32:
4401:
3735:
93:
3162:
is the study of the sequences of phonemes that occur in languages and the sound structures that they form. In this study it is usual to represent consonants in general with the letter C and vowels with the letter V, so that a syllable such as 'be' is described as having CV structure. The
2330:. Phonologically, the short versions behave like short monophthongs, and the long versions like long monophthongs. In modern texts, long diphthongs are marked with a macron on the first letter. The phonetic realization of Old English diphthongs is controversial.
3936:
where a palatalized sound would be expected from Old
English are due either to Northumbrian influence or to direct borrowing from Scandinavian. Note that, in fact, the lack of palatalization in Northumbrian was probably due to heavy Scandinavian influence.)
3964:(long and short). The further discussion concerns the differences between Anglian and West Saxon, with the understanding that Kentish, other than where noted, can be derived from Anglian by front-vowel merger. The primary differences were:
3923:
The biggest differences occurred between West Saxon and the other groups. The differences occurred mostly in the front vowels, and particularly the diphthongs. (However, Northumbrian was distinguished from the rest by much less
1495:
The voiced velar fricative was in mostly complementary distribution with the voiced velar plosive ; the same applied to the corresponding palatal consonant sounds and . The plosive and affricate were found only as
3916:: Kentish in the easternmost portion of that area and West Saxon everywhere else. Mercian was spoken in the middle part of the country, separated from the southern dialects by the Thames and from Northumbrian by the
3118:
has theorized that Old
English breaking developed from language contact with Celtic. He says that two Celtic languages were spoken in Britain, Highland British Celtic, which was phonologically influenced by British
4419:
4156:
Many instances of diphthongs in
Anglian, including the majority of cases caused by breaking, were turned back into monophthongs again by the process of "Anglian smoothing", which occurred before
2789:
and partly from the Old
English vowel shifts, while the short diphthongs developed only from Old English vowel shifts. These are examples of diphthongs inherited from Proto-Germanic:
4417:
3833:
Palatalization yielded some Modern
English word-pairs in which one word has a velar and the other has a palatal or postalveolar. Some of these were inherited from Old English (
2783:
Old
English diphthongs have several origins, either from Proto-Germanic or from Old English vowel shifts. Long diphthongs developed partly from the Proto-Germanic diphthongs
1578:
The evidence for the allophone after front vowels is indirect, as it is not indicated in the orthography. Nevertheless, the fact that there was historically a fronting of
5038:
4418:
4264:
sits on the Thames near the boundary of the
Anglian, West Saxon, and Kentish dialects, some West Saxon and Kentish forms have entered Modern English. For example,
1618:), but only after back vowels, never after front vowels. This is explained if we assume that the allophone sometimes became but the allophone never did.
1918:
However, it is also commonly theorized that the ⟨h⟩ in these sequences was unpronounced, and only stood for the voicelessness of the following sonorant.
2072:, both monophthongs and diphthongs had short and long versions, which were clearly distinguished in pronunciation. In unstressed syllables, vowels were
2848:
There are three vowel shifts that resulted in diphthongs: breaking, palatal diphthongization, and back mutation. Through breaking, Anglo-Frisian short
631:
592:
467:
444:
439:
419:
1512:, due to syncope of an intervening short vowel sound. The transcription in this article ignores such exceptional cases and treats as an allophone of
414:
434:
5115:
4186:. This accounts for some of the most noticeable differences between standard (i.e. West Saxon) Old English and Modern English spelling. E.g.
2394:
assumes pronunciations such as (diphthongs ending with a rounded high back glide) may have persisted, citing evidence of rounded outcomes for
2374:
Another debated point is the phonetic quality of the offglide (the second part of the diphthong) in Late West Saxon. Some scholars reconstruct
323:
3803:: smoothing, diphthong height harmonization, and breaking. Diphthong height harmonization and breaking resulted in the unique Old English
1520:. In late Old English, came to be used in initial position as well, and for this time period the underlying phoneme can be analyzed as
1290:
462:
424:
5766:
5377:
4260:
Modern
English derives mostly from the Anglian dialect rather than the standard West Saxon dialect of Old English. However, since
1464:
meant that the occurrence of the palatal forms was no longer predictable, that is, the palatals and the velars had become separate
3884:
2353:. Hogg argues that such objections are unfounded, saying that a length contrast in diphthongs exists in modern languages, such as
2333:
Some scholars view a contrast between long and short diphthong phonemes as phonologically implausible and have interpreted short
2252:, with two different vowel qualities distinguished by height, so they may have had different qualities in Old English as well.
990:
585:
399:
3211:
if these are accepted as existing) always occur alone. Alternatively, the voiceless sonorants can be analyzed as clusters of
5382:
5345:
5078:
5051:
5026:
4988:
4942:
4855:
2259:
before nasals was probably rounded to . This is suggested by the fact that the word for "person", for example, is spelled as
1933:
allophones and , or similar, when followed by another consonant or when geminated. This is suggested by the vowel shifts of
542:
537:
517:
1013:
409:
3770:
2778:
1019:
996:
384:
181:
1420:. These historical sound changes resulted in certain common patterns to where the palatal sounds occurred: for example,
5108:
3171:
were structured as (C)V(C); that is, up to three consonants in both the onset and coda with one vowel as the nucleus.
2653:. Scholars do not agree on how they were pronounced; they may have been or . They were apparently monophthongized by
5007:
4969:
4882:
4698:
1477:
688:"to steal"), and a distinction between short vowels and long vowels in stressed syllables. It had a larger number of
578:
75:
53:
46:
5217:
3940:
The early history of
Kentish was similar to Anglian, but sometime around the ninth century all of the front vowels
3901:
941:
860:
316:
5603:
5590:
5144:
4458:
3164:
1622:
899:
613:
374:
224:
3984:
in
Anglian but remained in West Saxon. This occurred before other changes such as breaking, and did not affect
661:
quite faithfully, so it is not difficult to draw certain conclusions about the nature of Old English phonology.
5801:
5169:
664:
Old English had a distinction between short and long (doubled) consonants, at least between vowels (as seen in
5761:
5726:
5367:
5159:
5101:
3925:
3897:
3780:
1403:
866:
389:
123:
3912:. Kentish and West Saxon were the dialects spoken south of a line approximately following the course of the
3745:
5357:
5310:
5154:
2700:
927:
905:
522:
4111:
4107:
4099:
3933:
3929:
3796:
3792:
3784:
3705:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3655:
3650:
3642:
3637:
3630:
3625:
3617:
3612:
3607:
3599:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3569:
3564:
3557:
3549:
3541:
3536:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3508:
3503:
3493:
3485:
3480:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3420:
3415:
3408:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3336:
3331:
3323:
3318:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3189:
2899:
2877:
2873:
2724:
2720:
2704:
2696:
2688:
2684:
2662:
2555:
2550:
2520:
2515:
2485:
2480:
2368:
2361:
2350:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2256:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2230:
2219:
2212:
2200:
2193:
2188:
2176:
2169:
2164:
1938:
1926:
1872:
1864:
1846:
1838:
1826:
1810:
1806:
1781:
1763:
1752:
1735:
1718:
1714:
1689:
1672:
1655:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1607:
1603:
1595:
1585:
1571:
1559:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1411:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1327:
1323:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1255:
1240:
1221:
1205:
1185:
1173:
1160:
1148:
1136:
1124:
1112:
1100:
1088:
1067:
705:
701:
697:
693:
627:
623:
970:
949:
309:
5900:
5739:
5285:
5240:
5174:
5149:
4961:
2691:
can be explained by the fact that Late West Saxon was not a direct descendant of Early West Saxon. See
1942:
1005:
913:
848:
834:
165:
5458:
5387:
5245:
5230:
3969:
3136:
2683:('to believe'). (According to another interpretation, however, the "unstable i" may simply have been
1642:
957:
933:
658:
3144:
5771:
5463:
5397:
5362:
1040:
799:
364:
261:
232:
133:
40:
1460:. However, although palatalization was originally a regular sound change, later vowel changes and
5615:
5508:
5478:
5443:
5235:
5179:
5164:
4874:
4410:
1319:
919:
876:
853:
839:
246:
5093:
1527:
The voiceless velar fricative seems to have been just one of several allophones of the phoneme
5869:
5656:
5473:
5372:
962:
759:
609:
194:
57:
2326:, written with digraphs composed of two vowel letters. Like monophthongs, diphthongs could be
1629:
at the ends of words. Because of this, and the palatalization referred to above, the phonemes
5490:
5483:
5305:
5300:
4649:
2012:
1046:
979:
805:
789:
485:
206:
5905:
5859:
5721:
5631:
5610:
5520:
5513:
5257:
4925:
Hogg, Richard M. (1992). "Chapter 3: Phonology and Morphology". In Hogg, Richard M. (ed.).
