890:). The use of the sounds in Germanic languages has generally been unstable and it has been posited that the continual influence of Celtic may have had a supportive effect in preserving English use. The legitimacy of this evidence has been disputed. The use of one or more of these phonemes has been preserved in other Germanic languages, such as Elfdalian, Icelandic, and some dialects of Dutch. Kenneth Jackson commented that it is âimpossible to point to any feature about Anglo-Saxon phonology which can be shown conclusively to be a modification due to the alien linguistic habits of the Britons.â
478:, though its inflections already tended to be simpler than those of contemporary continental Germanic languages. There are different word endings for case (roughly speaking, endings for the direct object of a sentence, the subject of a sentence and similarly for two other grammatical situations (not including instrumental)) varying for plural forms, gender forms and two kinds of word form (called weak and strong). This system is partially retained in modern Germanic languages, especially German, Icelandic and Faroese. Brittonic, however, was already a highly
345:
population imperfectly learnt the Anglo-Saxons' language while Old
English continued in an artificially stable form as the written language of the elite and the only version of English preserved in writing. After the Norman conquerors removed Anglo-Saxon rule, the dialects of the general population, which would have included Brithonic and Norse-influenced versions of English, were eventually recorded and appear as Middle English. This kind of variance between written and spoken language is attested historically in other cultures, notably
592:). This change, which was complete in southern England around the late fifteenth century and spread north from there, rendered participles and gerunds indistinguishable. It is at this point that a sudden increase in the use of progressive forms is visible, though they would not take their current form until the eighteenth century. Herbert Schendl has concluded that "with this feature, a polygenetic origin ... seems attractive, and at least the further extension of the progressive is a language-internal development."
388:, for example, has pointed out that many works written in Old English, such as Ălfric's homilies, seem to be intended for a âlarge and undifferentiated audience,â suggesting that the language they were written in was not different from the language of the common people. He further concludes that âthe idea that this state could continue for hundreds of years seems most unlikely,â noting further that no document from the time alludes to such a situation (by contrast, in Gaul, references are made to the
607:'You do not stay here â and it is used in Middle Breton. 'Do' is more common in Celtic English varieties than Standard English. There are, however, other theories for how this feature developed in standard English. The key difficulty in explaining this form as a Brittonicism is its late appearance in the language—arising in the fifteenth century. Thus, several linguists have proposed that it developed independently during the transition between Middle and Early Modern English.
311:
previously held model, the Romano-Britons of
England were to a large extent exterminated or somehow pushed out of England â affecting their ability to influence language. There is now a much greater body of research into language contact and a greater understanding of language contact types. The works of
535:
etc.). The progressive form developed in the change from Old
English to Middle English. Similar constructs are rare in Germanic languages and not completely analogous. Celtic usage has chronological precedence and high usage. Celtic English varieties employ the structure more than Standard English.
485:
Some language innovations occurred primarily in texts from
Northern and South-Western England â in theory, the areas with the greater density of Brittonic people. In the Northern zone of that period, there was partial replacement of the Anglo-Saxon rule by Norse invaders. This situation can variously
678:
Celtic and
English have formal identity between intensifier and reflexive pronoun. They share this feature only with Maltese, Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian in Europe. In Middle English, the old intensifier "self" was replaced by a fusion of pronoun + "self" which is now used in a communication to
344:
Endorsed particularly by
Hildegard Tristram (2004), the Old English diglossia model proposes that much of the native Romano-British population remained in the northern and western parts of England while the Anglo-Saxons gradually took over the rule of these regions. Over a long period, the Brittonic
265:
The
Brittonic substratum influence on English is considered to be very small, but a number of publications in the 2000s (decade) suggested that its influence may have been underestimated. Some of the developments differentiating Old English from Middle English have been proposed as an emergence of a
691:
was the general pattern of syntax used for the present tense in northern Middle
English. It occurs in some present-day dialects. The 3rd person singular verb is used for 3rd person plural subjects unless the pronoun, "they", is used and it is directly adjacent to the verb, e.g. "they sing", "they
519:
However, Millar argues that âin all of the modern
Germanic languages, there has been some movement away from a synthetic towards an analytic typology ... it can therefore be suggested that the changes involved are âhard-wiredâ in all the Germanic languages ...â He concludes that Norse is the most
669:
in Old Welsh literature precedes its common use in
English by perhaps 400 years – depending on the dating of Welsh texts. Cleft constructions are more common in Breton French than Standard French and more common and versatile in Celtic English than Standard English. Clefting may be
600:
in a variety of uses. Modern English is dependent on a semantically neutral 'do' in some negative statements and questions, e.g. 'I don't know' rather than 'I know not". This feature is linguistically very rare, although all West Germanic languages except Afrikaans can use "do" as an auxiliary.
