by weight with a similar duration; at these relative quantities, they could distinguish the drugs subjectively but had no preference. Heroin was also found to be twice as potent as morphine in surgical anesthesia. Morphine is converted into heroin by a simple chemical reaction with
1061:
its medicinal values in these cases, it was noted that in cases of psychosis, it could cause anger or depression, and due to the drug's euphoric effects, it could cause depressed patients to become more depressed after the effects wore off because they would get used to being high.
3031:
In the industrialized world, the United States is the world's biggest consumer of prescription opioids, with Italy being one of the lowest, because of tighter regulations on prescribing narcotics for pain relief. Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its
1740:. Gladstone criticized it as "a war more unjust in its origin, a war more calculated in its progress to cover this country with permanent disgrace". His hostility to opium stemmed from the effects of opium brought upon his sister Helen. Due to the First Opium war brought on by
2174:
and the stigma of a demon drug on opium, led to the criminalization of people that used opium-based products. It made the use and possession of opium and any of its derivatives illegal. The restrictions were recently redefined by the Federal Controlled Substances Act of 1970.
1769:
in 1858, China was forced to legalize opium and began massive domestic production. Importation of opium peaked in 1879 at 6,700 tons, and by 1906, China was producing 85 percent of the world's opium, some 35,000 tons, and 27 percent of its adult male population regularly used
3284:
entered the English language in the early nineteenth century, originally referring to viscous liquids, particularly sauces or gravy. It has been used to refer to opiates since at least 1888, and this usage arose because opium, when prepared for smoking, is viscous.
3098:
Despite the historically negative view of opium as a cause of addiction, the use of morphine and other derivatives isolated from opium in the treatment of chronic pain has been reestablished. If given in controlled doses, modern opiates can be an effective treatment for
2544:. Although millennia older, the production of poppy head decoctions can be seen as a quick-and-dirty variant of the Kábáy poppy straw process, which since its publication in 1930 has become the major method of obtaining licit opium alkaloids worldwide, as discussed in
2452:
or tightly regulated, highly taxed, legal prescription drugs. In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses. Worldwide production in 2006 was 6610 tonnes—about one-fifth the level of production in 1906; since then, opium production has fallen.
1613:
first visited in the mid-16th century. Trade in opium was standardized, with production of balls of raw opium, 1.1–1.6 kg (2.4–3.5 lb), 30% water content, wrapped in poppy leaves and petals, and shipped in chests of 60–65 kg (132–143 lb) (one
1960:
both prohibited and engaged in the opium trade. It was hoped that Ma Fuxiang would have improved the situation, since Chinese Muslims were well known for opposition to smoking opium. Ma Fuxiang officially prohibited opium and made it illegal in Ningxia, but the
7591:
2998:
company) to cultivate opium poppies in England for medicinal reasons, after Macfarlan Smith's primary source, India, decided to increase the price of export opium latex. This move is well received by British farmers, with a major opium poppy field located in
2088:, though it soon became a general vehicle for depriving them of basic rights by administrative regulation. By 1905 all Australian states and territories had passed similar laws making prohibitions to Opium sale. Smoking and possession was prohibited in 1908.
4663:
Garzoni, Costantino. 1840 . "Relazione dell'impero Ottomano del senatore Costantino Garzoni stato all'ambascieria di Costantinopoli nel 1573". In Le relazioni degli ambasciatori veneti al Senato, serie III, volume I, ed. Eugenio Albèri. Firenze: Clio, p.
1915:
Official Chinese resistance to opium was renewed on September 20, 1906, with an antiopium initiative intended to eliminate the drug problem within 10 years. The program relied on the turning of public sentiment against opium, with mass meetings at which
2616:, were also used for production of opiates from their capsules and stems. A traditional Chinese method of harvesting opium latex involved cutting off the heads and piercing them with a coarse needle then collecting the dried opium 24 to 48 hours later.
2801:
per kilo. Opium production has led to rising tensions in Afghan villages. Though direct conflict has yet to occur, the opinions of the new class of young rich men involved in the opium trade are at odds with those of the traditional village leaders.
1075:
One reason for the increase in opiate consumption in the United States during the 19th century was the prescribing and dispensing of legal opiates by physicians and pharmacists to women with "female complaints" (mostly to relieve menstrual pain and
2509:, contains 91.2 percent morphine, codeine, and thebaine in its latex alkaloids, whereas in the latex of the condiment cultivar "Marianne", these three alkaloids total only 14.0 percent. The remaining alkaloids in the latter cultivar are primarily
3071:
which had a removable knob-like pipe-bowl of fired earthenware attached by a metal fitting to a long, cylindrical stem. A small "pill" of opium about the size of a pea would be placed on the pipe-bowl, which was then heated by holding it over an
8396:
The iniquities of the opium trade with China; being a development of the main causes which exclude the merchants of Great Britain from the advantages of an unrestricted commercial intercourse with that vast empire. With extracts from authentic
1219:
in China came from Xu Boling, who wrote in 1483 that opium was "mainly used to aid masculinity, strengthen sperm and regain vigor", and that it "enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court ladies". He also described an expedition sent by the
1791:
Missionary Conference, they agreed to establish the Permanent Committee for the Promotion of Anti-Opium Societies in an attempt to overcome this problem and to arouse public opinion against the opium trade. The members of the committee were
1672:. The illegal sale of opium became one of the world's most valuable single commodity trades and has been called "the most long continued and systematic international crime of modern times". Opium smuggling provided 15 to 20 percent of the
2963:, stating that year's actual consumption of many classes of controlled drugs as well as opioids and projecting required quantities for the next year. This is to allow trends in consumption to be monitored and production quotas allotted.
1851:
acted as first president. This organization, which had elected national officers and held an annual national meeting, was instrumental in gathering data from every Western-trained medical doctor in China, which was then published as
3003:, England. The British government has contradicted the Home Office's suggestion that opium cultivation can be legalized in Afghanistan for exports to the United Kingdom, helping lower poverty and internal fighting while helping the
379:. The traditional, labor-intensive method of obtaining the latex is to scratch ("score") the immature seed pods (fruits) by hand; the latex leaks out and dries to a sticky yellowish residue that is later scraped off and dehydrated.
2091:
Hardening of Canadian attitudes toward Chinese opium users and fear of a spread of the drug into the white population led to the effective criminalization of opium for nonmedical use in Canada between 1908 and the mid-1920s.
3279:
Some slang terms for opium include: "Big O", "Shanghai Sally", "dope", "hop", "midnight oil", "O.P.", and "tar". "Dope" and "tar" can also refer to heroin. The traditional opium pipe is known as a "dream stick." The term
8355:
The morning of my life in China : comprising an outline of the history of foreign intercourse from the last year of the regime of honorable East India Company, 1833, to the imprisonment of the foreign community in
3066:
of the material as might be imagined. Rather, the prepared opium is indirectly heated to temperatures at which the active alkaloids, chiefly morphine, are vaporized. In the past, smokers would use a specially designed
2099:
was founded, and by 1914, 34 nations had agreed that the production and importation of opium should be diminished. In 1924, 62 nations participated in a meeting of the commission. Subsequently, this role passed to the
7588:
2706:" in a simplified procedure. This form predominates in the U.S. west of the Mississippi. Relative to other preparations of heroin, it has been associated with a dramatically decreased rate of HIV transmission among
2562:
formerly mandated that all drug screening laboratories use a standard cutoff of 300 nanograms per milliliter in urine samples. A single poppy seed roll (0.76 grams of seeds) usually did not produce a positive
2780:
estimated production to have risen 59 percent to 165,000 hectares (407,000 acres) in cultivation, yielding 6,100 tons of opium, 82 percent of the world's supply. The value of the resulting heroin was estimated at
1261:(1578), but also wrote that "lay people use it for the art of sex," in particular the ability to "arrest seminal emission". This association of opium with sex continued in China until the end of the 19th century.
2612:, pods were typically scored horizontally, and opium was collected three times, or else one or two collections were followed by isolation of opiates from the ripe capsules. Oil poppies, an alternative strain of
1860:(Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press, 1899). The vast majority of these medical doctors were missionaries; the survey also included doctors who were in private practices, particularly in Shanghai and
2028:
There were no legal restrictions on the importation or use of opium in the United States until the San Francisco Opium Den Ordinance, which banned dens for public smoking of opium in 1875, a measure fueled by
1981:
from taxing those sales in 1923. General Ma had been using the bank, a branch of the Government of China's exchequer, to arrange for silver currency to be transported to Baotou to use it to sponsor the trade.
8488:
2591:
When grown for opium production, the skin of the ripening pods of these poppies is scored by a sharp blade at a time carefully chosen so that rain, wind, and dew cannot spoil the exudation of white, milky
1383:, which at first effectively exempted pure opium as a potentially medicinal product, the smoking of pure opium became more popular in the 18th century. In 1736, the smoking of pure opium was described by
1892:
appealed to the London Missionary Conference of 1888 and the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of 1910 to condemn the continuation of the trade. When Broomhall was dying, his son Marshall read to him from
2567:, but a positive result was observed from eating two rolls. A slice of poppy seed cake containing nearly five grams of seeds per slice produced positive results for 24 hours. Such results are viewed as
11570:
2813:
An increasingly large fraction of opium is processed into morphine base and heroin in drug labs in Afghanistan. Despite an international set of chemical controls designed to restrict availability of
2109:
2104:, and all signatory nations agreed to prohibit the import, sale, distribution, export, and use of all narcotic drugs, except for medical and scientific purposes. This role was later taken up by the
1736:
Opium War" and said that he felt "in dread of the judgments of God upon England for our national iniquity towards China" in May 1840. A famous speech was made by Gladstone in Parliament against the
1720:. As a member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "most infamous and atrocious" referring to the opium trade between China and British India in particular. Gladstone was fiercely against both of the
2690:) finally can be made by macerating raw opium with water. To make opium extract, 20 parts water are combined with 1 part raw opium which has been boiled for 5 minutes (the latter to ease mixing).
8299:
Drugging a nation, the story of China and the opium curse; a personal investigation, during an extended tour, of the present conditions of the opium trade in China and its effects upon the nation
6349:
Morimoto S, Kazunari Suemori, Jun Moriwaki, Futoshi Taura, Hiroyuki Tanaka, Mariko Aso, Masakazu Tanaka, Hiroshi Suemune, Yasuyuki Shimohigashi, Yukihiro Shoyama, et al. (October 12, 2001).
6651:
10718:
10713:
10708:
10036:
8954:
8949:
8944:
1467:
opium-smoking scene was little more than fantasy on the part of British writers of the day, who were intent on scandalizing their readers while drumming up the threat of the "yellow peril".
6785:
Frick S, Kramell R, Schmidt J, Fist AJ, Kutchan TM (May 2005). "Comparative qualitative and quantitative determination of alkaloids in narcotic and condiment Papaver somniferum cultivars".
1450:, gambling, knife- and revolver-fights, and a source for drugs causing deadly overdoses, with the potential to addict and corrupt the white population. By 1919, anti-Chinese riots attacked
434:
alkaloids morphine, codeine, and to a lesser extent thebaine has been greatly increased. In modern times, much of the thebaine, which often serves as the raw material for the synthesis for
2488:. In November 2023, a U.N report showed that in the entirety of Afghanistan, poppy cultivation dropped by over 95%, removing it from its place as being the world's largest opium producer.
1072:, the Union Army used 175,000 lb (80,000 kg) of opium tincture and powder and about 500,000 opium pills. During this time of popularity, users called opium "God's Own Medicine".
860:, remained in use (which was edited and improved in the Arabic versions) from the 1st to 16th centuries, and described opium and the wide range of its uses prevalent in the ancient world.
9434:
2081:
11291:
10417:
2596:, usually in the afternoon. Incisions are made while the pods are still raw, with no more than a slight yellow tint, and must be shallow to avoid penetrating hollow inner chambers or
2380:(late 1950s), and derivatives thereof have been introduced, and each is preferred for certain specialized applications. Nonetheless, morphine remains the drug of choice for American
1322:
wrote, "nowadays, from nobility and gentlemen down to slaves and women, all are addicted to tobacco." Tobacco in that time was frequently mixed with other herbs (this continues with
211:
10151:
2763:
was formerly the primary producer of the drug. Having regularly producing 70 percent of the world's opium, Afghanistan decreased production to 74 tons per year under a ban by the
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555:
A little of it, taken as much as a grain of ervum is a pain-easer, and a sleep-causer, and a digester...but being drank too much it hurts, making men lethargical, and it kills.
3197:
effects. Morphine is the most prevalent and important alkaloid in opium, consisting of 10–16 percent of the total, and is responsible for most of its harmful effects such as
9429:
2978:
Afghan farmers to produce opium for the world pharmaceutical market, and thereby solve another problem, that of chronic underuse of potent analgesics where required within
11742:
9845:
7536:
Poppy for Medicine: "Licensing poppy for the production of essential medicines: an integrated counter-narcotics, development, and counter-insurgency model for Afghanistan"
6228:
Brown Richard Harvey (2002). "The Opium Trade And Opium Policies In India, China, Britain, And The United States: Historical Comparisons And Theoretical Interpretations".
1844:
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Seed capsules can be dried and used for decorations, but they also contain morphine, codeine, and other alkaloids. These pods can be boiled in water to produce a bitter
2020:; based on a study of opiate use in soldiers returning to the United States in 1971, 20 percent of participants were dependent enough to experience withdrawal symptoms.
743:
and it was said to have been given by Isis to Ra as treatment for a headache. A figure of the Minoan "goddess of the narcotics", wearing a crown of three opium poppies,
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and heroin. Opium poppy cultivation in the United Kingdom does not need a licence, but a licence is required for those wishing to extract opium for medicinal products.
2623:, because pungent, jelly-like raw opium is bulkier and harder to smuggle. Crude laboratories in the field are capable of refining opium into morphine base by a simple
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11557:
10462:
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2555:
1880:. In 1888, Broomhall formed and became secretary of the Christian Union for the Severance of the British Empire with the Opium Traffic and editor of its periodical,
1049:
6846:
Meadway C, George S, Braithwaite R (August 31, 1998). "Opiate concentrations following the ingestion of poppy seed products—evidence for 'the poppy seed defence'".
2600:
while cutting into the lactiferous vessels. In the Indian Subcontinent, Afghanistan, Central Asia and Iran, the special tool used to make the incisions is called a
2924:
2049:, which did not allow the federal government to enact arbitrary prohibitions, but did permit arbitrary taxation. Beginning in 1883, opium importation was taxed at
1399:
in the West (1800s to 1949) first began to flourish during the 19th century due to famine and political upheaval, as well as rumors of wealth to be had outside of
8485:
1147:. A medical panacea of the 19th century, "any respectable person" could purchase a range of hashish pastes and (later) morphine with complementary injection kit.
8325:
The opium revenue: Sir William Muir's minute and other extracts from papers published by the Calcutta government; also extracts from parliamentary papers
2554:
are a common and flavorsome topping for breads and cakes. One gram of poppy seeds contains up to 33 micrograms of morphine and 14 micrograms of codeine, and the
2484:
southern Afghanistan was reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward opium. This included a 99% reduction of opium growth in the
8090:
6881:
Trafkowski J, Madea B, Musshoff F (August 2006). "The significance of putative urinary markers of illicit heroin use after consumption of poppy seed products".
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247:
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1435:, where the drug was promoted and monopolized by the colonial government as a source of revenue. Among white Europeans, opium was more frequently consumed as
10542:
3213:. Chronic opium addicts in 1906 China consumed an average of eight grams of opium daily; opium addicts in modern Iran are thought to consume about the same.
2710:(4 percent in Los Angeles vs. 40 percent in New York) due to technical requirements of injection, although it is also associated with greater risk of venous
1853:
1319:
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2256:
Morphine was the first pharmaceutical isolated from a natural product, and this success encouraged the isolation of other alkaloids: by 1820, isolations of
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4580:
3880:
2627:. A sticky, brown paste, morphine base is pressed into bricks and sun-dried, and can either be smoked, prepared into other forms or processed into heroin.
1732:
initiated in 1857, denounced British violence against Chinese, and was ardently opposed to the British trade in opium to China. Gladstone lambasted it as "
295:
1463:
smoking in Britain, as opposed to the relative abundance of historical photos depicting opium smoking in North America and France, indicates the infamous
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The Opium War, 1840–1842: Barbarians in the Celestial Empire in the Early Part of the Nineteenth Century and the War by which They Forced Her Gates Ajar
1965:
reversed his policy; by 1933, people from every level of society were abusing the drug, and Ningxia was left in destitution. In 1923, an officer of the
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was originally the 16th-century term for a medicine associated with a particular physician that was widely well-regarded, but became standardized as "
224:
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first identified as responsive to morphine. Tolerance is associated with the superactivation of the receptor, which may be affected by the degree of
3036:
constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin rather than with unrefined opium.
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981:
731:, where surgical-quality knives were used to score the poppy pods, and opium was cultivated, traded, and smoked. Opium was also mentioned after the
10432:
9905:
6820:
5685:
Windle, J. (2011). ‘Ominous Parallels and Optimistic Differences: Opium in China and Afghanistan’. Law, Crime and History, Vol. 2(1), pp. 141–164.
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7979:
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3335:
Protocol for Limiting and Regulating the Cultivation of the Poppy Plant, the Production of, International and Wholesale Trade in, and Use of Opium
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to take physical possession of licit opium crops as soon as possible after harvest and conduct all wholesaling and exporting through that agency.
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shifted from remote to high-end smugglers and opium traders. Outsourcing became a huge factor for survival for many smugglers and opium farmers.
2776:
produced 4,200 metric tons of opium, 76 percent of the world's supply, yielding 60 percent of Afghanistan's gross domestic product. In 2006, the
2532:. In poppies subjected to mutagenesis and selection on a mass scale, researchers have been able to use poppy straw to obtain large quantities of
1490:
1446:
Because of the low social status of immigrant workers, contemporary writers and media had little trouble portraying opium dens as seats of vice,
1420:
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11623:
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2619:
Raw opium may be sold to a merchant or broker on the black market, but it usually does not travel far from the field before it is refined into
2194:
facilitated production and trafficking of the drug from Southeast Asia for decades, with the region becoming a major source of world supplies.
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Heroin is widely preferred because of increased potency. One study in postaddicts found heroin to be approximately 2.2 times more potent than
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9259:
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During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers were processed by users with household chemicals to make
902:, "In the Absence of a Physician", a home medical manual directed toward ordinary citizens for self-treatment if a doctor was not available.
666:, described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of opium. Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the
2182:
Opium production in China and the rest of East Asia was nearly wiped out after WWII, however, sustained covert support by the United States
1656:. Despite drastic penalties and continued prohibition of opium until 1860, opium smuggling rose steadily from 200 chests per year under the
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11706:
11426:
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1015:, whose text, which described the use of opium or a similar preparation, had recently been translated and reintroduced to medieval Europe.
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wrote that opium was used even by rich peasants, and even a small village without a rice store would have a shop where opium was sold.
1011:
opium thebaicum, citrus juice, and "quintessence of gold". The name "Paracelsus" was a pseudonym signifying him the equal or better of
933:("Avicenna") described opium as the most powerful of the stupefacients, in comparison to mandrake and other highly effective herbs, in
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which is almost twice as potent, and increases the value by a similar factor. The reduced weight and bulk make it easier to smuggle.
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3271:
concluded that opium is a Group 1 (sufficient evidence) human carcinogen, causing cancers of the larynx, lung, and urinary bladder.
2388:
containing 16 milligrams each for use on severely wounded soldiers. No drug has been found that can match the painkilling effect of
236:
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10386:
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4606:
8272:
Two years in China. Narrative of the Chinese expedition, from its formation in April, 1840, to the treaty of peace in August, 1842
2475:
Opium production increased considerably, surpassing 5,000 tons in 2002 and reaching 8,600 tons in Afghanistan and 840 tons in the
423:) historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different species of poppies.
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1581:
virtues, officially prohibited the sale of opium, except for a small amount for medicinal purposes. The ban punished sellers and
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7535:
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3640:
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7057:"A comparative study of subjective and physiological effects of heroin and morphine administered intravenously in postaddicts"
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2448:
in many countries during the early 20th century, leading to the modern pattern of opium production as a precursor for illegal
1694:
20,000 chests of opium (approximately 2,660,000 pounds) in Guangzhou in a river. Given that a chest of opium was worth nearly
1021:, the standard medical textbook that Paracelsus burned in a public bonfire three weeks after being appointed professor at the
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5422:
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5368:
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5314:
5158:
4820:
4803:
4731:
4544:
Kramer John C (1979). "Opium Rampant: Medical Use, Misuse and Abuse in Britain and the West in the 17th and 18th Centuries".
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The Chinese war : an account of all the operations of the British forces from the commencement to the Treaty of Nanking
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5547:
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than opium, which users cannot do without, nor can they come by it except it be brought by the ships of the Batavians from
1083:
Opium addiction in the later 19th century received a hereditary definition. Dr. George Beard in 1869 proposed his theory of
7495:
6085:
5466:
5439:
5412:
5331:
2153:
1264:
Opium smoking began as a privilege of the elite and remained a great luxury into the early 19th century. However, by 1861,
1207:
8189:
Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal for regulation of the opium monopolies of the colonies of Hong Kong and Macao
6521:
5358:
2057:
per pound, until the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 prohibited the importation of opium altogether. In a similar manner, the
846:, prohibit every intoxicating substance, though the use of intoxicants in medicine has been widely permitted by scholars.