3909:
3788:
2692:
2093:
2069:
2053:
1850:
882:
527:
285:
101:
20:
8:
5849:
5756:
5734:
5691:
5676:
5641:
5585:
5530:
5525:
5404:
5290:
5267:
5212:
4268:
has its spelling derived from West Saxon and its pronunciation from Kentish (see below).
3186:
2611:. Early West Saxon, however, had an additional pair of long and short diphthongs written
893:
565:
171:
211:
5746:
5555:
5500:
5495:
5450:
5409:
5202:
5128:
4904:
4666:
2596:
2454:
2052:
However, this theory is inconsistent with orthoepic and orthographic evidence from the
817:
754:
560:
138:
5646:
5061:
Toon, Thomas E. (1992). "Chapter 6: Old English Dialects". In Hogg, Richard M. (ed.).
2657:'s time, to a vowel whose pronunciation is still uncertain, but is known as "unstable
678:
5874:
5839:
5824:
5808:
5796:
5781:
5751:
5711:
5681:
5661:
5651:
5595:
5575:
5565:
5550:
5535:
5430:
5425:
5352:
5322:
5317:
5295:
5277:
5272:
5262:
5252:
5074:
5047:
5022:
5003:
4984:
4965:
4938:
4892:
4878:
4851:
4694:
4670:
3776:
3182:
776:
766:
722:
429:
344:
161:
156:
5065:. Vol. 1: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–168.
4929:. Vol. 1: The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–168.
4020:
in Anglian. (Note the corresponding vowel difference in the spelling of "deal" <
3167:
symbol used to show a division between syllables is the dot . Old English stressed
684:
5854:
5786:
5776:
5716:
5706:
5701:
5686:
5671:
5666:
5580:
5570:
5438:
5332:
5225:
5207:
5197:
5066:
4930:
4658:
4443:
3719:
3148:
3128:
2654:
2434:
2234:
1296:
1075:
749:
744:
647:
532:
666:
19:
For assistance with IPA transcriptions of Old English for Knowledge articles, see
5864:
5844:
5829:
5791:
5696:
5636:
5560:
5545:
5540:
5340:
5327:
4844:
4688:
3905:
3203:
is allowed as a third element before voiceless stops. The other onset consonants
3132:
3115:
2423:
2073:
2015:
representing these velarized sounds, in which case the distinction was phonemic:
1539:
was likely pronounced as a palatal fricative . All three allophones were spelled
1361:
1029:
783:
771:
128:
1500:
or after a nasal. However, phonetic and could be found in some words, such as
672:
5879:
5834:
3193:
3179:
3147:, which gives preceding vowels a back offglide, and this feature was loaned by
3124:
2354:
2057:
1858:
1813:
1599:
828:
512:
295:
290:
280:
5070:
4934:
4662:
3135:, and Lowland British Celtic, which was brought to Ireland at the time of the
5894:
2349:
not as diphthongs but as centralized monophthongs or simply as allophones of
2141:
1868:
1854:
689:
733:) of Old English is as shown below. Allophones are enclosed in parentheses.
3799:
in certain cases. It also underwent vowel shifts that were not shared with
3159:
2427:
2327:
1930:
655:
2986:(though this may have only been a spelling change). Back mutation changed
4153:(long and short) occurred early in West Saxon, but much later in Anglian.
3889:
3800:
2159:
2123:
2097:
651:
643:
109:
4908:
3734:
1299:(postalveolar, palatal, velar) and glottal consonants: . Typically only
4684:
4434:
4252:
in late Old English by vowel-shortening before three consonants (hence
3804:
2207:
2128:
1497:
704:. It had diphthongs that no longer exist in Modern English, which were
507:
2406:
in some dialects of Middle English. Other analyses assume Old English
5124:
5043:
4957:
3854:
3140:
2323:
2183:
2089:
1461:
726:
256:
4918:
An Introductory Grammar of Old English with an Anthology of Readings
3920:. Mercian and Northumbrian are often grouped together as "Anglian".
3850:
3168:
619:
502:
2629:
in modern editions), which developed from i-mutation or umlaut of
2426:
diphthongs, meaning that both parts of the diphthong had the same
2302:
were sometimes pronounced/ spelled as in closed syllables, as in
1303:
are analyzed as separate phonemes; is considered an allophone of
5123:
4277:
3893:
2100:. An example of a pair of words distinguished by vowel length is
2077:
1535:
was pronounced as a glottal fricative , and after a front vowel,
1465:
730:
201:
92:
4582:
4566:
4550:
4534:
4518:
4502:
4486:
4470:
4386:
4376:
4366:
4356:
4346:
4336:
4326:
4316:
4306:
4296:
4286:
4247:
4241:
4235:
4229:
4223:
4217:
4211:
4205:
4199:
4193:
4187:
4181:
4175:
4169:
4163:
4157:
4148:
4142:
4133:
4127:
4121:
4115:
4090:
4084:
4078:
4072:
4066:
4060:
4054:
4048:
4042:
4036:
4027:
4021:
4011:
3997:
3991:
3985:
3979:
3973:
3959:
3953:
3947:
3941:
3866:
3858:
3825:
3819:
3813:
3807:
3106:
3085:
3064:
3039:
3017:
3011:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2987:
2981:
2975:
2969:
2963:
2957:
2951:
2945:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2915:
2909:
2903:
2893:
2887:
2867:
2861:
2855:
2839:
2821:
2806:
2800:
2764:
2758:
2750:
2740:
2730:
2714:
2708:
2678:
2672:
2666:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2618:
2612:
2606:
2600:
2590:
2584:
2573:
2567:
2560:
2538:
2532:
2525:
2503:
2497:
2490:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2309:
2303:
2266:
2260:
2107:
2101:
2043:
2035:
2027:
2019:
1998:
1991:
1983:
1977:
1970:
1962:
1956:
1949:
1909:
1901:
1893:
1887:
1879:
1832:
1820:
1775:
1757:
1740:
1723:
1708:
1702:
1694:
1677:
1660:
1649:
1565:
1553:
1542:
1507:
1501:
1487:
1481:
1453:
1443:
1433:
1423:
1387:
1377:
1367:
1353:
1343:
1333:
1273:
1267:
1235:
1179:
1167:
1154:
1142:
1130:
1118:
1106:
1094:
1082:
4870:
4552:
And forġief ūs ūre gyltas, swā swā wē forġiefaþ ūrum gyltendum.
4261:
3917:
3913:
1473:
4647:
Fisiak, Jacek (Jan 1967). "The Old English ⟨wr-⟩ and ⟨wl-⟩".
4575:
And do not lead us into temptation, but rescue us from evil.
3868:
3860:
3120:
2011:
on initial clusters, ⟨wr⟩ and ⟨wl⟩ are thought by some to be
1071:
497:
251:
4895:(1983). "The Development of */k/ and */sk/ in Old English".