310:
The review of the extent of Romano-British influence has been encouraged by developments in several fields. Significant survival of Brittonic peoples in Anglo-Saxon England has become a more widely accepted idea thanks primarily to recent archaeological and genetic evidence. According to a
269:
There are many, often obscure, characteristics in English that have been proposed as Brittonicisms. White enumerates 92 items, of which 32 are attributed to other academic works. However, these theories have not become a part of the mainstream view of the history of English.
805:
The statistical bias towards use of tag questions and answers in English, historically, instead of simply yes or no has been attributed to Celtic influence. Celtic languages do not use yes and no. Answers are made by using the appropriate verb. For example, Welsh
413:
with similar semantics, and so the evidence probably is more suggestive of a common inheritance than substratum influence â though this substratum influence could be claimed also for many parts of the European mainland, formerly Celtic but now Germanic. The
520:
likely origin for the losses, based on the geographical distribution of the initial stages of change correlating strongly with Viking settlement patterns. Insley considers the native word-initial stress pattern in Old English to be a reason for the loss.
490:. Tristram argues that contact with both Brittonic and Norse speakers explains the language innovations in texts from Northern England. The attrition in word endings, as witnessed by the loss of the nasal endings (m,n), began before the Norse invasion.
652:
are used instead, e.g. "What shall worthe of us twoo!" This use of motion verbs occurs in Celtic texts with relative frequency e.g. "ac am hynny yd aeth Kyledyr yg gwyllt" = "and because of this Kyledyr went mad" (Middle Welsh, where
286:(1921). Opposing views by Wolfgang Keller (1925) Ingerid Dal (1952), Gerard Visser (1955), Walther Preusler (1956), and by Patricia Poussa (1990) were marginal to the academic consensus of their time. Oxford philologist and author
473:
The development from Old English to Middle English is marked particularly by a change from syntheticism (expressing meaning using word-endings) to analyticism (expressing meaning using word order). Old English was a
1946:
English Historical Linguistics 2006: Selected papers from the fourteenth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 14), Bergamo, 21â25 August 2006. Volume III: Geo-Historical Variation in
1219:
Poussa, Patricia (1990). "A contact-universals origins for periphrastic do with special consideration of Old English-Celtic contact". In Adamson, Sylvia M.; Law, Vivien A.; Vincent, Nigel; Wright, Susan (eds.).
482:
and so Brittonic peoples may have had difficulty learning Old English. It has been suggested that the Brittonic Latin of the period demonstrates difficulty in using the Latin word endings.
692:
only sings", "birds sings". This anti-agreement is standard in Modern Welsh – excepting the adjacency condition. It had general usage in Old Welsh and therefore, presumably, in
460:
form is particularly difficult to explain as a Germanic language construct, but is consistent with the Brittonic system, the form fits into regular Germanic to Anglian sound changes.
1488:
Millar, Robert McColl (2018). "At the Forefront of Linguistic Change: The Noun Phrase Morphology of the Lindisfarne Gospels". In FernĂĄndez Cuesta, Julia; Pons Sanz, Sara M. (eds.).
278:
The received view that Romano-British impact on English has been minimal on all levels became established at the beginning of the 20th century following work by such scholars as
1315:. International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 14). Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. Vol. 297. Bergamo, Italy: John Benjamins. pp. 153â170.
1224:. International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. Vol. 65. Cambridge, United Kingdom: John Benjamins. pp. 407â434.
536:
E.g. "It was meaning right the opposite", Manx English Other linguists have demonstrated that this form likely arose from two constructions that were used fairly rarely in
1949:. International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 14). Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. Vol. 297. Bergamo, Italy: John Benjamins. p. 111.
497:
Old English had case and gender word endings for nouns, pronouns and adjectives while at the time Brittonic did not have these endings. The endings in English were lost.
2476:. HandbĂŒcher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft / Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science (HSK). Vol. 1. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 505â519.
720:, Turkish, Welsh and Breton. All other continental languages have an external possessor option or conventional usage. An option exists in Swedish for "she washed (
1311:
Filppula, Markku (2008). "The Celtic hypothesis hasn't gone away: New perspectives on old debates". In Dossena, Marina; Dury, Richard; Gotti, Maurizio (eds.).
331:, etc.) which reveal characteristics more certainly attributable to Celtic languages and also universal contact trends revealed by other varieties of English.
1699:
Killie, Kristin (2012), "Old English-Late British language contact and the English progressive", in Stenroos, Merja; MĂ€kinen, Martti; SĂŠrheim, Inge (eds.),
576:
or Brittonic, though evidence one way or another is scant. Over the course of the Middle English period, sound shifts in the language meant that the (
696:. It has also been argued that this was a language-internal development that arose during the Middle English period. The lack of northern texts in
1444:. Publications of the Manchester Centre for Anglo-Saxon Studies. Vol. 7. Woodbridge, United Kingdom: Boydell & Brewer. pp. 192â214.
2544:
1909:
2362:
Isaac, Graham R. (September 2001). "Diagnosing the Symptoms of Contact: Some Celtic-English Case Histories". In Tristram, Hildegard L.C. (ed.).
