Nuclear power plant

1035: 33: 886: 1143: 508: 928: 636: 648:, located in the desert about 97 kilometres (60 mi) west of Phoenix, Arizona, is the only nuclear facility that does not use a natural body of water for cooling, instead it uses treated sewage from the greater Phoenix metropolitan area. The water coming from the cooling body of water is either pumped back to the water source at a warmer temperature or returns to a cooling tower where it either cools for more uses or evaporates into water vapor that rises out the top of the tower. 577: 6277: 828: 7955: 6856: 6078: 411: 6066: 6090: 1367:

members like Argentina, Brazil, Canada, France, Japan, South Korea, South Africa, the UK, and the USA, along with newer members like Switzerland, China, Russia, Australia, and the European Union through Euratom, focuses on sharing research and development insights rather than constructing reactors, aiming to set multinational regulatory standards for these next-generation nuclear technologies.

1400:

methodologies are being explored, including magnet-based machines like stellarators and tokamaks, as well as laser, linear device, and advanced fuel approaches; the timeline for the successful deployment of fusion energy hinges on global collaboration, the pace of industry development, and the establishment of the necessary nuclear infrastructure to support this future energy source.

676:, accounting for about one-quarter of the world's supply in this category. As of 2020, nuclear power stood as the second-largest source of low-carbon energy, making up 26% of the total. Nuclear power facilities are active in 32 countries or regions, and their influence extends beyond these nations through regional transmission grids, especially in Europe. 1374:, all operating at higher temperatures than current models. These reactors are designed to be more sustainable, economical, safe, and reliable, and also to resist nuclear proliferation. Four designs have been thoroughly tested in design aspects, providing a basis for further research and potential commercial operation before 2030. 1330:, release large quantities of radioactive material into nature, harming creatures and people. Solutions include enhanced regulatory and operational training, reducing radioactivity to surface organisms by deep burial or other treatment of radioactive contaminants at the accident site and creating permanent exclusion zones. 1315:, might negatively influence the environment near the mining site. Although the current method of disposing of nuclear waste from nuclear power plants in deep burials is generally considered safe, accidents during the transportation of nuclear waste can still result in the leakage of nuclear contaminants. 1128:

through its 1965 Nuclear Installations Act, liability is governed for nuclear damage for which a UK nuclear licensee is responsible. The Act requires compensation to be paid for damage up to a limit of £150 million by the liable operator for ten years after the incident. Between ten and thirty years

1080:

states that multiple and unexpected failures are built into society's complex and tightly coupled nuclear reactor systems. Such accidents are unavoidable and cannot be designed around. An interdisciplinary team from MIT has estimated that given the expected growth of nuclear power from 2005 to 2055,

663:

Continuous power supply to the plant is critical to ensure safe operation. Most nuclear stations require at least two distinct sources of offsite power for redundancy. These are usually provided by multiple transformers that are sufficiently separated and can receive power from multiple transmission

595:

In the case of a pressurized water reactor, the steam turbine is separated from the nuclear system. To detect a leak in the steam generator and thus the passage of radioactive water at an early stage, an activity meter is mounted to track the outlet steam of the steam generator. In contrast, boiling

542:

is the heart of the station. In its central part, the reactor's core produces heat due to nuclear fission. With this heat, a coolant is heated as it is pumped through the reactor and thereby removes the energy from the reactor. The heat from nuclear fission is used to raise steam, which runs through

1627:

An onshore wind turbine that is newly built today produces around nine grams of CO2 for every kilowatt hour (kWh) it generates ... a new offshore plant in the sea emits seven grams of CO2 per kWh ... solar power plants emit 33 grams CO2 for every kWh generated ... natural gas produces 442 grams CO2

1411:

power plants, which experts believe could be operational by 2050. Concurrently, private ventures are leveraging decades of publicly funded research to advance fusion technology, suggesting that commercial fusion power could become a reality even before the mid-21st century. Many countries involving

1399:

Another developing direction for nuclear power plants is nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion and plasma physics research has made significant strides, with over 50 countries contributing to the field and recently achieving the first-ever scientific energy gain in a fusion experiment. Various designs and

1366:

technologies. The Generation IV International Forum (GIF), initiated by the US Department of Energy in 2000 and formally established in 2001, is a collaborative platform for 13 countries where nuclear energy is significant or crucial for future energy needs. This collective, which includes founding

1225:

electricity source despite the possibility of refinement and long-term storage being powered by a nuclear facility. Those countries that do not contain uranium mines cannot achieve energy independence through existing nuclear power technologies. Actual construction costs often exceed estimates, and

788:

Nuclear stations are used primarily for base load because of economic considerations. The fuel cost of operations for a nuclear station is smaller than the fuel cost for operation of coal or gas plants. Since most of the cost of nuclear power plant is capital cost, there is almost no cost saving by

744:

Decommissioning involves many administrative and technical actions. It includes all clean-up of radioactivity and progressive demolition of the station. Once a facility is decommissioned, there should no longer be any danger of a radioactive accident or to any persons visiting it. After a facility

711:

has seen a significant improvement in the operational performance of its nuclear power plants, enhancing their utilization and efficiency, adding the output equivalent to 19 new 1000 MWe reactors without actual construction. In France, nuclear power plants still produce over sixty percent of this

1202:. Another environmental issue is discharge of hot water into the sea. The hot water modifies the environmental conditions for marine flora and fauna. They also contend that reactors themselves are enormously complex machines where many things can and do go wrong, and there have been many serious 1241:

commenced generating heat on the first day of its launch, while the remaining 3 Units are being built. However, Nuclear Consulting Group head, Paul Dorfman, warned the Gulf nation's investment into the plant as a risk "further destabilizing the volatile Gulf region, damaging the environment and

1025:

The Russian state nuclear company Rosatom is the largest player in international nuclear power market, building nuclear plants around the world. Whereas Russian oil and gas were subject to international sanctions after the Russian full-scale invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, Rosatom was not

664:

lines. In addition, in some nuclear stations, the turbine generator can power the station's loads while the station is online, without requiring external power. This is achieved via station service transformers which tap power from the generator output before they reach the step-up transformer.

561:

Different isotopes have different behaviors. For instance, U-235 is fissile which means that it is easily split and gives off a lot of energy making it ideal for nuclear energy. On the other hand, U-238 does not have that property despite it being the same element. Different isotopes also have

846:

is a controversial subject, and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. Nuclear power stations typically have high capital costs, but low direct fuel costs, with the costs of fuel extraction, processing, use and spent fuel storage internalized costs. Therefore,

603:

converts mechanical power supplied by the turbine into electrical power. Low-pole AC synchronous generators of high rated power are used. A cooling system removes heat from the reactor core and transports it to another area of the station, where the thermal energy can be harnessed to produce

101:

Building a nuclear power plant often spans five to ten years, which can accrue to significant financial costs, depending on how the initial investments are financed. Because of this high construction cost and lower operations, maintenance, and fuel costs, nuclear plants are usually used for

591:

is to convert the heat contained in steam into mechanical energy. The engine house with the steam turbine is usually structurally separated from the main reactor building. It is aligned so as to prevent debris from the destruction of a turbine in operation from flying towards the reactor.

518:

The conversion to electrical energy takes place indirectly, as in conventional thermal power stations. The fission in a nuclear reactor heats the reactor coolant. The coolant may be water or gas, or even liquid metal, depending on the type of reactor. The reactor coolant then goes to a

1186:

for most Western countries. They emphasize that the risks of storing waste are small and can be further reduced by using the latest technology in newer reactors, and the operational safety record in the Western world is excellent when compared to the other major kinds of power plants.

1407:, the largest international fusion facility, began in 2020 in France, marking a crucial step toward demonstrating fusion energy's viability. With experiments set to start in the latter half of this decade and full-power experiments slated for 2036, ITER aims to pave the way for 1181:

if its use supplants a dependence on imported fuels. Proponents advance the notion that nuclear power produces virtually no air pollution, in contrast to the chief viable alternative of fossil fuel. Proponents also believe that nuclear power is the only viable course to achieve

651:

The water level in the steam generator and the nuclear reactor is controlled using the feedwater system. The feedwater pump has the task of taking the water from the condensate system, increasing the pressure and forcing it into either the steam generators—in the case of a

971:

where these risks and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by station suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power stations.

1343:

As for March 2024, there are approximately 60 nuclear reactors for power plants being built worldwide, with a total capacity of 64GW, with an additional 110 in the planning stages. The majority of these reactors, either under construction or planned, are located in

1628:

per kWh, power from hard coal 864 grams, and power from lignite, or brown coal, 1034 grams ... nuclear energy accounts for about 117 grams of CO2 per kWh, considering the emissions caused by uranium mining and the construction and operation of nuclear reactors.

2278:

Sherrell R. Greene, "Centurion Reactors – Achieving Commercial Power Reactors With 100+ Year Operating Lifetimes'", Oak Ridge National Laboratory, published in transactions of Winter 2009 American Nuclear Society National Meeting, November 2009, Washington,

983:, costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power stations, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats. However many designs, such as the currently under construction AP1000, use 716:

continues to export the most nuclear power plants in the world, with projects across various countries: as of July 2023, Russia was constructing 19 out of 22 reactors constructed by foreign vendors; however, some exporting projects were canceled due to the

1054:, which has occurred on a few occasions through accident or natural disaster, releasing radiation and making the surrounding area uninhabitable. Plants must be defended against theft of nuclear material and attack by enemy military planes or missiles. 643:

In the main condenser, the wet vapor turbine exhaust come into contact with thousands of tubes that have much colder water flowing through them on the other side. The cooling water typically come from a natural body of water such as a river or lake.

615:

In the event of an emergency, safety valves can be used to prevent pipes from bursting or the reactor from exploding. The valves are designed so that they can derive all of the supplied flow rates with little increase in pressure. In the case of the

631:

that takes wet vapor, a mixture of liquid water and steam at saturation conditions, from the turbine-generator exhaust and condenses it back into sub-cooled liquid water so it can be pumped back to the reactor by the condensate and feedwater pumps.

736:

is the dismantling of a nuclear power station and decontamination of the site to a state no longer requiring protection from radiation for the general public. The main difference from the dismantling of other power stations is the presence of

679:

In 2022, nuclear power plants generated 2545 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity, a slight decrease from the 2653 TWh produced in 2021. Thirteen countries generated at least one-quarter of their electricity from nuclear sources. Notably,

712:

country's total power generation in 2022. While a previous goal aimed to reduce nuclear electricity generation share to lower than fifty percent by 2025, this target was postponed to 2035 in 2019 and ultimately discarded in 2023.

527:. After the steam turbine has expanded and partially condensed the steam, the remaining vapor is condensed in a condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger which is connected to a secondary side such as a river or a 966:

utilities where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the

1015:

Providing incentives for long-term, high-capital investment in deregulated markets driven by short-term price signals presents a challenge in securing a diversified and reliable electricity supply system.

1348:. In recent years, the commissioning of new reactors has been roughly offset by the decommissioning of older ones. Over the last two decades, while 100 reactors began operations, 107 were retired. 874:. However, up to now, there has not been any actual bulk recycling of waste from a NPP, and on-site temporary storage is still being used at almost all plant sites due to construction problems for 1130: 1094: 1009:

Fuel costs for nuclear plants are a minor proportion of total generating costs, though capital costs are greater than those for coal-fired plants and much greater than those for gas-fired plants.

2360:

Gerwin, Robert (1971). "Kernkraft heute und morgen: Kernforschung und Kerntechnik als Chance unserer Zeit" [Nuclear power today and tomorrow: Nuclear research as chance of our time].

847:

comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear stations. Cost estimates take into account

1050:

enough, and nuclear weapons require precision explosives to force fuel into a small enough volume to become supercritical. Most reactors require continuous temperature control to prevent a

554:

to fuel the chain reaction. Uranium is a very heavy metal that is abundant on Earth and is found in sea water as well as most rocks. Naturally occurring uranium is found in two different

573:

from being released into the environment. In addition, many reactors are equipped with a dome of concrete to protect the reactor against both internal casualties and external impacts.