1224:(either its voiced allophone or its voiceless allophone ).
4425:
Recording of the Lord's Prayer in reconstructed Old English
1598:
after front vowels makes it very likely. Moreover, in late
5039:
Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages
3227:
can be argued to be phonemic, although no analyses do so.
2390:
as ending in an unrounded, schwa-like glide. In contrast,
1360:. Modern texts may mark the palatalized consonants with a
654:
of the language, and the orthography apparently indicates
1291:
Phonological history of Old English § Palatalization
1430:
often has the palatalized sound before the front vowels
3143:. Lowland British Celtic had velarization like Old and
4690:
The Cambridge History of the English Language Volume 3
4568:
And ne ġelǣd þū ūs on costnunge, ac ālīes ūs of yfele.
4693:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 64.
4559:
And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
4753:
4751:
4749:
4003:
3100:
3094:
3079:
3073:
3058:
3052:
3033:
3027:
2881:
2849:
2833:
2815:
2794:
2784:
2068:
Old English had a moderately large vowel system. In
1791:
1785:
1767:
1589:
1579:
1415:
1261:
1246:
1229:
1215:
1209:
1199:
1193:
618:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
3885:
Phonological history of Old English § Dialects
3151:into Old English, resulting in backing diphthongs.
2096:, and each could appear as either a long or short
4843:
4768:
4766:
4520:Ġeweorðe þīn willa, on eorðan swā swā on heofonum.
4216:in the transition to Middle English by raising of
4010:appears the same in both dialects, but West Saxon
4746:
4114:. When mutated by i-umlaut, it appears again as
4065:did not appear in Anglian. Instead, i-umlaut of
2719:, with rounding perhaps triggered by the rounded
1061:
5892:
4997:
4110:+consonant; instead, the vowel was retracted to
3231:Old English syllable-initial consonant clusters
632:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
4763:
2060:, which has and as genuine initial clusters.
1070:had voiced allophones , which occurred between
4954:Old English: A historical linguistic companion
2968:respectively after the palatalized consonants
1809:occurring before and . Words that have final
5109:
5063:The Cambridge History of the English Language
4927:The Cambridge History of the English Language
4795:
4793:
1645:in the inflectional paradigms of some words.
1414:, while others developed from Proto-Germanic
586:
317:
4712:
4710:
2274:In unstressed syllables, only three vowels,
5016:
4998:Mitchell, Bruce; Robinson, Fred C. (2001).
4634:
4622:
3849:), while others have an unpalatalized form
2080:, though not as much as in Modern English.
5116:
5102:
4891:
4790:
4527:Your will be done, on Earth as in heaven.
3022:before a back vowel in the next syllable.
642:is necessarily somewhat speculative since
593:
579:
324:
310:
5035:
4897:Journal of English and Germanic Philology
4824:
4707:
2695:.) This produced additional instances of
2248:developed into the Middle English vowels
2056:era, as well as borrowings into and from
1934:
1524:, with an allophone used after a vowel.
1468:. (Note that Old English had palatalized
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
4864:
1853:, as in most Modern English accents, an
39:This article includes a list of general
4978:
4757:
4047:, caused by i-umlaut of long and short
2772:
1078:when the preceding sound was stressed.
16:Pronunciation and sounds of Old English
5893:
4646:
4368:oð þæt him ǣġhwylċ þāra ymb-sittendra
4348:fēasċeaft funden; hē þæs frōfre ġebād,
2876:or a consonant cluster beginning with
1531:. At the start of a word or morpheme,
1295:Old English had a fairly large set of
650:. Nevertheless, there is a very large
5097:
4841:
4760:, §6.5.3 Diphthongs and Diphthongoids
4640:
4536:Ūrne dæġhwamlīcan hlāf sele ūs tōdæġ,
4358:wēox under wolcnum, weorð-myndum þāh,
3928:. Forms in Modern English with hard
3679:
3646:
3327:
2364:contrasts with the long diphthong in
708:, with both short and long versions.
5060:
4951:
4924:
4915:
4799:
4784:
4772:
4740:
4728:
4716:
4683:
4610:
3729:
2854:developed into the short diphthongs
2699:alongside those that developed from
2661:". This later went on to merge with
2391:
1284:
622:. For the distinction between ,
25:
5002:(6th ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
4850:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.
4479:Our father, you who are in heaven,
4318:Oft Sċyld Sċēfing sċeaþena þrēatum,
3771:Phonological history of Old English
2902:. Palatal diphthongization changed
2779:Phonological history of Old English
13:
4983:. Edinburgh University Press Ltd.
4399:
4388:gomban ġyldan; þæt wæs gōd cyning.
4328:monegum mǣġþum meodo-setla oftēah.
2357:, in which the short diphthong in
1849:is not known. It may have been an
1816:have the cluster in Old English.
1220:) developed into the OE fricative
45:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
5917:
5089:
4981:A Historical Phonology of English
4815:, Psychology Press, 1957, p. 140.
4472:Fæder ūre þū þe eart on heofonum,
4448:
4106:did not happen in Anglian before
3090:'give' (palatal diphthongization)
2665:, according to spellings such as
2008:
1410:developed from palatalization of
1045:
1039:
1018:
1012:
1004:
995:
989:
969:
961:
956:
948:
940:
932:
926:
918:
912:
904:
898:
881:
875:
865:
859:
852:
847:
838:
833:
816:
804:
798:
788:
5017:Ringe, Don; Taylor, Ann (2014).
4433:Problems playing this file? See
4415:
3764:
3733:
2727:were normally unrounded next to
2322:All dialects of Old English had
2237:, for instance, but merged into
1945:to a following velar consonant:
1845:The exact nature of Old English
91:
30:
4818:
4805:
4778:
4543:Give us our daily bread today,
4338:Eġsode eorl, syððan ǣrest wearð
4308:hū ðā æþelingas ellen fremedon.
3154:
2707:in certain circumstances (e.g.
2088:Old English had seven or eight
2083:
1921:
614:International Phonetic Alphabet
5019:The Development of Old English
4734:
4722:
4677:
4628:
4616:
4604:
3219:. Conversely, the clusters of
2886:developed into the diphthongs
2703:and from sporadic rounding of
2437:had the following diphthongs:
1062:Intervocalic fricative voicing
1:
4834:
4288:Hwæt! Wē Gārdena in ġēardagum
3958:(long and short) merged into
2826:'animal' > Modern English
2317:
1204:) developed into the OE stop
716:
2229:The front mid rounded vowel
2116:Monophthongs in Old English
1800:
711:
700:– than in unstressed ones –
7:
5346:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect
5021:. Oxford University Press.
4846:Introduction to Old English
4495:May your name be hallowed.
4378:ofer hronrāde hȳran sċolde,
4271:
4240:('nearest') become Anglian
3876:
2278:, were distinguished. Here
2241:in the West Saxon dialect.
1472:in certain words that have
721:The inventory of consonant
10:
5922:
4962:Cambridge University Press
4298:þēodcyninga þrym ġefrūnon,
4004:
3882:
3768:
3713:
3282:
3101:
3095:
3080:
3074:
3059:
3053:
3034:
3028:
2882:
2850:
2834:
2816:
2795:
2785:
2776:
2441:Diphthongs in Old English
2255:The short open back vowel
2244:The long–short vowel pair
1941:, which could be cases of
1892:('bread') (Modern English
1814:in standard Modern English
1792:
1786:
1768:
1621:In late Old English, was
1590:
1580:
1516:, and as an allophone of
1416:
1311:, and and allophones of
1288:
1262:
1247:
1230:
1216:
1214:(a fricative allophone of
1210:
1200:
1198:(a fricative allophone of
1194:
737:Consonants in Old English
339:History and description of
233:Development of Old English
18:
5817:
5624:
5418:
5190:
5135:
5071:10.1017/CHOL9780521264747
5036:Schrijver, Peter (2014).