392:
as being different from written Latin). John Insley has stated that "there is not a scrap of evidence for 'Late British-derived Old English.'"
2505:
2142:
Vennemann gen. Nierfeld, Theo (2012). "Semitic â Celtic â English: The transitivity of language contact". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.).
299:
Research on Romano-British influence in English intensified in the 2000s, principally centring on The Celtic Englishes programmes in Germany (
812:'do you like chocolate? I do, I like chocolate.', or more literally: 'are you liking chocolate? I am, I am liking chocolate.'. In this case,
2574:
290:
expressed his suspicion of Brittonic influence and pointed out some anomalies in support of this view in his 1955 valedictory lecture
909:
2604:
1059:(2009). "A history of the English language, and: A history of the English language, and: The Oxford history of English". Review.
2045:
Vennemann gen. Nierfeld, Theo (2012). "On the rise of 'Celtic' syntax in Middle English". In Noel Aziz Hanna, Patrizia (ed.).
1944:
de Haas, Nynke (2008). "The Origins of The Northern Subject Rule". In Dossena, Marina; Dury, Richard; Gotti, Maurizio (eds.).
2375:
2353:
2348:, Groupe de Recherches Anglo-AmĂ©ricaines de Tours, vol. 24, Presses universitaires François-Rabelais, pp. 125â141,
2329:
2200:
1716:
899:
601:
Celtic languages use a similar structure, but without dependence. The usage is frequent in Cornish and Middle Cornish â e.g.
2191:
Tristram, Hildegard L.C. (2002). "The Politics of Language: Links between Modern Welsh and English". In Lenz, Katja (ed.).
486:
be seen as mitigating the emergence of Brittonic English or as the direct cause of the Northern language innovations i.e.
47:
Table 1: A number of possible shift features selected as representative by Richard Coates, Gary Miller and Raymond Hickey
847:
2220:
Language and history in early Britain; a chronological survey of the Brittonic languages, first to twelfth century A.D.
1359:
The History of the Norman Conquest of England. Vol. 1: The Preliminary History to the Election of Eadward the Confessor
824:'to be,' that is only appropriate as the positive response to a question (the neutral or negative conjugation would be
2193:
Of dyuersitie & chaunge of langage : essays presented to Manfred Görlach on the occasion of his 65th birthday
405:
This claim depends on assuming that Old English is unusual as a Germanic language in its use of two forms of the verb
2563:
2489:
2433:
2406:
2303:
2161:
2064:
2002:
1962:
1928:
1614:
1505:
1449:
1390:
1328:
1237:
994:
958:
679:
emphasise the object in question e.g. "A woman who is conspicuously generous to others less fortunate than herself."
36:
914:
487:
384:
The notion that such a diglossia could have existed in England, however, has been challenged by several linguists.
32:
904:
2393:]. ErgÀnzungsbÀnde zum Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Vol. 108. De Gruyter. p. 264.
2514:
2224:. Language and Literature Texts. Vol. 4. Edinburgh, Scotland: University of Edinburgh Press. p. 242.
665:
English construction of complex sentences uses some forms which in popularity may suggest a Celtic influence.
2472:
Schendl, Herbert (2012). "Middle English: Language contact". In Bergs, Alexander; Brinton, Laurel J. (eds.).
2146:. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 259. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 179â218.
2049:. Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs. Vol. 259. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 147â178.
2614:
1597:
Millar, Robert McColl (2016). "English in the 'transition period': the sources of contact-induced change".
2385:
Insley, John (2019). "Britons and Anglo-Saxons". In Haubrichs, Wolfgang; Jochum-GodglĂŒck, Christa (eds.).
422:, has the same distinction of functions and is associated with a similar phonetic form in the Brittonic
1430:
855:
2609:
861:
853:
845:
2018:
Benskin, Michael (July 2011). "Present Indicative Plural Concord in Brittonic and Early English 1".
450:, the third-person plural form, is also used in Northern texts and seems to parallel the Brittonic
1538:
377:, etc.) would not have appeared in any significant Arabic works until the late 20th century, when
1492:. Buchreihe der Anglia / Anglia Book Series. Vol. 51. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 153â168.
863:
1557:
2312:
Filppula, Markku (2010), "Contact and the Early History of English", in Hickey, Raymond (ed.),
1606:
789:
Modern English must use an internal possessor (an ordinary possessive construction within the
2583:
1979:
982:
688:
304:
300:
88:
2443:
McWhorter, John (2006). "What else happened to English? A brief for the Celtic Hypothesis".
2230:"Celtic whispers: revisiting the problems of the relation between Brittonic and Old English"
1599:
Contact: the interaction of closely related linguistic varieties and the history of English
385:
762:("she washed her hair") and otherwise sometimes conventional. Old English used it such as
8:
358:
24:
1980:""Some do and some doesn't": Verbal concord variation in the north of the British Isles"
1703:, Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 321, John Benjamins, pp. 117â140,
700:
means that explaining the origin of the rule with any degree of certainty is difficult.