4841: 1370:

In 2002, GIF selected six reactor technologies after two years of reviewing about 100 concepts, representing the future of nuclear energy. Among these six designs, three of them are

1190:

Opponents say that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment, and that costs do not justify benefits. Threats include health risks and environmental damage from

2204: 1129:

afterwards, the Government meets this obligation. The Government is also liable for additional limited cross-border liability (about £300 million) under international conventions (

1101:. However states with a majority of the world's nuclear power stations, including the U.S., Russia, China and Japan, are not party to international nuclear liability conventions. 1828: 370: 2738: 796:

mode on a large scale in France, although "it is generally accepted that this is not an ideal economic situation for nuclear stations". Unit A at the now decommissioned German

5427: 4096: 958:

Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power stations were developed by

725:

continues to advance in nuclear energy: having 25 reactors under construction by late 2023, China is the country with the most reactors being built at one time in the world.

4151: 3305: 6985: 1264:, produce approximately the same amount of carbon dioxide during the whole life cycle of nuclear power plants for an average of about 11g/kWh, as much power generated by 955:, and some potential backers have pulled out. Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem for nuclear projects. 4106: 2258: 4116: 5621: 1166:

for civilian purposes peaked during the 1970s and 1980s, when it "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies," in some countries.

753:

Generally speaking, nuclear stations were originally designed for a life of about 30 years. Newer stations are designed for a 40 to 60-year operating life. The

672:

Nuclear power plants generate approximately 10% of global electricity, sourced from around 440 reactors worldwide. They are recognized as a significant provider of

596:

water reactors pass radioactive water through the steam turbine, so the turbine is kept as part of the radiologically controlled area of the nuclear power station.

4141: 4136: 2963: 1098: 1038:

Hypothetical number of global deaths which would have resulted from energy production if the world's energy production was met through a single source, in 2014.

745:

has been completely decommissioned it is released from regulatory control, and the licensee of the station no longer has responsibility for its nuclear safety.

604:

electricity or to do other useful work. Typically the hot coolant is used as a heat source for a boiler, and the pressurized steam from that drives one or more

3169:

Liu, Bojie; Peng, Binbin; Lu, Fei; Hu, Jiang; Zheng, Li; Bo, Meifang; Shang, Xin; Liu, Weiwei; Zhang, Yichi; Zhou, Xiafei; Jia, Pengfei; Liu, Gengyuan (2023).

1026:

targeted by sanctions. However, some countries, especially in Europe, scaled back or cancelled planned nuclear power plants that were to be built by Rosatom.

3455: 1385:, started its building process on September 21 2014, started to generate power December 20, 2021, and was put into commercial operation in December 12, 2023. 1042:

Modern nuclear reactor designs have had numerous safety improvements since the first-generation nuclear reactors. A nuclear power plant cannot explode like a

1021:

Nuclear power plant construction is typical of large infrastructure projects around the world, whose costs and delivery challenges tend to be under-estimated.

5029: 2914: 98:

reported there were 410 nuclear power reactors in operation in 32 countries around the world, and 57 nuclear power reactors under construction.

4556: 754: 3086: 2506: 639:

Some nuclear reactors make use of cooling towers to condense the steam exiting the turbines. All steam released is never in contact with radioactivity.

4851: 3696: 2179: 1081:

at least four serious nuclear accidents would be expected in that period. The MIT study does not take into account improvements in safety since 1970.

704:, which previously depended on nuclear for over a quarter of its electricity, is anticipated to resume similar levels of nuclear energy utilization. 220: 215: 3427: 3402: 569:

Since nuclear fission creates radioactivity, the reactor core is surrounded by a protective shield. This containment absorbs radiation and prevents

5732: 1541: 1450: 558:: uranium-238 (U-238), accounting for 99.3% and uranium-235 (U-235) accounting for about 0.7%. U-238 has 146 neutrons and U-235 has 143 neutrons. 5877: 1412:

the ITER project are also developing their own fusion reactor and power plants models. In China, researchers are developing a new reactor called

1113: 2529: 6128: 4536: 1319: 566:. U-238 has a longer half-life than U-235, so it takes longer to decay over time. This also means that U-238 is less radioactive than U-235. 6801: 4858: 4289: 3071: 1978: 2208: 1284:, produce even less carbon dioxide during the whole operating life, as little as 1/8 of power plants using gen II reactors for 1.31g/kWh. 912:, increasingly favor the economics of nuclear power. Further efficiencies are hoped to be achieved through more advanced reactor designs, 6892: 2828: 2745: 2595: 4624: 1836: 765: 5127: 3852: 1762: 5366: 2346: 475: 5577: 5417: 5356: 2612: 2411: 5497: 2289: 807:, which can be transported to the desired location and occasionally relocated or moved for easier decommissioning. In 2022, the 447: 6926: 5322: 3689: 1012:

System costs for nuclear power (as well as coal and gas-fired generation) are very much lower than for intermittent renewables.

804: 2764: 1002:

Nuclear power is cost competitive with other forms of electricity generation, except where there is direct access to low-cost

991:

which required active cooling systems, which largely eliminates the need to spend more on redundant back up safety equipment.

531:. The water is then pumped back into the steam generator and the cycle begins again. The water-steam cycle corresponds to the 4551: 3266: 2943: 2571: 2563: 2024: 1413: 1251: 645: 6859: 6276: 5373: 4215: 454: 428: 17: 3144: 2385: 6698: 6094: 5290: 4836: 4801: 3822: 3802: 1889: 1516: 1425: 1382: 1125: 141:. Nuclear power plants are among the safest modes of electricity generation, comparable to solar and wind power plants. 6806: 6121: 5988: 5572: 3760: 1066: 808: 708: 95: 3652: 1798: 1669: 7808: 6426: 4652: 4531: 3942: 3682: 2861: 2369: 1559: 843: 494: 461: 191: 179: 2977:

Sovacool, Benjamin K (2008). "The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007".

7432: 5882: 5747: 4282: 4246: 4197: 4038: 3505: 1018:

In assessing the economics of nuclear power, decommissioning and waste disposal costs are fully taken into account.

831: 3118: 2911: 948: 932: 882:

has stable repository plans, therefore from a worldwide perspective, long-term waste storage costs are uncertain.

155:

The first time that heat from a nuclear reactor was used to generate electricity was on December 21, 1951, at the

7985: 6885: 6589: 6514: 6385: 5825: 5659: 5261: 5139: 4796: 4657: 520: 385: 3560:"Russian nuclear energy diplomacy and its implications for energy security in the context of the war in Ukraine" 2644:"Russian nuclear energy diplomacy and its implications for energy security in the context of the war in Ukraine" 2312: 2124:"Russian nuclear energy diplomacy and its implications for energy security in the context of the war in Ukraine" 1918:

A Review of the Effects of Radiation on Microstructure and Properties of Concretes Used in Nuclear Power Plants.

1722: 1486: 443: 5815: 5664: 5122: 4236: 4048: 3912: 1430: 1378: 835: 432: 360: 156: 2439:"Policies toward net-zero: Benchmarking the economic competitiveness of nuclear against wind and solar energy" 6949: 6761: 6693: 6683: 6559: 6459: 6114: 5589: 5422: 4846: 4774: 3101: 2514: 1921: 1640: 1582: 1151: 1034: 889: 628: 350: 7501: 7336: 6614: 6574: 6151: 5932: 5669: 5378: 5132: 4629: 4033: 4008: 3973: 3842: 3750: 2896: 901: 7825: 6841: 6836: 6554: 6529: 6519: 6495: 6490: 6196: 6082: 5995: 5967: 5924: 5889: 5727: 5554: 5492: 5317: 5221: 5107: 4575: 4275: 4166: 4126: 4101: 1234: 718: 167: 2802: 7958: 7842: 7786: 6878: 6756: 6474: 6444: 6221: 5916: 5775: 5454: 4972: 4929: 4781: 4146: 4086: 4053: 3993: 3947: 3907: 3872: 2534: 1327: 1058: 976: 940: 875: 797: 122: 3369: 2935:

Social protest and policy change: ecology, antinuclear, and peace movements in comparative perspective

2438: 7373: 6811: 6300: 6261: 6070: 5752: 5361: 5144: 4256: 4189: 4171: 4131: 4111: 4091: 4063: 4058: 4028: 4023: 4018: 3968: 3963: 3892: 3887: 3877: 3837: 3782: 3212:"Scaling analysis for inertia tank based on the cold state of deep pool-type nuclear heating reactor" 1490: 1408: 995: 689: 653: 580: 365: 248: 36: 1829:"OBNINSK 1954 – první jaderná elektrárna na světě, ČESKÁ ENERGETIKA s.r.o. - Vaše síla v energetice" 7358: 6786: 6594: 6534: 6191: 6000: 5842: 5742: 5654: 4863: 4749: 4709: 4521: 4068: 4043: 4003: 3983: 3932: 3902: 3832: 3827: 3755: 3705: 3032: 3015: 1960: 1277: 939:

In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find financing, notably

909: 811:

funded a three-year research study of offshore floating nuclear power generation. In October 2022,

697: 693: 685: 150: 138: 2701: 2043: 7533: 7422: 6725: 6715: 6705: 5905: 5872: 5847: 5461: 5238: 5044: 4967: 4924: 4907: 4868: 4791: 4223: 4181: 4161: 4156: 4121: 4013: 3998: 3937: 3897: 3882: 3847: 3797: 3745: 3735: 3725: 3331: 2101: 1218: 848: 777: 733: 713: 681: 468: 421: 322: 5830: 741:

material that requires special precautions to remove and safely relocate to a waste repository.

7936: 7779: 7651: 6646: 6509: 6292: 6181: 5737: 5024: 4568: 4210: 4202: 3988: 3978: 3792: 3787: 3740: 3730: 3011: 1611: 1377:

The world's first and only nuclear power plant that put Gen IV reactors into commercial use is

984: 917: 913: 885: 722: 701: 673: 355: 340: 328: 40: 2832: 800:

was designed to modulate its output 15% per minute between 40% and 100% of its nominal power.

190:. The world's first full scale power station solely devoted to electricity production was the 7733: 7728: 7523: 7464: 6781: 6549: 6544: 6524: 6031: 5767: 5722: 5184: 5112: 5039: 5034: 4999: 4786: 4754: 4541: 4468: 4241: 3480: 2933: 1859: 1583:"Table A.III.1 − Cost and performance parameters of selected electricity supply technologies" 1363: 1357: 1273: 1261: 1195: 1070: 867: 816: 657: 617: 523:

and heats water to produce steam. The pressurized steam is then usually fed to a multi-stage

511: 380: 134: 67: 2785: 620:, the steam is directed into the suppression chamber and condenses there. The chambers on a 7927: 7899: 7864: 7791: 7591: 7528: 7346: 7167: 6375: 6137: 5942: 5717: 5702: 5019: 4977: 4813: 4719: 4647: 3571: 3343: 3223: 2986: 2655: 2450: 2135: 1371: 1230: 1159: 609: 570: 345: 317: 258: 32: 1773: 8: 7922: 7830: 7818: 7708: 7661: 7469: 7392: 7118: 6909: 6746: 6579: 6479: 6454: 6407: 6216: 6206: 6171: 6041: 5852: 5637: 5231: 5099: 5077: 4902: 4759: 4488: 4321: 2338: 1517:"Nuclear power plants - types of reactors - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)" 1183: 3770: 3713: 3575: 3347: 3227: 3210:

Wang, Gongqing; Wang, Bo; Wen, Jiming; Tian, Ruifeng; Niu, Zhixin; Liu, Xingmin (2021).

2990: 2659: 2454: 2139: 780:

which ameliorates radiation damage and extends service life by between 15 and 30 years.