9399:
8801:
6599:
5935:
Liang B, Lu H (2013). "Discourses of drug problems and drug control in China: Reports in the People's Daily, 1946–2009".
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2113:
1997:
provided a detailed historical account of how the opium trade was essential to the economy of Yan'an during this period.
1864:, as well as Chinese who had been trained in medical schools in Western countries. In England, the home director of the
4169:
Heydari M, Hashempur MH, Zargaran A (2013). "Medicinal aspects of opium as described in Avicenna's Canon of Medicine".
2325:, the first semi-synthetic opioid, was first synthesized in 1874, but was not pursued until its rediscovery in 1897 by
1172:" is also widely considered to be a poem of the opium experience. Coleridge began using opium in 1791 after developing
283:
4498:
Aurin M (January 1, 2000). "Chasing the Dragon: The Cultural Metamorphosis of Opium in the United States, 1825–1935".
1973:
found out that Ma Fuxiang was assisting the drug trade in opium which helped finance his military expenses. He earned
11996:
8529:
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5732:
5583:
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1687:
took strong action to halt the smuggling of opium, including the seizure of cargo. In 1838, the Chinese Commissioner
1540:
8432:
6548:"Operational Medicine 2001 Field Medical Service School Student Handbook: Molle medical bag/surgical instrument set"
4937:
3042:
of opiates is most used: by comparison with injection, "dragon chasing" (heating of heroin on a piece of foil), and
1585:
keepers, but not users of the drug. Opium was banned completely in 1799, and this prohibition continued until 1860.
1431:" (manual laborers). French sailors provided another major group of opium smokers, having gotten the habit while in
11163:
3708:
3299:
2821:
2476:
2013:
8283:. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007. Photographs and history of Chinese and Vietnamese opium-smoking paraphernalia.
2974:, most of which is converted to heroin and smuggled for sale in Europe and the United States. This proposal is to
2797:
in revenue. For farmers, the crop can be up to ten times more profitable than wheat. The price of opium is around
1111:
Extensive textual and pictorial sources also show that poppy cultivation and opium consumption were widespread in
11158:
7309:
Goodhand J (2000). "From holy war to opium war? A case study of the opium economy in North Eastern Afghanistan".
3836:"Description of the Culture of the White Poppy and Preparation of Opium, as Practised in the Province of Bahar".
2971:
2896:
2772:
2760:
2727:
2070:
1786:
Scientific evidence of the pernicious nature of opium use was largely undocumented in the 1890s, when Protestant
670:, who also collected poppy juice in the morning after scoring the pods with an iron scoop; they called the juice
196:
7792:
5734:
Chronique du Toumet-Ortos: Looking through the Lens of Joseph Van Oost, Missionary in Inner Mongolia (1915–1921)
4584:
4393:
3908:
3594:
3520:
3455:
1588:
11083:
3309:
2353:, was introduced by Bayer in 1916 and promoted as a less-addictive analgesic. Preparations of the drug such as
2096:
2062:
1702:
1522:
8091:"Opium. Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy, London, I.B. Tauris (Cambridge, Harvard University Press: 2010)"
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804:
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once lamented, "if soporifics are weak they do not help; if they are strong they are exceedingly dangerous."
1691:
1557:
1476:
1284:
1283:
Opium prohibition in China began in 1729, yet was followed by nearly two centuries of increasing opium use.
883:
485:
contains the earliest archeological evidence of human use; the oldest known seeds date back to more than 5000
426:
The production methods have not significantly changed since ancient times. Through selective breeding of the
2016:
region. The remnant opium trade primarily served Southeast Asia, but spread to American soldiers during the
10281:
8522:
8511:, 20 July 1878, p. 36, historical account on the physiological effects of the first 16 known alkaloids
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4147:
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2881:, whereby the entire poppy, excluding roots and leaves, is mashed and stewed in dilute acid solutions. The
2777:
2137:
1257:
259:
7835:
7095:"Morphine compared with diamorphine. A comparison of dose requirements and side-effects after hip surgery"
3641:"The history of the poppy and of opium and their expansion in antiquity in the eastern Mediterranean area"
3248:
always entails a risk that the patient develops tolerance or physical dependence. There are many kinds of
11851:
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2183:
1899:
the welcome news that an agreement had been signed ensuring the end of the opium trade within two years.
940:
863:
7352:
6569:
6184:
Anderson S, Berridge V (2000). "Opium In 20th-Century Britain: Pharmacists, Regulation And The People".
5032:
1872:, was an active opponent of the opium trade, writing two books to promote the banning of opium smoking:
11261:
11256:
10648:
9991:
9079:
8328:(1st ed.), London: The Anglo-Oriental Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade, p. 30,
7987:
6824:
6677:
5111:
3542:
Sawynok J (January 1986). "The therapeutic use of heroin: a review of the pharmacological literature".
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1627:
1127:
In England, opium fulfilled a "critical" role, as it did other societies, in addressing multifactorial
882:
Between 400 and 1200 AD, Arab traders introduced opium to China, and to India by 700 AD. The physician
7882:"Endocytosis of the mu opioid receptor reduces tolerance and a cellular hallmark of opiate withdrawal"
6327:
6256:
3937:
3201:, respiratory difficulties, coma, or cardiac or respiratory collapse. Morphine binds to and activates
2686:. Opium syrup is made by combining 97.5 part sugar syrup with 2.5 parts opium extract. Opium extract (
2225:
Globally, opium has gradually been superseded by a variety of purified, semi-synthetic, and synthetic
768:(Death) were depicted wreathed in poppies or holding them. Poppies also frequently adorned statues of
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6652:"Opium production in the Golden Triangle continues at high levels, threatening regional integration"
5283:
2767:
in 2000, a move which cut production by 94 percent. A year later, after American and British troops
2736:
1326:
to the modern day), and opium was one component in the mixture. Tobacco mixed with opium was called
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5766:
5700:"Historical Legacies and Non/Traditional Security: Commemorating National Humiliation Day in China"
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1180:, and became a full addict after a severe attack of the disease in 1801, requiring 80–100 drops of
4371:
2702:, followed by purification. Especially in Mexican production, opium may be converted directly to "
1090:
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8711:
6305:
Peter Dale Scott, Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus, 1 Nov. 2010, Volume 8 | Issue 44 | Number 2,
4239:"Approach to painful disorders by Şerefeddin Sabuncuoğlu in the fifteenth century Ottoman period"
3004:
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2041:
At the US federal level, the legal actions taken reflected constitutional restrictions under the
1986:
1933:
Beginning in 1915, Chinese nationalist groups came to describe the period of military losses and
1824:
1717:
1511:
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1265:
1165:
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37:
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7194:"Black tar heroin use explains lower HIV levels among intravenous drug users in the Western U.S"
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1744:, there was initial reluctance to join the government of Peel on part of Gladstone before 1841.
898:; he made use of opium in anesthesia and recommended its use for the treatment of melancholy in
830:
declined, the lands to the south and east of the Mediterranean Sea became incorporated into the
753:
BCE, was recovered from the Sanctuary of Gazi, Crete, together with a simple smoking apparatus.
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L’opium et le café. Traduction d’un texte arabe anonyme et exploration de l'opiophagie ottomane
3194:
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began developing a programme which hopes to solve the problems caused by the large quantity of
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and purified. The exact date of its discovery is unknown, but it was described by Wurtz in his
2874:
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2085:
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917:
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20:
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3864:
P. G. Kritikos, S. P. Papadaki (January 1, 1967). "The early history of the poppy and opium".
2959:
in the United Kingdom. The UN treaty requires that every country submit annual reports to the
2234:
1683:
In response to the ever-growing number of Chinese people becoming addicted to opium, the Qing
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and became the world's largest producer of opium, producing 1080 metric tones according the
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is extracted from the opium latex, reducing the bulk weight by 88%. It is then converted to
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Guizhou and Shaanxi Provinces between 1921 and 1923, and food deficits in other provinces.
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3959:"Islamic Medical Manuscripts at the National Library of Medicine: a note on pharmaceutics"
1937:
as the "Century of National Humiliation", later defined to end with the conclusion of the
8:
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8254:, Pan Macmillan, London, 2018. **Review: Julie Peakman: "Not Just Smelling the Flowers",
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Apothecary vessel for storage of opium as a pharmaceutical, Germany, 18th or 19th century
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2149:
1848:
1709:
in 1840, the British winning Hong Kong and trade concessions in the first of a series of
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with the understanding that the independent purchasers would then smuggle it into China.
1022:
871:
712:
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settlements have also been reported. The first known cultivation of opium poppies was in
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2419:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
2217:
1415:
brought with them the Chinese manner of opium smoking, and the social traditions of the
1025:, also described the use of opium, though many Latin translations were of poor quality.
618:, including the placement of large numbers of poppy seed capsules at a burial site (the
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3579:"Archaeological Evidence for the Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World"
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Other methods of preparation (besides smoking), include processing into regular opium
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The painkilling fields: England's opium poppies that tackle the NHS morphine crisis,
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3329:
2449:
2250:
2121:
2101:
2042:
1938:
1926:
1792:
1657:
1568:
1455:
1314:
of tobacco by the Ming emperor. The prohibition ended in 1644 with the coming of the
1216:
1150:
1144:
1064:
The standard medical use of opium persisted well into the 19th century. US president
852:
813:
777:
732:
716:
667:
452:
7915:
7716:
7514:
7288:
7128:
6996:
6910:
5085:
4278:
3618:
1095:
979:'s 5th-century work from the 10th and 11th centuries refer to the use of wild poppy
12011:
11676:
11613:
11436:
11152:
11078:
10803:
10532:
10286:
10126:
9840:
9099:
8716:
8706:
8622:
8580:
8329:
8073:
8041:
The Opium Debate and Chinese Exclusion Laws in the Nineteenth-century American West
7938:
7893:
7741:
7696:
7621:
7338:
7318:
7106:
6937:
6890:
6855:
6794:
6464:
6456:
6362:
6237:
6193:
6120:"Jailed for Possession: Illegal Drug Use, Regulation, and Power in Canada, 1920–61"
6028:
5987:
5946:
5764:
5611:
5414:
The Making of Addiction: The 'Use and Abuse' of Opium in Nineteenth-Century Britain
4901:
4859:
4851:
4695:
4687:
4553:
4507:
4250:
4209:
3892:
3773:
3763:
3590:
3551:
3314:
3100:
2814:
2749:
2703:
2699:
2605:
2485:
2445:
2358:
1990:
1934:
1908:
1766:
1729:
1710:
1684:
1669:
1661:
1432:
1396:
1373:
1323:
1288:
1224:
514:
505:
indicates that opium was consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors,
7929:
Alper KR, Lotsof HS, Kaplan CD (January 2008). "The ibogaine medical subculture".
5384:
Dr Roland Quinault, Dr Ruth Clayton Windscheffel, Mr Roger Swift (July 28, 2013).
5155:
3984:
1271:
Recreational use of opium was part of a civilized and mannered ritual, akin to an
11326:
10853:
10808:
10156:
10131:
9174:
9104:
8959:
8850:
8824:
8726:
8575:
8504:
8492:
8388:. Hartford, Conn., S. S. Scranton and company; Philadelphia, Parmelee & co.;
8286:
8154:
8019:
7595:
7542:
6517:
6348:
6307:"Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma" 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬
5852:
5664:
5615:
5574:
5265:
John K. Fairbanks, "The Creation of the Treaty System' in John K. Fairbanks, ed.
5162:
5054:
4420:
3933:
3837:
3681:
3294:
3241:
3225:
2995:
2991:
2975:
2956:
2936:
2928:
2864:
2170:
2046:
1737:
1725:
1706:
1665:
1642:
1440:
1292:
1248:
1177:
1077:
1040:
976:
325:
79:
Uncertain, possibly Asia Minor, or Spain, southern France and northwestern Africa
66:
11266:
10422:
9662:
8497:
6926:"Experience with a Urine Opiate Screening and Confirmation Cutoff of 2000 mg/ml"
6525:
6351:"Morphine Metabolism in the Opium Poppy and Its Possible Physiological Function"
6089:
4756:
Dreaming of Paradise: Islamic Art from the Collection of the Museum of Ethnology
2065:
of 1912, nominally placed a tax on the distribution of opiates, but served as a
1843:
visiting India but not China. Accordingly, the missionaries first organized the
1336:) and became popular throughout China and its seafaring trade partners (such as
11986:
11628:
10953:
10251:
10231:
10226:
10031:
9289:
9249:
9239:
9199:
9094:
9059:
8964:
8939:
8894:
8782:
8606:
8339:
7547:
6760:"Opium cultivation declines by 95 per cent in Afghanistan: UN survey | UN News"
6759:
6241:
4061:
3748:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3221:
3206:
3056:
3052:
2967:
2948:
2852:
2820:
Besides Afghanistan, smaller quantities of opium are produced in Pakistan, the
2568:
2326:
1673:
1650:"pass duty" on the opium when it was forced to pass through Bombay to reach an
1553:
1400:
1091:
Recreational use in Europe, the Middle East and the US (11th to 19th centuries)
987:
887:
831:
690:
502:
7942:
7651:"An Assessment Of Inhalation As A Mode Of Administration Of Heroin By Addicts"
7322:
6460:
5793:
Opium, State, and Society: China's Narco-Economy and the Guomindang, 1924–1937
4905:
4855:
4691:
4511:
2877:
of individual countries. The leading legal production method is the Robertson-
2744:
1847:
among their colleagues in every mission station in China. American missionary
1716:
The opium trade incurred intense enmity from the later British Prime Minister
1423:
distributed opium-eaters in the same way, and both social groups survived as "
699:, sponges soaked in opium, were used during surgery. The Egyptians cultivated
545:
and its successors, which could be injected at a precisely controlled dosage.
11980:
11944:
11603:
11381:
11336:
11286:
11209:
11197:
10903:
10818:
10798:
10783:
10778:
10723:
10497:
10487:
10191:
10111:
9835:
9775:
9765:
9702:
9677:
9471:
9414:
9204:
9149:
9139:
9134:
9114:
9049:
8999:
8984:
8899:
8793:
6974:
5950:
4981:
4458:
4262:
3602:
3182:
3080:
2920:
2559:
2300:
2202:
1966:
1832:
1815:; Henry Whitney, MD, American Board of Commissioners for foreign Missions in
1597:
1412:
1404:
1384:
1116:
909:
857:
842:
693:
to put people quickly and painlessly to death. It was also used in medicine.
683:
522:
447:
443:
8261:
Latimer, Dean, and Jeff Goldberg with an Introduction by William Burroughs.
3768:
2873:
and other international drug treaties, subject to strict supervision by the
2524:
that induces a long-lasting intoxication. If allowed to mature, poppy pods (
11939:
11874:
11800:
11608:
11183:
11148:
10948:
10753:
10612:
10206:
10201:
10096:
10071:
10066:
9890:
9815:
9561:
9516:
9369:
9364:
9319:
9219:
9054:
9019:
9014:
8721:
8614:
8319:
8179:
7950:
7907:
7708:
7330:
7072:
6951:
6942:
6925:
6902:
6806:
6429:
6376:
6367:
6350:
6205:
6040:
6001:
5907:
5623:
5134:
4873:
4754:. Van de Wijngaart, G., "Trading in Dreams", in P. Faber & al. (eds.),
4744:
The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900
4643:
4527:
4270:
4182:
3324:
3245:
3166:
3019:
2940:
2908:
2609:
2381:
1994:
1839:. These missionaries were generally outraged over the British government's
1787:
1565:
1318:, which encouraged smokers to mix in increasing amounts of opium. In 1705,
1315:
1221:
1084:
1044:
827:
431:
8333:
8234:
The Shore Beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom
7753:
7666:
7635:
7120:
6867:
6702:
6478:
5880:"The Blooming Poppy under the Red Sun: The Yan'an Way and the Opium Trade"
4985:
4709:
4474:
4223:
3787:
3563:
3205:
in the brain, spinal cord, stomach and intestine. Regular use can lead to
2990:
In late 2006, the British government permitted the pharmaceutical company
2756:
greets local children working in the field of opium poppies near the base.
2005:
were involved in the opium trade during the Japanese occupation of China.
1902:
1633:
11869:
11846:
11760:
11686:
11653:
11633:
11511:
11496:
11491:
11481:
11471:
11391:
11361:
11356:
11201:
11173:
11168:
11138:
11123:
11113:
11093:
11088:
11048:
11013:
11003:
10958:
10938:
10923:
10918:
10888:
10833:
10828:
10823:
10768:
10743:
10728:
10703:
10693:
10683:
10678:
10592:
10587:
10582:
10567:
10507:
10502:
10477:
10336:
10326:
10306:
10266:
10261:
10236:
10221:
10186:
10181:
10081:
10056:
9950:
9945:
9935:
9925:
9915:
9850:
9780:
9737:
9581:
9511:
9481:
9466:
9451:
9424:
9389:
9374:
9359:
9344:
9309:
9299:
9269:
9254:
9229:
9194:
9189:
9179:
9169:
9129:
9124:
9084:
9074:
9009:
8994:
8969:
8929:
8914:
8904:
8772:
8701:
8629:
7821:
349.20 (n.d.): 1943–1953. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. November 3, 2011.
7817:
Ballantyne, Jane C., and Jianren Mao. "Opioid Therapy For Chronic Pain".
5468:
The Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another
4941:
4565:
4102:
3229:
3024:
2848:
2651:
2525:
2510:
2465:
2145:
2017:
1922:
1610:
1361:
1345:
1311:
1164:
pleasure I had." De Quincey writes about the great English Romantic poet
679:
643:
607:
560:
526:
506:
494:
439:
420:
133:
8192:. London, Printed for H.M. Stationery office. by Harrison and sons, ltd.
6732:"Afghan opium poppy cultivation plunges by 95 percent under Taliban: UN"
5276:"Britain's opium wars – fact and myth about the opium trade in the East"
4466:
4442:
3712:
3497:
3472:
2244:
Modern vial of morphine first isolated from opium by Friedrich Sertürner
2012:
Remaining opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the
1596:
During the Qing dynasty, China opened itself to foreign trade under the
11964:
11934:
11909:
11790:
11701:
11681:
11658:
11501:
11476:
11466:
11421:
11411:
11396:
11311:
11205:
11133:
11128:
11103:
11073:
11063:
11038:
11023:
10998:
10968:
10943:
10933:
10893:
10873:
10863:
10843:
10773:
10758:
10577:
10557:
10552:
10527:
10457:
10396:
10376:
10331:
10321:
10316:
10256:
10246:
10176:
10091:
9940:
9930:
9920:
9910:
9875:
9865:
9830:
9800:
9790:
9785:
9722:
9566:
9541:
9536:
9531:
9521:
9506:
9476:
9394:
9384:
9379:
9329:
9284:
9264:
9234:
9184:
9164:
9119:
9044:
8934:
8924:
8671:
8349:
8205:
7730:
Darke S, Zador D (December 1996). "Fatal heroin 'overdose': a review".
4391:
4097:
3610:
3578:
3253:
3237:
3198:
3186:
3073:
3068:
2675:
2551:
2541:
2529:
2316:
2304:
2285:
2269:
2261:
2035:
2008:
1998:
1957:
1953:
1721:
1705:, not willing to replace the cheap opium with costly silver, began the
1525: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1480:
1252:
1169:
1003:
906:
635:
403:
372:
107:
8514:
8454:
8311:
other stimulants used in the East, as substitutes for wine and spirits
6798:
6411:
6032:
5992:
5973:
4892:
Yangwen Zheng (2003). "The Social Life of Opium in China, 1483–1999".
4769:
Love for Pleasure: Betel, Tobacco, Wine and Drugs in Indian Miniatures
4519:
1298:
11919:
11914:
11864:
11836:
11765:
11726:
11721:
11696:
11691:
11618:
11526:
11516:
11406:
11316:
11230:
11188:
11178:
11118:
11108:
11098:
11068:
11058:
11053:
11008:
10978:
10858:
10838:
10738:
10733:
10688:
10607:
10602:
10562:
10547:
10522:
10452:
10391:
10361:
10311:
10301:
10296:
10161:
10051:
10016:
10011:
9955:
9880:
9860:
9855:
9825:
9755:
9717:
9697:
9692:
9632:
9616:
9606:
9551:
9461:
9409:
9404:
9339:
9294:
9274:
9154:
9144:
8989:
8742:
8648:
8587:
8228:. Shanghai; Statistical Dept. of the Inspectorate General of Customs.
8133:
History of the Opium Problem: The Assault on the East, ca. 1600–1950.
8043:(University of Nevada Press, 2007). Drugs and Racism in the Old West.