4935:10.1017/CHOL9780521264747
4663:10.1515/ling.1967.5.32.12
4026:vs. "sleep" < Anglian
3970:Anglo-Frisian brightening
3704:
3701:
3598:
3545:
3497:
3489:
3424:
3382:
3340:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3137:Roman conquest of Britain
2880:, and Anglo-Frisian long
2127:
2122:
2120:
2063:
1476:in Modern English due to
1037:
454:Development of consonants
4842:Baker, Peter S. (2007).
4811:Quirk, R., Wrenn, C.L.,
4597:
4204:('near') became Anglian
4132:('cold') vs. West Saxon
4016:('to sleep') appears as
3783:of the velar consonants
3779:, Old English underwent
3174:
1318:Old English manuscripts
692:in stressed syllables –
5378:Regional North American
4979:Minkova, Donka (2014).
4875:Oxford University Press
4635:Ringe & Taylor 2014
4623:Ringe & Taylor 2014
4583:
4567:
4551:
4535:
4519:
4511:May your kingdom come,
4503:
4487:
4471:
4387:
4377:
4367:
4357:
4347:
4337:
4327:
4317:
4307:
4297:
4287:
4248:
4242:
4236:
4230:
4224:
4218:
4212:
4206:
4200:
4194:
4188:
4182:
4176:
4174:, alone or preceded by
4170:
4164:
4158:
4149:
4143:
4134:
4128:
4122:
4116:
4091:
4085:
4079:
4073:
4067:
4061:
4055:
4049:
4043:
4037:
4028:
4022:
4012:
3998:
3992:
3986:
3980:
3974:
3960:
3954:
3948:
3942:
3867:
3859:
3826:
3820:
3814:
3808:
3725:
3215:and a voiced sonorant:
3185:typically consist of a
3111:'seven' (back mutation)
3107:
3086:
3065:
3040:
3018:
3012:
3006:
3000:
2994:
2988:
2982:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2934:
2928:
2922:
2916:
2910:
2904:
2894:
2888:
2868:
2862:
2856:
2840:
2822:
2807:
2801:
2765:
2759:
2751:
2741:
2731:
2715:
2709:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2601:
2591:
2585:
2574:
2568:
2561:
2539:
2533:
2526:
2504:
2498:
2491:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2310:
2304:
2267:
2261:
2108:
2102:
2044:
2036:
2028:
2020:
2009:phonotactic constraints
1999:
1993:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1963:
1957:
1951:
1935:breaking and retraction
1910:
1902:
1894:
1888:
1880:
1833:
1821:
1776:
1758:
1741:
1724:
1709:
1703:
1695:
1678:
1661:
1650:
1566:
1554:
1543:
1508:
1502:
1488:
1482:
1454:
1444:
1434:
1424:
1388:
1378:
1368:
1354:
1344:
1334:
1330:: both were written as
1322:the palatal consonants
1274:
1268:
1236:
1180:
1168:
1155:
1143:
1131:
1119:
1107:
1095:
1083:
683:
677:
671:
665:
646:is preserved only as a
610:phonetic transcriptions
60:more precise citations.
5802:Dialects and varieties
5373:Received Pronunciation
5218:American Sign Language
5000:A Guide to Old English
4813:An Old English Grammar
4488:Sīe þīn nama ġehālgod.
4404:
4035:The West Saxon vowels
3990:caused by i-umlaut of
3742:This section is empty.
3223:and a voiceless stop-
1326:the same way as velar
607:This article contains
4865:Campbell, A. (1959).
4403:
2777:Further information:
2599:, having merged into
2298:remained. Unstressed
1208:, but Proto-Germanic
696:and in some dialects
640:Old English phonology
400:Development of vowels
345:English pronunciation
207:Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
4952:Lass, Roger (1994).
4916:Fulk, R. D. (2014).
4234:in Modern English);
3722:was always a vowel.
2773:Origin of diphthongs
2723:). All instances of
2713:'much' from earlier
2693:Old English dialects
2595:were not present in
2583:The high diphthongs
2430:(high, mid or low).
2054:Early Modern English
1851:alveolar approximant
1362:dot above the letter
286:Early Modern English
182:Phonological history
21:Help:IPA/Old English
5727:Proto-Indo-European
5383:White South African
4867:Old English Grammar
4687:(27 January 2000).
4256:in Modern English).
4126:). Hence, Anglian
4002:('to divide') <
3232:
3205:/j,tʃ,x,n̥,r̥,l̥,ʍ/
3123:and developed into
3032:> Anglo-Frisian
2442:
2117:
1869:voiceless sonorants
1867:were pronounced as
1805:is an allophone of
1478:Old Norse influence
1307:, an allophone of
1278:, '(to) have, had'
738:
375:General development
4893:Cercignani, Fausto
4802:, pp. 101–105
4731:, pp. 119–122
4613:, pp. 108–111
4504:Tōbecume þīn rīċe,
4405:
4210:, later raised to
4098:Breaking of short
4083:, and i-umlaut of
3791:of the open vowel
3230:
3048:'learn' (breaking)
2944:to the diphthongs
2617:(distinguished as
2472:(modern editions)
2440:
2115:
2070:stressed syllables
736:
561:History of English
5901:English phonology
5888:
5887:
5388:Standard Canadian
5129:world's languages
5080:978-0-521-26474-7
5053:978-0-415-35548-3
5028:978-0-19-920784-8
4990:978-0-7486-3469-9
4944:978-0-521-26474-7
4857:978-1-4051-5272-3
4595:
4594:
4420:
4395:
4394:
3762:
3761:
3711:
3710:
3069:'near' (breaking)
3063:> Old English
2581:
2580:
2422:had developed to
2227:
2226:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2137:
1606:sometimes became
1470:⟨g⟩
1285:Dorsal consonants
1074:or a vowel and a
1059:
1058:
603:
602:
477:Variable features
463:Single consonants
430:Great Vowel Shift
351:Historical stages
334:
333:
86:
85:
78:
5913:
5740:Kerkrade dialect
5363:General American
5118:
5111:
5104:
5095:
5094:
5084:
5057:
5032:
5013:
4994:
4975:
4948:
4921:
4912:
4888:
4861:
4849:
4828:
4827:, pp. 87–92
4822:
4816:
4809:
4803:
4797:
4788:
4782:
4776:
4770:
4761:
4755:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4726:
4720:
4719:, pp. 85–86
4714:
4705:
4704:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4644:
4638:
4632:
4626:
4620:
4614:
4608:
4586:
4570:
4554:
4538:
4522:
4506:
4490:
4474:
4449:
4422:
4421:
4402:
4390:
4380:
4370:
4360:
4350:
4340:
4330:
4320:
4310:
4300:
4290:
4283:
4282:
4276:The prologue to
4251:
4245:
4239:
4233:
4227:
4221:
4215:
4209:
4203:
4197:
4191:
4185:
4179:
4173:
4167:
4161:
4152:
4146:
4137:
4131:
4125:
4120:(vs. West Saxon
4119:
4113:
4109:
4101:
4094:
4088:
4082:
4076:
4070:
4064:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4040:
4031:
4025:
4015:
4009:
4008:
4001:
3996:. Hence, e.g.,
3995:
3989:
3983:
3977:
3963:
3957:
3951:
3945:
3935:
3931:
3872:
3864:
3829:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3798:
3794:
3786:
3757:
3754:
3744:You can help by
3737:
3730:
3720:syllable nucleus
3707:
3697:
3692:
3687:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3657:
3652:
3644:
3639:
3632:
3627:
3619:
3614:
3609:
3601:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3571:
3566:
3559:
3551:
3543:
3538:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3510:
3505:
3495:
3487:
3482:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3422:
3417:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3388:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3353:
3348:
3338:
3333:
3325:
3320:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3149:language contact
3110:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3097:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3056:
3055:
3043:
3037:
3036:
3031:
3030:
3021:
3015:
3009:
3003:
2998:, and sometimes
2997:
2991:
2985:
2979:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2931:
2925:
2919:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2897:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2852:
2843:
2837:
2836:
2825:
2819:
2818:
2810:
2804:
2798:
2797:
2788:
2787:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2754:
2746:
2744:
2736:
2734:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2698:
2690:
2687:, and the later
2686:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2655:Alfred the Great
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2610:
2604:
2594:
2588:
2577:
2571:
2564:
2557:
2552:
2542:
2536:
2529:
2522:
2517:
2507:
2501:
2494:
2487:
2482:
2443:
2439:
2435:Anglian dialects
2421:
2416:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2370:
2363:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2313:
2307:
2301:
2297:
2293:
2290:were reduced to
2289:
2285:
2282:were reduced to
2281:
2277:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2251:
2247:
2240:
2235:Anglian dialects
2232:
2221:
2214:
2202:
2195:
2190:
2178:
2171:
2166:
2152:
2147:
2140:
2135:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2105:
2047:
2039:
2031:
2023:
2002:
1996:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1966:
1960:
1954:
1940:
1928:
1913:
1905:
1897:
1891:
1883:
1874:
1866:
1848:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1824:
1812:
1808:
1795:
1794:
1789:
1788:
1783:
1779:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1706:
1698:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1657:
1653:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1609:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1573:
1569:
1561:
1557:
1548:
1546:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1491:
1485:
1471:
1459:
1457:
1449:
1447:
1439:
1437:
1429:
1427:
1419:
1418:
1413:
1409:
1406:. Some cases of
1401:
1397:
1394:. Historically,
1393:
1391:
1383:
1381:
1373:
1371:
1359:
1357:
1349:
1347:
1339:
1337:
1329:
1325:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1277:
1271:
1265:
1264:
1263:*habjaną, *habdē
1257:
1250:
1249:
1242:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1223:
1219:
1218:
1213:
1212:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1197:
1196:
1187:
1183:
1175:
1171:
1162:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1138:
1134:
1126:
1123:('blacksmiths')
1122:
1114:
1110:
1102:
1098:
1090:
1086:
1076:voiced consonant
1069:
1049:
1043:
1022:
1016:
1008:
999:
993:
973:
965:
960:
952:
944:
936:
930:
922:
916:
908:
902:
885:
879:
869:
863:
856:
851:
842:
837:
820:
808:
802:
792:
739:
735:
707:
703:
699:
695:
648:written language
629:
625:
595:
588:
581:
533:T-glottalization
336:
335:
326:
319:
312:
95:
88:
87:
81:
74:
70:
67:
61:
56:this article by
47:inline citations
34:
33:
26:
5921:
5920:
5916:
5915:
5914:
5912:
5911:
5910:
5891:
5890:
5889:
5884:
5813:
5767:Scottish Gaelic
5620:
5474:Standard Modern
5414:
5226:Modern Standard
5186:
5131:
5122:
5092:
5087:
5081:
5054:
5029:
5010:
4991:
4972:
4945:
4885:
4858:
4837:
4832:
4831:
4823:
4819:
4810:
4806:
4798:
4791:
4783:
4779:
4771:
4764:
4756:
4747:
4739:
4735:
4727:
4723:
4715:
4708:
4701:
4682:
4678:
4645:
4641:
4633:
4629:
4621:
4617:
4609:
4605:
4600:
4440:
4439:
4431:
4429:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4423:
4416:
4413:
4406:
4400:
4391:
4381:
4371:
4361:
4351:
4341:
4331:
4321:
4311:
4301:
4291:
4274:
4246:, shortened to
4192:('eye') became
3968:Original (post
3892:had four major
3887:
3879:
3773:
3767:
3758:
3752:
3749:
3728:
3716:
3706:j,tʃ,rˠ/wr,ɫ/wl
3247:
3242:
3237:
3177:
3157:
3116:Peter Schrijver
2781:
2775:
2748:
2738:
2728:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2452:
2447:
2424:height-harmonic
2320:
2092:, depending on
2090:vowel qualities
2086:
2066:
1929:apparently had
1924:
1803:
1747:
1746:
1730:
1729:
1684:
1683:
1667:
1666:
1574:, phonetically
1562:, phonetically
1540:
1469:
1451:
1441:
1431:
1421:
1398:developed from
1385:
1375:
1365:
1351:
1341:
1331:
1293:
1287:
1192:Proto-Germanic
1135:('house' noun)
1111:('blacksmith')
1066:The fricatives
1064:
761:
719:
714:
690:vowel qualities
637:
636:
635:
599:
570:
547:
472:
449:
394:
369:
330:
301:
300:
276:
268:
267:
266:
227:
217:
216:
197:
187:
186:
159:
152:
144:
143:
119:
82:
71:
65:
62:
52:Please help to
51:
35:
31:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5919:
5909:
5908:
5903:
5886:
5885:
5883:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5847:
5842:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5821:
5819:
5815:
5814:
5812:
5811:
5806:
5805:
5804:
5794:
5789:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5772:Serbo-Croatian
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5744:
5743:
5742:
5737:
5729:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5689:
5684:
5679:
5674:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5628:
5626:
5622:
5621:
5619:
5618:
5613:
5608:
5607:
5606:
5598:
5593:
5588:
5583:
5578:
5573:
5568:
5563:
5558:
5553:
5548:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5517:
5516:
5511:
5503:
5498:
5493:
5488:
5487:
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5476:
5468:
5467:
5466:
5461:
5453:
5448:
5447:
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5441:
5433:
5428:
5422:
5420:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5412:
5407:
5402:
5401:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5360:
5350:
5349:
5348:
5343:
5335:
5330:
5325:
5320:
5315:
5314:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5298:
5293:
5288:
5280:
5275:
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5265:
5260:
5255:
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5243:
5238:
5233:
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5220:
5215:
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5205:
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5192:
5188:
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5183:
5182:
5177:
5172:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5147:
5142:
5136:
5133:
5132:
5121:
5120:
5113:
5106:
5098:
5091:
5090:External links
5088:
5086:
5085:
5079:
5058:
5052:
5033:
5027:
5014:
5008:
4995:
4989:
4976:
4970:
4949:
4943:
4922:
4920:. ACMRS Press.
4913:
4903:(3): 313–323.