162:

On June 27, 1954, the world's first nuclear power station to generate electricity for a

7932: 7917: 7847: 7803: 7693: 7279: 7184: 6939: 6620: 6231: 6021: 5757: 5594: 5521: 5332: 4982: 4952: 4936: 4919: 4563: 4453: 4401: 4351: 4298: 2484: 1697: 1323: 1292: 1214: 1170: 1142: 1062: 968: 871: 863: 856: 600: 87: 3530: 1979:"Cooling Power Plants | Power Plant Water Use for Cooling – World Nuclear Association" 1934: 1685: 1641:"Table A.III.2 − Emissions of selected electricity supply technologies (gCO2eq / kWh)" 1162:

about the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from

7904: 7368: 7274: 7247: 7094: 7044: 6980: 6934: 6771: 6651: 6256: 5089: 4882: 4769: 4744: 4682: 4639: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4316: 4251: 3599: 3377: 3332:"The costs of failure: A preliminary assessment of major energy accidents, 1907–2007" 3287: 3262: 3239: 3192: 3119:"Oil-rich UAE opens the Arab world's first nuclear power plant. Experts question why" 2939: 2683: 2567: 2488: 2476: 2365: 2161: 2123: 2020: 1871: 1689: 1555: 1288: 1203: 773: 302: 1701: 916:

promise to be at least 17% more fuel efficient, and have lower capital costs, while

7854: 7813: 7796: 7683: 7581: 7113: 7017: 6901: 6720: 6661: 6365: 6360: 6337: 6246: 6186: 5937: 4992: 4957: 4714: 4704: 4592: 4580: 4421: 4416: 4406: 4396: 4391: 3589: 3579: 3351: 3231: 3211: 3182: 3047: 2994: 2761: 2673: 2663: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2151: 2143: 2012: 1681: 1547: 1222: 1174: 1112:

or radiological incidents is covered (for facilities licensed through 2025) by the

1109: 1051: 1047: 963: 297: 230: 118: 114: 3235: 7871: 7837: 7723: 7703: 7613: 7262: 7228: 7162: 6959: 6944: 6751: 6710: 6688: 6569: 6539: 6504: 6464: 6266: 5835: 5795: 5249: 5063: 4987: 4962: 4808: 4601: 4503: 4493: 4458: 4336: 4326: 3656: 3066: 2958: 2918: 2875: 2768: 1747: 1287:

However, there are other environmental impacts for nuclear power plants, such as

1178: 921: 815:

and Canadian company Prodigy announced a joint project to bring a North American

539: 225: 75: 5327: 3355: 2998: 1093:

framework that limits or structures accident liabilities in accordance with the

927: 507: 7912: 7859: 7769: 7688: 7673: 7668: 7620: 7508: 7304: 7252: 7235: 7069: 6776: 6766: 6564: 6176: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5530: 5437: 5406: 5388: 4912: 4818: 4764: 4729: 4662: 4609: 4463: 4356: 4341: 4331: 3617: 3584: 3559: 3284:

Transportation accidents/incidents involving radioactive materials (1971--1991)

3187: 3170: 2909:

Greenpeace International and European Renewable Energy Council (January 2007).

2668: 2643: 2147: 1257: 1191: 1077: 1043: 793: 757:

is a future class of nuclear reactor that is being designed to last 100 years.

635: 621: 307: 183: 5810: 2233: 1763:"Fifty years ago in December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first electricity" 7979: 7876: 7713: 7603: 7560: 7341: 7218: 7104: 7054: 6918: 6796: 6584: 6469: 6449: 6380: 6370: 6327: 6211: 6166: 5975: 5266: 4672: 4513: 3603: 3381: 3243: 3196: 2777: 2687: 2587: 2480: 2165: 1875: 1551: 1300: 1199: 896:, Finland. The site houses of one of the most powerful reactors known as EPR. 852: 812: 605: 588: 544: 532: 528: 524: 263: 253: 83: 3661: 3052: 2613:"Nuclear Power Economics | Nuclear Energy Costs - World Nuclear Association" 1210:, despite rapid advancements in containment procedures and storage methods. 7678: 7636: 7412: 7363: 7299: 7155: 7059: 6816: 6791: 6656: 6625: 6439: 6241: 5541: 4677: 4619: 4546: 4498: 4368: 3674: 3649: 2716: 1806: 1693: 1394: 1304: 1163: 1003: 959: 312: 195: 175: 1233:

launched the Arab region's first-ever nuclear energy plant. Unit 1 of the

576: 7774: 7718: 7540: 7518: 7513: 7380: 7257: 7223: 7211: 7099: 7022: 6641: 6609: 6402: 6390: 6310: 6236: 6226: 6156: 5952: 5599: 5189: 4696: 4667: 3594: 2678: 2471: 2156: 2006: 1451:"New modification of Russian VVER-440 fuel loaded at Paks NPP in Hungary" 1281: 1269: 988: 738: 287: 282: 130: 91: 2829:"Nuclear section of the UK Department of Trade & Industry's website" 2016: 1362:

An international coalition is advancing research and development on six

1131:

Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy

1095:

Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy

827: 7881: 7698: 7656: 7598: 7567: 7206: 7138: 7076: 7049: 7012: 6604: 6599: 6412: 6395: 6251: 6106: 5305: 3259:

Yellow dirt: an American story of a poisoned land and a people betrayed

1894: 1296: 1265: 1207: 905: 684:

relies on nuclear energy for about 70% of its electricity needs, while

435: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 198:, United States, which was connected to the grid on December 18, 1957. 163: 107: 3428:"Plans for New Nuclear Reactors Worldwide - World Nuclear Association" 3291: 3283: 7764: 7646: 7454: 7449: 7427: 7316: 7309: 7128: 7123: 7030: 7007: 6320: 6315: 6201: 6161: 5947: 5310: 5300: 4428: 4381: 4346: 4267: 2783: 2593: 2437:

Nian, Victor; Mignacca, Benito; Locatelli, Giorgio (15 August 2022).

1917: 1494: 1238: 1206:. Critics do not believe that these risks can be reduced through new 1090: 563: 187: 126: 103: 6870: 5805: 410: 78:. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate 7891: 7459: 7385: 7326: 7321: 7269: 7179: 7150: 7143: 7133: 7064: 7038: 7034: 7026: 6434: 6036: 5679: 5674: 5614: 5283: 5211: 5194: 5179: 5154: 4897: 4386: 2845: 2557: 944: 893: 3403:"Nuclear Power Today | Nuclear Energy - World Nuclear Association" 3286:(Report). Sandia National Labs., Albuquerque, NM (United States). 2702:"Legal Experts: Stuxnet Attack on Iran Was Illegal 'Act of Force'" 2412:"NuScale and Prodigy conceptual design for marine-based SMR plant" 2180:"Nuclear Power Today | Nuclear Energy - World Nuclear Association" 2068: 1416:

aimed to build a commercial practical fusion power plant by 2050.

7759: 7555: 7550: 7496: 7402: 7331: 7174: 6975: 6355: 6345: 6005: 5957: 5820: 5800: 5199: 5174: 4614: 4445: 4433: 4411: 4376: 3456:"Generation IV Nuclear Reactors: WNA - World Nuclear Association" 1312: 1308: 1213:

Opponents argue that when all the energy-intensive stages of the

1147: 952: 879: 769: 555: 551: 292: 171: 27:

Thermal power station where the heat source is a nuclear reactor

7608: 7573: 7397: 7353: 7201: 6999: 6350: 5609: 5604: 5584: 5564: 5549: 5432: 5169: 5149: 5117: 3145:"Nuclear energy and climate change - World Nuclear Association" 1487:"World Nuclear Power Reactors 2007–08 and Uranium Requirements" 1133:

and Brussels Convention supplementary to the Paris Convention).

44: 3306:"Report: Emissions from Japan plant approach Chernobyl levels" 3261:(1. Free Press hardcover ed.). New York, NY: Free Press. 2862:

U.S. Energy Legislation May Be 'Renaissance' for Nuclear Power

2803:"Publications: International Conventions and Legal Agreements" 1464: 1260:

during operation. Older nuclear power plants, like ones using

7641: 7481: 7407: 7194: 6026: 5983: 5646: 5502: 5295: 5159: 2744:. National University of Singapore. p. 8. Archived from 1299:. Large-scale atomic power plants might emit waste heat into 980: 238: 79: 1860:"Atom Mirny: The World's First Civilian Nuclear Power Plant" 106:

generation, because this maximizes the hours over which the

7586: 7442: 7437: 7417: 7291: 7242: 7086: 6305: 5507: 5396: 5206: 5164: 2290:"Rosatom launches annealing technology for VVER-1000 units" 1404: 1345: 855:

storage or recycling costs in the United States due to the

761: 234: 186:, opened on October 17, 1956 and was also meant to produce 71: 2259:"Table 2. Quote: Designed operational life time (year) 60" 2205:"Nuclear Decommissioning: Decommission nuclear facilities" 7545: 7189: 5480: 5344: 3644: 3171:"Critical review of nuclear power plant carbon emissions" 3087:"Is nuclear energy a possible solution to global warming" 1150:

abandoned due to a nuclear accident, which took place at

768:

under the action of neutron bombardment, however in 2018

748: 2964:

In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age

866:

could potentially be recycled by using future reactors,

1099:

Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage

836:

largest operational nuclear power facility in the world

1668:

Markandya, Anil; Wilkinson, Paul (13 September 2007).

1351: 1057:

The most serious accidents to date have been the 1979

2912:

Energy Revolution: A Sustainable World Energy Outlook

2436: 2313:"Flexible Operation of Nuclear Power Plants Ramps Up" 1226:

spent fuel management costs are difficult to define.