7796:
5441:
Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another
4397:
3476:
3257:
3217:
3190:
3130:
3120:
3084:
3063:
2882:
2643:
2564:
2533:
2521:
2514:
2373:
2369:
2342:
2334:
2265:
2257:
2240:
2080:
Following passage of a Colonial Australian law in 1895, Queensland's
1962:
1895:
1861:
1796:
1638:
1601:
1582:
1578:
1577:
smoking at court and carrying out the government's role of upholding
1464:
1451:
1416:
1202:
1136:
959:
922:
875:
785:
773:
708:
603:
490:
435:
383:
376:
335:
178:
102:
8111:
7465:"Opium for the masses: photo essay on cultivation of opium in India"
7353:"International Narcotics Control Strategy Report: Chemical controls"
6016:
5333:
Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874–1917
3555:
2082:
Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897
1500:
890:
origin ("Rhazes", 845–930 CE) maintained a laboratory and school in
537:. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the
11924:
11716:
11461:
11371:
11351:
11341:
11296:
11225:
11018:
10928:
10913:
10878:
10868:
10748:
10572:
10467:
10442:
10381:
10366:
10276:
10196:
10166:
10146:
10116:
10061:
10041:
10006:
9895:
9820:
9805:
9727:
9707:
9576:
9571:
9556:
9526:
9496:
9456:
9324:
9214:
9159:
9069:
9004:
8974:
8859:
8777:
8762:
8747:
8681:
8676:
8560:
8385:
The oldest and the newest empire : China and the United States
8376:
Seeds of Terror: How Heroin is Bankrolling the Taliban and Al Qaeda
7468:
5575:
Crusaders Against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874–1917
3881:"Evidencias del consumo de drogas en Europa durante la Prehistoria"
3744:"A brief history of opiates, opioid peptides, and opioid receptors"
3349:
3261:
3178:
3170:
3162:
3145:
3136:
3092:
3088:
3033:
3008:
2952:
2944:
2694:
2679:
2639:
2631:
2583:
2545:
2377:
2346:
2273:
2187:
1812:
1688:
1652:
1436:
1236:
1181:
1173:
1140:
1104:
1032:
1027:
1007:
964:
948:
944:
930:
765:
720:
639:
542:
534:
510:
466:
416:(derived from the Greek for "opium-like", but now used to refer to
412:
368:
364:
341:
338:
163:
158:
138:
112:
92:
8048:
The Arts of an Addiction. Qing Dynasty Opium Pipes and Accessories
7856:
6414:"The Isolation of Morphine—First Principles in Science and Ethics"
5597:"'Harms Caused by China's 1906–17 Opium Suppression Intervention'"
2900:
quality and quantity tendered. The average is around 1500 rupees (
1626:
well as the manufacture and traffic to China, were subject to the
1609:
been purchasing small amounts of opium from India for trade since
622:, or "Bat Cave", in Spain), which has been carbon-14 dated to 4200
11889:
11770:
11648:
11331:
11215:
10993:
10983:
10211:
10141:
10076:
10026:
9885:
9637:
9611:
9601:
9586:
9491:
9304:
9279:
9029:
8909:
8757:
8752:
5827:
Places of Memory in Modern China: History, Politics, and Identity
5437:
5251:
3679:
3174:
3151:
2927:
in the United States, and legal opium production is conducted by
2912:
2844:
2764:
2537:
2385:
2365:
2350:
2338:
2312:
2311:
began in 1846–1847, and rapidly displaced the use of opiates and
2289:
2284:
of Darmstadt, and helped him expand his family pharmacy into the
2277:
2226:
1949:
1945:
1907:
China ought only to increase our sense of responsibility." is by
1828:
1820:
1804:
1701:
in 1800, this was a substantial economic loss. The British queen
1619:
1365:
1307:
1244:
1240:
1112:
1036:
891:
781:
663:
611:
417:
360:
128:
97:
5549:
William Ewart Gladstone: Faith and Politics in Victorian Britain
5464:
3139:
is the primary biologically active chemical constituent of opium
1925:
in 1916. Opium farming also increased, peaking in 1930 when the
1564:
A large scale opium prohibition attempt began in 1729, when the
1291:
in an attempt to stop opium smuggling by the British led to the
1227:
in 1483 to procure opium for a price "equal to that of gold" in
11899:
11884:
11879:
11750:
11643:
11306:
10973:
10788:
10447:
10371:
10356:
10346:
10121:
9712:
9591:
9209:
9089:
8655:
8598:
8290:
The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade
7687:
Karl A. Sporer, M.D. (April 6, 1999). "Acute Heroin Overdose".
7648:
6703:"Poppy Cultivation in South of Afghanistan Down by 80%: Report"
6516:
4758:, Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Martial & Snoeck, 1993, p. 186-191.
3354:
3319:
3233:
3116:
3112:
3000:
2683:
2436:
2389:
2322:
2002:
1970:
1836:
1816:
1677:
1428:
1424:
1408:
1369:
1337:
1232:
1228:
836:
789:
769:
757:
728:
659:
498:
470:
357:
349:
345:
168:
148:
5686:
5167:
4676:"Pharmacy in medieval Islam and the history of drug addiction"
4443:"The Uses and Abuses Of Opiates In Nineteenth-Century England"
2907:
Legal opium importation from India and Turkey is conducted by
2159:
926:, that influenced medical thought well into the 16th century.
11904:
11506:
11401:
11143:
10898:
10763:
10136:
10086:
10046:
9810:
9501:
9354:
9039:
9034:
8696:
6017:"Lee Robins' studies of heroin use among US Vietnam veterans"
4607:"Drug Addiction Research and the Health of Women – pg. 33–52"
3043:
2825:
2663:
2593:
2330:
1615:
1573:
1328:
1132:
895:
651:
615:
576:
571:
530:
387:
321:
300:
Controlled unless and except for medical use under a license.
173:
153:
69:
63:
8845:
8221:
6627:"Afghan poppy farmers say new seeds will boost opium output"
6282:"Opium – Poppy Cultivation, Morphine and Heroin Manufacture"
5765:
Association for Asian Studies. Southeast Conference (1979).
5269:, vol. 10 Part 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1992) p. 213.
3863:
3154:
is another biologically active chemical constituent of opium
2831:
2392:
without also duplicating much of their addictive potential.
1858:
Opinions of Over 100 Physicians on the Use of Opium in China
16:
Dried latex of the opium poppy containing narcotic compounds
10908:
8592:
8210:
7191:
6923:
6102:
5850:
4966:
Rewriting history, A response to the 2008 World Drug Report
4640:"Why a Medieval Woman Had Lapis Lazuli Hidden in Her Teeth"
3595:
10.1663/0013-0001(2003)057[0295:aeftto]2.0.co;2
2069:
prohibition of the drugs. Today, opium is regulated by the
2034:
without a prescription, and bans on possession of opium or
1782:
The cover page of the book of The Truth about Opium Smoking
1459:
1341:
1128:
809:
793:
143:
8468:
4980:
4767:
Habighorst, Ludwig V., Reichart, Peter A., Sharma, Vijay,
4198:"Avicenna and the Canon of Medicine: a millennial tribute"
2789:, of which Afghan farmers were estimated to have received
591:
Opium has been actively collected since approximately 3400
8258:
History Today Vol. 68/10, October 2018, pp. 102–103.
7372:
Brzezinski, Matthew. "Re-Engineering the Drug Business".
5974:"Transition of China's drug policy: problems in practice"
5737:. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press. p. 312.
4372:"PARACELSUS, Five Hundred Years: Three American Exhibits"
4236:
3814:
2809:
Afghanistan opium poppy cultivation, 1994–2016 (hectares)
2556:
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
2528:) can be crushed and used to produce lower quantities of
761:
8404:
7435:
7054:
6845:
5545:
5377:
4237:
Ganidagli S, Cengiz M, Aksoy S, Verit A (January 2004).
4168:
3106:
2472:
on the streets of Europe before conversion into heroin.
1215:
The earliest clear description of the use of opium as a
8473:
8408:
British opium policy and its results to India and China
8055:
Race, Law and 'The Chinese Puzzle' in Imperial Britain.
7213:
6880:
6784:
5465:
W. Travis Hanes III, Frank Sanello (February 1, 2004).
5301:
The Imperial Cruise: a secret history of empire and war
4323:
4321:
943:
used opium in the 14th-century Ottoman Empire to treat
521:
texts of the ancient and medieval world, including the
7216:"Victorious warlords set to open the opium floodgates"
7092:
6254:
3423:
3224:
are functions of the mu opioid receptor, the class of
3051:, but combination with other depressant drugs such as
3027:
man smokes a pipe containing opium mixed with tobacco.
2120:. Opium-producing nations are required to designate a
1255:
listed standard medical uses of opium in his renowned
517:
for suicide. Opium is mentioned in the most important
334:. Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the
7655:
Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
7649:
Benjamin Pui-Nin Mo, E. Leong Way (October 1, 1966).
7492:"Feasibility Study on Opium Licensing in Afghanistan"
7061:
Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
5796:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 240.
954:
7686:
7411:"UNODC – Bulletin on Narcotics – 1950 Issue 3 – 003"
7019:"UNODC – Bulletin on Narcotics – 1969 Issue 4 – 001"
6227:
5884:
New Perspectives on the Chinese Communist Revolution
5356:
4961:
4959:
4318:
3252:, including pharmacologically based treatments with
1470:
8411:. London, S. Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington.
5329:
3647:. UNODC- Bulletin on Narcotics – 1967 Issue 4 – 002
3510:
8268:
8120:
8067:
7511:"The Kabul International Symposium on Drug Policy"
7192:Jeff Sheehy, Corinna Kaarlela (January 26, 2004).
5697:
5410:
5298:
4118:"Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (841–926)"
4066:"Opium as a commodity and the Chinese drug plague"
4014:
3392:
2871:United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
2229:with progressively stronger effects, and by other
1819:; the Rev. Samuel Clarke, China Inland Mission in
799:
8363:
8343:The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control
8302:. New York, Chicago : F. H. Revell company.
7928:
7459:
6726:
6724:
6678:"Solar panels driving opium trade in Afghanistan"
6412:Huxtable Ryan J., Schwartz Stephen K. W. (2001).
5823:
5175:
4956:
4392:Stephen Harding, Lee Ann Olivier, Olivera Jokic.
2456:In 2002, the price for one kilogram of opium was
1676:'s revenue and simultaneously caused scarcity of
11978:
11967:(met-enkephalin releaser/degradation stabilizer)
8498:UNODC – United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
8306:
8169:The Cambridge History of China: volume 10 part I
7262:"Rebuilding Afghanistan: Weekly Activity Update"
7093:Robinson SL, Rowbotham DJ, Smith G (July 1991).
7055:W. R. Martin, H. F. Fraser (September 1, 1961).
6183:
5658:
5431:
4990:San Francisco Police and Peace Officers' Journal
4746:(Washington: Mage Publishers, 2005), pp. 97–116
4329:"Paracelsus: the philosopher's stone made flesh"
3236:administered, and leads to a superactivation of
2280:were reported. Morphine sales began in 1827, by
1310:smoking and may have been encouraged by a brief
735:conquest of Assyria and Babylonian lands in the
8482:: Traditional method of using opium in Thailand
8392:
8007:
8005:
7811:
7610:"Oral morphine consumption in Italy and Sicily"
7415:United Nations : Office on Drugs and Crime
7045:Belgische Farmacopee, 5de uitgave, 1966; part 3
6754:
6752:
6223:
6221:
6219:
6217:
6215:
5972:Xiao S, Yang M, Zhou L, Hao W (February 2015).
5971:
5854:The Vladimirov diaries: Yenan, China, 1942–1945
5789:
5498:. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 290–.
5387:William Gladstone: New Studies and Perspectives
5053:
5009:
4976:
4974:
4394:"Victorians' Secret: Victorian Substance Abuse"
3978:
3866:Journal of the Archaeological Society of Athens
3842:. Vol. 3. Wm. H. Allen & Company. 1817
3544:Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology
1390:
916:("Abulcasis", 936–1013 CE) relied on opium and
8823:
8486:Tsur Shezaf, Witer, The Opium Growers of Sinai
8381:
8295:
8109:
7529:
7508:
7302:
6924:Albert D. Fraser, David Worth (October 1999).
6721:
6068:
5844:
5539:
5491:
5458:
5336:. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 86–.
5273:
4931:
4929:
4927:
4925:
4923:
4581:"Scientists Examine Pain Relief and Addiction"
4418:
4060:
3878:
3741:
3345:Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade
2571:indications of drug use and were the basis of
2237:first isolated morphine from the opium poppy.
920:as surgical anesthetics and wrote a treatise,
356:. The latex also contains the closely related
8809:
8530:
8423:A fleet of opium clippers on the River Ganges
8185:
8155:Narcotic culture: a history of drugs in China
8153:Dikötter, Frank, Lars Laamann, and Zhou Xun.
7607:
7214:Paul Harris in Peshawar (November 25, 2001).
7041:
7039:
6973:
6320:"Eastern Europe Shooting Up Under A Red Star"
6317:
5636:
5552:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 108–.
5182:"Brilliant, Chang! « London Particulars"
5083:
4891:
4796:Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China
4673:
4543:
4539:
4537:
4012:
3807:
3737:
3735:
3733:
3083:, opium is more commonly used in the form of
42:Opium poppy seed pod exuding latex from a cut
8318:
8135:Sinica Leidensia, 105. Leiden: Brill, 2012.
8088:
8002:
7879:
6967:
6749:
6212:
6117:
6083:
5882:. In Tony Saich, Hans J. Van de Ven (eds.).
5877:
5871:
5661:"The Troublesome Legacy of Commissioner Lin"
5438:William Travis Hanes, Frank Sanello (2004).
5404:
4971:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3706:
3680:Santella, Thomas M., Triggle, D. J. (2009).
3665:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3399:American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education
2869:Legal opium production is allowed under the
2578:
2395:
2023:
1989:was important to its finances in the 1940s.
1618:). Chests of opium were sold in auctions in
1247:, where it is close to the western lands of
1192:
1053:, which included true opium in the mixture.
8348:
8157:Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
8064:. London: Simon & Schuster, Ltd., 1996.
7552:June 2007. Retrieved on September 21, 2007.
7161:
6675:
5824:Marc Andre Matten, ed. (December 9, 2011).
5360:Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy
5323:
5149:
5105:
4935:
4920:
4789:
4787:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4578:
3932:
3859:
3857:
3535:
3513:"HON Mother & Child Glossary, Meconium"
3269:International Agency for Research on Cancer
2835:200 g (7.1 oz) Spanish opium ball
2160:Regulation in Britain and the United States
1491:Japanese opium policy in Taiwan (1895–1945)
1302:A Chinese opium house; photographed in 1902
1099:An artist's view of an Ottoman opium seller
1068:was treated with opium in 1841, and in the
548:
344:, which is processed chemically to produce
8816:
8802:
8537:
8523:
8459:by Michael Pollan (originally appeared in
8345:. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
7857:Max Chamka, Translated by Geraldine Ring.
7729:
7489:
7036:
5817:
5730:
5390:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 238–.
5350:
5132:
5110:. Tower Hamlets Newsletter. Archived from
5059:"The politics of heroin in Southeast Asia"
4818:
4534:
4364:
3839:The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Miscellany
3730:
3686:. Facts On File, Incorporated. p. 8.
3062:The smoking of opium does not involve the
2674:). Vinum opii is made by combining sugar,
2190:Northern Army and the Chinese Nationalist
2045:doctrine prior to reinterpretation of the
606:settlements have been reported throughout
36:
8057:New York: Palgrave-Macmillan Press, 2009.
7897:
7625:
7238:"UN World Drug Report 2007 – Afghanistan"
7110:
6941:
6592:
6520:, The Sunday Times (September 13, 1998).
6468:
6442:
6366:
6257:"Legislation – Controlled Substances Act"
6144:
6014:
5991:
5518:
5417:. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 66–.
5363:. Harvard University Press. pp. 9–.
4863:
4699:
4230:
4213:
4056:
4054:
4052:
4050:
4048:
4046:
4044:
4042:
3794:
3777:
3767:
3541:
2205:"), and poppy seeds were used to produce
1541:Learn how and when to remove this message
1159:(1822), one of the first and most famous
8263:Flowers in the Blood: The Story of Opium
7308:
7286:
6586:
6071:"State's War on Drugs – a 100-Year Bust"
5906:
5594:
5512:
5330:Kathleen L. Lodwick (February 5, 2015).
4887:
4885:
4883:
4838:"Opium Addiction and English Literature"
4835:
4793:
4774:
4493:
4491:
4195:
4008:
4006:
4004:
4002:
3972:
3854:
3673:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3374:
3372:
3370:
3240:signaling. Long-term use of morphine in
3181:are the main psychoactive constituents.
3018:
2985:
2891:Dictionnaire de chimie pure et appliquée
2830:
2804:
2743:
2735:
2582:
2435:
2239:
2216:
2131:
1993:'s diary provided a first hand account.
1901:
1777:
1746:
1632:
1587:
1552:
1458:. Chinese men were deported for playing
1297:
1278:
1206:
1094:
958:
862:
803:
707:BCE. Opium was traded from Egypt by the
570:
8544:
8476:: Speculations on the future of opioids
8070:"Economic Histories of the Opium Trade"
7701:10.7326/0003-4819-130-7-199904060-00019
7483:
5934:
5652:
5485:
5296:
5290:
5221:"Opium Factories of Bihar – Bihargatha"
4412:
4385:
4162:
3632:
3465:
2972:opium produced illegally in Afghanistan
2824:region of Southeast Asia (particularly
1795:, MD, American Presbyterian Mission in
1364:is retailed with greater profit by the
999:for inducing sleep and relieving pain.
678:. Opium production continued under the
662:, a Sumerian spiritual center south of
11979:
8292:. New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 1991.
8196:Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011).
7880:Finn AK, Whistler JL (December 2001).
7614:Journal of Pain and Symptom Management
6821:"Production of thebaine and oripavine"
6540:
6491:
5305:. Little, Brown and Company. pp.
5256:1998. Retrieved on September 21, 2007.
5172:2007. Retrieved on September 21, 2007.
5010:H.H. Kane, M.D. (September 24, 1881).
4039:
3576:
3305:History of Jardine, Matheson & Co.
2361:oxycodone remain popular to this day.
2061:of 1914, passed in fulfillment of the
1403:. Chinese emigrants to cities such as
1306:Smoking of opium came on the heels of
289:
265:
8797:
8518:
8222:Hai guan zong shui wu si shu (1889).
8124:Confessions of an English opium-eater
7509:Senlis Council (September 26, 2005).
5197:. The Golden Triangle. Archived from
5086:"Opium and the British Indian Empire"
4880:
4822:Confessions of an English Opium-Eater
4637:
4497:
4488:
4440:
4434:
4189:
3999:
3570:
3430:University of California, Los Angeles
3367:
3107:Chemical and physiological properties
2961:International Narcotics Control Board
2721:
2491:
2118:Convention on Psychotropic Substances
2106:International Narcotics Control Board
1156:Confessions of an English Opium-Eater
277:
8400:. London : Wm. H. Allen and Co.
8252:Milk of Paradise: A History of Opium
8211:Great Britain, India office (1922).
7746:10.1046/j.1360-0443.1996.911217652.x
7436:"CENTRAL BUREAU OF NARCOTICS, INDIA"
6147:"Chapter 1, The French in Indochina"
5851:Petr Parfenovich Vladimirov (1975).
5604:International Journal of Drug Policy
5411:Ms Louise Foxcroft (June 28, 2013).
4968:, Transnational Institute, June 2008
3926:
3829:
3700:
3638:
2855:Southeast Asia Opium Survey report.
2828:), Colombia, Guatemala, and Mexico.
2399:
2154:Governor-General of French Indochina
1523:adding citations to reliable sources
1494:
1161:literary accounts of opium addiction
658:, the "joy plant". Tablets found at
450:opiates, originates from extracting
250:(Special prescription form required)
8370:. London : Saunders and Otley.
7834:. Homehealth-uk.com. Archived from
7264:. February 24, 2005. Archived from
6600:Australian Broadcasting Corporation
6086:"Ain't Nobody's Business If You Do"
5492:Peter Ward Fay (November 9, 2000).
4447:Bulletin of the History of Medicine
4021:. Oxford University Press. p.
2858:
2233:. This process began in 1804, when
2177:
2114:Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
1803:, American Presbyterian Mission in
1211:An opium den in 18th-century China.
565:The Herbal of Dioscorides the Greek
254:
13:
8217:. Printed by H.M. Stationery Off.
8033:
7289:"UN warns of soaring Afghan opium"
7112:10.1111/j.1365-2044.1991.tb09650.x
6985:. New Delhi: National Book Trust.
6595:"Afghanistan: America's blind eye"
6165:from the original on March 1, 2023
5914:. New York: Vintage. p. 413.
5698:William A Callahan (May 8, 2004).
5444:. Sourcebooks, Inc. pp. 78–.
4771:(Koblenz: Ragaputra Edition, 2007)
4558:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1979.tb01367.x
3879:E. Guerra Doce (January 1, 2006).
3161:Opium contains two main groups of
1379:Fueled in part by the 1729 ban on
1035:of opium", a solution of opium in
955:Reintroduction to Western medicine
894:, and was a student and critic of
796:, symbolizing nocturnal oblivion.
703:in famous poppy fields around 1300
14:
12023:
10784:Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol)
10112:Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol)
9065:Dextropropoxyphene (propoxyphene)
9050:Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol)
8428:Confessions of a Poppy Tea addict
8416:
8405:Turner, Frederick Storrs (1876).
8314:. Dublin, W. Curry and W. Carson.
8200:. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books.
7218:. London: Observer.guardian.co.uk
6198:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.951234.x
6103:Legal Information Access Centre.
5886:. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 263–298.
5546:David William Bebbington (1993).
5033:"Opium degrading the French Navy"
3103:and other forms of chronic pain.