493:
Innovations in the Northern zone texts associated by Tristram with Brittonic influence:
2555:
2460:
2418:
Linguistic Purism in Action: How auxiliary tun was stigmatized in Early New High German
2367:
2282:
2218:
2124:
1920:
1878:
1655:
1463:
1181:
1130:
Anglica: Untersucheungen zur englischen Philologie Vol. I: Sprache und Kulturgeschichte
1076:
475:
1989:. Topics in English Linguistics. Vol. 50.1. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 125â210.
1144:
Dal, Ingerid (1952), "Zur Entstehung des englischen Participium Praesentis auf -ing",
527:
Rise of the periphrastic aspect, particularly the progressive form (i.e. BE verb-ing:
2559:
2510:
2500:
2485:
2464:
2429:
2402:
2371:
2349:
2325:
2299:
2196:
2157:
2128:
2060:
2031:
1998:
1958:
1924:
1882:
1712:
1610:
1501:
1467:
1455:
1445:
1386:
1324:
1277:
1233:
1185:
1095:
990:
978:
954:
479:
292:
251:
2524:
1357:
2477:
2452:
2421:
2394:
2340:"The genesis of analytic structure in English: the case for a Brittonic substratum"
2317:
2274:
2237:
2147:
2116:
2050:
2027:
1990:
1950:
1870:
1825:
1732:
1704:
1602:
1493:
1316:
1225:
1173:
1068:
717:
693:
362:
316:
287:
20:
2107:
Vennemann gen. Nierfield, Theo (2009), "Celtic influence in English? Yes and No",
1313:
English Historical Linguistics 2006. Vol. III: Geo-Historical Variation in English
381:, along with the other varieties of Arabic, began to be written down in quantity.
1784:
Molyneux, Cyril (1987), "Some Ideas on English-British Celtic Language Contact",
709:
374:
370:
350:
259:
512:
is an unusual language feature shared only by Celtic and English in this region.
2321:
2262:
1985:. In Kortmann, Bernd; Herrmann, Tanja; Pietsch, Lukas; Susanne, Wagner (eds.).
974:
750:
541:
323:. The research uses investigations into varieties of âCelticâ English (that is
320:
312:
279:
247:
2481:
2456:
2398:
2152:
2120:
2055:
1994:
1830:
1813:
1490:
The Old English Gloss to the Lindisfarne Gospels: Language, Author and Context
1222:
Papers from the 5th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics
361:
have had virtually no literary presence in over a millennium; the substantial
283:
2598:
1459:
1281:
1056:
790:
713:
328:
324:
246:
The research into this topic uses a variety of approaches to approximate the
716:
of a transitive verb). The only other "European" languages without this are
515:
English developed a fixed word order, which was present earlier in Brittonic
2552:
Celtic Englishes IV: The interface between English and the Celtic Languages
1954:
1917:
Celtic Englishes IV: The interface between English and the Celtic Languages
1814:"The Rise and Fall of Constructions and the History of English Do -Support"
1708:
1320:
568:), and has been variously proposed as being influenced by similar forms in
2425:
2343:
2339:
1910:"Reflexivity and Intensification in Irish English and Other New Englishes"
1497:
1229:
2370:. Golm, Germany: University of Potsdam (published 2003). pp. 46â64.
1437:
697:
537:
2545:"On the Areal Pattern of 'Brittonicity' in English and Its Implications"
2525:"Diglossia in Anglo-Saxon England, or what was spoken Old English like?"
2286:
1080:
708:
English does not make use of the more cumbersome external possessor (an
670:
linked to the rise of a fixed word order after the loss of inflections.
2278:
2078:
2076:
1874:
1177:
1072:
818:
is not 'yes,' but rather the first-person present tense conjugation of
597:
573:
2558:. Golm, Germany: University of Potsdam (published 2005). p. 261.
1923:. Golm, Germany: University of Potsdam (published 2005). p. 261.
1635:
951:
External influences on English: from its beginnings to the Renaissance
776:
the head off cut", which mirrors exactly the syntax of modern German:
2088:
556:). This construction has an analogous form in Dutch. The second used
255:
40:
2195:. Heidelberg, Germany: UniversitĂ€tsverlag Winter. pp. 257â275.
2073:
2242:
2229:
666:
660:
418:
form is used in a habitual sense and the 3rd person singular form,
409:; however, all other Germanic languages also exhibit the two verbs
254:
on the eve of the Anglo-Saxon arrival. Besides the earliest extant
1164:
Visser, Gerard J. (1955), "Romano-British influence in English",
763:
627:
618:
583:
577:
563:
557:
551:
545:
455:
445:
397:
50:* regional, northern England; ** regional, southwestern England
1733:"On the progression of the progressive in early Modern English"
1274:): Essays on J. R. R. Tolkien's use of Welsh in his Legendarium
1199:
Preusler, Walther (1956), "Keltischer Einfluss im Englischen",
1114:
Keltisches Wortgut im Englischen: Eine Sprachliche Untersuchung
468:
989:. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 497â507.