1069:, corresponding to the beginning of the operation of 2736: 2044:"OECD – World Energy Balances: Overview – Analysis" 1661: 1242:raising the possibility of nuclear proliferation." 624:are connected to the intermediate cooling circuit. 5030:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 3282:Cashwell, C. E.; McClure, J. D. (1 January 1992). 2533: 2228: 2226: 1667: 1543:Reduction of Capital Costs of Nuclear Power Plants 2530:"Nuclear: New dawn now seems limited to the east" 1097:, the Brussels supplementary convention, and the 900:Construction, or capital cost aside, measures to 547:, which in turn power the electrical generators. 7977: 3645:Non Destructive Testing for Nuclear Power Plants 3618:"【合肥日报】中国聚变工程实验堆正式开始工程设计中国核聚变研究在肥开启新征程-中国科大新闻网" 3558:Szulecki, Kacper; Overland, Indra (April 2023). 3557: 3016:Nuclear Weapons and 'Fourth Generation' Reactors 2762:Vermont Legislative Research Shop: Nuclear Power 2642:Szulecki, Kacper; Overland, Indra (April 2023). 2641: 2122:Szulecki, Kacper; Overland, Indra (April 2023). 2121: 3281: 3209: 2223: 2197: 2102:"The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 2023" 1114:Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act 803:Russia has led in the practical development of 388:(in PWR reactors, which also have pressurizers) 3075:, University of New South Wales Press, p. 252. 2784:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2003). 2714: 2594:Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2011). 2339:"Nuclear in France – what did they get right?" 2304: 766:deterioration of the reactor's pressure vessel 178:. The world's first full scale power station, 6886: 6122: 5733:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 4283: 3690: 3666: 2931: 2850:Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power 2404: 2282: 1971: 1910: 1648:The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1590:The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1414:China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor (CFETR) 1046:because the fuel for uranium reactors is not 924:and significant reductions in nuclear waste. 700:source around half their power from nuclear. 3704: 3072:Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy 2897:"Nuclear Energy is not a New Clear Resource" 2386:"US begins study of floating nuclear plants" 1857: 1723:"Death rates from energy production per TWh" 1198:or sabotage, and the problem of radioactive 3168: 2521: 2504: 2500: 2498: 1760: 1084: 870:are being designed to completely close the 792:Nuclear power plants are routinely used in 6893: 6879: 6129: 6115: 4290: 4276: 3697: 3683: 3084: 2938:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 44–. 1927: 1772:. American Nuclear Society. Archived from 3593: 3583: 3256: 3186: 3051: 3033:"Nuclear energy: Assessing the emissions" 2899:. Theworldreporter.com. 2 September 2010. 2873: 2852:, Oxford University Press, pages 323–340. 2677: 2667: 2527: 2470: 2155: 2099: 1575: 1303:, affecting waterborne organisms. Mining 1169:Proponents argue that nuclear power is a 1154:on 26 April 1986, seen in the background. 667: 627:The main condenser is a large cross-flow 495:Learn how and when to remove this message 6136: 5645: 3329: 2976: 2550: 2495: 2109:The World Nuclear Industry Status Report 1924:, Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research. 1748:"EBR-I (Experimental Breeder Reactor-I)" 1534: 1194:, processing and transport, the risk of 1141: 1033: 926: 884: 826: 634: 575: 506: 31: 3030: 2925: 2755: 2730: 2364:(in German). Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt. 1858:Kaiser, Peter; Madsen, Michael (2013). 1740: 1633: 1457: 1245: 1217:are considered, from uranium mining to 789:running it at less than full capacity. 14: 7978: 5660:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 4297: 3553: 3551: 3481:"石岛湾高温气冷堆核电站示范工程常规岛开工 - 国内前沿 ChinaNet" 2903: 2596:"The Future of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle" 2359: 2292:. World Nuclear News. 27 November 2018 1609: 1029: 749:Timing and deferral of decommissioning 6900: 6874: 6110: 5902: 5665:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 5074: 5061: 4271: 3678: 3665: 3450: 3448: 3078: 2739:"Second Thoughts About Nuclear Power" 2737:Benjamin K. Sovacool (January 2011). 2724:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2694: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2564:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 2310: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2038: 2036: 2001: 1999: 1388: 1333: 1252:Environmental impact of nuclear power 646:Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station 6089: 5062: 3506:"全球首座第四代核电机组华能石岛湾高温气冷堆示范工程并网发电-新华网" 2717:"Normal Accidents by Charles Perrow" 2336: 2330: 1603: 1256:Nuclear power plants do not produce 1108:In the United States, insurance for 656:— or directly into the reactor, for 433:adding citations to reliable sources 404: 206: 5670:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 3548: 2708: 2272: 2207:. World-nuclear.org. Archived from 1754: 1670:"Electricity generation and health" 1448: 1426:List of commercial nuclear reactors 1383:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor 1352:Next generation nuclear power plant 1338: 1126:energy policy of the United Kingdom 233:machine(s) in some designs such as 201: 110:of construction can be amortized. 24: 6807:Renewable energy commercialization 5479: 4630:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 3445: 3330:Sovacool, Benjamin K. (May 2008). 2630: 2086: 2033: 1996: 1479: 1067:Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster 809:United States Department of Energy 728: 96:International Atomic Energy Agency 25: 7997: 4653:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 4552:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 3638: 2532:. Financial Times. Archived from 2511:Nuclear Engineering International 2390:Nuclear Engineering International 2349:from the original on 11 May 2010. 2343:Nuclear Engineering International 2100:Schneider, Mycle (January 2024). 1890:"Queen switches on nuclear power" 1610:Rueter, Gero (27 December 2021). 987:cooling systems, unlike those of 844:economics of nuclear power plants 550:Nuclear reactors usually rely on 192:Shippingport Atomic Power Station 94:. As of September 2023, the 7954: 7953: 6855: 6854: 6275: 6088: 6077: 6076: 6064: 5753:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 4247:Nuclear energy policy by country 1612:"How sustainable is wind power?" 832:Bruce Nuclear Generating Station 819:based floating plant to market. 409: 4842:Historical stockpiles and tests 3610: 3523: 3498: 3473: 3420: 3395: 3362: 3323: 3298: 3275: 3250: 3203: 3162: 3137: 3111: 3060: 3024: 3005: 2970: 2952: 2889: 2867: 2855: 2839: 2821: 2795: 2605: 2528:Ed Crooks (12 September 2010). 2505:Kidd, Steve (21 January 2011). 2430: 2378: 2353: 2251: 2172: 2115: 2061: 1953: 1916:William, Kaspar et al. (2013). 1882: 1851: 1821: 1791: 1715: 1546:. OECD / NEA. 8 February 2000. 947:and the additional reactors at 805:floating nuclear power stations 420:needs additional citations for 5743:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 4625:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 4237:List of nuclear power stations 2463:10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119275 1750:. Argonne National Laboratory. 1509: 1493:. June 9, 2008. Archived from 1442: 1431:List of nuclear power stations 1379:Shidao Bay Nuclear Power Plant 1137: 783: 361:Essential service water system 157:Experimental Breeder Reactor I 13: 1: 6802:Renewable Energy Certificates 6762:Cost of electricity by source 6684:Arc-fault circuit interrupter 6560:High-voltage shore connection 6071:Nuclear technology portal 3236:10.1016/j.anucene.2020.107907 3040:Nature Reports Climate Change 2786:"The Future of Nuclear Power" 1922:Nuclear Regulatory Commission 1799:"Russia's Nuclear Fuel Cycle" 1761:Rick Michal (November 2001). 1686:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61253-7 1364:Generation IV nuclear reactor 1196:nuclear weapons proliferation 1152:Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant 1089:Nuclear power works under an 933:Cernavodă Nuclear Power Plant 890:Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant 772:announced it had developed a 629:shell and tube heat exchanger 371:Standby liquid control system 351:Emergency core cooling system 159:, powering four light bulbs. 6919:Pollution / quality 6817:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread 6615:Transmission system operator 6575:Mains electricity by country 6152:Automatic generation control 5933:Field-reversed configuration 5543:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 3175:Frontiers in Energy Research 2507:"New reactors—more or less?" 2337:Kidd, Steve (22 June 2009). 1436: 1237:in the Al Dhafrah region of 876:deep geological repositories 822: 113:Nuclear power plants have a 7: 6842:List of electricity sectors 6837:Electric energy consumption 6555:High-voltage direct current 6530:Electric power transmission 6520:Electric power distribution 6197:Energy return on investment 5890:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 5075: 4837:States with nuclear weapons 3356:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040 2999:10.1016/j.enpol.2008.01.040 2876:"The Nuclear Energy Option" 2774:, accessed 26 December 2018 2559:The Future of Nuclear Power 2311:Patel, Sonal (April 2019). 1419: 862:With the prospect that all 719:Russian invasion of Ukraine 168:Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant 10: 8002: 6757:Carbon offsets and credits 6475:Three-phase electric power 5903: 5728:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 4852:Tests in the United States 3585:10.1038/s41560-023-01228-5 3188:10.3389/fenrg.2023.1147016 2669:10.1038/s41560-023-01228-5 2148:10.1038/s41560-023-01228-5 1392: 1355: 1262:second-generation reactors 1249: 1059:Three Mile Island accident 977:Fukushima nuclear accident 798:Biblis Nuclear Power Plant 760:One of the major limiting 400: 170:, commenced operations in 148: 144: 7949: 7890: 7755: 7748: 7629: 7490:Types / location 7489: 7480: 7290: 7085: 6998: 6968: 6917: 6908: 6850: 6825: 6812:Renewable Energy Payments 6735: 6672: 6634: 6488: 6425: 6336: 6301:Fossil fuel power station 6291: 6284: 6273: 6144: 6058: 6014: 5966: 5923: 5913: 5865: 5853:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 5766: 5748:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 5713: 5696: 5636: 5563: 5555:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 5529: 5520: 5472: 5452: 5405: 5387: 5343: 5248: 5230: 5098: 5085: 5070: 5057: 5012: 4945: 4890: 4881: 4829: 4737: 4728: 4695: 4638: 4600: 4591: 4512: 4444: 4367: 4309: 4305: 4257:Nuclear technology portal 4232: 4180: 4077: 3956: 3921: 3861: 3811: 3769: 3712: 3672: 3667:Links to related articles 3650:Glossary of Nuclear Terms 3085:Diesendorf, Mark (2007). 3021:, August 2009, pp. 18–21. 2011:. OECD. 24 October 2023. 2008:World Energy Outlook 2023 1935:"How nuclear power works" 1491:World Nuclear Association 1221:, nuclear power is not a 996:World Nuclear Association 920:promise further gains in 654:pressurized water reactor 581:Pressurized water reactor 366:Reactor protection system 37:Angra Nuclear Power Plant 6595:Single-wire earth return 6535:Electrical busbar system 6192:Energy demand management 5758:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 5374:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 4710:Electron-beam processing 3706:Nuclear power by country 3655:19 December 2011 at the 3257:Pasternak, Judy (2010). 3216:Annals of Nuclear Energy 1552:10.1787/9789264180574-en 1268:, which is about 1/3 of 1085:Regulation and oversight 910:carbon emissions trading 778:reactor pressure vessels 707:Over the last 15 years, 281:Instrumentation such as 151:History of nuclear power 6726:Residual-current device 6716:Power system protection 6706:Generator interlock kit 5873:Organic nuclear reactor 5045:Nuclear power phase-out 4968:Nuclear decommissioning 4908:Reactor-grade plutonium 4658:Targeted alpha-particle 4537:Accidents and incidents 3370:"When the steam clears" 3053:10.1038/climate.2008.99 2715:Whitney, D. E. (2003). 2704:. Wired. 25 March 2013. 1301:natural bodies of water 1219:nuclear decommissioning 1076:Professor of sociology 914:Generation III reactors 902:mitigate global warming 849:station decommissioning 734:Nuclear decommissioning 323:Reactor pressure vessel 7986:Nuclear power stations 6510:Distributed generation 6182:Electric power quality 3031:Kleiner, Kurt (2008). 