3091:. This is a weaker solution than
1471:Prohibition and conflict in China
1103:Soldiers returning home from the
410:, "juice of a plant"). The word
205:
11164:Salvinorin B methoxymethyl ether
8265:. New York: Franklin Watts, 1981
7972:
7957:
7922:
7873:
7850:
7824:
7785:
7760:
7723:
7680:
7642:
7601:
7581:
7555:
7502:
7453:
7428:
7403:
7379:
7366:
7345:
7280:
7254:
7230:
7207:
7185:
7135:
7086:
7048:
7011:
6958:
6930:Journal of Analytical Toxicology
6917:
6895:10.1097/00007691-200608000-00011
6874:
6839:
6823:. April 20, 2004. Archived from
6813:
6778:
6695:
6669:
6644:
6619:
6570:"0.0_Front Matters_05-31-07.qxd"
6562:
6510:
6485:
6436:
6405:
6383:
6342:
6311:
6069:Dale Gieringer (March 4, 2007).
5578:. University Press of Kentucky.
5525:. A&C Black. pp. 224–.
4255:10.1097/00000542-200401000-00026
4144:"El Zahrawi – Father Of Surgery"
3742:M J Brownstein (June 15, 1993).
3144:
3129:
2404:
2235:Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner
2127:
2084:addressed opium addiction among
1888:to stop the opium trade. He and
1765:Following China's defeat in the
1604:(Canton), with traders from the
1499:
1348:) in the 17th century. In 1712,
493:age with purposes such as food,
465:For the illegal drug trade, the
11159:Salvinorin B ethoxymethyl ether
8176:L'opium légal produit en France
7859:"3 grams of opium for 1 dollar"
7819:New England Journal of Medicine
6979:"CHAPTER 2: THE STORY OF OPIUM"
6355:Journal of Biological Chemistry
6318:Jennifer Hull (June 24, 2001).
6299:
6274:
6248:
6230:Asian Journal of Social Science
6177:
6138:
6111:
6096:
6077:
6062:
6008:
5965:
5928:
5900:
5783:
5758:
5724:
5691:
5679:
5659:Joyce A. Madancy (April 2004).
5630:
5588:
5566:
5274:John Newsinger (October 1997).
5259:
5239:
5223:. Bihargatha.in. Archived from
5213:
5187:
5184:. Retrieved on October 3, 2010.
5135:"Lascars in the port of London"
5126:
5099:
5077:
5047:
5025:
5003:
4986:"San Francisco's Old Chinatown"
4829:
4812:
4761:
4736:
4716:
4667:
4657:
4631:
4599:
4572:
4342:
4292:
4202:The Western Journal of Medicine
4171:Acta medico-historica Adriatica
4136:
4110:
4090:
3951:
3872:
3639:PAPADAKI P. G. KRITIKOS, S. P.
2897:Legal opium production in India
2728:Opium production in Afghanistan
2212:
2071:Drug Enforcement Administration
1811:, Church Missionary Society in
1510:needs additional citations for
1360:: "No commodity throughout the
800:Islamic societies (500–1500 CE)
242:
11084:Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide
8198:Traders of the Golden Triangle
7169:"UNODC World Drug Report 2005"
6848:Forensic Science International
6676:Kloosterman K (June 2, 2022).
5267:The Cambridge History of China
5108:"When a woman ruled Chinatown"
5106:John Rennie (March 26, 2007).
5084:John Richards (May 23, 2001).
4579:Donna Young (April 15, 2007).
4500:Medical Anthropology Quarterly
3504:
3490:
3448:
3417:
3310:Illegal drug trade in Colombia
3274:
3014:
2319:due to their relative safety.
2192:Kuomintang army invading Burma
2097:International Opium Commission
2063:International Opium Convention
1724:Britain waged in China in the
1287:by an emissary of the Chinese
1285:A massive destruction of opium
951:, and other painful ailments.
382:The English word for opium is
352:for medicinal use and for the
231:
218:
1:
11059:Nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine)
10252:Met-enkephalin (metenkefalin)
9861:Nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine)
9290:Met-enkephalin (metenkefalin)
8435:: Opium, morphine, and heroin
7967:Volume 126: Opium Consumption
7964:Volume 126: Opium Consumption
7899:10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00517-7
7627:10.1016/S0885-3924(98)00368-6
7563:"Letter from Macfarlan Smith"
6860:10.1016/S0379-0738(98)00107-8
6496:. Vintage Books. p. 54.
5572:Lodwick, Kathleen L. (1996).
5519:Anne Isba (August 24, 2006).
5471:. Sourcebooks. pp. 88–.
5357:Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy (2009).
4938:"Opium History, 1858 to 1940"
3897:10.1016/S1575-0973(06)75106-6
3360:
2955:Pharmaceutical in Japan; and
2116:, and subsequently under the
1944:In the northern provinces of
1874:The Truth about Opium Smoking
1827:, English Baptist Mission in
1756:
1558:Destruction of opium at Humen
1477:Destruction of opium at Humen
884:Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi
817:
744:
727:BCE, opium was cultivated on
10282:N-Phenethyl-14-ethoxymetopon
8378:, Thomas Dunne Books (2009).
8214:The truth about Indian opium
7931:Journal of Ethnopharmacology
6393:. Pharmazeutische-zeitung.de
6255:Office of the Commissioner.
5771:. The Conference. p. 51
5616:10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.03.001
5133:J.P. Jones (February 1931).
4546:British Journal of Addiction
3577:Merlin MD (September 2003).
3426:"The Pernicious Opium Poppy"
3424:Professor Arthur C. Gibson.
3007:to meet the high demand for
2778:UN Office on Drugs and Crime
2440:Dried latex from opium poppy
2108:of the United Nations under
1835:, London Mission Society in
1391:Chinese diaspora in the West
1258:Compendium of Materia Medica
513:, and as a combination with
7:
11935:β-Lipotropin (proendorphin)
11563:((pF)Phe)Nociceptin(1-13)NH
10944:Leumorphin (dynorphin B-29)
9430:Oxymorphone phenylhydrazone
8269:MacPherson, Duncan (1843).
8162:Opium: Reality's Dark Dream
8121:de Quincey, Thomas (1821).
8068:Chandra, Siddharth (2008).
7689:Annals of Internal Medicine
7541:September 28, 2007, at the
7374:The New York Times Magazine
7287:BBC News (August 2, 2006).
6883:Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
6787:Journal of Natural Products
5687:http://roar.uel.ac.uk/1692/
4638:Zhang S (January 9, 2019).
3983:(in German). Archived from
3393:Paul L. Schiff Jr. (2002).
3288:
2507:Papaver somniferum L. elite
2184:Central Intelligence Agency
931:Abū ‘Alī al-Husayn ibn Sina
715:to destinations around the
390:, which in turn comes from
10:
12028:
11955:Proopiomelanocortin (POMC)
11575:-NH)Gly)Nociceptin(1-13)NH
10679:Adrenorphin (metorphamide)
9846:Methylsamidorphan chloride
9080:Dimethylaminopivalophenone
8905:Adrenorphin (metorphamide)
8500:– Afghan Opium Survey 2009
8491:November 20, 2009, at the
8364:Ouchterlony, John (1844).
6391:"Dem Morphin auf der Spur"
6242:10.1163/156853102320945420
4982:Commissioner Jesse B. Cook
4300:"Pseudo-Apuleius: Papaver"
3456:"The Global Heroin Market"
3110:
2862:
2725:
2497:
2355:oxycodone with paracetamol
2333:pharmaceutical company in
2059:Harrison Narcotics Tax Act
1985:The opium trade under the
1845:Anti-Opium League in China
1753:British East India Company
1728:initiated in 1840 and the
1628:British East India Company
1488:
1474:
1196:
1122:
476:
430:plant, the content of the
395:
18:
11875:Racecadotril (acetorphan)
11823:
11735:
11550:
11539:
11282:Buprenorphine/samidorphan
11239:
11194:Tricyclic antidepressants
10636:
10625:
10405:
10272:Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl
9979:
9968:
9625:
9315:Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl
8834:
8735:
8664:
8552:
8307:Morewood, Samuel (1838).
8281:The Art of Opium Antiques
8050:(privately printed, 2005)
7980:"Opiate Slang Dictionary"
7943:10.1016/j.jep.2007.08.034
7594:October 10, 2008, at the
7323:10.1080/02634930050079354
6709:. June 7, 2023. p. 1
6522:"How aspirin turned hero"
6461:10.1136/bmj.313.7072.1630
6445:"Narcosis and nightshade"
4906:10.1017/S0026749X0300101X
4856:10.1017/s0025727300021505
4836:Hubble D (October 1957).
4726:(Beirut: Albouraq, 2008)
4692:10.1017/s0025727300017725
4512:10.1525/maq.2000.14.3.414
4196:Smith RD (October 1980).
3395:"Opium and its alkaloids"
2740:International drug routes
2579:Harvesting and processing
2481:World Health Organization
2413:This section needs to be
2396:Modern production and use
2136:Two men smoking opium in
2075:Controlled Substances Act
2024:Prohibition outside China
1841:Royal Commission on Opium
1485:History of opium in China
1199:History of opium in China
1193:Recreational use in China
900:Fi ma-la-yahdara al-tabib
195:
187:
121:
83:
75:
59:
47:
35:
30:
11997:IARC Group 1 carcinogens
11860:Dexecadotril (retorphan)
11832:Enkephalinase inhibitors
11761:BTRX-246040 (LY-2940094)
11743:(Nphe)Nociceptin(1-13)NH
11659:Nociceptin (orphanin FQ)
8393:Thelwall, A. S. (1839).
8160:Dormandy, Thomas (2012)
8018:October 2, 2016, at the
6105:"Drug laws in Australia"
6015:Hall W, Weier M (2017).
5951:10.1177/0920203X13491387
5790:Edward R. Slack (2001).
5161:October 7, 2017, at the
5012:"American Opium Smokers"
3979:Julius Berendes (1902).
3726:(citing Andrew Sherratt)
3250:rehabilitation treatment
2875:law enforcement agencies
2648:tinctura opii camphorata
2540:and antagonists such as
2292:was isolated in 1832 by
2288:pharmaceutical company.
1878:The Chinese Opium Smoker
1187:
874:depicts an opium den in
620:Cueva de los Murciélagos
549:Ancient use (pre-500 CE)
296:Narcotic Schedule I
11558:(Arg14,Lys15)Nociceptin
10829:Dynorphin B (rimorphin)
9871:Nalorphine dinicotinate
8382:Speer, William (1870).
8296:Merwin, Samuel (1907).
8164:, Yale University Press
8110:Day, Horace B. (1868).
6418:Molecular Interventions
3769:10.1073/pnas.90.12.5391
2885:are then recovered via
1987:Chinese Communist Party
1825:Arthur Gostick Shorrock
1718:William Ewart Gladstone
1668:, and 30,000 under the
1273:East Asian tea ceremony
1166:Samuel Taylor Coleridge
914:Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi
834:. Some Muslims believe
674:, possibly the root of
654:, who called the plant
626:BCE. Numerous finds of
324:obtained from the seed
11174:Spiradoline (U-62,066)
11119:Pethidine (meperidine)
10312:Pethidine (meperidine)
10002:ADL-5747 (PF-04856881)
9648:4-Caffeoyl-1,5-quinide
9547:Tetrahydropapaveroline
9462:Pethidine (meperidine)
8636:Mandragora officinarum
8505:The Alkaloids of Opium
8439:From Flowers to Heroin
8186:Great Britain (1913).
8167:Fairbank, J.K. (1978)
7608:S. Mercadante (1998).
7498:on September 28, 2007.
6368:10.1074/jbc.M107105200
5830:. BRILL. p. 271.
5247:"Qing Era (1644–1912)"
4674:Hamarneh Sami (1972).
4098:"Answers.com: al-Razi"
4013:Philip Robson (1999).
3808:PBS Frontline (1997).
3244:and the management of
3195:central nervous system
3028:
2966:In 2005, the European
2925:Cody Laboratories Inc.
2836:
2810:
2757:
2741:
2708:intravenous drug users
2588:
2441:
2349:derivative similar to
2282:Heinrich Emanuel Merck
2245:
2222:
2141:
2038:in 1909 were enacted.
2031:anti-Chinese sentiment
1912:
1882:National Righteousness
1783:
1762:
1751:Storage of opium at a
1646:
1593:
1561:
1303:
1212:
1100:
1066:William Henry Harrison
1047:described in the 1728
1013:Aulus Cornelius Celsus
972:
941:Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu
929:The Persian physician
879:
823:
588:
563:, Introduction to
557:
21:Opium (disambiguation)
11865:Ecadotril (sinorphan)
11352:CERC-501 (LY-2456302)
11252:4',7-Dihydroxyflavone
10814:Dinalbuphine sebacate
10689:Alazocine (SKF-10047)
10413:4',7-Dihydroxyflavone
10372:Thiobromadol (C-8813)
10012:Alazocine (SKF-10047)
9658:4',7-Dihydroxyflavone
9638:2-(S)-N,N-(R)-Viminol
9110:Dinalbuphine sebacate
8469:House of Opium museum
8089:Chouvy, P.A. (2009).
8076:on September 28, 2013
8046:Armero and Rapaport.
7598:, September 15, 2007.
7149:on September 24, 2001
6155:University of Houston
6118:Carstairs C. (2006).
5878:Chen Yung-Fa (1995).
5286:on February 13, 2006.
5227:on September 10, 2011
4819:de Quincey T (1821).
4306:on September 28, 2007
4150:on September 27, 2007
3707:Suzanne Carr (1995).
3511:Simon O'Dochartaigh.
3040:Intravenous injection
3022:
2986:Cultivation in the UK
2933:Johnson & Johnson
2834:
2808:
2747:
2739:
2716:necrotizing fasciitis
2670:) and opium extract (
2586:
2439:
2384:, who carry packs of
2364:A range of synthetic
2243:
2220:
2135:
1905:
1890:James Laidlaw Maxwell
1807:(Peking); Archdeacon
1781:
1750:
1636:
1591:
1556:
1301:
1279:Prohibitions in China
1210:
1098:
1018:The Canon of Medicine
963:Latin translation of
962:
936:The Canon of Medicine
866:
814:Dutch colonial period
807:
723:, and Europe. By 1100
598:At least 17 finds of
574:
553:
541:before giving way to
11722:Sunobinop (S-117957)
11457:N-Fluoropropyl-JDTic
10789:Diamorphine (heroin)
10122:Diamorphine (heroin)
9090:Diamorphine (heroin)
8890:Acetyldihydrocodeine
8870:7-Hydroxymitragynine
8865:7-Acetoxymitragynine
8433:DEA drug information
7311:Central Asian Survey
6943:10.1093/jat/23.6.549
6827:on September 5, 2012
6528:on September 6, 2015
6330:on February 24, 2021
6145:Ladenburg T (1974).
5639:"The opium monopoly"
5114:on February 10, 2010
4894:Modern Asian Studies
4798:. Hurst. p. 3.
4419:Ole Daniel Enersen.
4350:"The devil's doctor"
3885:Trastornos Adictivos
3498:"Etymonline - Opium"
3193:have no significant
2887:acid-base extraction
2625:acid-base extraction
2294:Pierre Jean Robiquet
1866:China Inland Mission
1600:through the port of
1519:improve this article
1168:(1772–1834), whose "
826:As the power of the
719:, including Greece,
689:Opium was used with
646:, approximately 3400
575:Poppy crop from the
525:and the writings of
483:Mediterranean region
367:, and non-analgesic
348:and other synthetic
191:Worldwide (#1: Iran)
19:For other uses, see
11925:Ubenimex (bestatin)
11669:Nociceptin (1-13)NH
11277:β-Chlornaltrexamine
11247:4′-Hydroxyflavanone
10669:β-Chlornaltrexamine
10543:N-Benzylnaltrindole
10438:β-Chlornaltrexamine
10357:TAN-67 (SB-205,607)
10022:AR-M100390 (ARM390)
9683:β-Chlornaltrexamine
9653:4′-Hydroxyflavanone
8880:α-Chlornaltrexamine
8546:Ancient anaesthesia
8509:Scientific American
8275:. London, Saunders.
8097:on October 26, 2011
7861:. Caucaz europenews
7838:on October 31, 2011
6607:on October 11, 2007
6361:(41): 38179–38184.
6126:on January 25, 2003
5768:Annals, Volumes 1–5
5731:Ann Heylen (2004).
5667:on January 30, 2008
5637:Ellen N. La Motte.
5522:Gladstone and Women
5156:"Opium in the West"
4794:Dikotter F (2004).
4587:on December 6, 2007
3987:on February 8, 2007
3981:"De Materia Medica"
3938:"Alcohol and Islam"
3760:1993PNAS...90.5391B
3715:on November 8, 2009
3436:on October 20, 2013
3405:on October 21, 2007
3211:physical dependence
3203:mu opioid receptors
2917:Abbott Laboratories
2893:published in 1868.
2769:invaded Afghanistan
2604:or "nishtar" (from
2231:general anesthetics
2150:President of France
2144:From 1897 to 1902,
1918:opium paraphernalia
1854:William Hector Park
1849:Hampden Coit DuBose
1660:to 1,000 under the
1637:British assault on
1592:British opium ships
1456:Chinatown of London
1251:. A century later,
1050:Chambers Cyclopedia
1023:University of Basel
872:Vasily Vereshchagin
856:, the precursor of
579:in India (probably
328:of the opium poppy
316:, scientific name:
11487:Norbinaltorphimine
10794:Diacetylnalorphine
10483:Diacetylnalorphine
10107:Desmethylclozapine
9761:Diacetylnalorphine
9441:Papaver somniferum
9025:Chloroxymorphamine
8374:Peters, Gretchen.
8225:The poppy in China
8127:. Standard Ebooks.
8053:Auerbach, Sascha.
6766:. November 5, 2023
6550:. December 7, 1999
6492:Judson HF (1974).
6443:Carter AJ (1996).
6084:Peter McWilliams.
5297:Bradley J (2009).
5245:Wertz, Richard R.
5065:on October 7, 2007
4619:on August 22, 2008
4122:Saudi Aramco World
3473:"Opium definition"
3029:
2980:developing nations
2837:
2811:
2758:
2742:
2732:Illegal drug trade
2722:Illegal production
2589:
2500:Papaver somniferum
2493:Papaver somniferum
2464:for purchasers in
2450:recreational drugs
2442:
2309:general anesthesia
2246:
2223:
2142:
1913:
1886:British Parliament
1870:Benjamin Broomhall
1801:B.C. Atterbury, MD
1784:
1770:opium—13.5
1763:
1664:, 4,000 under the
1647:
1606:East India Company
1594:
1562:
1350:Engelbert Kaempfer
1312:ban on the smoking
1304:
1213:
1101:
1070:American Civil War
973:
880:
824:
600:Papaver somniferum
589:
581:Papaver somniferum
539:American Civil War
459:Papaver bracteatum
428:Papaver somniferum
354:illegal drug trade
331:Papaver somniferum
318:Lachryma papaveris
85:Active ingredients
53:Papaver somniferum
11974:
11973:
11819:
11818:
11664:Nociceptin (1-11)
11535:
11534:
10664:14-Methoxymetopon
10621:
10620:
10538:Methylnaltrindole
9964:
9963:
9633:(3S,4S)-Picenadol
9245:Levacetylmethadol
8791:
8790:
8618:(devil's trumpet)
8569:Atropa belladonna
8441:, CIA publication
8232:Hideyuki Takano;
8149:978-90-04-22158-1
8026:(5 January 2009).
7768:"Anonymous Proxy"
7569:on March 22, 2009
7517:on March 13, 2007
7461:Pablo Bartholomew
6992:978-81-237-1383-0
6799:10.1021/np0496643
6503:978-0-394-72017-3
6033:10.1111/add.13584
5993:10.1111/add.12689
5938:China Information
5921:978-0-307-27536-3
5893:978-1-56324-428-5
5864:978-0-385-00928-7
5837:978-90-04-21901-4
5803:978-0-8248-2361-0
5744:978-90-5867-418-0
5595:Windle J (2013).
5559:978-0-8028-0152-4
5532:978-1-85285-471-3
5505:978-0-8078-6136-3
5478:978-1-4022-5205-1
5451:978-1-4022-0149-3
5424:978-1-4094-7984-0
5397:978-1-4094-8327-4
5370:978-0-674-05134-8
5343:978-0-8131-4968-4
5316:978-0-316-00895-2
5201:on April 20, 2009
4936:Alfred W. McCoy.
4805:978-0-226-14905-9
4732:978-2-84161-397-7
4421:"Thomas Sydenham"
4032:978-0-19-262955-5
3810:"The Opium Kings"
3754:(12): 5391–5393.