1663:
Germania et Alia: A Linguistic Webschrift for Hans den Besten
569:
395:
346:
1128:
Keller, Wolfgang (1925), "Keltisches im Englischen Verbum",
504:
while at the time Brittonic only had one. The variations of
2420:. Studia Linguistica Germanica. Vol. 60. de Gruyter.
2391:
Cultural Integration and Personal Names in the Middle Ages
2294:
Filppula, Markku; Klemola, Juhani; Paulasto, Heli (2008),
2474:
English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook
1861:
Visser, Gerard J. (1955), "Celtic influence in English",
2572:
2106:
2082:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1132:(in German), Leipzig: Mayer & MĂŒller, pp. 55â66
303:) and The Celtic Roots of English programme in Finland (
2387:
Kulturelle Integration und Personennamen im Mittelalter
2293:
2141:
2094:
2044:
1889:
1641:
1623:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1383:
Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics
1003:
2556:
4th International Colloquium on the "Celtic Englishes"
2368:
3rd International Colloquium on the "Celtic Englishes"
1921:
4th International Colloquium on the "Celtic Englishes"
1755:
1753:
1688:, Modern Language Society of Helsinki, p. 572-585
1251:
1249:
977:(2012). "Early English and the Celtic hypothesis". In
1701:
Language Contact and Development around the North Sea
1578:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1287:
844:
Among the phonetic anomalies is the continued use of
508:
were lost in English. The lack of different forms of
1793:
1765:
1399:
1337:
932:
930:
319:
have been used in particular to model borrowing and
1750:
1656:"Verb movement in Dutch present-participle clauses"
1601:. Edinburgh, Scotland: Edinburgh University Press.
1246:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1022:
1020:
1018:
809:
dych chi'n hoffi siocled? Ydw, dw i'n hoffi siocled
749:"). In modern French this is predominant as to the
433:
2217:
1514:
2265:(2010). "English and Celtic in contact". Review.
927:
611:
2596:
1032:
1015:
673:
661:Rise in use of some complex syntactic structures
1380:
463:
2506:The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays
1381:Thomason, Sarah G.; Kaufman, Terrence (1992),
2273:(2). Linguistic Society of America: 441â444.
1824:(1). Society for Germanic Linguistics: 1â52.
1067:(4). Linguistic Society of America: 893â907.
987:The Oxford handbook of the history of English
737:
727:
721:
703:
602:
550:(to be/to become) with a present participle (
523:Innovations in the South Western zone texts:
500:Old English had several versions of the word
439:
262:is useful for its lack of English influence.
2509:, London: Harper Collins, pp. 162â197,
1385:, Berkeley: University of California Press,
1097:Growth and Structure of the English Language
800:
777:
753:
639:
469:Change from syntheticism towards analyticism
2236:. 109/110. University of Leipzig: 147â173.
1543:Cornish notes for beginners by Neil Kennedy
831:
825:
819:
813:
807:
633:
588:) gerund ending merged into a new ending, (
427:
266:previously unrecorded Brittonic influence.
23:attributed to the historical influence of
2442:
2241:
2151:
2115:(2), Cambridge University Press: 309â34,
2054:
1829:
1811:
1683:
1298:
1093:
910:List of English words of Brittonic origin
2522:
2311:
2190:
2026:(2). The Philological Society: 158â185.
2020:Transactions of the Philological Society
1895:
1783:
1653:
1629:
1607:10.3366/edinburgh/9781474409087.001.0001
1428:
1416:
1343:
1310:
1198:
682:
349:, and may occur commonly. For instance,
2573:Vennemann gen. Nierfield, Theo (2005),
2498:
2471:
2215:
2177:
2017:
1977:
1943:
1759:
1730:
1355:
1255:
1111:
1055:
726:) his hair": grammatically internally:
396:Substantive verb â consuetudinal tense
2597:
2415:
2384:
2337:
2261:
2227:
1860:
1799:
1771:
1698:
1596:
1584:
1525:
1487:
1267:
1218:
1163:
1127:
1009:
973:
948:
936:
273:
2550:. In Tristram, Hildegard L.C. (ed.).
2542:
2503:", in Tolkien, Christopher R. (ed.),
2361:
2095:Filppula, Klemola & Paulasto 2008
1915:. In Tristram, Hildegard L.C. (ed.).
1907:
1642:Filppula, Klemola & Paulasto 2008
1043:
1026:
900:List of English words of Welsh origin
39:and the establishment of Anglo-Saxon
2499:Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel (1983), "
454:. Though the claim is made that the
1987:Agreement, Gender, Relative Clauses
1431:"Why don't the English speak Welsh"
1146:Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap
1143:
953:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
13:
2543:White, David L. (September 2004).
1812:Culicover, Peter W. (March 2008).
712:that acts as the possessor of the
616:
339:
296:, in which Tolkien cites Förster.