2932:Giugni, Marco (2004). 1864:IAEA Bulletin (Online) 1833:www.ceskaenergetika.cz 1639: 1581: 1229:On 1 August 2020, the 1155: 1146:The Ukrainian city of 1071:generation II reactors 1039: 985:passive nuclear safety 936: 918:Generation IV reactors 897: 868:generation IV reactors 839: 674:low-carbon electricity 668:World operating status 658:boiling water reactors 640: 584: 515: 356:Emergency power system 329:Startup neutron source 129:, and much lower than 117:comparable to that of 47: 6782:Fossil fuel phase-out 6550:Electricity retailing 6545:Electrical substation 6525:Electric power system 5035:Anti-nuclear movement 4242:Nuclear energy policy 2967:, Black Inc., p. 280. 2767:17 March 2016 at the 2362:Bild der Wissenschaft 2234:"Совершенно секретно" 1983:www.world-nuclear.org 1372:fast neutron reactors 1358:Generation IV reactor 1280:. Newer models, like 1173:source which reduces 1145: 1037: 930: 888: 834:(Canada), one of the 830: 817:small modular reactor 638: 610:electrical generators 579: 512:Boiling water reactor 510: 444:"Nuclear power plant" 381:Boiler feedwater pump 68:thermal power station 35: 7865:remnant natural area 7502:storage and recovery 7168:habitat conservation 6986:Deforestation (REDD) 6138:Electricity delivery 5943:Reversed field pinch 5738:Traveling-wave (TWR) 5222:Supercritical (SCWR) 4720:Gemstone irradiation 3531:"全球首座第四代核电站商运投产-新华网" 2835:on 15 February 2006. 2517:on 12 December 2011. 1246:Environmental impact 1160:nuclear power debate 998:, as of March 2020: 571:radioactive material 429:improve this article 346:Containment building 318:Nuclear reactor core 259:Electrical generator 60:atomic power station 18:Nuclear power plants 7819:Earth Overshoot Day 7393:Marine conservation 7374:non-timber products 6747:Availability factor 6699:Sulfur hexafluoride 6580:Overhead power line 6480:Virtual power plant 6455:Induction generator 6408:Sustainable biofuel 6217:Home energy storage 6207:Grid energy storage 6172:Droop speed control 5108:Aqueous homogeneous 4903:Reprocessed uranium 4576:Safety and security 3576:2023NatEn...8..413S 3348:2008EnPol..36.1802S 3228:2021AnNuE.15107907W 3100:(2). Archived from 3094:Social Alternatives 2991:2008EnPol..36.1802S 2751:on 16 January 2013. 2660:2023NatEn...8..413S 2538:on 10 December 2022 2455:2022ApEn..32019275N 2140:2023NatEn...8..413S 2017:10.1787/827374a6-en 1809:on 13 February 2013 1381:. The reactor is a 1184:energy independence 1030:Safety and security 975:Following the 2011 587:The purpose of the 52:nuclear power plant 7804:Ecosystem services 6927:Ambient standards 6621:Transmission tower 6232:Nameplate capacity 6022:Dense plasma focus 4937:Actinide chemistry 4402:Isotope separation 4299:Nuclear technology 3485:www.nuclear.net.cn 2917:2009-08-06 at the 2416:World Nuclear News 2392:. 1 September 2022 2211:on 19 October 2015 1920:Washington, D.C.: 1389:Fusion Power Plant 1334:Future development 1293:ionizing radiation 1215:nuclear fuel chain 1171:sustainable energy 1156: 1063:Chernobyl disaster 1040: 969:electricity market 937: 898: 872:nuclear fuel cycle 864:spent nuclear fuel 857:Price Anderson Act 840: 641: 601:electric generator 585: 516: 325:(In most reactors) 278:Control rod drives 48: 7973: 7972: 7967: 7966: 7945: 7944: 7744: 7743: 7423:genetic resources 7359:genetic resources 6994: 6993: 6902:Natural resources 6868: 6867: 6772:Environmental tax 6652:Cascading failure 6421: 6420: 6257:Utility frequency 6104: 6103: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6049: 6001:Magnetized-target 5898: 5897: 5861: 5860: 5692: 5691: 5688: 5687: 5632: 5631: 5516: 5515: 5448: 5447: 5053: 5052: 5008: 5007: 4877: 4876: 4864:Weapon-free zones 4691: 4690: 4683:Radiopharmacology 4265: 4264: 4252:Nuclear accidents 4220: 4207: 4194: 3510:www.xinhuanet.com 3460:world-nuclear.org 3432:world-nuclear.org 3407:world-nuclear.org 3268:978-1-4165-9482-6 3149:world-nuclear.org 2945:978-0-7425-1827-8 2617:world-nuclear.org 2573:978-0-615-12420-9 2418:. 27 October 2022 2184:world-nuclear.org 2026:978-92-64-64773-2 1939:HowStuffWorks.com 1898:. 17 October 2008 1803:world-nuclear.org 1727:Our World in Data 1680:(9591): 979–990. 1320:nuclear accidents 1289:radioactive waste 1204:nuclear accidents 1177:and can increase 994:According to the 774:thermal annealing 755:Centurion Reactor 709:the United States 505: 504: 497: 479: 397: 396: 303:Neutron moderator 16:(Redirected from 7993: 7957: 7956: 7908: 7855:Natural heritage 7814:overexploitation 7753: 7752: 7487: 7486: 7433:herbal medicines 7413:FAO Plant Treaty 6953: 6930: 6915: 6914: 6895: 6888: 6881: 6872: 6871: 6858: 6857: 6767:Energy subsidies 6721:Protective relay 6662:Rolling blackout 6289: 6288: 6279: 6247:Power-flow study 6187:Electrical fault 6131: 6124: 6117: 6108: 6107: 6092: 6091: 6080: 6079: 6069: 6068: 6067: 5979: 5938:Levitated dipole 5908: 5900: 5899: 5848:Helium gas (GFR) 5711: 5710: 5706: 5643: 5642: 5527: 5526: 5477: 5476: 5470: 5469: 5465: 5464: 5246: 5245: 5242: 5241: 5080: 5072: 5071: 5064:Nuclear reactors 5059: 5058: 4958:High-level (HLW) 4888: 4887: 4735: 4734: 4715:Food irradiation 4705:Atomic gardening 4598: 4597: 4581:Nuclear meltdown 4407:Nuclear material 4397:Fissile material 4392:Fertile material 4307: 4306: 4292: 4285: 4278: 4269: 4268: 4218: 4205: 4192: 3699: 3692: 3685: 3676: 3675: 3663: 3662: 3633: 3632: 3630: 3628: 3622:news.ustc.edu.cn 3614: 3608: 3607: 3597: 3587: 3555: 3546: 3545: 3543: 3541: 3527: 3521: 3520: 3518: 3516: 3502: 3496: 3495: 3493: 3491: 3477: 3471: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3452: 3443: 3442: 3440: 3438: 3424: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3413: 3399: 3393: 3392: 3390: 3388: 3366: 3360: 3359: 3342:(5): 1802–1820. 3327: 3321: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3302: 3296: 3295: 3279: 3273: 3272: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3190: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3141: 3135: 3134: 3132: 3130: 3115: 3109: 3108: 3107:on 22 July 2012. 3106: 3091: 3082: 3076: 3064: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3037: 3028: 3022: 3009: 3003: 3002: 2974: 2968: 2956: 2950: 2949: 2929: 2923: 2907: 2901: 2900: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2884: 2882: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2853: 2843: 2837: 2836: 2831:. Archived from 2825: 2819: 2818: 2816: 2814: 2809:. 27 August 2014 2799: 2793: 2792: 2790: 2781: 2775: 2759: 2753: 2752: 2750: 2743: 2734: 2728: 2727: 2721: 2712: 2706: 2705: 2698: 2692: 2691: 2681: 2671: 2639: 2628: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2609: 2603: 2602: 2600: 2591: 2585: 2584: 2582: 2580: 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2537: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2513:. Archived from 2502: 2493: 2492: 2474: 2434: 2428: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2408: 2402: 2401: 2399: 2397: 2382: 2376: 2375: 2357: 2351: 2350: 2334: 2328: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2308: 2302: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2286: 2280: 2276: 2270: 2269: 2263: 2255: 2249: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2230: 2221: 2220: 2218: 2216: 2201: 2195: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2176: 2170: 2169: 2159: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2106: 2097: 2084: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2056: 2054: 2040: 2031: 2030: 2003: 1994: 1993: 1991: 1989: 1975: 1969: 1968: 1957: 1951: 1950: 1948: 1946: 1941:. 9 October 2000 1931: 1925: 1914: 1908: 1907: 1905: 1903: 1886: 1880: 1879: 1855: 1849: 1848: 1846: 1844: 1839:on 5 August 2021 1835:. Archived from 1825: 1819: 1818: 1816: 1814: 1805:. Archived from 1795: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1784: 1778: 1767: 1758: 1752: 1751: 1744: 1738: 1737: 1735: 1733: 1719: 1713: 1712: 1710: 1708: 1665: 1659: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1645: 1637: 1631: 1630: 1624: 1622: 1607: 1601: 1600: 1598: 1596: 1587: 1579: 1573: 1572: 1570: 1568: 1538: 1532: 1531: 1529: 1527: 1513: 1507: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1497:on March 3, 2008 1483: 1477: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1461: 1455: 1454: 1449:Release, Press. 1446: 1403:The assembly of 1339:Ongoing projects 1258:greenhouse gases 1175:carbon emissions 500: 493: 489: 486: 480: 478: 437: 413: 405: 386:Steam generators 377:Steam generation 298:Neutron howitzer 275:Reactor assembly 245:Power generation 231:Online refueling 207: 202:Basic components 119:renewable energy 115:carbon footprint 21: 8001: 8000: 7996: 7995: 7994: 7992: 7991: 7990: 7976: 7975: 7974: 7969: 7968: 7963: 7941: 7906: 7886: 7872:Systems ecology 7838:Natural capital 7740: 7625: 7614:reclaimed water 7476: 7438:UPOV Convention 7286: 7081: 6990: 6964: 6960:Ozone depletion 6951: 6928: 6904: 6899: 6869: 6864: 6846: 6830: 6828: 6821: 6752:Capacity factor 6740: 6738: 6731: 6711:Numerical relay 6689:Circuit breaker 6677: 6675: 6668: 6630: 6570:Load management 6540:Electrical grid 6505:Demand response 6498: 6493: 6484: 6465:Microgeneration 6417: 6332: 6280: 6271: 6267:Vehicle-to-grid 6140: 6135: 6105: 6100: 6065: 6063: 6046: 6010: 5977: 5962: 5919: 5909: 5904: 5894: 5857: 5762: 5707: 5700: 5699: 5684: 5628: 5559: 5534: 5512: 5484: 5466: 5459: 5458: 5457: 5444: 5410: 5401: 5383: 5348: 5339: 5253: 5236: 5235: 5234: 5226: 5140:Natural fission 5094: 5093: 5081: 5076: 5066: 5049: 5025:Nuclear weapons 5004: 4963:Low-level (LLW) 4941: 4873: 4825: 4724: 4687: 4634: 4587: 4508: 4440: 4363: 4301: 4296: 4266: 4261: 4228: 4176: 4079: 4078:Abandoned plans 4073: 3952: 3925: 3917: 3865: 3857: 3815: 3807: 3774: 3765: 3717: 3708: 3703: 3668: 3657:Wayback Machine 3641: 3636: 3626: 3624: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3556: 3549: 3539: 3537: 3529: 3528: 3524: 3514: 3512: 3504: 3503: 3499: 3489: 3487: 3479: 3478: 3474: 3464: 3462: 3454: 3453: 3446: 3436: 3434: 3426: 3425: 3421: 3411: 3409: 3401: 3400: 3396: 3386: 3384: 3368: 3367: 3363: 3328: 3324: 3314: 3312: 3304: 3303: 3299: 3280: 3276: 3269: 3255: 3251: 3208: 3204: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3143: 3142: 3138: 3128: 3126: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3104: 3089: 3083: 3079: 3067:Mark Diesendorf 3065: 3061: 3035: 3029: 3025: 3010: 3006: 2975: 2971: 2959:Stephanie Cooke 2957: 2953: 2946: 2930: 2926: 2919:Wayback Machine 2908: 2904: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2880: 2878: 2874:Bernard Cohen. 2872: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2844: 2840: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2812: 2810: 2801: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2782: 2778: 2769:Wayback Machine 2760: 2756: 2748: 2741: 2735: 2731: 2719: 2713: 2709: 2700: 2699: 2695: 2640: 2631: 2621: 2619: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2598: 2592: 2588: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2541: 2539: 2526: 2522: 2503: 2496: 2435: 2431: 2421: 2419: 2410: 2409: 2405: 2395: 2393: 2384: 2383: 2379: 2372: 2358: 2354: 2335: 2331: 2321: 2319: 2309: 2305: 2295: 2293: 2288: 2287: 2283: 2277: 2273: 2261: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2242: 2240: 2232: 2231: 2224: 2214: 2212: 2203: 2202: 2198: 2188: 2186: 2178: 2177: 2173: 2120: 2116: 2104: 2098: 2087: 2077: 2075: 2067: 2066: 2062: 2052: 2050: 2042: 2041: 2034: 2027: 2005: 2004: 1997: 1987: 1985: 1977: 1976: 1972: 1959: 1958: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1933: 1932: 1928: 1915: 1911: 1901: 1899: 1888: 1887: 1883: 1856: 1852: 1842: 1840: 1827: 1826: 1822: 1812: 1810: 1797: 1796: 1792: 1782: 1780: 1779:on 25 June 2008 1776: 1765: 1759: 1755: 1746: 1745: 1741: 1731: 1729: 1721: 1720: 1716: 1706: 1704: 1666: 1662: 1652: 1650: 1643: 1638: 1634: 1620: 1618: 1608: 1604: 1594: 1592: 1585: 1580: 1576: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1540: 1539: 1535: 1525: 1523: 1515: 1514: 1510: 1500: 1498: 1485: 1484: 1480: 1470: 1468: 1463: 1462: 1458: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1422: 1397: 1391: 1360: 1354: 1341: 1336: 1254: 1248: 1179:energy security 1140: 1087: 1065:, and the 2011 1032: 922:fuel efficiency 825: 786: 764:factors is the 751: 731: 729:Decommissioning 670: 540:nuclear reactor 521:steam generator 501: 490: 484: 481: 438: 436: 426: 414: 403: 398: 334: 269: 226:Spent fuel pool 221:Refueling floor 216:Radwaste system 204: 153: 147: 86:connected