3693:978-1-4381-0213-9
3340:Psychoactive drug
3330:Opium replacement
2658:), opium powder (
2536:, a precursor to
2434:
2433:
2251:Gabriel Fallopius
2122:government agency
2102:League of Nations
2086:Aboriginal people
2043:enumerated powers
1939:Chinese Civil War
1927:League of Nations
1884:. He lobbied the
1793:John Glasgow Kerr
1658:Yongzheng Emperor
1569:Yongzheng Emperor
1551:
1550:
1543:
1217:recreational drug
1151:Thomas De Quincey
1145:Virginia Berridge
969:Canon of Medicine
853:De Materia Medica
717:Mediterranean Sea
696:Spongia somnifera
511:medical poultices
453:Papaver orientale
307:
306:
293:
281:
269:
257:
245:
234:
222:
214:(Controlled drug)
209:
76:Geographic origin
12019:
12002:Medicinal plants
11854:
11781:Nociceptin (1-7)
11677:Norbuprenorphine
11614:Dihydroetorphine
11548:
11547:
11437:Methylnaltrexone
11347:Catechin gallate
11079:Norbuprenorphine
10804:Dihydroetorphine
10674:β-Funaltrexamine
10634:
10633:
10533:Methylnaltrexone
10473:Catechin gallate
10287:Norbuprenorphine
10127:Dihydroetorphine
9977:
9976:
9841:Methylnaltrexone
9733:Catechin gallate
9688:β-Funaltrexamine
9100:Dihydroetorphine
8843:
8842:
8818:
8811:
8804:
8795:
8794:
8623:Hyoscyamus niger
8553:Plants / animals
8539:
8532:
8525:
8516:
8515:
8412:
8401:
8389:
8371:
8360:
8336:
8315:
8303:
8287:McCoy, Alfred W.
8279:Martin, Steven.
8276:
8229:
8218:
8193:
8174:Franck Daninos,
8171:, Cambridge, CUP
8128:
8117:
8106:
8104:
8102:
8093:. Archived from
8085:
8083:
8081:
8072:. Archived from
8062:Opium: A History
8039:Ahmad, Diana L.
8027:
8009:
8000:
7999:
7997:
7995:
7990:on April 9, 2010
7986:. Archived from
7984:That's Poppycock
7976:
7970:
7961:
7955:
7954:
7926:
7920:
7919:
7901:
7877:
7871:
7870:
7868:
7866:
7854:
7848:
7847:
7845:
7843:
7828:
7822:
7815:
7809:
7808:
7806:
7804:
7795:. Archived from
7789:
7783:
7782:
7780:
7778:
7764:
7758:
7757:
7727:
7721:
7720:
7684:
7678:
7677:
7675:
7673:
7646:
7640:
7639:
7629:
7605:
7599:
7585:
7579:
7578:
7576:
7574:
7565:. Archived from
7559:
7553:
7533:
7527:
7526:
7524:
7522:
7513:. Archived from
7506:
7500:
7499:
7494:. Archived from
7490:Senlis Council.
7487:
7481:
7480:
7478:
7476:
7467:. Archived from
7457:
7451:
7450:
7448:
7446:
7432:
7426:
7425:
7423:
7421:
7407:
7401:
7400:
7398:
7396:
7391:
7383:
7377:
7370:
7364:
7363:
7361:
7359:
7349:
7343:
7342:
7306:
7300:
7299:
7297:
7295:
7284:
7278:
7277:
7275:
7273:
7258:
7252:
7251:
7249:
7247:
7242:
7234:
7228:
7227:
7225:
7223:
7211:
7205:
7204:
7202:
7200:
7189:
7183:
7182:
7180:
7178:
7173:
7165:
7159:
7158:
7156:
7154:
7145:. Archived from
7139:
7133:
7132:
7114:
7090:
7084:
7083:
7081:
7079:
7052:
7046:
7043:
7034:
7033:
7031:
7029:
7015:
7009:
7008:
7006:
7004:
6995:. Archived from
6971:
6965:
6962:
6956:
6955:
6945:
6921:
6915:
6914:
6878:
6872:
6871:
6843:
6837:
6836:
6834:
6832:
6817:
6811:
6810:
6782:
6776:
6775:
6773:
6771:
6756:
6747:
6746:
6744:
6742:
6728:
6719:
6718:
6716:
6714:
6699:
6693:
6692:
6690:
6688:
6682:Greenprophet.com
6673:
6667:
6666:
6664:
6662:
6648:
6642:
6641:
6639:
6637:
6623:
6617:
6616:
6614:
6612:
6603:. Archived from
6590:
6584:
6583:
6581:
6579:
6574:
6566:
6560:
6559:
6557:
6555:
6544:
6538:
6537:
6535:
6533:
6524:. Archived from
6514:
6508:
6507:
6494:Heroin Addiction
6489:
6483:
6482:
6472:
6455:(7072): 1630–2.
6440:
6434:
6433:
6409:
6403:
6402:
6400:
6398:
6387:
6381:
6380:
6370:
6346:
6340:
6339:
6337:
6335:
6326:. Archived from
6315:
6309:
6303:
6297:
6296:
6294:
6292:
6278:
6272:
6271:
6269:
6267:
6252:
6246:
6245:
6225:
6210:
6209:
6181:
6175:
6174:
6172:
6170:
6164:
6151:
6142:
6136:
6135:
6133:
6131:
6122:. Archived from
6115:
6109:
6108:
6100:
6094:
6093:
6092:on May 25, 2007.
6088:. Archived from
6081:
6075:
6074:
6066:
6060:
6059:
6057:
6055:
6012:
6006:
6005:
5995:
5969:
5963:
5962:
5932:
5926:
5925:
5904:
5898:
5897:
5875:
5869:
5868:
5848:
5842:
5841:
5821:
5815:
5814:
5812:
5810:
5787:
5781:
5780:
5778:
5776:
5762:
5756:
5755:
5753:
5751:
5728:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5717:
5712:on July 11, 2007
5711:
5705:. Archived from
5704:
5695:
5689:
5683:
5677:
5676:
5674:
5672:
5663:. Archived from
5656:
5650:
5649:
5647:
5645:
5634:
5628:
5627:
5601:
5592:
5586:
5570:
5564:
5563:
5543:
5537:
5536:
5516:
5510:
5509:
5489:
5483:
5482:
5462:
5456:
5455:
5435:
5429:
5428:
5408:
5402:
5401:
5381:
5375:
5374:
5354:
5348:
5347:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5304:
5294:
5288:
5287:
5282:. Archived from
5263:
5257:
5243:
5237:
5236:
5234:
5232:
5217:
5211:
5210:
5208:
5206:
5195:"Opium timeline"
5191:
5185:
5179:
5173:
5153:
5147:
5146:
5144:
5142:
5137:. P.L.A. Monthly
5130:
5124:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5103:
5097:
5096:
5094:
5092:
5081:
5075:
5074:
5072:
5070:
5061:. Archived from
5051:
5045:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5035:. April 27, 1913
5029:
5023:
5022:
5020:
5018:
5007:
5001:
5000:
4998:
4996:
4978:
4969:
4963:
4954:
4953:
4951:
4949:
4944:on April 4, 2007
4940:. Archived from
4933:
4918:
4917:
4889:
4878:
4877:
4867:
4833:
4827:
4826:
4816:
4810:
4809:
4791:
4772:
4765:
4759:
4740:
4734:
4720:
4714:
4713:
4703:
4671:
4665:
4661:
4655:
4654:
4652:
4650:
4635:
4629:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4618:
4612:. Archived from
4611:
4603:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4583:. Archived from
4576:
4570:
4569:
4541:
4532:
4531:
4495:
4486:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4441:Lomax E (1973).
4438:
4432:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4416:
4410:
4409:
4407:
4405:
4396:. Archived from
4389:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4368:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4357:
4352:. April 18, 2006
4346:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4325:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4302:. Archived from
4296:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4234:
4228:
4227:
4217:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4166:
4160:
4159:
4157:
4155:
4146:. Archived from
4140:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4129:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4094:
4088:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4078:on July 20, 2008
4077:
4071:. Archived from
4070:
4058:
4037:
4036:
4020:
4010:
3997:
3996:
3994:
3992:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3965:
3955:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3944:
3930:
3924:
3922:(includes image)
3920:
3918:
3916:
3907:. Archived from
3876:
3870:
3869:
3861:
3852:
3851:
3849:
3847:
3833:
3827:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3805:
3792:
3791:
3781:
3771:
3739:
3728:
3724:
3722:
3720:
3711:. Archived from
3704:
3698:
3697:
3677:
3671:
3670:
3664:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3636:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3625:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3539:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3519:. Archived from
3508:
3502:
3501:
3494:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3441:
3432:. Archived from
3421:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3410:
3401:. Archived from
3390:
3315:Mexican Drug War
3148:
3133:
3101:neuropathic pain
2903:
2859:Legal production
2815:acetic anhydride
2800:
2796:
2794:
2788:
2786:
2750:Helmand province
2704:black tar heroin
2700:acetic anhydride
2587:Harvesting opium
2486:Helmand Province
2471:
2463:
2460:for the farmer,
2459:
2429:
2426:
2420:
2408:
2407:
2400:
2359:extended release
2178:20th-century use
2056:
2052:
1991:Peter Vladimirov
1980:
1978:
1935:Unequal Treaties
1909:Lord Justice Fry
1773:
1767:Second Opium War
1761:
1758:
1730:Second Opium War
1711:Unequal Treaties
1700:
1685:Daoguang Emperor
1670:Daoguang Emperor
1662:Qianlong Emperor
1546:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1526:
1503:
1495:
1441:patent medicines
1433:French Indochina
1427:" (seamen) and "
1397:Chinese Diaspora
1324:clove cigarettes
1289:Daoguang Emperor
1225:Chenghua Emperor
822:
819:
752:
749:
746:
738:
726:
706:
649:
625:
594:
567:
501:. Evidence from
488:
397:
291:
288:
279:
276:
267:
264:
256:
253:
244:
241:
233:
230:
227:(Narcotic drugs)
220:
217:
207:
204:
60:Part(s) of plant
40:
28:
27:
12027:
12026:
12022:
12021:
12020:
12018:
12017:
12016:
11977:
11976:
11975:
11970:
11852:
11815:
11746:
11731:
11672:
11594:
11586:
11578:
11574:
11566:
11543:
11531:
11327:Binaltorphimine
11272:6β-Naltrexol-d4
11235:
10854:Ethylketazocine
10809:Dihydromorphine
10629:
10617:
10428:6β-Naltrexol-d4
10401:
10157:Ethylketazocine
10132:Dihydromorphine
9972:
9960:
9668:6β-Naltrexol-d4
9621:
9420:Oxymorphonazine
9175:Furanylfentanyl
9105:Dihydromorphine
8960:Benzhydrocodone
8849:
8847:
8838:
8830:
8825:Opioid receptor
8822:
8792:
8787:
8731:
8660:
8548:
8543:
8493:Wayback Machine
8456:Opium Made Easy
8419:
8340:Musto, David F.
8113:The Opium Habit
8100:
8098:
8079:
8077:
8060:Booth, Martin.
8036:
8034:Further reading
8031:
8030:
8024:Wordorigins.org
8020:Wayback Machine
8010:
8003:
7993:
7991:
7978:
7977:
7973:
7962:
7958:
7927:
7923:
7878:
7874:
7864:
7862:
7855:
7851:
7841:
7839:
7830:
7829:
7825:
7816:
7812:
7802:
7800:
7799:on May 31, 2007
7791:
7790:
7786:
7776:
7774:
7766:
7765:
7761:
7740:(12): 1765–72.
7728:
7724:
7685:
7681:
7671:
7669:
7647:
7643:
7606:
7602:
7596:Wayback Machine
7586:
7582:
7572:
7570:
7561:
7560:
7556:
7543:Wayback Machine
7534:
7530:
7520:
7518:
7507:
7503:
7488:
7484:
7474:
7472:
7471:on July 1, 2007
7458:
7454:
7444:
7442:
7434:
7433:
7429:
7419:
7417:
7409:
7408:
7404:
7394:
7392:
7389:
7385:
7384:
7380:
7376:, June 23, 2002
7371:
7367:
7357:
7355:
7351:
7350:
7346:
7307:
7303:
7293:
7291:
7285:
7281:
7271:
7269:
7260:
7259:
7255:
7245:
7243:
7240:
7236:
7235:
7231:
7221:
7219:
7212:
7208:
7198:
7196:
7190:
7186:
7176:
7174:
7171:
7167:
7166:
7162:
7152:
7150:
7141:
7140:
7136:
7091:
7087:
7077:
7075:
7053:
7049:
7044:
7037:
7027:
7025:
7017:
7016:
7012:
7002:
7000:
6999:on May 19, 2007
6993:
6972:
6968:
6963:
6959:
6922:
6918:
6879:
6875:
6844:
6840:
6830:
6828:
6819:
6818:
6814:
6783:
6779:
6769:
6767:
6758:
6757:
6750:
6740:
6738:
6730:
6729:
6722:
6712:
6710:
6701:
6700:
6696:
6686:
6684:
6674:
6670:
6660:
6658:
6650:
6649:
6645:
6635:
6633:
6625:
6624:
6620:
6610:
6608:
6593:Mark Corcoran.
6591:
6587:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6568:
6567:
6563:
6553:
6551:
6546:
6545:
6541:
6531:
6529:
6518:Richard Askwith
6515:
6511:
6504:
6490:
6486:
6441:
6437:
6410:
6406:
6396:
6394:
6389:
6388:
6384:
6347:
6343:
6333:
6331:
6316:
6312:
6304:
6300:
6290:
6288:
6280:
6279:
6275:
6265:
6263:
6253:
6249:
6226:
6213:
6182:
6178:
6168:
6166:
6162:
6149:
6143:
6139:
6129:
6127:
6116:
6112:
6101:
6097:
6082:
6078:
6067:
6063:
6053:
6051:
6013:
6009:
5970:
5966:
5933:
5929:
5922:
5905:
5901:
5894:
5876:
5872:
5865:
5849:
5845:
5838:
5822:
5818:
5808:
5806:
5804:
5788:
5784:
5774:
5772:
5763:
5759:
5749:
5747:
5745:
5729:
5725:
5715:
5713:
5709:
5702:
5696:
5692:
5684:
5680:
5670:
5668:
5657:
5653:
5643:
5641:
5635:
5631:
5599:
5593:
5589:
5571:
5567:
5560:
5544:
5540:
5533:
5517:
5513:
5506:
5490:
5486:
5479:
5463:
5459:
5452:
5436:
5432:
5425:
5409:
5405:
5398:
5382:
5378:
5371:
5355:
5351:
5344:
5328:
5324:
5317:
5295:
5291:
5264:
5260:
5244:
5240:
5230:
5228:
5219:
5218:
5214:
5204:
5202:
5193:
5192:
5188:
5180:
5176:
5163:Wayback Machine
5154:
5150:
5140:
5138:
5131:
5127:
5117:
5115:
5104:
5100:
5090:
5088:
5082:
5078:
5068:
5066:
5055:Alfred W. McCoy
5052:
5048:
5038:
5036:
5031:
5030:
5026:
5016:
5014:
5008:
5004:
4994:
4992:
4979:
4972:
4964:
4957:
4947:
4945:
4934:
4921:
4890:
4881:
4843:Medical History
4834:
4830:
4817:
4813:
4806:
4792:
4775:
4766:
4762:
4742:Matthee, Rudi.
4741:
4737:
4722:Michot, Yahya.
4721:
4717:
4680:Medical History
4672:
4668:
4662:
4658:
4648:
4646:
4636:
4632:
4622:
4620:
4616:
4609:
4605:
4604:
4600:
4590:
4588:
4577:
4573:
4542:
4535:
4496:
4489:
4479:
4477:
4439:
4435:
4425:
4423:
4417:
4413:
4403:
4401:
4400:on May 31, 2007
4390:
4386:
4376:
4374:
4370:
4369:
4365:
4355:
4353:
4348:
4347:
4343:
4333:
4331:
4327:
4326:
4319:
4309:
4307:
4298:
4297:
4293:
4283:
4281:
4235:
4231:
4194:
4190:
4167:
4163:
4153:
4151:
4142:
4141:
4137:
4127:
4125:
4116:
4115:
4111:
4096:
4095:
4091:
4081:
4079:
4075:
4068:
4059:
4040:
4033:
4017:Forbidden Drugs
4011:
4000:
3990:
3988:
3977:
3973:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3956:
3952:
3942:
3940:
3934:Ibrahim B. Syed
3931:
3927:
3914:
3912:
3911:on May 15, 2008
3877:
3873:
3862:
3855:
3845:
3843:
3835:
3834:
3830:
3820:
3818:
3806:
3795:
3740:
3731:
3718:
3716:
3705:
3701:
3694:
3678:
3674:
3658:
3657:
3650:
3648:
3637:
3633:
3623:
3621:
3583:Economic Botany
3575:
3571:
3556:10.1139/y86-001
3540:
3536:
3526:
3524:
3509:
3505:
3496:
3495:
3491:
3481:
3479:
3471:
3470:
3466:
3461:. October 2014.
3458:
3454:
3453:
3449:
3439:
3437:
3422:
3418:
3408:
3406:
3391:
3368:
3363:
3300:Golden Triangle
3295:Golden Crescent
3291:
3277:
3242:palliative care
3226:opioid receptor
3159:
3158:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3149:
3141:
3140:
3134:
3123:
3109:
3081:Eastern culture
3057:benzodiazepines
3017:
2996:Johnson Matthey
2992:MacFarlan Smith
2988:
2957:MacFarlan Smith
2937:Johnson Matthey
2929:GlaxoSmithKline
2901:
2879:Gregory process
2867:
2865:Opium licensing
2861:
2822:Golden Triangle
2798:
2792:
2790:
2784:
2782:
2734:
2724:
2581:
2573:a legal defense
2502:
2496:
2477:Golden Triangle
2469:
2461:
2457:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2418:
2409:
2405:
2398:
2315:alkaloids from
2215:
2180:
2171:Hamilton Wright
2162:
2130:
2054:
2050:
2047:commerce clause
2026:
2014:Golden Triangle
1976:
1974:
1831:; and the Rev.