14:
2626:
2523:Tristram, Hildegard L.C. (2004),
1908:Lange, Claudia (September 2004).
1555:
1429:Tristram, Hildegard L.C. (2007).
37:Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain
2445:English Language and Linguistics
2109:English Language and Linguistics
2032:10.1111/j.1467-968X.2011.01279.x
915:Celtic language-death in England
772:, literally "The Queen had them
745:(literally "she washed the hair
644:) where today motion verbs like
488:Middle English creole hypothesis
157:Negative comparative particle *
2605:History of the English language
2316:, Blackwell, pp. 432â453,
2254:
2209:
2183:
2170:
2135:
2100:
2038:
2011:
1971:
1937:
1901:
1854:
1838:
1818:Journal of Germanic Linguistics
1805:
1777:
1724:
1692:
1677:
1647:
1590:
1549:
1531:
1481:
1422:
1374:
1349:
1304:
1261:
1212:
1192:
1157:
1137:
1121:
905:History of the English language
793:): "The Queen had them cut off
562:, a preposition, and a gerund (
2228:Coates, Richard (1 May 2017).
1539:"3.1 I am; it is. Description"
1442:Britons in Anglo-Saxon England
1105:
1087:
1049:
967:
942:
626:In Old English, a common verb
612:Various possible Brittonicisms
334:
144:Rise of the periphrastic "do"
19:are the linguistic effects in
1:
2342:, in Regis, Jean-Paul (ed.),
2296:English and Celtic in Contact
2083:Vennemann gen. Nierfield 2005
1731:Elsness, Johan (April 1994).
920:
674:Uses of himself, herself etc.
582:) participle ending and the (
233:Loss of front rounded vowels
2582:, p. 18, archived from
2314:Handbook of language contact
2234:Namenkundliche Informationen
2216:Jackson, Kenneth H. (1953).
1786:Grazer Linguistische Studien
1116:(in German), Halle: Niemeyer
839:
632:existed (cognate with Dutch
464:Transition to Middle English
33:switched language to English
7:
2576:English â a German dialect?
2532:Studia Anglica Posnaniensia
1356:Freeman, Edward A. (1867).
893:
544:. The first used a form of
207:Rise of sentential answers
131:Loss of external possessor
45:
10:
2631:
2322:10.1002/9781444318159.ch21
1201:Revue des langues vivantes
704:Lack of external possessor
105:Development of reflexives
2482:10.1515/9783110251593.505
2457:10.1017/S1360674309002974
2399:10.1515/9783110268850-011
2153:10.1515/9783110301090.179
2121:10.1017/s1360674309003049
2056:10.1515/9783110301090.147
1995:10.1515/9783110197518.125
1847:Oxford English Dictionary
1845:"M.E. in Le Morte Arth",
1831:10.1017/S1470542708000019
1684:Mustanoja, Tauno (1960),
1665:. University of Groningen
1558:"Old English Magic Sheet"
1362:. Oxford: Clarendon Press
801:Tag questions and answers
72:Two functionally distinct
2364:The Celtic Englishes III
1268:Hooker, Mark T. (2012),
1094:Jespersen, Otto (1905),
949:Miller, D. Gary (2012).
783:den Kopf ab(zu)schneiden
604:Omma ny wreugh why tryge
221:Preservation of Ξ and ð
17:Brittonicisms in English
2345:Travaux de Diachronie 2
1978:Pietsch, Lukas (2005).
1686:A Middle English Syntax
1654:Hoeksema, Jack (2003).
764:
628:
619:
584:
578:
564:
558:
552:
546:
456:
446:
434:
398:
357:) and other colloquial
181:Merger of /kw-/, /hw-/
169:Rise of pronoun -en **
1955:10.1075/cilt.297.09fil
1709:10.1075/cilt.321.07kil
1321:10.1075/cilt.297.09fil
983:Traugott, Elizabeth C.
832:
826:
820:
814:
808:
779:Die Königin lieà sie,
778:
769:ĂŸĂŠt heafod of aceorfan
754:
738:
728:
722:
640:
634:
603:
440:
428:
2426:10.1515/9783110881103
2416:Langer, Nils (2001).
2338:German, Gary (2001),
1498:10.1515/9783110449105
1468:10.7722/j.ctt81vgp.22
1230:10.1075/cilt.65.23pou
1112:Förster, Max (1921),
1100:, Leipzig: BG Teubner
689:Northern subject rule
683:Northern subject rule
390:lingua romana rustica
305:University of Joensuu
89:Northern subject rule
1565:Old English Aerobics
759:est lavé les cheveux
542:Early Middle English
386:Robert McColl Millar
195:Rise of "it" clefts
118:Rise of progressive
2615:Brittonic languages
1270:Tolkien and Welsh (
868:in Modern English (
739:Hon tvÀttade hÄret
369:(and likewise, the
359:varieties of Arabic
274:History of research
250:language spoken in
51:
48:
41:political dominance
31:) speakers as they
2279:10.1353/lan.0.0222
1875:10.1007/bf01513259
1272:Tolkien a Chymraeg
1178:10.1007/bf01513259
1073:10.1353/lan.0.0180
1012:, pp. 125â41.