to a 76:nuclear reactor 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7999: 7989: 7988: 7971: 7970: 7965: 7964: 7962: 7961: 7950: 7947: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7940: 7939: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7907:(perpetuation) 7902: 7896: 7894: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7868: 7867: 7860:Nature reserve 7857: 7852: 7851: 7850: 7845: 7835: 7834: 7833: 7823: 7822: 7821: 7816: 7806: 7801: 7800: 7799: 7794: 7784: 7783: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7756: 7750: 7746: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7737: 7736: 7731: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7676: 7671: 7666: 7665: 7664: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7633: 7631: 7627: 7626: 7624: 7623: 7618: 7617: 7616: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7595: 7594: 7584: 7579: 7578: 7577: 7565: 7564: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7543: 7538: 7537: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7505: 7504: 7493: 7491: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7474: 7473: 7472: 7467: 7457: 7452: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7378: 7377: 7376: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7351: 7350: 7349: 7344: 7339: 7337:climate change 7329: 7324: 7319: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7305:Bioprospecting 7302: 7296: 7294: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7282: 7277: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7240: 7239: 7238: 7233: 7232: 7231: 7226: 7216: 7215: 7214: 7209: 7199: 7198: 7197: 7187: 7182: 7172: 7171: 7170: 7160: 7159: 7158: 7148: 7147: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7131: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7110: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7091: 7089: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7079: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7067: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7004: 7002: 6996: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6989: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6972: 6970: 6966: 6965: 6963: 6962: 6957: 6956: 6955: 6950:Clean Air Act 6942: 6937: 6932: 6923: 6921: 6912: 6906: 6905: 6898: 6897: 6890: 6883: 6875: 6866: 6865: 6863: 6862: 6851: 6848: 6847: 6845: 6844: 6839: 6833: 6831: 6827:Statistics and 6826: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6777:Feed-in tariff 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6743: 6741: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6729: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6702: 6701: 6696: 6686: 6680: 6678: 6673: 6670: 6669: 6667: 6666: 6665: 6664: 6654: 6649: 6644: 6638: 6636: 6632: 6631: 6629: 6628: 6623: 6618: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6565:Interconnector 6562: 6557: 6552: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6515:Dynamic demand 6512: 6507: 6501: 6499: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6445:Combined cycle 6442: 6437: 6431: 6429: 6423: 6422: 6419: 6418: 6416: 6415: 6410: 6405: 6400: 6399: 6398: 6393: 6388: 6383: 6378: 6368: 6363: 6358: 6353: 6348: 6342: 6340: 6334: 6333: 6331: 6330: 6325: 6324: 6323: 6318: 6313: 6308: 6297: 6295: 6286: 6282: 6281: 6274: 6272: 6270: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6222:Load-following 6219: 6214: 6209: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6177:Electric power 6174: 6169: 6164: 6159: 6154: 6148: 6146: 6142: 6141: 6134: 6133: 6126: 6119: 6111: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6098: 6086: 6074: 6059: 6056: 6055: 6052: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6032:Muon-catalyzed 6029: 6024: 6018: 6016: 6012: 6011: 6009: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5992: 5991: 5981: 5972: 5970: 5964: 5963: 5961: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5929: 5927: 5921: 5920: 5914: 5911: 5910: 5896: 5895: 5893: 5892: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5880: 5869: 5867: 5863: 5862: 5859: 5858: 5856: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5839: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5783: 5772: 5770: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5760: 5755: 5750: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5723:Integral (IFR) 5720: 5714: 5708: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5690: 5689: 5686: 5685: 5683: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5651: 5649: 5640: 5634: 5633: 5630: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5624: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5587: 5582: 5581: 5580: 5569: 5567: 5561: 5560: 5558: 5557: 5552: 5547: 5538: 5536: 5532: 5524: 5518: 5517: 5514: 5513: 5511: 5510: 5505: 5500: 5495: 5489: 5487: 5482: 5474: 5467: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5446: 5445: 5443: 5442: 5441: 5440: 5435: 5430: 5425: 5414: 5412: 5408: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5399: 5393: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5370: 5369: 5364: 5353: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5340: 5338: 5337: 5336: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5293: 5288: 5287: 5286: 5281: 5278: 5275: 5272: 5258: 5256: 5251: 5243: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5224: 5219: 5218: 5217: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5203: 5202: 5197: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5157: 5152: 5142: 5137: 5136: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5110: 5104: 5102: 5096: 5095: 5087: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5068: 5067: 5055: 5054: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5047: 5042: 5040:Uranium mining 5037: 5032: 5027: 5022: 5016: 5014: 5010: 5009: 5006: 5005: 5003: 5002: 4997: 4996: 4995: 4990: 4980: 4975: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4955: 4949: 4947: 4943: 4942: 4940: 4939: 4934: 4933: 4932: 4922: 4917: 4916: 4915: 4913:Minor actinide 4910: 4905: 4894: 4892: 4885: 4879: 4878: 4875: 4874: 4872: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4855: 4854: 4849: 4839: 4833: 4831: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4822: 4821: 4811: 4806: 4805: 4804: 4799: 4789: 4784: 4779: 4778: 4777: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4741: 4739: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4723: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4701: 4699: 4693: 4692: 4689: 4688: 4686: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4644: 4642: 4636: 4635: 4633: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4612: 4610:Autoradiograph 4606: 4604: 4595: 4589: 4588: 4586: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4561: 4560: 4559: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4524: 4518: 4516: 4510: 4509: 4507: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4450: 4448: 4442: 4441: 4439: 4438: 4437: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4425: 4424: 4419: 4404: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4373: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4362: 4361: 4360: 4359: 4354: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4332:Atomic nucleus 4329: 4324: 4319: 4313: 4311: 4303: 4302: 4295: 4294: 4287: 4280: 4272: 4263: 4262: 4260: 4259: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4233: 4230: 4229: 4227: 4226: 4221: 4213: 4208: 4200: 4195: 4186: 4184: 4178: 4177: 4175: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4159: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4129: 4124: 4119: 4114: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4094: 4089: 4083: 4081: 4080:for new plants 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4036: 4031: 4026: 4021: 4016: 4011: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3981: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3950: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3885: 3880: 3875: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3858: 3856: 3855: 3850: 3845: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3823:Czech Republic 3819: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3805: 3803:United Kingdom 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3779: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3766: 3764: 3763: 3758: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3738: 3733: 3728: 3722: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3709: 3702: 3701: 3694: 3687: 3679: 3673: 3670: 3669: 3660: 3659: 3647: 3640: 3639:External links 3637: 3635: 3634: 3609: 3570:(4): 413–421. 3547: 3522: 3497: 3472: 3444: 3419: 3394: 3361: 3322: 3297: 3274: 3267: 3249: 3202: 3161: 3136: 3110: 3077: 3059: 3046:(810): 130–1. 3023: 3019:Chain Reaction 3004: 2985:(5): 1802–20. 2969: 2951: 2944: 2924: 2902: 2888: 2866: 2854: 2838: 2820: 2794: 2776: 2754: 2729: 2707: 2693: 2654:(4): 413–421. 2629: 2604: 2586: 2572: 2549: 2520: 2494: 2443:Applied Energy 2429: 2403: 2377: 2370: 2352: 2329: 2303: 2281: 2271: 2268:. p. 489. 2250: 2238:sovsekretno.ru 2222: 2196: 2171: 2134:(4): 413–421. 2114: 2085: 2060: 2032: 2025: 1995: 1970: 1952: 1926: 1909: 1881: 1866:(in Russian). 1850: 1820: 1790: 1753: 1739: 1714: 1660: 1632: 1616:Deutsche Welle 1602: 1574: 1560: 1533: 1508: 1478: 1456: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1433: 1428: 1421: 1418: 1393:Main article: 1390: 1387: 1356:Main article: 1353: 1350: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1250:Main article: 1247: 1244: 1192:uranium mining 1139: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1122: 1121:United Kingdom 1118: 1117: 1106: 1086: 1083: 1078:Charles Perrow 1044:nuclear weapon 1031: 1028: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 931:Unit 1 of the 824: 821: 794:load following 785: 782: 776:technique for 750: 747: 730: 727: 669: 666: 622:heat exchanger 503: 502: 417: 415: 408: 402: 399: 395: 394: 390: 389: 383: 378: 374: 373: 368: 363: 358: 353: 348: 343: 341:Safety systems 336: 332: 331: 326: 320: 315: 310: 308:Neutron poison 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 279: 276: 271: 267: 266: 261: 256: 251: 246: 242: 241: 228: 223: 218: 213: 205: 203: 200: 184:United Kingdom 149:Main article: 146: 143: 90:that produces 82:that drives a 41:Rio de Janeiro 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7998: 7987: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7960: 7952: 7951: 7948: 7938: 7937:Non-renewable 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7897: 7895: 7893: 7889: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7877:Urban ecology 7875: 7873: 7870: 7866: 7863: 7862: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7849: 7846: 7844: 7841: 7840: 7839: 7836: 7832: 7829: 7828: 7827: 7824: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7811: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7789: 7788: 7785: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7762: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7754: 7751: 7747: 7735: 7732: 7730: 7727: 7726: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7709:Privatization 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7680: 7677: 7675: 7672: 7670: 7667: 7663: 7660: 7659: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7632: 7628: 7622: 7619: 7615: 7612: 7611: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7604:Surface water 7602: 7600: 7597: 7593: 7590: 7589: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7576: 7575: 7571: 7570: 7569: 7566: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7548: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7521: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7503: 7500: 7499: 7498: 7495: 7494: 7492: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7479: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7462: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7410: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7387: 7384: 7383: 7382: 7379: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7352: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7334: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7315: 7311: 7308: 7307: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7297: 7295: 7293: 7289: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7272: 7271: 7268: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7241: 7237: 7234: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7221: 7220: 7217: 7213: 