4889:
4883:
4862:
4856:
4838:
4836:
4833:
4830:
4829:
4825:Schrijver 2014
4817:
4804:
4789:
4787:, pp. 104
4777:
4762:
4745:
4733:
4721:
4706:
4699:
4676:
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4627:
4615:
4602:
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4500:
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4302:
4293:
4292:
4273:
4270:
4258:
4257:
4154:
4139:
4096:
4033:
3978:was raised to
3926:palatalization
3878:
3875:
3781:palatalization
3769:Main article:
3766:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3740:
3738:
3727:
3724:
3715:
3712:
3709:
3708:
3703:
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3309:
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3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3250:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3176:
3173:
3156:
3153:
3113:
3112:
3091:
3070:
3049:
2846:
2845:
2830:
2812:
2774:
2771:
2671:, for earlier
2579:
2578:
2565:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2544:
2543:
2530:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2508:
2495:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2449:
2319:
2316:
2233:occurs in the
2225:
2224:
2222:
2217:
2215:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2198:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2085:
2082:
2065:
2062:
2050:
2049:
2041:
2033:
2025:
2005:
2004:
1989:
1968:
1923:
1920:
1916:
1915:
1907:
1899:
1885:
1859:alveolar trill
1843:
1842:
1830:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1797:
1773:
1755:
1738:
1721:
1700:
1692:
1675:
1658:
1600:Middle English
1576:
1575:
1563:
1404:palatalization
1301:/k,tʃ,ɣ,j,ʃ,x/
1289:Main article:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1279:
1243:
1190:
1189:
1177:
1164:
1152:
1140:
1128:
1116:
1104:
1092:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1023:
1009:
1002:
1000:
986:
984:
982:
976:
975:
966:
954:
945:
938:
924:
910:
896:
890:
889:
887:
873:
871:
857:
845:
843:
831:
825:
824:
822:
813:
811:
809:
795:
793:
786:
780:
779:
774:
769:
764:
757:
752:
747:
742:
723:surface sounds
718:
715:
713:
710:
630:⟩, see
606:
605:
604:
601:
600:
598:
597:
590:
583:
575:
572:
571:
569:
568:
563:
557:
554:
553:
552:Related topics
549:
548:
546:
545:
540:
535:
530:
525:
520:
515:
513:L-vocalization
510:
505:
500:
495:
482:
479:
478:
474:
473:
471:
470:
465:
459:
456:
455:
451:
450:
448:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
406:
403:
402:
396:
395:
393:
392:
387:
385:In Old English
381:
378:
377:
371:
370:
368:
367:
365:Middle English
362:
356:
353:
352:
348:
347:
341:
340:
332:
331:
329:
328:
321:
314:
306:
303:
302:
299:
298:
293:
291:Modern English
288:
283:
281:Middle English
277:
274:
273:
270:
269:
265:
264:
259:
254:
249:
247:Proto-Germanic
243:
242:
236:
235:
229:
228:
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
209:
204:
198:
193:
192:
189:
188:
185:
184:
179:
174:
169:
166:Latin alphabet
162:Runic alphabet
153:
150:
149:
146:
145:
142:
141:
136:
131:
126:
120:
117:
116:
113:
112:
106:
105:
97:
96:
84:
83:
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5918:
5907:
5904:
5902:
5899:
5898:
5896:
5881:
5878:
5876:
5873:
5871:
5868:
5866:
5863:
5861:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5851:
5848:
5846:
5843:
5841:
5838:
5836:
5833:
5831:
5828:
5826:
5823:
5822:
5820:
5816:
5810:
5807:
5803:
5800:
5799:
5798:
5795:
5793:
5790:
5788:
5785:
5783:
5780:
5778:
5775:
5773:
5770:
5768:
5765:
5763:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5753:
5750:
5748:
5745:
5741:
5738:
5736:
5733:
5732:
5730:
5728:
5725:
5723:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5713:
5710:
5708:
5705:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5695:
5693:
5690:
5688:
5685:
5683:
5680:
5678:
5675:
5673:
5670:
5668:
5665:
5663:
5660:
5658:
5655:
5653:
5650:
5648:
5645:
5643:
5640:
5638:
5635:
5633:
5630:
5629:
5627:
5623:
5617:
5616:Luxembourgish
5614:
5612:
5609:
5605:
5604:Maastrichtian
5602:
5601:
5599:
5597:
5594:
5592:
5589:
5587:
5584:
5582:
5579:
5577:
5574:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5547:
5544:
5542:
5539:
5537:
5534:
5532:
5529:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5515:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5506:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5485:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5475:
5472:
5471:
5469:
5465:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5454:
5452:
5449:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5436:
5434:
5432:
5429:
5427:
5424:
5423:
5421:
5417:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5403:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
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5347:
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5342:
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5329:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5319:
5316:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5283:
5281:
5279:
5276:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5223:
5221:
5219:
5216:
5214:
5211:
5209:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5199:
5196:
5195:
5193:
5189:
5181:
5178:
5176:
5173:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5145:Orthographies
5143:
5141:
5138:
5137:
5134:
5130:
5126:
5119:
5114:
5112:
5107:
5105:
5100:
5099:
5096:
5082:
5076:
5072:
5068:
5064:
5059:
5055:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5040:
5034:
5030:
5024:
5020:
5015:
5011:
5009:0-631-22636-2
5005:
5001:
4996:
4992:
4986:
4982:
4977:
4973:
4971:0-521-43087-9
4967:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4950:
4946:
4940:
4936:
4932:
4928:
4923:
4919:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4884:0-19-811943-7
4880:
4876:
4872:
4868:
4863:
4859:
4853:
4848:
4847:
4840:
4839:
4826:
4821:
4814:
4808:
4801:
4796:
4794:
4786:
4781:
4774:
4769:
4767:
4759:
4754:
4752:
4750:
4743:, p. 429
4742:
4737:
4730:
4725:
4718:
4713:
4711:
4702:
4700:9780521264761
4696:
4692:
4691:
4686:
4680:
4672:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4657:(32): 12–14.
4656:
4652:
4651:
4643:
4636:
4631:
4624:
4619:
4612:
4607:
4603:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4581:
4579:
4578:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4565:
4563:
4562:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4549:
4547:
4546:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4533:
4531:
4530:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4517:
4515:
4514:
4510:
4508:
4505:
4501:
4499:
4498:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4485:
4483:
4482:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4469:
4467:
4466:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4451:
4450:
4447:
4445:
4444:Lord's Prayer
4438:
4436:
4412:
4389:
4385:
4384:
4379:
4375:
4374:
4369:
4365:
4364:
4359:
4355:
4354:
4349:
4345:
4344:
4339:
4335:
4334:
4329:
4325:
4324:
4319:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4295:
4294:
4289:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4255:
4250:
4244:
4238:
4232:
4226:
4220:
4214:
4208:
4202:
4196:
4190:
4184:
4178:
4172:
4166:
4160:
4155:
4151:
4145:
4140:
4136:
4130:
4124:
4118:
4105:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4081:
4075:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4051:
4045:
4039:
4034:
4030:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4007:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3971:
3967:
3966:
3965:
3962:
3956:
3950:
3944:
3938:
3927:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3874:
3871:
3870:
3863:
3862:
3856:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3828:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3790:
3782:
3778:
3772:
3765:Sound changes
3756:
3753:November 2021
3747:
3743:
3739:
3736:
3732:
3731:
3723:
3721:
3700:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3683:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3663:
3659:
3654:
3649:
3641:
3636:
3635:
3629:
3624:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3606:
3603:
3597:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3562:
3556:
3553:
3548:
3540:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3501:
3492:
3484:
3479:
3478:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3448:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3419:
3414:
3413:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3391:
3385:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3366:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3344:
3335:
3330:
3322:
3317:
3316:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3252:
3251:
3234:
3228:
3217:/xn,xr,xl,xw/
3197:/p,t,k,b,d,ɣ/
3195:
3188:
3184:
3181:
3172:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3152:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3109:
3092:
3088:
3071:
3067:
3050:
3047:
3044:, West Saxon
3042:
3038:> Anglian
3025:
3024:
3023:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2984:
2978:
2972:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2896:
2890:
2870:
2864:
2858:
2842:
2831:
2829:
2824:
2813:
2809:
2805:, West Saxon
2803:
2799:> Anglian
2792:
2791:
2790:
2786:*iu, *eu, *au
2780:
2770:
2767:
2763:from earlier
2761:
2753:
2743:
2733:
2717:
2711:
2702:
2694:
2681:
2675:
2669:
2660:
2656:
2651:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2627:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2587:
2576:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2531:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2476:
2475:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2456:
2450:
2445:
2444:
2438:
2436:
2431:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2404:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2367:
2360:
2356:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2331:
2329:
2328:short or long
2325:
2315:
2312:
2306:
2272:
2269:
2263:
2253:
2242:
2236:
2223:
2218:
2216:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2199:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2151:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2125:
2119:
2113:
2110:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2001:
1995:
1990:
1986:
1980:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1919:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1870:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1855:alveolar flap
1852:
1835:
1831:
1823:
1819:
1818:
1817:
1815:
1778:
1774:
1760:
1756:
1743:
1739:
1726:
1722:
1711:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1680:
1676:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1648:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1624:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1601:
1568:
1564:
1556:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1545:
1525:
1510:
1504:
1499:
1493:
1490:
1484:
1479:
1475:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1446:
1436:
1426:
1405:
1390:
1380:
1370:
1363:
1356:
1346:
1336:
1321:
1316:
1298:
1292:
1276:
1270:
1259:
1258:
1254:
1244:
1238:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1182:
1178:
1170:
1165:
1157:
1153:
1147:('to house')
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1121:
1117:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1093:
1085:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1003:
1001:
998:
992:
987:
985:
983:
981:
978:
977:
972:
967:
964:
959:
955:
951:
946:
943:
939:
935:
929:
925:
921:
915:
911:
907:
901:
897:
895:
892:
891:
888:
884:
878:
874:
872:
868:
862:
858:
855:
850:
846:
844:
841:
836:
832:
830:
827:
826:
823:
819:
814:
812:
810:
807:
801:
796:
794:
791:
787:
785:
782:
781:
778:
775:
773:
770:
768:
765:
763:
758:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
740:
734:
732:
728:
724:
709:
691:
687:
686:
682:"to put" and
681:
680:
675:
674:
669:
668:
662:
660:
657:
653:
649:
645:
641:
633:
621:
617:
615:
611:
596:
591:
589:
584:
582:
577:
576:
574:
573:
567:
564:
562:
559:
558:
556:
555:
551:
550:
544:
541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
529:
526:
524:
521:
519:
516:
514:
511:
509:
506:
504:
501:
499:
496:
494:
492:
488:
484:
483:
481:
480:
476:
475:
469:
466:
464:
461:
460:
458:
457:
453:
452:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
407:
405:
404:
401:
398:
397:
391:
388:
386:
383:
382:
380:
379:
376:
373:
372:
366:
363:
361:
358:
357:
355:
354:
350:
349:
346:
343:
342:
338:
337:
327:
322:
320:
315:
313:
308:
307:
305:
304:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
278:
272:
271:
263:
260:
258:
255:
253:
250:
248:
245:
244:
241:
238:
237:
234:
231:
230:
226:
221:
220:
213:
212:Cædmon's Hymn
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
199:
196:
191:
190:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
167:
163:
158:
155:
154:
148:
147:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
121:
115:
114:
111:
108:
107:
103:
99:
98:
94:
90:
89:
80:
77:
69:
59:
55:
49:
48:
42:
37:
28:
27:
22:
5870:West Frisian
5657:Massachusett
5392:
5170:Prepositions
5139:
5062:
5037:
5018:
4999:
4980:
4953:
4926:
4917:
4900:
4896:
4866:
4845:
4820:
4812:
4807:
4780:
4775:, p. 14
4758:Minkova 2014
4736:
4724:
4689:
4679:
4654:
4648:
4642:
4630:
4618:
4606:
4463:Translation
4441:
4432:
4275:
4265:
4259:
4253:
4198:in Anglian;
4103:
4017:
4005:
3939:
3922:
3918:River Humber
3914:River Thames
3910:Northumbrian
3888:
3880:
3846:
3842:
3838:
3834:
3832:
3774:
3750:
3746:adding to it
3741:
3717:
3178:
3160:Phonotactics
3158:
3155:Phonotactics
3145:Modern Irish
3114:
3045:
2847:
2827:
2782:
2658:
2582:
2432:
2428:vowel height
2373:
2365:
2358:
2332:
2321:
2273:
2254:
2243:
2228:
2106:('god') and
2087:
2084:Monophthongs
2067:
2051:
2048:: "to bend"
2040:: "to look"
2032:: "to ride"
2024:: "to grow"
2006:
1943:assimilation
1925:
1922:Velarization
1917:
1863:
1844:
1804:
1784:> (from
1766:> (from
1762:('to sing')
1620:
1615:
1611:
1577:
1526:
1494:
1317:
1294:
1252:
1191:
1099:('letters')
1065:
720:
663:
659:alternations
656:phonological
639:
638:
626:and ⟨
608:
490:
486:
359:
239:
176:
134:Northumbrian
72:
63:
44:
5906:Old English
5600:Limburgish
5491:Greenlandic
5368:New Zealand
5301:Northern Wu
5160:Determiners
5140:Phonologies
5125:Phonologies
4685:Lass, Roger
4650:Linguistics
4637:, p. 4
4625:, p. 4
4089:remains as
4077:is spelled
3890:Old English
3801:Old Frisian
3199:, although
3139:and became
2769:'to give'.
2467:(original)
2462:(bimoraic)
2098:monophthong
2003:('to fall')
1780:('bridge')
1713:('castle')
1486:"give" and
1184:('fathom')
1087:('letter')
980:Approximant
706:/io̯eo̯æɑ̯/
644:Old English
420:Close front
360:Old English
157:Orthography
110:Old English
58:introducing
5895:Categories
5860:Vietnamese
5731:Ripuarian
5722:Portuguese
5632:Macedonian
5611:Lithuanian
5521:Hindustani
5358:Australian
5311:Historical
5258:Belarusian
5155:Adjectives
4835:References
4435:media help
4141:Merger of
3902:West Saxon
3883:See also:
3805:diphthongs
3248:consonant
3225:/sp,st,sk/
3029:*liznōjaną
2851:*i, *e, *æ
2701:i-mutation
2597:West Saxon
2455:monomoraic
2324:diphthongs
2318:Diphthongs
2112:('good').
1871:following
1480:, such as
1462:borrowings
1172:('earth')
1159:('forth')
1149:/ˈxuːsiɑn/
727:allophones
717:Consonants
670:"sun" and
508:H-dropping
425:Diphthongs
415:Close back
240:Influences
195:Literature
139:West Saxon
41:references
5850:Ukrainian
5757:Sardinian
5735:Colognian
5692:Old Saxon
5677:Norwegian
5642:Maldivian
5586:Latgalian
5531:Icelandic
5526:Hungarian
5405:Esperanto
5291:Cantonese
5268:Bulgarian
5241:Levantine
5213:Afrikaans
5044:Routledge
4958:Cambridge
4800:Hogg 1992
4785:Hogg 1992
4773:Fulk 2014
4741:Toon 1992
4729:Hogg 1992
4717:Hogg 1992
4671:143847822
4611:Hogg 1992
4411:Fæder ūre
4071:and rare
4006:*dailijan
3855:Old Norse
3243:consonant
3238:consonant
3190:/s,ʃ,f,θ/
3187:fricative
3169:syllables
3141:Old Irish
2392:Fulk 2014
2148:unrounded
2136:unrounded
1988:('earth')
1967:('learn')
1931:velarized
1865:/w,l,n,r/
1837:('ring')
1827:/ˈsinkɑn/
1825:('sink')
1801:Sonorants
1769:*sangijan
1764:/ˈsenjan/
1736:/ˈburɣum/
1699:('dawn')
1643:alternate
1498:geminates
1492:"gate".)
1174:/ˈeo̯rθe/
1125:/ˈsmiθɑs/
1101:/ˈstɑfɑs/
894:Fricative
725:(whether
712:Phonology
694:/iyueoæɑ/
528:Rhoticity
435:Open back
262:Brittonic
177:Phonology
66:July 2010
5747:Romanian
5556:Japanese
5514:Biblical
5501:Hawaiian
5496:Gujarati
5459:Standard
5451:Galician
5439:Parisian
5410:Estonian
5341:Standard
5286:Mandarin
5282:Chinese
5246:Tunisian
5231:Egyptian
5203:Acehnese
5175:Pronouns
5150:Grammars
4909:27709191
4584:Sōðlīċe.