979:Nevalainen, Terttu
476:synthetic language
301:Potsdam University
49:
46:
2501:English and Welsh
2377:978-3-8253-1241-1
2355:978-2-86906-504-8
2331:978-1-4051-7580-7
2202:978-3-8253-1322-7
2144:Germania Semitica
2047:Germania Semitica
1718:978-90-272-4839-8
480:analytic language
293:English and Welsh
252:Sub-Roman Britain
244:
243:
2622:
2610:Language contact
2590:
2588:
2581:
2569:
2549:
2539:
2529:
2519:
2495:
2468:
2439:
2412:
2381:
2358:
2334:
2308:
2290:
2248:
2247:
2245:
2225:
2223:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2187:
2181:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2155:
2139:
2133:
2131:
2104:
2098:
2092:
2086:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2058:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2015:
2009:
2008:
1984:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1941:
1935:
1934:
1914:
1905:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1885:
1858:
1852:
1850:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1789:
1781:
1775:
1769:
1763:
1757:
1748:
1747:
1737:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1681:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1660:
1651:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1621:
1620:
1594:
1588:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1562:
1556:Baker, Peter S.
1553:
1547:
1546:
1535:
1529:
1523:
1512:
1511:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1435:
1426:
1420:
1414:
1397:
1395:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1367:
1353:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1285:
1284:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1244:
1243:
1216:
1210:
1208:
1196:
1190:
1188:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1141:
1135:
1133:
1125:
1119:
1117:
1109:
1103:
1101:
1091:
1085:
1084:
1053:
1047:
1041:
1030:
1024:
1013:
1007:
1001:
1000:
971:
965:
964:
946:
940:
934:
867:
859:
851:
835:
829:
823:
817:
811:
785:
771:
765:Seo cwen het ĂŸa
761:
744:
735:
725:
643:
637:
631:
622:
606:
587:
581:
567:
561:
555:
549:
459:
449:
443:
437:
432:, Middle Breton
431:
401:
317:Terrence Kaufman
288:J. R. R. Tolkien
52:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2620:
2619:
2595:
2594:
2593:
2589:on 19 July 2011
2586:
2579:
2566:
2547:
2527:
2517:
2492:
2436:
2409:
2378:
2356:
2332:
2306:
2263:Coates, Richard
2257:
2252:
2251:
2214:
2210:
2203:
2188:
2184:
2175:
2171:
2164:
2140:
2136:
2105:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2081:
2074:
2067:
2043:
2039:
2016:
2012:
2005:
1982:
1976:
1972:
1965:
1942:
1938:
1931:
1912:
1906:
1902:
1894:
1890:
1859:
1855:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1810:
1806:
1798:
1794:
1782:
1778:
1770:
1766:
1758:
1751:
1735:
1729:
1725:
1719:
1697:
1693:
1682:
1678:
1668:
1666:
1658:
1652:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1595:
1591:
1583:
1579:
1569:
1567:
1560:
1554:
1550:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1524:
1515:
1508:
1486:
1482:
1472:
1470:
1452:
1433:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1400:
1393:
1379:
1375:
1365:
1363:
1354:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1309:
1305:
1297:
1288:
1266:
1262:
1254:
1247:
1240:
1217:
1213:
1197:
1193:
1162:
1158:
1142:
1138:
1126:
1122:
1110:
1106:
1092:
1088:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1033:
1025:
1016:
1008:
1004:
997:
975:Hickey, Raymond
972:
968:
961:
947:
943:
935:
928:
923:
896:
842:
803:
710:indirect object
706:
685:
676:
663:
624:
614:
533:she was singing
471:
466:
403:
351:Moroccan Arabic
342:
340:Diglossia model
337:
276:
208:
182:
73:
67:
63:
59:
12:
11:
5:
2628:
2618:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2592:
2591:
2570:
2564:
2540:
2520:
2515:
2496:
2490:
2469:
2451:(2): 163â191.
2440:
2434:
2413:
2407:
2382:
2376:
2359:
2354:
2335:
2330:
2309:
2304:
2291:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2249:
2243:10.58938/ni576
2208:
2201:
2182:
2169:
2162:
2134:
2099:
2087:
2072:
2065:
2037:
2010:
2003:
1970:
1963:
1936:
1929:
1900:
1898:, p. 444.
1888:
1853:
1849:(2nd ed.)
1837:
1804:
1792:
1776:
1764:
1749:
1723:
1717:
1691:
1676:
1646:
1644:, p. 176.
1634:
1632:, p. 441.
1622:
1615:
1589:
1587:, p. 130.