7210: 7208: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7200: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7177: 7176: 7173: 7169: 7166: 7165: 7164: 7161: 7157: 7154: 7153: 7152: 7149: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7106: 7105:peak farmland 7103: 7102: 7101: 7098: 7097: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7088: 7084: 7078: 7075: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7062: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7005: 7003: 7001: 6997: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6971: 6967: 6961: 6958: 6954: 6948: 6947: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6936: 6933: 6931: 6925: 6924: 6922: 6920: 6916: 6913: 6911: 6907: 6903: 6896: 6891: 6889: 6884: 6882: 6877: 6876: 6873: 6861: 6853: 6852: 6849: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6834: 6832: 6824: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6797:Pigouvian tax 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6744: 6742: 6734: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6694:Earth-leakage 6692: 6691: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6679: 6671: 6663: 6660: 6659: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6645: 6643: 6640: 6639: 6637: 6635:Failure modes 6633: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6585:Power station 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6561: 6558: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6470:Rankine cycle 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6450:Cooling tower 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6432: 6430: 6428: 6424: 6414: 6411: 6409: 6406: 6404: 6401: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6377: 6374: 6373: 6372: 6369: 6367: 6364: 6362: 6359: 6357: 6354: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6343: 6341: 6339: 6335: 6329: 6326: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6312: 6309: 6307: 6304: 6303: 6302: 6299: 6298: 6296: 6294: 6293:Non-renewable 6290: 6287: 6283: 6278: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6218: 6215: 6213: 6212:Grid strength 6210: 6208: 6205: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6167:Demand factor 6165: 6163: 6160: 6158: 6155: 6153: 6150: 6149: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6132: 6127: 6125: 6120: 6118: 6113: 6112: 6109: 6097: 6096: 6087: 6085: 6084: 6075: 6073: 6072: 6061: 6060: 6057: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5990: 5989:electrostatic 5987: 5986: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5974: 5973: 5971: 5969: 5965: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5928: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5912: 5907: 5901: 5891: 5888: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5875: 5874: 5871: 5870: 5868: 5864: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5777: 5774: 5773: 5771: 5769: 5768:Generation IV 5765: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5718:Breeder (FBR) 5716: 5715: 5712: 5709: 5704: 5695: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5644: 5641: 5639: 5635: 5623: 5620: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5596: 5593: 5592: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5579: 5576: 5575: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5556: 5553: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5544: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5509: 5506: 5504: 5501: 5499: 5496: 5494: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5486: 5478: 5475: 5471: 5468: 5463: 5456: 5451: 5439: 5436: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5420: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5404: 5398: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5390: 5386: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5368: 5365: 5363: 5360: 5359: 5358: 5355: 5354: 5352: 5350: 5342: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5285: 5282: 5279: 5276: 5273: 5270: 5269: 5268: 5265: 5264: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5257: 5255: 5247: 5244: 5240: 5233: 5229: 5223: 5220: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5201: 5198: 5196: 5193: 5192: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5161: 5158: 5156: 5153: 5151: 5148: 5147: 5146: 5143: 5141: 5138: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5115: 5114: 5111: 5109: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5101: 5097: 5092: 5091: 5084: 5079: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5060: 5056: 5046: 5043: 5041: 5038: 5036: 5033: 5031: 5028: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5020:Nuclear power 5018: 5017: 5015: 5011: 5001: 5000:Transmutation 4998: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4985: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4948: 4944: 4938: 4935: 4931: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4893: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4880: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4844: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4834: 4832: 4828: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4797:high-altitude 4795: 4794: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4787:Proliferation 4785: 4783: 4780: 4776: 4773: 4772: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4740: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4727: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4698: 4694: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4673:Brachytherapy 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4645: 4643: 4641: 4637: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4607: 4605: 4603: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4590: 4582: 4579: 4578: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4566: 4565: 4562: 4558: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4519: 4517: 4515: 4511: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4469:Cross section 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4443: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4423: 4420: 4418: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4410: 4409: 4408: 4405: 4403: 4400: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4374: 4372: 4370: 4366: 4358: 4355: 4353: 4350: 4349: 4348: 4345: 4343: 4340: 4338: 4335: 4333: 4330: 4328: 4325: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4314: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4293: 4288: 4286: 4281: 4279: 4274: 4273: 4270: 4258: 4255: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4243: 4240: 4238: 4235: 4234: 4231: 4225: 4222: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4204: 4201: 4199: 4196: 4191: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4179: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4133: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4123: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4103: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4082: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4035: 4032: 4030: 4027: 4025: 4022: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4010: 4007: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3975: 3972: 3970: 3967: 3965: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3955: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3939: 3936: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3928: 3920: 3914: 3911: 3909: 3906: 3904: 3901: 3899: 3896: 3894: 3891: 3889: 3886: 3884: 3881: 3879: 3876: 3874: 3871: 3870: 3868: 3860: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3846: 3844: 3841: 3839: 3836: 3834: 3831: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3820: 3818: 3810: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3768: 3762: 3761:United States 3759: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3749: 3747: 3744: 3742: 3739: 3737: 3734: 3732: 3729: 3727: 3724: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3711: 3707: 3700: 3695: 3693: 3688: 3686: 3681: 3680: 3677: 3671: 3664: 3658: 3654: 3651: 3648: 3646: 3643: 3642: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3595:11250/3106595 3591: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3564:Nature Energy 3561: 3554: 3552: 3536: 3532: 3526: 3511: 3507: 3501: 3486: 3482: 3476: 3461: 3457: 3451: 3449: 3433: 3429: 3423: 3408: 3404: 3398: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3374:The Economist 3371: 3365: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3336:Energy Policy 3333: 3326: 3311: 3307: 3301: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3278: 3270: 3264: 3260: 3253: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3206: 3198: 3194: 3189: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3165: 3150: 3146: 3140: 3125:. August 2020 3124: 3120: 3114: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3081: 3074: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3054: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3034: 3027: 3020: 3017: 3013: 3008: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2979:Energy Policy 2973: 2966: 2965: 2960: 2955: 2947: 2941: 2937: 2936: 2928: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2913: 2906: 2898: 2892: 2877: 2870: 2863: 2858: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2834: 2830: 2824: 2808: 2804: 2798: 2791:. p. 49. 2787: 2780: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2763: 2758: 2747: 2740: 2733: 2725: 2718: 2711: 2703: 2697: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2679:11250/3106595 2675: 2670: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2648:Nature Energy 2645: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2618: 2614: 2608: 2601:. p. xv. 2597: 2590: 2575: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2560: 2553: 2536: 2531: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2501: 2499: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2472:11311/1227558 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2433: 2417: 2413: 2407: 2391: 2387: 2381: 2373: 2371:3-421-02262-3 2367: 2363: 2356: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2333: 2318: 2314: 2307: 2291: 2285: 2275: 2267: 2260: 2254: 2239: 2235: 2229: 2227: 2210: 2206: 2200: 2185: 2181: 2175: 2167: 2163: 2158: 2157:11250/3092794 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2128:Nature Energy 2125: 2118: 2110: 2103: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2074: 2073:www.entsoe.eu 2070: 2064: 2049: 2045: 2039: 2037: 2028: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2009: 2002: 2000: 1984: 1980: 1974: 1966: 1962: 1956: 1940: 1936: 1930: 1923: 1919: 1913: 1897: 1896: 1891: 1885: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1854: 1838: 1834: 1830: 1824: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1794: 1775: 1771: 1764: 1757: 1749: 1743: 1728: 1724: 1718: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1664: 1649: 1642: 1636: 1629: 1617: 1613: 1606: 1591: 1584: 1578: 1563: 1561:9789264171442 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1537: 1522: 1518: 1512: 1496: 1492: 1488: 1482: 1466: 1465:"PRIS – Home" 1460: 1452: 1445: 1441: 1432: 1429: 1427: 1424: 1423: 1417: 1415: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1375: 1373: 1368: 1365: 1359: 1349: 1347: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1285: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1253: 1243: 1240: 1236: 1235:Barakah plant 1232: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1200:nuclear waste 1197: 1193: 1188: 1185: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1167: 1165: 1161: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1132: 1127: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1105:United States 1104: 1103: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1082: 1079: 1074: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1055: 1053: 1052:core meltdown 1049: 1045: 1036: 1027: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1005: 1001: 1000: 999: 997: 992: 990: 986: 982: 978: 973: 970: 965: 961: 956: 954: 950: 946: 942: 934: 929: 925: 923: 919: 915: 911: 907: 903: 895: 891: 887: 883: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 860: 858: 854: 853:nuclear waste 850: 845: 837: 833: 829: 820: 818: 814: 813:NuScale Power 810: 806: 801: 799: 795: 790: 781: 779: 775: 771: 767: 763: 758: 756: 746: 742: 740: 735: 726: 724: 721:. Meanwhile, 720: 715: 710: 705: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 677: 675: 