1809:Arthur E. Moule
1771:
1759:
1738:First Opium War
1726:First Opium War
1707:First Opium War
1695:
1666:Jiaqing Emperor
1643:First Opium War
1571:, disturbed by
1547:
1536:
1530:
1527:
1516:
1504:
1493:
1487:
1475:Main articles:
1473:
1421:Indian Diaspora
1393:
1293:First Opium War
1281:
1205:
1195:
1190:
1178:rheumatic fever
1143:, as argued by
1125:
1093:
1041:Thomas Sydenham
991:(identified as
982:Papaver agreste
977:Pseudo-Apuleius
975:Manuscripts of
957:
832:Islamic Empires
820:
808:Opium users in
802:
756:The Greek gods
750:
747:
736:
724:
704:
701:opium thebaicum
647:
623:
592:
569:
559:
551:
486:
479:
303:
183:
117:
48:Source plant(s)
43:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
12025:
12015:
12014:
12009:
12004:
11999:
11994:
11989:
11972:
11971:
11969:
11968:
11958:
11957:
11952:
11947:
11942:
11937:
11928:
11927:
11922:
11917:
11912:
11907:
11902:
11897:
11892:
11887:
11882:
11877:
11872:
11867:
11862:
11857:
11855:-Phenylalanine
11849:
11844:
11839:
11827:
11825:
11821:
11820:
11817:
11816:
11814:
11813:
11808:
11803:
11798:
11793:
11788:
11783:
11778:
11773:
11768:
11763:
11758:
11753:
11748:
11744:
11739:
11737:
11733:
11732:
11730:
11729:
11724:
11719:
11714:
11709:
11704:
11699:
11694:
11689:
11684:
11682:Racemethorphan
11679:
11674:
11670:
11666:
11661:
11656:
11651:
11646:
11641:
11636:
11631:
11629:Levomethorphan
11626:
11621:
11616:
11611:
11606:
11601:
11596:
11592:
11588:
11584:
11580:
11576:
11572:
11568:
11564:
11560:
11554:
11552:
11545:
11537:
11536:
11533:
11532:
11530:
11529:
11524:
11519:
11514:
11509:
11504:
11499:
11494:
11489:
11484:
11479:
11474:
11469:
11464:
11459:
11454:
11449:
11444:
11439:
11434:
11429:
11424:
11419:
11414:
11409:
11404:
11399:
11394:
11389:
11384:
11379:
11374:
11369:
11364:
11359:
11354:
11349:
11344:
11339:
11334:
11329:
11324:
11319:
11314:
11309:
11304:
11299:
11294:
11289:
11284:
11279:
11274:
11269:
11264:
11259:
11254:
11249:
11243:
11241:
11237:
11236:
11234:
11233:
11228:
11223:
11218:
11213:
11191:
11186:
11181:
11176:
11171:
11166:
11161:
11156:
11146:
11141:
11136:
11134:Racemethorphan
11131:
11126:
11121:
11116:
11111:
11106:
11101:
11096:
11091:
11086:
11081:
11076:
11071:
11066:
11061:
11056:
11051:
11046:
11041:
11036:
11031:
11026:
11021:
11016:
11011:
11006:
11001:
10996:
10991:
10986:
10981:
10976:
10971:
10966:
10961:
10956:
10954:Levomethorphan
10951:
10946:
10941:
10936:
10931:
10926:
10921:
10916:
10911:
10906:
10901:
10896:
10891:
10886:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10866:
10861:
10856:
10851:
10846:
10841:
10836:
10831:
10826:
10821:
10816:
10811:
10806:
10801:
10796:
10791:
10786:
10781:
10776:
10771:
10766:
10761:
10756:
10751:
10746:
10741:
10736:
10731:
10726:
10721:
10716:
10711:
10706:
10701:
10696:
10691:
10686:
10681:
10676:
10671:
10666:
10661:
10656:
10651:
10646:
10640:
10638:
10631:
10623:
10622:
10619:
10618:
10616:
10615:
10610:
10605:
10600:
10595:
10590:
10585:
10580:
10575:
10570:
10565:
10560:
10555:
10550:
10545:
10540:
10535:
10530:
10525:
10520:
10515:
10510:
10505:
10500:
10495:
10490:
10485:
10480:
10475:
10470:
10465:
10460:
10455:
10450:
10445:
10440:
10435:
10430:
10425:
10420:
10415:
10409:
10407:
10403:
10402:
10400:
10399:
10394:
10389:
10384:
10379:
10374:
10369:
10364:
10359:
10354:
10349:
10344:
10339:
10334:
10329:
10324:
10322:Racemethorphan
10319:
10314:
10309:
10304:
10299:
10294:
10289:
10284:
10279:
10274:
10269:
10264:
10259:
10254:
10249:
10244:
10239:
10234:
10232:Levomethorphan
10229:
10227:Leu-enkephalin
10224:
10219:
10214:
10209:
10204:
10199:
10194:
10189:
10184:
10179:
10174:
10169:
10164:
10159:
10154:
10149:
10144:
10139:
10134:
10129:
10124:
10119:
10114:
10109:
10104:
10099:
10094:
10089:
10084:
10079:
10074:
10069:
10064:
10059:
10054:
10049:
10044:
10039:
10034:
10029:
10024:
10019:
10014:
10009:
10004:
9999:
9994:
9989:
9983:
9981:
9974:
9966:
9965:
9962:
9961:
9959:
9958:
9953:
9948:
9943:
9938:
9933:
9928:
9923:
9918:
9913:
9908:
9906:Naltrexonazine
9903:
9898:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9878:
9873:
9868:
9863:
9858:
9853:
9848:
9843:
9838:
9833:
9828:
9823:
9818:
9813:
9808:
9803:
9798:
9793:
9788:
9783:
9778:
9773:
9768:
9763:
9758:
9753:
9748:
9743:
9740:
9735:
9730:
9725:
9720:
9715:
9710:
9705:
9700:
9695:
9690:
9685:
9680:
9675:
9670:
9665:
9660:
9655:
9650:
9645:
9640:
9635:
9629:
9627:
9623:
9622:
9620:
9619:
9614:
9609:
9604:
9599:
9594:
9589:
9584:
9579:
9574:
9569:
9564:
9559:
9554:
9549:
9544:
9539:
9534:
9529:
9524:
9519:
9514:
9509:
9507:Racemethorphan
9504:
9499:
9494:
9489:
9484:
9479:
9474:
9469:
9464:
9459:
9454:
9449:
9437:
9432:
9427:
9422:
9417:
9412:
9407:
9402:
9397:
9392:
9387:
9382:
9377:
9372:
9367:
9362:
9357:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9337:
9332:
9327:
9322:
9317:
9312:
9307:
9302:
9297:
9292:
9287:
9282:
9277:
9272:
9267:
9262:
9257:
9252:
9250:Levomethorphan
9247:
9242:
9240:Leu-enkephalin
9237:
9232:
9227:
9222:
9217:
9212:
9207:
9202:
9200:Hydromorphinol
9197:
9192:
9187:
9182:
9177:
9172:
9167:
9162:
9157:
9152:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9132:
9127:
9122:
9117:
9112:
9107:
9102:
9097:
9095:Dihydrocodeine
9092:
9087:
9082:
9077:
9072:
9067:
9062:
9060:Dextromoramide
9057:
9052:
9047:
9042:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9022:
9017:
9012:
9007:
9002:
8997:
8992:
8987:
8982:
8977:
8972:
8967:
8965:Benzylmorphine
8962:
8957:
8952:
8947:
8942:
8937:
8932:
8927:
8922:
8917:
8912:
8907:
8902:
8897:
8895:Acetylfentanyl
8892:
8887:
8882:
8877:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8856:
8854:
8840:
8832:
8831:
8821:
8820:
8813:
8806:
8798:
8789:
8788:
8786:
8785:
8780:
8775:
8770:
8765:
8760:
8755:
8750:
8745:
8739:
8737:
8733:
8732:
8730:
8729:
8724:
8719:
8714:
8709:
8704:
8699:
8694:
8689:
8684:
8679:
8674:
8668:
8666:
8662:
8661:
8659:
8658:
8653:
8645:
8640:
8632:
8627:
8619:
8611:
8607:Datura innoxia
8603:
8595:
8590:
8585:
8584:
8583:
8573:
8565:
8556:
8554:
8550:
8549:
8542:
8541:
8534:
8527:
8519:
8513:
8512:
8501:
8495:
8483:
8477:
8471:
8466:
8452:
8450:Opium in India
8447:
8442:
8436:
8430:
8425:
8418:
8417:External links
8415:
8414:
8413:
8402:
8390:
8379:
8372:
8361:
8346:
8337:
8316:
8304:
8293:
8284:
8277:
8266:
8259:
8245:
8236:(2002, Kotan,
8230:
8219:
8208:
8194:
8183:
8172:
8165:
8158:
8151:
8129:
8118:
8107:
8086:
8065:
8058:
8051:
8044:
8035:
8032:
8029:
8028:
8001:
7971:
7956:
7921:
7872:
7849:
7823:
7810:
7784:
7772:Softfamous.com
7759:
7722:
7695:(7): 584–590.
7679:
7661:(1): 142–151.
7641:
7600:
7580:
7554:
7548:Senlis Council
7528:
7501:
7482:
7452:
7427:
7402:
7378:
7365:
7344:
7317:(2): 265–280.
7301:
7279:
7268:on May 9, 2007
7253:
7229:
7206:
7184:
7160:
7134:
7085:
7067:(3): 388–399.
7047:
7035:
7010:
6991:
6983:Narcotic Drugs
6966:
6964:Gahlinger 2001
6957:
6936:(6): 549–551.
6916:
6873:
6838:
6812:
6777:
6748:
6720:
6694:
6668:
6643:
6618:
6585:
6561:
6539:
6509:
6502:
6484:
6435:
6424:(4): 189–191.
6404:
6382:
6341:
6310:
6298:
6273:
6247:
6211:
6176:
6137:
6110:
6095:
6076:
6061:
6007:
5964:
5927:
5920:
5899:
5892:
5870:
5863:
5843:
5836:
5816:
5802:
5782:
5757:
5743:
5723:
5690:
5678:
5651:
5629:
5610:(5): 498–505.
5587:
5565:
5558:
5538:
5531:
5511:
5504:
5484:
5477:
5457:
5450:
5430:
5423:
5403:
5396:
5376:
5369:
5349:
5342:
5322:
5315:
5289:
5280:Monthly Review
5258:
5238:
5212:
5186:
5174:
5148:
5125:
5098:
5076:
5046:
5024:
5002:
4970:
4955:
4919:
4879:
4828:
4825:. p. 188.
4811:
4804:
4773:
4760:
4735:
4715:
4686:(3): 226–237.
4666:
4656:
4630:
4598:
4571:
4552:(4): 377–389.
4533:
4506:(3): 414–441.
4487:
4453:(2): 167–176.
4433:
4411:
4384:
4363:
4341:
4317:
4291:
4243:Anesthesiology
4229:
4188:
4161:
4135:
4124:. January 2002
4109:
4089:
4062:Carl A. Trocki
4038:
4031:
3998:
3971:
3950:
3925:
3887:(in Spanish).
3871:
3853:
3828:
3793:
3729:
3699:
3692:
3672:
3631:
3589:(3): 295–323.
3569:
3534:
3523:on May 1, 2021
3503:
3489:
3464:
3447:
3416:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3358:
3357:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3290:
3287:
3276:
3273:
3232:caused by the
3222:drug addiction
3207:drug tolerance
3150:
3143:
3142:
3135:
3128:
3127:
3126:
3125:
3124:
3108:
3105:
3016:
3013:
2987:
2984:
2968:Senlis Council
2949:Sanofi Aventis
2863:Main article:
2860:
2857:
2723:
2720:
2688:extractum opii
2672:extractum opii
2580:
2577:
2569:false positive
2498:Main article:
2495:
2490:
2432:
2431:
2412:
2410:
2403:
2397:
2394:
2327:Felix Hoffmann
2214:
2211:
2179:
2176:
2161:
2158:
2129:
2126:
2025:
2022:
1954:Chinese Muslim
1674:British Empire
1549:
1548:
1507:
1505:
1498:
1472:
1469:
1401:Southeast Asia
1392:
1389:
1280:
1277:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1124:
1121:
1092:
1089:
988:Papaver rhoeas
956:
953:
910:ophthalmologic
858:pharmacopoeias
801:
798:
737:6th century BC
691:poison hemlock
552:
550:
547:
503:ancient Greece
478:
475:
305:
304:
302:
301:
298:
286:
274:
262:
251:
239:
228:
215:
201:
199:
193:
192:
189:
188:Main consumers
185:
184:
182:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
125:
123:
122:Main producers
119:
118:
116:
115:
110:
105:
100:
95:
89:
87:
81:
80:
77:
73:
72:
61:
57:
56:
49:
45:
44:
41:
33:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12024:
12013:
12010:
12008:
12005:
12003:
12000:
11998:
11995:
11993:
11990:
11988:
11985:
11984:
11982:
11966:
11963:
11960:
11959:
11956:
11953:
11951:
11950:Pronociceptin
11948:
11946:
11945:Proenkephalin
11943:
11941:
11938:
11936:
11933:
11930:
11929:
11926:
11923:
11921:
11918:
11916:
11913:
11911:
11908:
11906:
11903:
11901:
11898:
11896:
11893:
11891:
11888:
11886:
11883:
11881:
11878:
11876:
11873:
11871:
11868:
11866:
11863:
11861:
11858:
11856:
11850:
11848:
11845:
11843:
11840:
11838:
11835:
11833:
11829:
11828:
11826:
11822:
11812:
11809:
11807:
11804:
11802:
11799:
11797:
11794:
11792:
11789:
11787:
11784:
11782:
11779:
11777:
11774:
11772:
11769:
11767:
11764:
11762:
11759:
11757:
11754:
11752:
11749:
11747:
11741:
11740:
11738:
11734:
11728:
11725:
11723:
11720:
11718:
11715:
11713:
11710:
11708:
11705:
11703:
11700:
11698:
11695:
11693:
11690:
11688:
11685:
11683:
11680:
11678:
11675:
11673:
11667:
11665:
11662:
11660:
11657:
11655:
11652:
11650:
11647:
11645:
11642:
11640:
11637:
11635:
11632:
11630:
11627:
11625:
11622:
11620:
11617:
11615:
11612:
11610:
11607:
11605:
11604:Buprenorphine
11602:
11600:
11597:
11595:
11589:
11587:
11581:
11579:
11569:
11567:
11561:
11559:
11556:
11555:
11553:
11549:
11546:
11542:
11538:
11528:
11525:
11523:
11520:
11518:
11515:
11513:
11510:
11508:
11505:
11503:
11500:
11498:
11495:
11493:
11490:
11488:
11485:
11483:
11480:
11478:
11475:
11473:
11470:
11468:
11465:
11463:
11460:
11458:
11455:
11453:
11450:
11448:
11445:
11443:
11440:
11438:
11435:
11433:
11430:
11428:
11425:
11423:
11420:
11418:
11415:
11413:
11410:
11408:
11405:
11403:
11400:
11398:
11395:
11393:
11390:
11388:
11385:
11383:
11380:
11378:
11375:
11373:
11370:
11368:
11365:
11363:
11360:
11358:
11355:
11353:
11350:
11348:
11345:
11343:
11340:
11338:
11337:Buprenorphine
11335:
11333:
11330:
11328:
11325:
11323:
11320:
11318:
11315:
11313:
11310:
11308:
11305:
11303:
11300:
11298:
11295:
11293:
11290:
11288:
11287:Amentoflavone
11285:
11283:
11280:
11278:
11275:
11273:
11270:
11268:
11265:
11263:
11260:
11258:
11255:
11253:
11250:
11248:
11245:
11244:
11242:
11238:
11232:
11229:
11227:
11224:
11222:
11219:
11217:
11214:
11211:
11210:nortriptyline
11207:
11203:
11199:
11198:amitriptyline
11195:
11192:
11190:
11187:
11185:
11182:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11170:
11167:
11165:
11162:
11160:
11157:
11154:
11150:
11147:
11145:
11142:
11140:
11137:
11135:
11132:
11130:
11127:
11125:
11122:
11120:
11117:
11115:
11112:
11110:
11107:
11105:
11102:
11100:
11097:
11095:
11092:
11090:
11087:
11085:
11082:
11080:
11077:
11075:
11072:
11070:
11067:
11065:
11062:
11060:
11057:
11055:
11052:
11050:
11047:
11045:
11042:
11040:
11037:
11035:
11032:
11030:
11027:
11025:
11022:
11020:
11017:
11015:
11012:
11010:
11007:
11005:
11002:
11000:
10997:
10995:
10992:
10990:
10987:
10985:
10982:
10980:
10977:
10975:
10972:
10970:
10967:
10965:
10962:
10960:
10957:
10955:
10952:
10950:
10947:
10945:
10942:
10940:
10937:
10935:
10932:
10930:
10927:
10925:
10922:
10920:
10917:
10915:
10912:
10910:
10907:
10905:
10904:Hydromorphone
10902:
10900:
10897:
10895:
10892:
10890:
10887:
10885:
10882:
10880:
10877:
10875:
10872:
10870:
10867:
10865:
10862:
10860:
10857:
10855:
10852:
10850:
10847:
10845:
10842:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10830:
10827:
10825:
10822:
10820:
10819:Diprenorphine
10817:
10815:
10812:
10810:
10807:
10805:
10802:
10800:
10799:Difelikefalin
10797:
10795:
10792:
10790:
10787:
10785:
10782:
10780:
10779:Cyprenorphine
10777:
10775:
10772:
10770:
10767:
10765:
10762:
10760:
10757:
10755:
10752:
10750:
10747:
10745:
10742:
10740:
10737:
10735:
10732:
10730:
10727:
10725:
10724:Big dynorphin
10722:
10720:
10717:
10715:
10712:
10710:
10707:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10695:
10692:
10690:
10687:
10685:
10682:
10680:
10677:
10675:
10672:
10670:
10667:
10665:
10662:
10660:
10657:
10655:
10652:
10650:
10647:
10645:
10644:3CS-nalmefene
10642:
10641:
10639:
10635:
10632:
10628:
10624:
10614:
10611:
10609:
10606:
10604:
10601:
10599:
10596:
10594:
10591:
10589:
10586:
10584:
10581:
10579:
10576:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10539:
10536:
10534:
10531:
10529:
10526:
10524:
10521:
10519:
10516:
10514:
10511:
10509:
10506:
10504:
10501:
10499:
10496:
10494:
10491:
10489:
10488:Diprenorphine
10486:
10484:
10481:
10479:
10476:
10474:
10471:
10469:
10466:
10464:
10461:
10459:
10456:
10454:
10451:
10449:
10446:
10444:
10441:
10439:
10436:
10434:
10431:
10429:
10426:
10424:
10421:
10419:
10416:
10414:
10411:
10410:
10408:
10404:
10398:
10395:
10393:
10390:
10388:
10385:
10383:
10380:
10378:
10375:
10373:
10370:
10368:
10365:
10363:
10360:
10358:
10355:
10353:
10350:
10348:
10345:
10343:
10340:
10338:
10335:
10333:
10330:
10328:
10325:
10323:
10320:
10318:
10315:
10313:
10310:
10308:
10305:
10303:
10300:
10298:
10295:
10293:
10290:
10288:
10285:
10283:
10280:
10278:
10275:
10273:
10270:
10268:
10265:
10263:
10260:
10258:
10255:
10253:
10250:
10248:
10245:
10243:
10240:
10238:
10235:
10233:
10230:
10228:
10225:
10223:
10220:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10208:
10205:
10203:
10200:
10198:
10195:
10193:
10192:Hydromorphone
10190:
10188:
10185:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10135:
10133:
10130:
10128:
10125:
10123:
10120:
10118:
10115:
10113:
10110:
10108:
10105:
10103:
10102:Deltorphin II
10100:
10098:
10095:
10093:
10090:
10088:
10085:
10083:
10080:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10068:
10065:
10063:
10060:
10058:
10055:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10038:
10035:
10033:
10030:
10028:
10025:
10023:
10020:
10018:
10015:
10013:
10010:
10008:
10005:
10003:
10000:
9998:
9995:
9993:
9990:
9988:
9987:3CS-nalmefene
9985:
9984:
9982:
9978:
9975:
9971:
9967:
9957:
9954:
9952:
9949:
9947:
9944:
9942:
9939:
9937:
9934:
9932:
9929:
9927:
9924:
9922:
9919:
9917:
9914:
9912:
9909:
9907:
9904:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9884:
9882:
9879:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9864:
9862:
9859:
9857:
9854:
9852:
9849:
9847:
9844:
9842:
9839:
9837:
9836:Methocinnamox
9834:
9832:
9829:
9827:
9824:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9814:
9812:
9809:
9807:
9804:
9802:
9799:
9797:
9796:Ginsenoside R
9794:
9792:
9789:
9787:
9784:
9782:
9779:
9777:
9774:
9772:
9769:
9767:
9766:Diprenorphine
9764:
9762:
9759:
9757:
9754:
9752:
9749:
9747:
9744:
9741:
9739:
9736:
9734:
9731:
9729:
9726:
9724:
9721:
9719:
9716:
9714:
9711:
9709:
9706:
9704:
9701:
9699:
9696:
9694:
9691:
9689:
9686:
9684:
9681:
9679:
9676:
9674:
9671:
9669:
9666:
9664:
9661:
9659:
9656:
9654:
9651:
9649:
9646:
9644:
9643:3CS-nalmefene
9641:
9639:
9636:
9634:
9631:
9630:
9628:
9624:
9618:
9615:
9613:
9610:
9608:
9605:
9603:
9600:
9598:
9595:
9593:
9590:
9588:
9585:
9583:
9580:
9578:
9575:
9573:
9570:
9568:
9565:
9563:
9560:
9558:
9555:
9553:
9550:
9548:
9545:
9543:
9540:
9538:
9535:
9533:
9530:
9528:
9525:
9523:
9520:
9518:
9515:
9513:
9510:
9508:
9505:
9503:
9500:
9498:
9495:
9493:
9490:
9488:
9485:
9483:
9480:
9478:
9475:
9473:
9472:Phencyclidine
9470:
9468:
9465:
9463:
9460:
9458:
9455:
9453:
9450:
9447:
9443:
9442:
9438:
9436:
9433:
9431:
9428:
9426:
9423:
9421:
9418:
9416:
9415:Oxymorphazone
9413:
9411:
9408:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9396:
9393:
9391:
9388:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9378:
9376:
9373:
9371:
9368:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9341:
9338:
9336:
9333:
9331:
9328:
9326:
9323:
9321:
9318:
9316:
9313:
9311:
9308:
9306:
9303:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9291:
9288:
9286:
9283:
9281:
9278:
9276:
9273:
9271:
9268:
9266:
9263:
9261:
9258:
9256:
9253:
9251:
9248:
9246:
9243:
9241:
9238:
9236:
9233:
9231:
9228:
9226:
9223:
9221:
9218:
9216:
9213:
9211:
9208:
9206:
9205:Hydromorphone
9203:
9201:
9198:
9196:
9193:
9191:
9188:
9186:
9183:
9181:
9178:
9176:
9173:
9171:
9168:
9166:
9163:
9161:
9158:
9156:
9153:
9151:
9150:Ethylmorphine
9148:
9146:
9143:
9141:
9140:Endomorphin-2
9138:
9136:
9135:Endomorphin-1
9133:
9131:
9128:
9126:
9123:
9121:
9118:
9116:
9115:Diphenoxylate
9113:
9111:
9108:
9106:
9103:
9101:
9098:
9096:
9093:
9091:
9088:
9086:
9083:
9081:
9078:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9058:
9056:
9053:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9016:
9013:
9011:
9008:
9006:
9003:
9001:
9000:Butyrfentanyl
8998:
8996:
8993:
8991:
8988:
8986:
8985:Buprenorphine
8983:
8981:
8978:
8976:
8973:
8971:
8968:
8966:
8963:
8961:
8958:
8956:
8953:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8911:
8908:
8906:
8903:
8901:
8900:Acrylfentanyl
8898:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8875:ψ-Akuammigine
8873:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8857:
8855:
8852:
8844:
8841:
8837:
8833:
8829:
8826:
8819:
8814:
8812:
8807:
8805:
8800:
8799:
8796:
8784:
8781:
8779:
8776:
8774:
8771:
8769:
8766:
8764:
8761:
8759:
8756:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8740:
8738:
8734:
8728:
8725:
8723:
8720:
8718:
8715:
8713:
8710:
8708:
8705:
8703:
8700:
8698:
8695:
8693:
8690:
8688:
8685:
8683:
8680:
8678:
8675:
8673:
8670:
8669:
8667:
8663:
8657:
8654:
8651:
8650:
8646:
8644:
8641:
8638:
8637:
8633:
8631:
8628:
8625:
8624:
8620:
8617:
8616:
8612:
8610:(thorn-apple)
8609:
8608:
8604:
8601:
8600:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8586:
8582:
8579:
8578:
8577:
8574:
8571:
8570:
8566:
8563:
8562:
8558:
8557:
8555:
8551:
8547:
8540:
8535:
8533:
8528:
8526:
8521:
8520:
8517:
8510:
8506:
8502:
8499:
8496:
8494:
8490:
8487:
8484:
8481:
8480:Thailex photo
8478:
8475:
8474:BLTC Research
8472:
8470:
8467:
8464:
8463:
8458:
8457:
8453:
8451:
8448:
8446:
8445:Erowid: Opium
8443:
8440:
8437:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8426:
8424:
8421:
8420:
8410:
8409:
8403:
8399:
8398:
8391:
8387:
8386:
8380:
8377:
8373:
8369:
8368:
8362:
8358:
8357:
8351:
8347:
8344:
8341:
8338:
8335:
8331:
8327:
8326:
8321:
8317:
8313:
8312:
8305:
8301:
8300:
8294:
8291:
8288:
8285:
8282:
8278:
8274:
8273:
8267:
8264:
8260:
8257:
8256:History Today
8253:
8249:
8246:
8243:
8242:0-9701716-1-7
8239:
8235:
8231:
8227:
8226:
8220:
8216:
8215:
8209:
8207:
8203:
8199:
8195:
8191:
8190:
8184:
8181:
8177:
8173:
8170:
8166:
8163:
8159:
8156:
8152:
8150:
8146:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8131:Derks, Hans:
8130:
8126:
8125:
8119:
8115:
8114:
8108:
8096:
8092:
8087:
8075:
8071:
8066:
8063:
8059:
8056:
8052:
8049:
8045:
8042:
8038:
8037:
8025:
8021:
8017:
8014:
8011:Dave Wilton,
8008:
8006:
7989:
7985:
7981:
7975:
7968:
7965:
7960:
7952:
7948:
7944:
7940:
7936:
7932:
7925:
7917:
7913:
7909:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7892:(5): 829–39.