1577:
1548:
1530:
1513:
1506:
1480:
1450:
1421:
1398:
1391:
1373:
1348:
1336:
1329:
1303:
1299:McWhorter 2006
1286:
1260:
1245:
1238:
1211:
1191:
1156:
1136:
1120:
1104:
1086:
1057:Minkova, Donka
1048:
1031:
1014:
1002:
995:
966:
959:
941:
925:
924:
922:
919:
918:
917:
912:
907:
902:
895:
892:
841:
838:
802:
799:
736:; externally:
705:
702:
684:
681:
675:
672:
662:
659:
623:
615:
613:
610:
609:
608:
598:Do-periphrasis
594:
593:
517:
516:
513:
498:
470:
467:
465:
462:
402:
394:
373:substratum in
365:substratum in
341:
338:
336:
333:
321:language shift
313:Sarah Thomason
280:Otto Jespersen
275:
272:
248:Romano-British
242:
241:
238:
236:
234:
230:
229:
226:
224:
222:
218:
217:
215:
212:
210:
204:
203:
201:
198:
196:
192:
191:
189:
187:
184:
178:
177:
175:
173:
170:
166:
165:
163:
161:
158:
154:
153:
150:
147:
145:
141:
140:
137:
134:
132:
128:
127:
124:
121:
119:
115:
114:
112:
109:
106:
102:
101:
98:
95:
92:
85:
84:
81:
78:
75:
74:'to be' verbs
69:
68:
64:
60:
56:
35:following the
29:British Celtic
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2627:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2600:
2585:
2578:
2577:
2571:
2567:
2565:9783939469063
2561:
2557:
2553:
2546:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2526:
2521:
2518:
2512:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2493:
2491:9783110202205
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2435:9783110881103
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2408:9783110268737
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2357:
2351:
2347:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2333:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2310:
2307:
2305:9780415636728
2301:
2298:, Routledge,
2297:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2259:
2244:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2226:as quoted by
2222:
2221:
2212:
2204:
2198:
2194:
2186:
2179:
2173:
2165:
2163:9783110300949
2159:
2154:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2097:, p. 39.
2096:
2091:
2084:
2079:
2077:
2068:
2066:9783110300949
2062:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2033:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2014:
2006:
2004:9783110182996
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1966:
1964:9789027248121
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1940:
1932:
1930:9783939469063
1926:
1922:
1918:
1911:
1904:
1897:
1896:Filppula 2010
1892:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1863:Neophilologus
1857:
1848:
1841:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1808:
1802:, p. 23.
1801:
1796:
1787:
1780:
1774:, p. 12.
1773:
1768:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1727:
1720:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1687:
1680:
1664:
1657:
1650:
1643:
1638:
1631:
1630:Filppula 2010
1626:
1618:
1616:9781474409087
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1593:
1586:
1581:
1566:
1559:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1527:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1509:
1507:9783110438567
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1484:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1451:9781843833123
1447:
1443:
1439:
1432:
1425:
1418:
1417:Tristram 2004
1413:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1394:
1392:9780520078932
1388:
1384:
1377:
1361:
1360:
1352:
1345:
1344:Filppula 2010
1340:
1332:
1330:9789027248121
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1307:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1264:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1241:
1239:9789027235626
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1215:
1206:
1203:(in German),
1202:
1195:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1167:
1166:Neophilologus
1160:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1131:
1124:
1115:
1108:
1099:
1098:
1090:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1052:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1028:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1011:
1006:
998:
996:9780199922765
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
970:
962:
960:9780199654260
956:
952:
945:
938:
933:
931:
926:
916:
913:
911:
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
897:
891:
889:
887:
881:
880:
874:
872:
865:
857:
849:
837:
834:
828:
822:
816:
810:
798:
796:
792:
791:direct object
787:
784:
782:
775:
770:
768:
760:
758:
752:
748:
743:
742:
734:
732:
729:Hon tvÀttade
724:
719:
715:
714:direct object
711:
701:
699:
695:
690:
680:
671:
668:
658:
656:
651:
647:
642:
636:
630:
621:
605:
599:
596:
595:
591:
586:
580:
575:
571:
566:
560:
554:
548:
543:
539:
534:
530:
526:
525:
524:
521:
514:
511:
507:
503:
499:
496:
495:
494:
491:
489:
483:
481:
477:
461:
458:
453:
448:
442:
436:
430:
425:
421:
417:
412:
408:
400:
393:
391:
387:
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
332:
330:
329:Irish English
326:
325:Welsh English
322:
318:
314:
308:
306:
302:
297:
295:
294:
289:
285:
281:
271:
267:
263:
261:
257:
253:
249:
239:
237:
235:
232:
231:
227:
225:
223:
220:
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206:
205:
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168:
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159:
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155:
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148:
146:
143:
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138:
135:
133:
130:
129:
125:
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120:
117:
116:
113:
110:
107:
104:
103:
99:
96:
93:
90:
87:
86:
82:
79:
76:
71:
70:
65:
61:
57:
54:
53:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
18:
2584:the original
2575:
2551:
2535:
2531:
2504:
2473:
2448:
2444:
2417:
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