665: 661: 659: 655: 649: 647: 637: 633: 630: 625: 623: 619: 613: 611: 607: 606:steam turbine 602: 597: 593: 590: 589:steam turbine 582: 578: 574: 572: 567: 565: 559: 557: 553: 548: 546: 541: 536: 534: 533:Rankine cycle 530: 529:cooling tower 526: 525:steam turbine 522: 513: 509: 499: 496: 488: 477: 474: 470: 467: 463: 460: 456: 453: 449: 446: – 445: 441: 440:Find sources: 434: 430: 424: 423: 418:This section 416: 412: 407: 406: 393: 387: 384: 382: 379: 376: 375: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 344: 342: 339: 338: 337: 335: 330: 327: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 280: 277: 274: 273: 272: 270: 265: 264:Steam turbine 262: 260: 257: 255: 254:Cooling tower 252: 250: 247: 244: 243: 240: 236: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212:Fuel handling 211: 210: 209: 208: 199: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 160: 158: 152: 142: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 120: 116: 111: 109: 105: 99: 97: 93: 89: 85: 84:steam turbine 81: 77: 73: 70:in which the 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 46: 42: 38: 34: 30: 19: 7935: / 7809:Exploitation 7694:Conservation 7637:Desalination 7572: 7465:conservation 7300:Biodiversity 7248:conservation 7095:Agricultural 7023:Fossil fuels 6792:Net metering 6739:and policies 6657:Power outage 6626:Utility pole 6590:Pumped hydro 6496:distribution 6491:Transmission 6440:Cogeneration 6242:Power factor 6093: 6081: 6062: 6042:Pyroelectric 5996:Laser-driven 5776:Sodium (SFR) 5703:fast-neutron 5542: 5088: 4978:Reprocessing 4859:WMD treaties 4678:Radiosurgery 4648:Fast-neutron 4620:Scintigraphy 4526: 4049:Saudi Arabia 3913:South Africa 3625:. Retrieved 3621: 3612: 3567: 3563: 3538:. Retrieved 3534: 3525: 3513:. Retrieved 3509: 3500: 3488:. Retrieved 3484: 3475: 3463:. Retrieved 3459: 3435:. Retrieved 3431: 3422: 3410:. Retrieved 3406: 3397: 3385:. Retrieved 3373: 3364: 3339: 3335: 3325: 3313:. Retrieved 3310:USATODAY.COM 3309: 3300: 3277: 3258: 3252: 3219: 3215: 3205: 3178: 3174: 3164: 3152:. Retrieved 3148: 3139: 3127:. Retrieved 3122: 3113: 3102:the original 3097: 3093: 3080: 3070: 3062: 3043: 3039: 3026: 3018: 3007: 2982: 2978: 2972: 2962: 2954: 2934: 2927: 2910: 2905: 2891: 2879:. Retrieved 2869: 2857: 2849: 2841: 2833:the original 2823: 2811:. Retrieved 2806: 2797: 2779: 2771: 2757: 2746:the original 2732: 2723: 2710: 2696: 2651: 2647: 2620:. Retrieved 2616: 2607: 2589: 2577:. Retrieved 2558: 2552: 2542:12 September 2540:. Retrieved 2535:the original 2523: 2515:the original 2510: 2446: 2442: 2432: 2420:. Retrieved 2415: 2406: 2394:. Retrieved 2389: 2380: 2361: 2355: 2342: 2332: 2320:. Retrieved 2316: 2306: 2294:. Retrieved 2284: 2274: 2265: 2253: 2241:. Retrieved 2237: 2213:. Retrieved 2209:the original 2199: 2187:. Retrieved 2183: 2174: 2131: 2127: 2117: 2108: 2076:. Retrieved 2072: 2063: 2051:. Retrieved 2047: 2007: 1988:27 September 1986:. Retrieved 1982: 1973: 1964: 1955: 1945:25 September 1943:. Retrieved 1938: 1929: 1912: 1900:. Retrieved 1893: 1884: 1867: 1863: 1853: 1841:. Retrieved 1837:the original 1832: 1823: 1811:. Retrieved 1807:the original 1802: 1793: 1781:. Retrieved 1774:the original 1770:Nuclear News 1769: 1756: 1742: 1730:. Retrieved 1726: 1717: 1705:. Retrieved 1677: 1673: 1663: 1651:. Retrieved 1647: 1635: 1626: 1619:. Retrieved 1615: 1605: 1593:. Retrieved 1589: 1577: 1565:. Retrieved 1542: 1536: 1524:. Retrieved 1520: 1511: 1499:. Retrieved 1495:the original 1481: 1469:. Retrieved 1459: 1444: 1402: 1398: 1395:Fusion power 1376: 1369: 1361: 1342: 1318:Large-scale 1317: 1307:, including 1305:nuclear fuel 1286: 1276:and 1/75 of 1272:and 1/45 of 1255: 1228: 1212: 1189: 1168: 1164:nuclear fuel 1157: 1088: 1075: 1056: 1041: 1024: 1004:fossil fuels 993: 974: 957: 938: 899: 861: 841: 802: 791: 787: 759: 752: 743: 732: 706: 678: 671: 662: 650: 642: 626: 614: 598: 594: 586: 568: 560: 549: 537: 517: 491: 482: 472: 465: 458: 451: 439: 427:Please help 422:verification 419: 391: 333: 313:Nuclear fuel 288:Control rods 283:ion chambers 268: 196:Pennsylvania 176:Soviet Union 161: 154: 131:fossil fuels 112: 100: 74:source is a 63: 59: 55: 51: 49: 29: 7928:Nationalism 7900:Common-pool 7541:Hydrosphere 7534:remediation 7519:Groundwater 7114:Degradation 6787:Load factor 6642:Black start 6610:Transformer 6311:Natural gas 6262:Variability 6237:Peak demand 6227:Merit order 6157:Backfeeding 5953:Stellarator 5917:confinement 5811:Superphénix 5638:Molten-salt 5590:VHTR (HTGR) 5367:HW BLWR 250 5333:R4 Marviken 5262:Pressurized 5232:Heavy water 5216:many others 5145:Pressurized 5100:Light water 4802:underground 4760:Disarmament 4668:Tomotherapy 4663:Proton-beam 4527:Power plant 4489:Temperature 4322:Engineering 4219:(gradually) 4216:Switzerland 4182:Phasing-out 4039:Philippines 4034:North Korea 3943:Netherlands 3843:Switzerland 3751:South Korea 3535:www.news.cn 2579:10 November 2396:2 September 2296:28 November 2215:6 September 1961:"Condenser" 1783:20 December 1732:22 February 1707:20 December 1653:20 December 1621:28 December 1595:20 December 1567:20 December 1521:www.eia.gov 1274:natural gas 1138:Controversy 1061:, the 1986 989:Fukushima I 960:state-owned 784:Flexibility 739:radioactive 180:Calder Hall 135:natural gas 123:solar farms 92:electricity 7923:Extraction 7882:Wilderness 7843:accounting 7826:Management 7792:ecological 7780:tragedy of 7699:Peak water 7684:Efficiency 7657:Sanitation 7599:Stormwater 7592:harvesting 7568:Irrigation 7470:management 7428:gene banks 7369:management 7347:management 7263:resilience 7229:phosphorus 7185:industrial 7163:Management 7139:soundscape 7045:Geothermal 6829:production 6674:Protective 6605:Super grid 6600:Smart grid 6427:Generation 6361:Geothermal 6252:Repowering 5978:(acoustic) 5595:PBR (PBMR) 4983:Spent fuel 4973:Repository 4953:Fuel cycle 4920:Activation 4697:Processing 4564:Propulsion 4522:by country 4454:Activation 4097:Azerbaijan 4009:Kazakhstan 3974:Bangladesh 3222:: 107907. 2881:9 December 2813:1 November 2449:: 119275. 2422:31 October 2243:1 November 2069:"Grid Map" 1895:BBC Online 1870:(4): 5–7. 1813:1 November 1674:The Lancet 1467:. Iaea.org 1297:waste heat 1223:low-carbon 1208:technology 1124:Under the 935:in Romania 906:carbon tax 904:such as a 564:half-lives 562:different 455:newspapers 164:power grid 127:wind farms 108:fixed cost 7933:Renewable 7918:Depletion 7905:Conflict 7787:Economics 7765:enclosure 7724:Resources 7704:Pollution 7621:Watershed 7524:pollution 7455:Seed bank 7450:Rangeland 7332:Fisheries 7317:Biosphere 7310:biopiracy 7253:fertility 7129:cityscape 7124:Landscape 7031:peak coal 7018:Resources 6969:Emissions 6737:Economics 6460:Micro CHP 6338:Renewable 6321:Petroleum 6316:Oil shale 6202:Grid code 6162:Base load 5948:Spheromak 5647:Fluorides 5311:IPHWR-700 5306:IPHWR-540 5301:IPHWR-220 5090:Moderator 4770:Explosion 4745:Arms race 4532:Economics 4484:Reflector 4479:Radiation 4474:Generator 4429:Plutonium 4382:Deuterium 4347:Radiation 4317:Chemistry 4206:(already) 4193:(delayed) 4167:Venezuela 4152:Singapore 4127:Lithuania 4087:Australia 4054:Sri Lanka 3994:Indonesia 3873:Argentina 3604:2058-7546 3382:0013-0613 3244:0306-4549 3197:2296-598X 3012:Jim Green 2688:2058-7546 2622:17 August 2489:249223353 2481:0306-2619 2166:2058-7546 1876:1564-2690 1471:17 August 1437:Footnotes 1328:Fukushima 1324:Chernobyl 1239:Abu Dhabi 1091:insurance 964:regulated 949:Cernavodă 823:Economics 485:June 2019 249:Condenser 188:plutonium 174:, in the 104:base load 88:generator 7980:Category 7959:Category 7892:Resource 7831:adaptive 7729:improved 7689:Conflict 7674:Security 7669:Scarcity 7662:improved 7652:Leaching 7529:recharge 7509:Drinking 7460:Wildlife 7327:Bushmeat 7322:Bushfood 7275:planning 7180:gemstone 7175:Minerals 7156:property 7144:viewshed 7134:seascape 7065:sunlight 7039:peak oil 7035:peak gas 6860:Category 6647:Brownout 6435:AC power 6145:Concepts 6083:Category 6037:Polywell 5968:Inertial 5925:Magnetic 5680:TMSR-LF1 5675:TMSR-500 5655:Fuji MSR 5615:THTR-300 5455:Graphite 5318:PHWR KWU 5284:ACR-1000 5212:IPWR-900 5195:ACPR1000 5190:HPR-1000 5180:CPR-1000 5155:APR-1400 4946:Disposal 4898:Actinide 4891:Products 4750:Delivery 4593:Medicine 4422:depleted 4417:enriched 4387:Helium-3 4352:ionizing 4147:Portugal 4132:Malaysia 4059:Thailand 3948:Slovenia 3908:Slovakia 3888:Bulgaria 3838:Pakistan 3653:Archived 3627:11 March 3540:11 March 3515:11 March 3490:11 March 3465:11 March 3437:11 March 3412:11 March 3387:11 March 3315:11 March 3154:11 March 3129:1 August 3069:(2007). 2961:(2009). 2915:Archived 2848:(1982). 2846:Jim Falk 2807:iaea.org 2765:Archived 2566:. 2003. 2347:Archived 2189:11 March 2078:14 March 2053:11 March 1843:5 August 1702:25504602 1694:17876910 1501:June 21, 1420:See also 1048:enriched 945:Bulgaria 894:Eurajoki 690:Slovakia 556:isotopes 545:turbines 133:such as 121:such as 7760:Commons 7749:Related 7714:Quality 7630:Aspects 7556:glacial 7497:Aquifer 7403:Pasture 7354:Forests 7280:reserve 7055:Nuclear 7025: ( 6981:Trading 6976:Airshed 6676:devices 6386:Thermal 6381:Osmotic 6376:Current 6356:Biomass 6346:Biofuel 6328:Nuclear 6285:Sources 6095:Commons 6006:Z-pinch 5976:Bubble 5958:Tokamak 5821:FBR-600 5801:CFR-600 5796:BN-1200 5462:coolant 5389:Organic 5274:CANDU 9 5271:CANDU 6 5239:coolant 5200:ACP1000 5175:CAP1400 5113:Boiling 5078:Fission 4925:Fission 4869:Weapons 4809:Warfare 4792:Testing 4782:History 4775:effects 4730:Weapons 4640:Therapy 4615:RadBall 4602:Imaging 4494:Thermal 4459:Capture 4446:Neutron 4434:Thorium 4412:Uranium 4377:Tritium 4357:braking 4337:Fission 4327:Physics 4310:Science 4198:Germany 4190:Belgium 4172:Vietnam 4112:Ireland 4107:Georgia 4092:Austria 4064:Tunisia 4029:Nigeria 4024:Myanmar 4019:Morocco 3969:Algeria 3964:Albania 3957:Planned 3933:Armenia 3903:Romania 3893:Hungary 3878:Belarus 3833:Germany 3828:Finland 3783:Belgium 3756:Ukraine 3719:> 10 3572:Bibcode 3344:Bibcode 3292:7193124 3224:Bibcode 2987:Bibcode 2922:, p. 7. 2772:uvm.edu 2656:Bibcode 2451:Bibcode 2266:uxc.com 2136:Bibcode 1965:NRC Web 1902:1 April 1322:, like 1313:thorium 1309:uranium 1282:HPR1000 1148:Pripyat 1110:nuclear 953:Romania 880:Finland 878:. Only 770:Rosatom 698:Hungary 694:Belgium 686:Ukraine 608:driven 552:uranium 469:scholar 401:Systems 293:Coolant 182:in the 172:Obninsk 145:History 66:) is a 7770:global 7734:policy 7679:Supply 7642:Floods 7609:Sewage 7582:Marine 7574:huerta 7408:Plants 7398:Meadow 7258:health 7236:rights 7224:copper 7202:mining 7100:arable 7000:Energy 6940:Indoor 6371:Marine 6351:Biogas 5906:Fusion 5866:Others 5806:Phénix 5791:BN-800 5786:BN-600 5781:BN-350 5610:HTR-PM 5605:HTR-10 5585:UHTREX 5550:Magnox 5545:(UNGG) 5438:Lucens 5433:KS 150 5170:ATMEA1 5150:AP1000 5133:Kerena 5013:Debate 4765:Ethics 4755:Design 4738:Topics 4569:rocket 4547:Fusion 4542:Policy 4504:Fusion 4464:Poison 4342:Fusion 4224:Taiwan 4162:Taiwan 4117:Kuwait 4069:Turkey 4044:Poland 4004:Jordan 3999:Israel 3926:< 1 3898:Mexico 3883:Brazil 3866:> 1 3848:Taiwan 3816:> 2 3798:Sweden 3776:> 5 3746:Russia 3736:France 3726:Canada 3602: 3380: 3290: 3265: 3242: 3195: 2942: 2686: 2570: 2487: 2479: 2368: 2322:29 May 2164: 2023: 1874: 1700: 1692: 1558: 1526:29 May 1295:, and 941:Belene 714:Russia 696:, and 682:France 471: 464: 457: 450: 442: 392: 166:, the 45:Brazil 7913:Curse 7719:Right 7561:polar 7551:bergs 7514:Fresh 7482:Water 7195:metal 7119:Field 7070:shade 7060:Solar 7050:Hydro 6935:Index 6728:(GFI) 6617:(TSO) 6403:Solar 6391:Tidal 6366:Hydro 6027:Migma 6015:Other 5984:Fusor 5883:Piqua 5878:Arbus 5836:PRISM 5578:MHR-T 5573:GTMHR 5503:EGP-6 5498:AMB-X 5473:Water 5418:HWGCR 5357:HWLWR 5296:IPHWR 5267:CANDU 5128:ESBWR 4883:Waste 4847:Tests 4830:Lists 4814:Yield 4557:MMRTG 4514:Power 4211:Spain 4203:Italy 4157:Syria 4122:Libya 4014:Kenya 3989:Ghana 3984:Egypt 3979:Chile 3793:Spain 3788:India 3741:Japan 3731:China 3105:(PDF) 3090:(PDF) 3036:(PDF) 2789:(PDF) 2749:(PDF) 2742:(PDF) 2720:(PDF) 2599:(PDF) 2485:S2CID 2317:Power 2262:(PDF) 2105:(PDF) 1777:(PDF) 1766:(PDF) 1698:S2CID 1644:(PDF) 1586:(PDF) 1270:solar 981:Japan 723:China 702:Japan 583:(PWR) 514:(BWR) 476:JSTOR 462:books 239:CANDU 80:steam 58:) or 7848:good 7797:land 7775:land 7587:Rain 7443:wood 7418:food 7381:Game 7292:Life 7243:Soil 7219:peak 7212:sand 7087:Land 7077:Wind 6952:(US) 6929:(US) 6494:and 6413:Wind 6396:Wave 6306:Coal 5843:Lead 5826:CEFR 5816:PFBR 5698:None 5508:RBMK 5493:AM-1 5423:EL-4 5397:WR-1 5379:AHWR 5323:MZFR 5291:CVTR 5280:AFCR 5207:VVER 5165:APWR 5160:APR+ 5123:ABWR 4993:cask 4988:pool 4930:LLFP 4819:TNTe 4499:Fast 4369:Fuel 4142:Peru 4137:Oman 4102:