7891:
7887:
7883:
7876:
7860:
7853:
7837:
7833:
7827:
7820:
7814:
7798:
7794:
7788:
7773:
7769:
7763:
7755:
7751:
7747:
7743:
7739:
7735:
7734:
7726:
7718:
7714:
7710:
7706:
7702:
7698:
7694:
7690:
7683:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7656:
7652:
7645:
7637:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7620:(4): 227–30.
7619:
7615:
7611:
7604:
7597:
7593:
7590:
7589:Press release
7584:
7568:
7564:
7558:
7551:
7549:
7544:
7540:
7537:
7532:
7516:
7512:
7505:
7497:
7493:
7486:
7470:
7466:
7462:
7456:
7441:
7437:
7431:
7416:
7412:
7406:
7388:
7382:
7375:
7369:
7354:
7348:
7340:
7336:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7316:
7312:
7305:
7290:
7283:
7267:
7263:
7257:
7239:
7233:
7217:
7210:
7195:
7188:
7170:
7164:
7148:
7144:
7138:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7113:
7108:
7105:(7): 538–40.
7104:
7100:
7096:
7089:
7074:
7070:
7066:
7062:
7058:
7051:
7042:
7040:
7024:
7020:
7014:
6998:
6994:
6988:
6984:
6980:
6976:
6975:Anil Aggrawal
6970:
6961:
6953:
6949:
6944:
6939:
6935:
6931:
6927:
6920:
6912:
6908:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6884:
6877:
6869:
6865:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6842:
6826:
6822:
6816:
6808:
6804:
6800:
6796:
6793:(5): 666–73.
6792:
6788:
6781:
6765:
6761:
6755:
6753:
6737:
6733:
6727:
6725:
6708:
6704:
6698:
6683:
6679:
6672:
6657:
6653:
6647:
6632:
6628:
6622:
6606:
6602:
6601:
6596:
6589:
6571:
6565:
6549:
6543:
6527:
6523:
6519:
6513:
6505:
6499:
6495:
6488:
6480:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6439:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6408:
6392:
6386:
6378:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6345:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6314:
6308:
6302:
6287:
6283:
6277:
6262:
6258:
6251:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6224:
6222:
6220:
6218:
6216:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6180:
6161:
6157:
6156:
6148:
6141:
6125:
6121:
6114:
6106:
6099:
6091:
6087:
6080:
6072:
6065:
6050:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6011:
6003:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5980:
5975:
5968:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5939:
5931:
5923:
5917:
5913:
5909:
5903:
5895:
5889:
5885:
5881:
5874:
5866:
5860:
5857:. Doubleday.
5856:
5855:
5847:
5839:
5833:
5829:
5828:
5820:
5805:
5799:
5795:
5794:
5786:
5770:
5769:
5761:
5746:
5740:
5736:
5735:
5727:
5708:
5701:
5694:
5688:
5682:
5671:September 25,
5666:
5662:
5655:
5644:September 25,
5640:
5633:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5598:
5591:
5585:
5584:0-8131-1924-3
5581:
5577:
5576:
5569:
5561:
5555:
5551:
5550:
5542:
5534:
5528:
5524:
5523:
5515:
5507:
5501:
5497:
5496:
5488:
5480:
5474:
5470:
5469:
5461:
5453:
5447:
5443:
5442:
5434:
5426:
5420:
5416:
5415:
5407:
5399:
5393:
5389:
5388:
5380:
5372:
5366:
5362:
5361:
5353:
5345:
5339:
5335:
5334:
5326:
5318:
5312:
5308:
5303:
5302:
5293:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5272:
5268:
5262:
5255:
5253:
5248:
5242:
5226:
5222:
5216:
5205:September 13,
5200:
5196:
5190:
5183:
5178:
5171:
5169:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5152:
5136:
5129:
5113:
5109:
5102:
5091:September 24,
5087:
5080:
5069:September 24,
5064:
5060:
5056:
5050:
5039:September 22,
5034:
5028:
5017:September 22,
5013:
5006:
4995:September 22,
4991:
4987:
4984:(June 1931).
4983:
4977:
4975:
4967:
4962:
4960:
4943:
4939:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4926:
4924:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4903:
4899:
4895:
4888:
4886:
4884:
4875:
4871:
4866:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4850:(4): 323–35.
4849:
4845:
4844:
4839:
4832:
4824:
4823:
4815:
4807:
4801:
4797:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4770:
4764:
4757:
4753:
4752:0-934211-64-7
4749:
4745:
4739:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4719:
4711:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4670:
4660:
4645:
4641:
4634:
4615:
4608:
4602:
4586:
4582:
4575:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4555:
4551:
4547:
4540:
4538:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4517:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4494:
4492:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4437:
4422:
4415:
4399:
4395:
4388:
4373:
4367:
4351:
4345:
4330:
4324:
4322:
4305:
4301:
4295:
4280:
4276:
4272:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4233:
4225:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4208:(4): 367–70.
4207:
4203:
4199:
4192:
4184:
4180:
4177:(1): 101–12.
4176:
4172:
4165:
4149:
4145:
4139:
4123:
4119:
4113:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4093:
4082:September 13,
4074:
4067:
4063:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4047:
4045:
4043:
4034:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4018:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4003:
3986:
3982:
3975:
3960:
3954:
3939:
3935:
3929:
3923:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3875:
3867:
3860:
3858:
3841:
3840:
3832:
3817:
3816:
3811:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3789:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3765:
3761:
3757:
3753:
3749:
3745:
3738:
3736:
3734:
3727:
3714:
3710:
3703:
3695:
3689:
3685:
3684:
3676:
3668:
3662:
3646:
3642:
3635:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3596:
3592:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3573:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3538:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3499:
3493:
3478:
3474:
3468:
3457:
3451:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3404:
3400:
3396:
3389:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3377:
3375:
3373:
3371:
3366:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3292:
3286:
3283:
3272:
3270:
3267:In 2021, the
3265:
3263:
3259:
3255:
3251:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3214:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3183:Isoquinolines
3180:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3167:Phenanthrenes
3164:
3153:
3147:
3138:
3132:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3104:
3102:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3035:
3026:
3021:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2983:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2947:, Australia;
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2921:Purdue Pharma
2918:
2914:
2910:
2905:
2898:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2856:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2818:
2816:
2807:
2803:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2755:
2751:
2748:Afghanistan,
2746:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2719:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2636:tinctura opii
2633:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2621:morphine base
2617:
2615:
2614:P. somniferum
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2576:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2561:
2560:United States
2557:
2553:
2549:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2518:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2501:
2494:
2489:
2487:
2482:
2479:in 2014. The
2478:
2473:
2467:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2438:
2428:
2416:
2411:
2402:
2401:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2382:combat medics
2379:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2301:diethyl ether
2297:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2252:
2242:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2219:
2210:
2209:, an opiate.
2208:
2204:
2203:Polish heroin
2200:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2175:
2172:
2166:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2139:
2134:
2128:Indochina tax
2125:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2095:In 1909, the
2093:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2037:
2032:
2021:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1972:
1968:
1967:Bank of China
1964:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1910:
1904:
1900:
1898:
1897:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1833:Griffith John
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1780:
1776:
1768:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1698:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1681:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1654:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1629:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1598:Canton System
1590:
1586:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1545:
1542:
1534:
1531:February 2021
1524:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1508:This section
1506:
1502:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1468:
1466:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1448:white slavery
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1413:New York City
1410:
1406:
1405:San Francisco
1402:
1398:
1388:
1386:
1385:Huang Shujing
1382:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1300:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1276:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1218:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1106:
1097:
1088:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1000:
998:
997:P. somniferum
995:) instead of
994:
993:P. silvaticum
990:
989:
984:
983:
978:
970:
966:
961:
952:
950:
946:
942:
938:
937:
932:
927:
925:
924:
919:
915:
911:
908:
905:The renowned
903:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
859:
855:
854:
849:
845:
844:
843:Sahih Bukhari
840:, such as in
839:
838:
833:
829:
815:
811:
806:
797:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
764:(Night), and
763:
759:
754:
740:
734:
730:
722:
718:
714:
710:
702:
698:
697:
692:
687:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
628:P. somniferum
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
596:
586:
582:
578:
573:
568:
566:
562:
556:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
523:Ebers Papyrus
520:
516:
512:
508:
507:suppositories
504:
500:
496:
492:
484:
474:
472:
468:
463:
461:
460:
455:
454:
449:
448:semisynthetic
445:
444:hydromorphone
441:
437:
433:
429:
424:
422:
419:
415:
414:
409:
405:
401:
393:
392:Ancient Greek
389:
385:
380:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
340:
337:
333:
332:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
299:
297:
287:
285:
275:
273:
263:
261:
252:
249:
240:
238:
229:
226:
216:
213:
203:
202:
200:
198:
194:
190:
186:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
126:
124:
120:
114:
111:
109:
106:
104:
101:
99:
96:
94:
91:
90:
88:
86:
82:
78:
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
58:
55:
54:
50:
46:
39:
34:
29:
26:
22:
11961:
11940:Prodynorphin
11932:Propeptides:
11931:
11830:
11801:Thienorphine
11624:JNJ-19385899
11609:Cebranopadol
11591:Ac-RYYRIK-NH
11583:Ac-RYYRWK-NH
11267:6β-Naltrexol
11184:Thienorphine
11149:Salvinorin A
10949:Levallorphan
10754:Cebranopadol
10613:Thienorphine
10423:6β-Naltrexol
10207:JNJ-20788560
10202:Isomethadone
10097:Deltorphin I
10092:Deltorphin A
10072:Cebranopadol
10067:Casokefamide
9901:Naltrexazone
9891:Naloxonazine
9816:Levallorphan
9663:6β-Naltrexol
9562:Thienorphine
9517:Remifentanil
9445:
9439:
9370:Nicomorphine
9365:Nicodicodine
9320:Morphiceptin
9220:Ketobemidone
9055:Desomorphine
9040:DAMGO (DAGO)
9020:Cebranopadol
9015:Casokefamide
8722:Theophrastus
8647:
8642:
8634:
8621:
8615:Datura metel
8613:
8605:
8597:
8572:(belladonna)
8567:
8559:
8460:
8455:
8407:
8395:
8384:
8375:
8366:
8354:
8342:
8323:
8320:William Muir
8309:
8298:
8289:
8280:
8271:
8262:
8255:
8251:
8248:Inglis, Lucy
8233:
8224:
8213:
8197:
8188:
8180:La Recherche
8175:
8168:
8161:
8132:
8123:
8112:
8099:. Retrieved
8095:the original
8078:. Retrieved
8074:the original
8061:
8054:
8047:
8040:
8023:
7992:. Retrieved
7988:the original
7983:
7974:
7966:
7959:
7934:
7930:
7924:
7889:
7885:
7875:
7863:. Retrieved
7852:
7840:. Retrieved
7836:the original
7826:
7818:
7813:
7801:. Retrieved
7797:the original
7787:
7775:. Retrieved
7771:
7762:
7737:
7731:
7725:
7692:
7688:
7682:
7670:. Retrieved
7658:
7654:
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7617:
7613:
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7583:
7571:. Retrieved
7567:the original
7557:
7546:
7531:
7519:. Retrieved
7515:the original
7504:
7496:the original
7485:
7473:. Retrieved
7469:the original
7455:
7443:. Retrieved
7439:
7430:
7418:. Retrieved
7414:
7405:
7395:December 20,
7393:. Retrieved
7381:
7373:
7368:
7356:. Retrieved
7347:
7314:
7310:
7304:
7292:. Retrieved
7282:
7270:. Retrieved
7266:the original
7256:
7244:. Retrieved
7232:
7220:. Retrieved
7209:
7197:. Retrieved
7187:
7175:. Retrieved
7163:
7151:. Retrieved
7147:the original
7137:
7102:
7098:
7088:
7076:. Retrieved
7064:
7060:
7050:
7026:. Retrieved
7022:
7013:
7001:. Retrieved
6997:the original
6982:
6969:
6960:
6933:
6929:
6919:
6889:(4): 552–8.
6886:
6882:
6876:
6854:(1): 29–38.
6851:
6847:
6841:
6829:. Retrieved
6825:the original
6815:
6790:
6786:
6780:
6768:. Retrieved
6763:
6739:. Retrieved
6735:
6711:. Retrieved
6706:
6697:
6685:. Retrieved
6681:
6671:
6659:. Retrieved
6655:
6646:
6634:. Retrieved
6630:
6621:
6609:. Retrieved
6605:the original
6598:
6588:
6576:. Retrieved
6564:
6552:. Retrieved
6542:
6530:. Retrieved
6526:the original
6512:
6493:
6487:
6452:
6448:
6438:
6421:
6417:
6407:
6395:. Retrieved
6385:
6358:
6354:
6344:
6332:. Retrieved
6328:the original
6323:
6313:
6301:
6289:. Retrieved
6285:
6276:
6264:. Retrieved
6260:
6250:
6233:
6229:
6192:(1): 23–36.
6189:
6185:
6179:
6167:. Retrieved
6153:
6140:
6128:. Retrieved
6124:the original
6113:
6098:
6090:the original
6079:
6064:
6052:. Retrieved
6024:
6020:
6010:
5986:(2): 193–4.
5983:
5977:
5967:
5942:
5936:
5930:
5911:
5902:
5883:
5873:
5853:
5846:
5826:
5819:
5807:. Retrieved
5792:
5785:
5773:. Retrieved
5767:
5760:
5748:. Retrieved
5733:
5726:
5714:. Retrieved
5707:the original
5693:
5681:
5669:. Retrieved
5665:the original
5654:
5642:. Retrieved
5632:
5607:
5603:
5590:
5573:
5568:
5548:
5541:
5521:
5514:
5494:
5487:
5467:
5460:
5440:
5433:
5413:
5406:
5386:
5379:
5359:
5352:
5332:
5325:
5300:
5292:
5284:the original
5279:
5270:
5266:
5261:
5250:
5241:
5229:. Retrieved
5225:the original
5215:
5203:. Retrieved
5199:the original
5189:
5177:
5168:Opium Museum
5166:
5151:
5139:. Retrieved
5128:
5116:. Retrieved
5112:the original
5101:
5089:. Retrieved
5079:
5067:. Retrieved
5063:the original
5049:
5037:. Retrieved
5027:
5015:. Retrieved
5005:
4993:. Retrieved
4989:
4946:. Retrieved
4942:the original
4897:
4893:
4847:
4841:
4831:
4821:
4814:
4795:
4768:
4763:
4755:
4743:
4738:
4723:
4718:
4683:
4679:
4669:
4659:
4647:. Retrieved
4644:The Atlantic
4633:
4621:. Retrieved
4614:the original
4601:
4589:. Retrieved
4585:the original
4574:
4549:
4545:
4503:
4499:
4478:. Retrieved
4450:
4446:
4436:
4424:. Retrieved
4414:
4402:. Retrieved
4398:the original
4387:
4375:. Retrieved
4366:
4354:. Retrieved
4344:
4332:. Retrieved
4308:. Retrieved
4304:the original
4294:
4282:. Retrieved
4249:(1): 165–9.
4246:
4242:
4232:
4205:
4201:
4191:
4174:
4170:
4164:
4152:. Retrieved
4148:the original
4138:
4126:. Retrieved
4121:
4112:
4101:
4092:
4080:. Retrieved
4073:the original
4016:
3989:. Retrieved
3985:the original
3974:
3962:. Retrieved
3953:
3941:. Retrieved
3928:
3921:
3913:. Retrieved
3909:the original
3891:(1): 53–61.
3888:
3884:
3874:
3865:
3844:. Retrieved
3838:
3831:
3819:. Retrieved
3813:
3751:
3747:
3725:
3717:. Retrieved
3713:the original
3702:
3682:
3675:
3649:. Retrieved
3644:
3634:
3622:. Retrieved
3586:
3582:
3572:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3525:. Retrieved
3521:the original
3516:
3506:
3492:
3482:February 28,
3480:. Retrieved
3467:
3450:
3440:February 22,
3438:. Retrieved
3434:the original
3419:
3407:. Retrieved
3403:the original
3398:
3325:Opium dollar
3281:
3278:
3266:
3246:chronic pain
3215:
3160:
3097:
3078:
3061:
3048:
3038:
3030:
2989:
2965:
2909:Mallinckrodt
2906:
2895:
2890:
2868:
2842:
2838:
2819:
2812:
2759:
2692:
2687:
2671:
2668:sirupus opii
2667:
2659:
2655:
2647:
2635:
2629:
2620:
2618:
2613:
2610:Soviet Union
2601:
2597:
2590:
2550:
2519:
2506:
2505:production,
2503:
2492:
2474:
2455:
2443:
2425:October 2022
2422:
2414:
2363:
2321:
2298:
2255:
2247:
2224:
2213:Obsolescence
2206:
2198:
2196:
2181:
2167:
2163:
2143:
2094:
2090:
2079:
2066:
2040:
2027:
2007:
1995:Chen Yung-fa
1984:
1943:
1932:
1914:
1894:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1857:
1788:missionaries
1785:
1764:
1734:Palmerston's
1715:
1682:
1651:
1648:
1624:
1595:
1572:
1563:
1537:
1528:
1517:Please help
1512:verification
1509:
1445:
1394:
1380:
1378:
1357:
1333:
1327:
1320:Wang Shizhen
1316:Qing dynasty
1305:
1282:
1270:
1263:
1256:
1222:Ming dynasty
1214:
1154:
1149:
1126:
1110:
1102:
1085:neurasthenia
1082:
1074:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1045:mithridatium
1026:
1016:
1001:
996:
992:
986:
980:
974:
968:
934:
928:
921:
904:
899:
881:
868:Opium-eaters
867:
851:
850:five-volume
848:Dioscorides'
841:
835:
828:Roman Empire
825:
755:
741:
700:
694:
688:
675:
671:
655:
632:P. setigerum
631:
627:
619:
599:
597:
590:
584:
580:
564:
558:
554:
495:anaesthetics
480:
464:
457:
451:
446:, and other
432:phenanthrene
427:
425:
411:
407:
399:
381:
329:
317:
313:
309:
308:
197:Legal status
51:
25:
11992:Euphoriants
11870:Kelatorphan
11847:Candoxatril
11736:Antagonists
11687:Racemorphan
11654:NNC 63-0532
11639:Lexanopadol
11634:Levorphanol
11512:Quadazocine
11497:Pawhuskin A
11492:Noribogaine
11482:Navacaprant
11472:Naltrindole
11392:Epicatechin
11357:Clocinnamox
11240:Antagonists
11202:desipramine
11169:Samidorphan
11139:Racemorphan
11124:Phenazocine
11114:Pentazocine
11094:Norketamine
11089:Noribogaine
11049:Nalfurafine
11014:Mirtazapine
11004:Metkefamide
10964:Lexanopadol
10959:Levorphanol
10939:Laudanosine
10924:ICI-204,448
10919:ICI-199,441
10889:Hemorphin-4
10849:Erinacine E
10834:Eluxadoline
10824:Dynorphin A
10769:Cyclazocine
10744:Butorphanol
10729:Bremazocine
10704:Asimadoline
10694:Allomatrine
10684:Akuammicine
10593:Quadazocine
10588:Pawhuskin A
10583:Noribogaine
10568:Naltrindole
10508:Epicatechin
10503:Eluxadoline
10478:Clocinnamox
10406:Antagonists
10337:Samidorphan
10327:Racemorphan
10307:Oxymorphone
10267:Mitragynine
10262:Metkefamide
10242:Lexanopadol
10237:Levorphanol
10222:Laudanosine
10187:Hydrocodone
10182:Hemorphin-4
10082:Cyclazocine
10057:Butorphanol
10032:β-Endorphin
9951:Samidorphan
9946:Quadazocine
9936:Pawhuskin A
9926:Noribogaine
9916:Naltrindole
9851:Naldemedine
9781:Epicatechin
9738:Clocinnamox
9626:Antagonists
9597:Tubotaiwine
9582:Trimebutine
9512:Racemorphan
9482:Piritramide
9467:Phenazocine
9452:Pentazocine
9425:Oxymorphone
9390:Oliceridine
9375:Norketamine
9360:Nicocodeine
9345:Naltalimide
9310:Mitragynine
9300:Metkefamide
9270:Loxicodegol
9260:Lexanopadol
9255:Levorphanol
9230:Laudanosine
9195:Hydrocodone
9190:Hodgkinsine
9180:Hemorphin-4
9170:Frakefamide
9130:Embutramide
9125:Dynorphin A
9085:Eluxadoline
9075:Dimenoxadol
9010:Carfentanil
8995:Butorphanol
8970:Bezitramide
8940:β-Endorphin
8930:Anileridine
8920:Akuammidine
8915:Akuammicine
8885:α-Narcotine
8773:Hyoscyamine
8712:Sabuncuoğlu
8702:Hippocrates
8692:Dioscorides
8630:Lactucarium
8581:medical use
8350:Nye, Gideon
8101:October 20,
8080:November 9,
7937:(1): 9–24.