4455:Original
4272:Examples
3896:groups:
3877:Dialects
3789:fronting
3183:clusters
3105:> OE
3099:> AF
3078:> AF
3057:> AF
3046:leornian
3041:liornian
3035:*lirnian
2838:> OE
2820:> OE
2757:, hence
2755:⟩
2749:⟨
2745:⟩
2739:⟨
2735:⟩
2729:⟨
2674:geliefan
2470:Spelling
2465:Spelling
2448:element
2013:digraphs
1964:leornian
1958:liornian
1914:('ring')
1884:('what')
1857:, or an
1787:*bruggjō
1690:/ˈdɑɣɑs/
1673:/ˈdæjes/
1654:('day')
1641:came to
1623:devoiced
1570:('boy')
1558:('dog')
1547:⟩
1541:⟨
1466:phonemes
1458:⟩
1452:⟨
1448:⟩
1442:⟨
1438:⟩
1432:⟨
1428:⟩
1422:⟨
1392:⟩
1386:⟨
1382:⟩
1376:⟨
1372:⟩
1366:⟨
1358:⟩
1352:⟨
1348:⟩
1342:⟨
1338:⟩
1332:⟨
1328:/k,ɣ,sk/
1324:/tʃ,j,ʃ/
1266:> OE
1251:> OE
1241:/ˈfæder/
1234:> OE
1166:compare
762:alveolar
755:Alveolar
731:phonemes
624:/ /
620:Help:IPA
566:Spelling
503:Flapping
468:Clusters
390:In Scots
118:Dialects
102:a series
100:Part of
5875:Yiddish
5840:Turkish
5825:Tagalog
5809:Swedish
5797:Spanish
5782:Slovene
5752:Russian
5712:Persian
5682:Occitan
5662:Medumba
5652:Marathi
5596:Latvian
5576:Kurdish
5566:Konkani
5551:Italian
5536:Ingrian
5505:Hebrew
5479:Ancient
5464:Bernese
5455:German
5435:French
5431:Finnish
5426:Faroese
5353:English
5323:Cornish
5318:Chukchi
5296:Hokkien
5278:Catalan
5273:Burmese
5263:Bengali
5253:Avestan
5222:Arabic
5127:of the
4278:Beowulf
4228:(hence
4222:before
3906:Mercian
3898:Kentish
3894:dialect
3777:Frisian
3714:Nucleus
3129:Cornish
3075:*gebaną
2898:before
2872:before
2844:'death'
2835:*dauþuz
2680:gelifan
2668:gelyfan
2351:/æ,e,i/
2280:/æ,e,i/
2153:rounded
2142:rounded
2094:dialect
2074:reduced
2007:Due to
2000:feallan
1952:lirnian
1937:before
1906:('nut')
1839:/xrinɡ/
1793:*bruɣjō
1782:/bryjj/
1588:and of
1572:/knixt/
1503:syngian
1320:spelled
1256:/ˈstæf/
1248:*stabaz
1186:/ˈfæθm/
1137:/ˈxuːs/
1089:/ˈstæf/
777:Glottal
767:Palatal
679:stellan
676:"son",
612:in the
225:History
202:Beowulf
172:Grammar
129:Mercian
124:Kentish
54:improve
5855:Uyghur
5787:Somali
5777:Slovak
5717:Polish
5707:Pashto
5702:Ottawa
5687:Ojibwe
5672:Nepali
5667:Navajo
5581:Kyrgyz
5571:Korean
5509:Modern
5470:Greek
5444:Quebec
5398:Middle
5337:Dutch
5333:Danish
5236:Hejazi
5208:Adyghe
5198:Abkhaz
5077:
5050:
5025:
5006:
4987:
4968:
4941:
4907:
4881:
4871:Oxford
4854:
4697:
4669:
4591:Amen.
4262:London
4237:nēahst
4029:slēpan
4018:slēpan
4013:slǣpan
3908:, and
3851:loaned
3839:drench
3702:Other
3241:Middle
3209:/rˠ,ɫ/
3192:and a
3133:Breton
3131:, and
3108:seofon
3102:*sefon
3096:*sebun
3087:ġiefan
3081:*jefan
3016:, and
2980:, and
2883:*ī, *ǣ
2817:*deuzą
2796:*biumi
2766:ġiefan
2725:/y(ː)/
2705:/i(ː)/
2697:/y(ː)/
2369:/taid/
2362:/təid/
2311:heofon
2294:, and
2231:/ø(ː)/
2078:elided
2064:Vowels
2037:wlītan
2021:wrīdan
1994:fællan
1822:sincan
1759:senġan
1753:/byrj/
1748:NOM.PL
1731:DAT.PL
1725:burgum
1719:/burx/
1715:/burɣ/
1696:dagung
1685:NOM.PL
1668:GEN.SG
1656:/ˈdæj/
1637:, and
1610:(e.g.
1560:/xund/
1509:menġan
1483:ġiefan
1474:hard G
1400:/k,sk/
1396:/tʃ,ʃ/
1297:dorsal
1269:habban
1231:*fadēr
1161:/forθ/
1144:hūsian
1120:smiþas
1113:/smiθ/
1096:stafas
1072:vowels
750:Dental
745:Labial
685:stelan
652:corpus
628:
493:merger
491:caught
275:Legacy
43:, but
5865:Welsh
5845:Ubykh
5830:Tamil
5792:Sotho
5762:Scots
5697:Oromo
5647:Māori
5637:Malay
5591:Latin
5561:Kiowa
5546:Irish
5541:Inuit
5484:Koine
5328:Czech
5180:Verbs
5165:Nouns
4905:JSTOR
4667:S2CID
4598:Notes
4249:nehst
4243:nēhst
4135:ċeald
4023:dǣlan
3999:dǣlan
3869:shirt
3861:skirt
3853:from
3835:drink
3797:/ææː/
3793:/ɑɑː/
3775:Like
3236:First
3207:(and
3180:Onset
3175:Onset
3125:Welsh
3121:Latin
3084:>
2878:/r,l/
2874:/x,w/
2811:' am'
2760:ġifan
2716:miċel
2710:myċel
2663:/yyː/
2477:High
2451:Short
2446:First
2355:Scots
2305:hāliġ
2300:/e,u/
2288:/ɑ,o/
2276:/ɑeu/
2250:/aɛː/
2246:/ææː/
2239:/eeː/
2160:Close
2124:Front
2058:Welsh
2045:lītan
2029:rīdan
1997:>
1992:*
1985:eorþe
1982:>
1979:eorþǣ
1976:>
1971:*
1961:>
1955:>
1950:*
1911:hring
1903:hnutu
1841:>
1834:hring
1829:>
1790:<
1777:bryċġ
1717:>
1679:dagas
1662:dæġes
1616:cough
1612:tough
1567:cniht
1275:hæfde
1237:fæder
1188:>
1176:>
1169:eorðe
1151:>
1127:>
1103:>
1068:/fθs/
1030:Trill
784:Nasal
772:Velar
760:Post-
702:/ɑeu/
667:sunne
616:(IPA)
498:Drawl
445:Pre-R
440:Pre-L
296:Scots
257:Norse
252:Latin
5880:Zuni
5835:Taos
5075:ISBN
5048:ISBN
5023:ISBN
5004:ISBN
4985:ISBN
4966:ISBN
4939:ISBN
4879:ISBN
4852:ISBN
4695:ISBN
4452:Line
4442:The
4266:bury
4254:next
4231:nigh
4201:nēah
4189:ēage
4147:and
4129:cald
3932:and
3865:and
3847:dawn
3845:and
3837:and
3787:and
3785:/kɣ/
3726:Coda
3718:The
3604:-∅-
3286:-∅-
3246:Last
3194:stop
3066:nēah
3060:*nǣh
3054:*nāh
2932:and
2914:and
2892:and
2841:dēaþ
2828:deer
2823:dēor
2802:bīom
2747:and
2677:and
2623:and
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