7099:Anaesthesia
6770:November 7,
6764:news.un.org
6741:November 7,
6291:January 25,
6266:January 25,
5912:Retribution
4900:(1): 1–39.
4128:January 12,
4103:Answers.com
3709:"MS thesis"
3275:Slang terms
3230:endocytosis
3015:Consumption
2951:in France;
2849:Afghanistan
2761:Afghanistan
2660:pulvis opii
2652:herbal wine
2552:Poppy seeds
2526:poppy straw
2511:narcotoline
2466:Afghanistan
2299:The use of
2146:Paul Doumer
2036:opium pipes
2018:Vietnam War
1923:Yuan Shikai
1823:; the Rev.
1760: 1850
1755:warehouse,
1641:during the
1611:Ralph Fitch
1560:, June 1839
1346:Philippines
1002:The use of
947:headaches,
821: 1870
812:during the
748: 1300
709:Phoenicians
680:Babylonians
644:Mesopotamia
608:Switzerland
561:Dioscorides
527:Dioscorides
489:BCE in the
440:hydrocodone
320:) is dried
314:poppy tears
284:Schedule II
134:Afghanistan
11981:Categories
11965:Kyotorphin
11910:Spinorphin
11791:SB-612,111
11786:Nocistatin
11756:BAN-ORL-24
11707:SCH-486757
11702:SCH-221510
11541:Nociceptin
11502:PF-4455242
11477:Naringenin
11467:Naltrexone
11427:LY-2795050
11422:LY-2459989
11417:LY-2444296
11412:LY-2196044
11397:Hyperoside
11312:Aticaprant
11206:imipramine
11129:Proxorphan
11104:Oxilorphan
11074:Niravoline
11064:Nalorphine
11039:Nalbuphine
11024:Moxazocine
10999:Metazocine
10969:Lofentanil
10934:Ketazocine
10894:Herkinorin
10874:Gemazocine
10864:Fedotozine
10844:Eptazocine
10774:Cyclorphan
10759:Ciprefadol
10578:Naringenin
10558:Naltrexone
10553:Nalorphine
10528:LY-2196044
10518:ICI-174864
10513:ICI-154129
10458:Bevenopran
10433:α-Santolol
10397:Zenazocine
10377:Tonazocine
10332:RWJ-394674
10317:Proglumide
10257:Metazocine
10247:Lofentanil
10177:Fluorophen
9941:Rimonabant
9931:Oxilorphan
9921:Naringenin
9911:Naltrexone
9876:Naloxazone
9866:Nalorphine
9831:LY-2196044
9801:Hyperoside
9791:Gemazocine
9786:Eptazocine
9723:Bevenopran
9567:Tianeptine
9542:Tapentadol
9537:Sufentanil
9532:Sinomenine
9522:Salsolinol
9477:Piminodine
9395:Oxycodegol
9385:Octreotide
9380:Nufenoxole
9330:Nalbuphine
9285:Meptazinol
9265:Loperamide
9235:Lefetamine
9185:Herkinorin
9165:Fluorophen
9120:Dipipanone
9045:Dermorphin
8935:Apparicine
8925:Alfentanil
8848:(abridged;
8828:modulators
8783:Salicylate
8652:(saw-wort)
8639:(mandrake)
8206:B006GMID5K
8182:, May 2005
7842:October 7,
7793:"Laudanum"
7440:cbn.nic.in
7143:"Interpol"
6736:Al Jazeera
6397:October 7,
6286:Erowid.org
6236:(3): 623.
6027:(1): 177.
5945:(3): 302.
5908:Hastings M
5231:October 7,
3550:(1): 1–6.
3361:References
3254:naltrexone
3238:cyclic AMP
3199:lung edema
3187:papaverine
3111:See also:
3074:opium lamp
3069:opium pipe
2726:See also:
2676:white wine
2656:vinum opii
2542:naltrexone
2530:morphinans
2470:US$ 16,000
2446:prohibited
2444:Opium was
2317:Solanaceae
2305:chloroform
2286:Merck KGaA
2270:colchicine
2262:strychnine
2110:Article 23
2073:under the
2009:Mao Zedong
1999:Mitsubishi
1958:Ma Fuxiang
1952:in China,
1799:(Canton);
1742:Palmerston
1722:Opium Wars
1680:in China.
1645:, May 1841
1489:See also:
1481:Opium Wars
1374:Coromandel
1352:described
1344:, and the
1253:Li Shizhen
1197:See also:
1170:Kubla Khan
1004:Paracelsus
907:Andalusian
672:aratpa-pal
636:Bronze Age
404:diminutive
373:papaverine
248:Anlage III
237:Schedule I
108:papaverine
11920:Tynorphin
11915:Thiorphan
11895:Opiorphan
11837:Amastatin
11766:J-113,397
11727:TH-030418
11697:Ro65-6570
11692:Ro64-6198
11619:Etorphine
11527:Zyklophin
11517:Taxifolin
11407:LY-255582
11367:Cyclofoxy
11317:Axelopran
11231:Xorphanol
11221:U-54,494A
11189:Tifluadom
11179:TH-030418
11109:Oxycodone
11099:Oripavine
11069:Naltriben
11054:Nalmefene
11009:Mianserin
10979:Lufuradom
10884:GR-103545
10859:Etorphine
10839:Enadoline
10739:Butorphan
10734:BRL-52537
10699:Apadoline
10608:Taxifolin
10603:SoRI-9409
10563:Naltriben
10548:Nalmefene
10523:LY-255582
10453:Axelopran
10392:Xorphanol
10362:TH-030418
10342:SB-235863
10302:Oxycodone
10297:Oripavine
10162:Etorphine
10052:Butorphan
10017:Amoxapine
9956:Taxifolin
9881:Naloxegol
9856:Nalmefene
9826:LY-255582
9756:Cyprodime
9751:Cyclofoxy
9718:Axelopran
9698:Alvimopan
9693:Akuammine
9678:α-Gliadin
9617:Xorphanol
9607:Valorphin
9552:TH-030418
9410:Oxycodone
9405:Oripavine
9340:Nalmexone
9295:Methadone
9275:LS-115509
9155:Etorphine
9145:Eseroline
8990:Butorphan
8851:full list
8743:Aconitine
8736:Compounds
8717:Sushrutha
8672:Abulcasis
8649:Saussurea
8626:(henbane)
8602:(hemlock)
8588:Castoreum
8564:(aconite)
8397:documents
8334:Q19095804
8141:0169-9563
7832:"Opiates"
7733:Addiction
7573:March 21,
7246:March 21,
7222:March 21,
7023:Unodc.org
6656:unodc.org
6631:yahoo.com
6578:March 21,
6334:April 17,
6186:Addiction
6169:March 21,
6049:206974500
6021:Addiction
5979:Addiction
5959:147627658
5775:April 29,
4914:146582691
4623:March 21,
4459:0007-5140
4263:1528-1175
3905:145084811
3645:Unodc.org
3603:0013-0001
3477:Drugs.com
3258:methadone
3218:analgesia
3191:noscapine
3163:alkaloids
3121:Morphinan
3087:to treat
3085:paregoric
3047:overdose
2883:alkaloids
2847:overtook
2712:sclerosis
2662:), opium
2644:paregoric
2565:drug test
2534:oripavine
2515:noscapine
2374:pethidine
2370:methadone
2343:Oxycodone
2335:Elberfeld
2266:veratrine
2258:noscapine
1963:Guominjun
1941:in 1949.
1896:The Times
1862:Hong Kong
1856:compiled
1797:Guangzhou
1692:destroyed
1602:Guangzhou
1583:opium den
1579:Confucian
1465:Limehouse
1452:Limehouse
1417:opium den
1366:Batavians
1354:addiction
1203:Opium den
1137:dysentery
1115:Iran and
923:al-Tasrif
876:Turkestan
786:Aphrodite
774:Asclepius
760:(Sleep),
684:Egyptians
668:Assyrians
652:Sumerians
604:Neolithic
491:Neolithic
436:oxycodone
406:of ὀπός (
377:noscapine
369:alkaloids
336:analgesic
179:Australia
103:noscapine
12007:Morphine
11806:Trap-101
11796:SR-16430
11717:SR-16435
11571:(PheΨ(CH
11551:Agonists
11462:Naloxone
11372:Dezocine
11342:Catechin
11297:Apigenin
11226:U-69,593
11019:Morphine
10989:MB-1C-OH
10929:Ketamine
10914:Ibogaine
10879:GR-89696
10869:Fentanyl
10749:BW373U86
10637:Agonists
10627:κ-opioid
10573:Naloxone
10468:Catechin
10443:Apigenin
10382:Tramadol
10367:Thebaine
10277:Morphine
10197:Ibogaine
10167:Fentanyl
10147:DPI-3290
10117:Dezocine
10062:BW373U86
10042:Biphalin
10007:ADL-5859
9980:Agonists
9970:δ-opioid
9896:Naloxone
9821:Lobeline
9806:Ibogaine
9728:Catechin
9708:Apigenin
9577:Tramadol
9572:Tilidine
9557:Thebaine
9527:SC-17599
9497:Propiram
9457:Pericine
9400:OM-3-MNZ
9325:Morphine
9215:Ketamine
9160:Fentanyl
9070:Dezocine
9005:BW373U86
8975:Biphalin
8860:3-HO-PCP
8846:Agonists
8836:μ-opioid
8778:Morphine
8763:Hyoscine
8748:Atropine
8682:Avicenna
8677:Avenzoar
8576:Cannabis
8561:Aconitum
8489:Archived
8462:Harper's
8352:(1873).
8330:Wikidata
8322:(1875),
8016:Archived
7951:18029124
7916:16396686
7908:11738029
7777:June 11,
7717:22949289
7709:10189329
7592:Archived
7539:Archived
7475:June 15,
7463:(1996).
7445:April 4,
7331:18348361
7129:35289009
7073:13767429
7028:June 11,
6977:(1995).
6952:10517566
6911:22585610
6903:16885724
6807:15921406
6707:ToloNews
6687:June 11,
6661:April 4,
6636:April 4,
6554:June 27,
6430:14993340
6377:11498543
6206:10723823
6160:Archived
6054:July 26,
6041:27650054
6002:25602038
5910:(2007).
5809:June 28,
5750:June 28,
5624:23567100
5271:cited in
5159:Archived
5057:(1972).
4874:13476921
4528:11036586
4467:44447528
4310:June 15,
4279:27900838
4271:14695738
4183:23883087
4064:(2002).
3661:cite web
3619:30297486
3527:April 4,
3350:Morphine
3289:See also
3262:ibogaine
3185:such as
3179:thebaine
3171:morphine
3169:such as
3137:Morphine
3093:laudanum
3089:diarrhea
3034:alkaloid
3009:morphine
2953:Shionogi
2945:Tasmania
2843:In 2023
2695:morphine
2680:cinnamon
2640:laudanum
2632:tincture
2546:Morphine
2386:syrettes
2378:fentanyl
2376:(1939),
2372:(1937),
2368:such as
2347:thebaine
2274:caffeine
2186:for the
2067:de facto
1956:General
1813:Shanghai
1703:Victoria
1689:Lin Zexu
1653:entrepot
1620:Calcutta
1437:laudanum
1266:Wang Tao
1237:Zhejiang
1182:laudanum
1174:jaundice
1141:diarrhea
1105:Crusades
1078:hysteria
1033:tincture
1028:Laudanum
1008:laudanum
965:Avicenna
949:sciatica
945:migraine
918:mandrake
912:surgeon
766:Thanatos
721:Carthage
650:BCE, by
640:Iron Age
543:morphine
535:Avicenna
467:morphine
413:meconium
384:borrowed
371:such as
365:thebaine
342:morphine
339:alkaloid
326:capsules
225:Class A1
164:Thailand
159:Pakistan
139:Colombia
113:thebaine
93:Morphine
12012:Opioids
11962:Others:
11890:RB-3007
11842:BL-2401
11811:UFP-101
11776:NalBzOH
11771:JTC-801
11712:SR-8993
11649:MT-7716
11599:BU08070
11452:MR-2266
11432:MeJDTic
11362:CVL-354
11332:BU09059
11322:AZ-MTAB
11302:Arodyne
11262:6'-GNTI
11257:5'-GNTI
11216:U-50488
11196:(e.g.,
11044:NalBzOH
11029:MR-2034
10994:Menthol
10984:Matrine
10719:BAM-22P
10714:BAM-18P
10709:BAM-12P
10649:6'-GNTI
10418:5'-NTII
10352:SNC-162
10292:NalBzOH
10212:KNT-127
10142:DPI-221
10077:Codeine
10037:BAM-18P
10027:AZD2327
9992:6'-GNTI
9886:Naloxol
9612:Viminol
9602:U-47700
9587:TRIMU 5
9492:Prodine
9435:OxyPNPH
9350:Neopine
9335:NalBzOH
9305:Metopon
9280:Matrine
9030:Codeine
8980:BU08070
8955:BAM-22P
8950:BAM-18P
8945:BAM-12P
8910:AH-7921
8758:Coniine
8753:Cocaine
7754:8997759
7672:June 6,
7667:5924312
7636:9601157
7387:"UNODC"
7358:May 11,
7339:2591603
7294:June 6,
7272:May 11,
7199:May 24,
7121:1862890
7078:June 6,
6868:9800363
6831:May 10,
6713:June 8,
6611:May 11,
6479:8991015
6470:2359130
6449:The BMJ
6261:Fda.gov
6130:May 21,
5716:July 8,
5307:274–275
5252:iBiblio
5141:May 12,
5118:May 12,
4865:1034310
4710:4595520
4701:1034978
4649:May 10,
4591:June 6,
4480:May 31,
4475:4584236
4377:June 6,
4284:May 31,
4224:7051568
4215:1272342
3991:May 10,
3964:June 6,
3943:July 7,
3915:May 10,
3846:May 31,
3821:May 16,
3788:8390660
3756:Bibcode
3719:May 16,
3651:May 31,
3624:May 31,
3611:4256701
3564:2420426
3175:codeine
3152:Codeine
3064:burning
3053:alcohol
2976:license
2913:Noramco
2799:US$ 138
2795:million
2791:US$ 700
2787:billion
2783:US$ 3.5
2765:Taliban
2654:(e.g.,
2606:Persian
2602:nushtar
2558:in the
2538:opioids
2462:US$ 800
2458:US$ 300
2415:updated
2390:opioids
2366:opioids
2351:codeine
2339:Germany
2329:at the
2313:tropane
2290:Codeine
2278:quinine
2227:opioids
2148:(later
2140:in 1923
2112:of the
2055:US$ 300
1979:million
1950:Suiyuan
1946:Ningxia
1829:Taiyuan
1821:Guiyang
1805:Beijing
1429:coolies
1425:lascars
1308:tobacco
1245:Shaanxi
1241:Sichuan
1184:daily.
1123:England
1119:India.
1113:Safavid
1037:ethanol
892:Baghdad
888:Persian
837:hadiths
782:Demeter
733:Persian
713:Minoans
676:Papaver
664:Baghdad
656:hul gil
612:Germany
519:medical
515:hemlock
477:History
418:newborn
361:codeine
358:opiates
350:opioids
272:Class A
260:Class B
258::
246::
235::
129:Myanmar
98:codeine
67:capsule
11900:Selank
11885:RB-120
11880:RB-101
11824:Others
11751:AT-076
11644:MCOPPB
11307:AT-076
11153:salvia
11034:N-MPPP
10974:LPK-26
10598:SDM25N
10448:AT-076
10387:TRV250
10347:SNC-80
10217:Kratom
9997:7-SIOM
9713:AT-076
9703:AM-251
9592:TRV734
9487:PL-017
9225:Kratom
9210:IBNtxA
8768:Δ9-THC
8707:Rhazes
8687:Celsus
8665:People
8656:Willow
8599:Conium
8332:
8240:
8204:
8147:
8139:
8013:"dope"
7994:May 1,
7949:
7914:
7906:
7886:Neuron
7865:May 6,
7803:May 4,
7752:
7715:
7707:
7665:
7634:
7521:May 4,
7420:May 5,
7337:
7329:
7177:May 2,
7153:May 9,
7127:
7119:
7071:
7003:May 6,
6989:
6950:
6909:
6901:
6866:
6805:
6532:May 2,
6500:
6477:
6467:
6428:
6375:
6204:
6047:
6039:
6000:
5957:
5918:
5890:
5861:
5834:
5800:
5741:
5622:
5582:
5556:
5529:
5502:
5475:
5448:
5421:
5394:
5367:
5340:
5313:
4948:May 4,
4912:
4872:
4862:
4802:
4750:
4730:
4708:
4698:
4566:396938
4564:
4526:
4520:649506
4518:
4473:
4465:
4457:
4426:May 2,
4404:May 2,
4356:May 4,
4334:May 4,
4277:
4269:
4261:
4222:
4212:
4181:
4154:May 4,
4029:
3903:
3786:
3776:
3690:
3617:
3609:
3601:
3562:
3517:hon.ch
3409:May 8,
3355:Heroin
3320:Nabidh
3234:opioid
3177:, and
3119:, and
3117:Opiate
3113:Opioid
3049:per se
3001:Didcot
2939:, and
2923:, and
2902:US$ 29
2793:
2785:
2754:Marine
2684:cloves
2682:, and
2598:loculi
2468:, and
2323:Heroin
2276:, and
2207:koknar
2199:kompot
2152:) was
2138:Tonkin
2003:Mitsui
1977:
1971:Baotou
1837:Hankou
1817:Fuzhou
1772:
1678:silver
1639:Canton
1483:, and
1454:, the
1439:or in
1419:. The
1411:, and
1409:London
1370:Bengal
1362:Indies
1338:Taiwan
1233:Fujian
1229:Hainan
1117:Mughal
971:, 1483
878:, 1868
790:Kybele
770:Apollo
758:Hypnos
751:
729:Cyprus
725:
705:
660:Nippur
648:
624:
614:, and
593:
533:, and
499:ritual
497:, and
487:
471:heroin
421:stools
346:heroin
294:
282:
270:
223:
210:
169:Turkey
149:Mexico
11987:Opium
11905:Semax
11544:(NOP)
11522:UPHIT
11507:RB-64
11447:ML350
11442:ML190
11402:JDTic
11377:DIPPA
11144:RB-64
10899:HS665
10764:CR665
10659:18-MC
10654:8-CAC
10630:(KOR)
10152:DSLET
10137:DPDPE
10087:DADLE
10047:BU-48
9973:(DOR)
9811:JDTic
9673:18-MC
9502:PZM21
9446:opium
9355:NFEPP
9035:DADLE
8839:(MOR)
8727:Zhang
8697:Galen
8643:Opium
7912:S2CID
7713:S2CID
7390:(PDF)
7335:S2CID
7241:(PDF)
7172:(PDF)
7125:S2CID
6907:S2CID
6573:(PDF)
6163:(PDF)
6150:(PDF)
6045:S2CID
5955:S2CID
5710:(PDF)
5703:(PDF)
5600:(PDF)
4910:S2CID
4617:(PDF)
4610:(PDF)
4516:JSTOR
4463:JSTOR
4275:S2CID
4076:(PDF)
4069:(PDF)
3901:S2CID
3779:46725
3683:Opium
3615:S2CID
3607:JSTOR
3459:(PDF)
3260:, or
3216:Both
3044:madak
2941:Mayne
2845:Burma
2826:Burma
2664:sirup
2594:latex
2331:Bayer
2051:US$ 6
1975:US$ 2
1969:from
1699:1,000
1616:picul
1574:madak
1381:madak
1358:madak
1334:madat
1329:madak
1188:China
1133:cough
896:Galen
778:Pluto
634:from
616:Spain
602:from
595:BCE.
585:album
583:var.
577:Malwa
531:Galen
402:), a
400:ópion
396:ὄπιον
388:Latin
386:from
322:latex
310:Opium
174:China
154:India
70:seeds
64:Latex
31:Opium
11292:ANTI
10909:HZ-2
10463:BNTX
9746:CTOP
9742:CTAP
8593:Coca
8356:1839
8238:ISBN
8202:ASIN
8145:ISBN
8137:ISSN
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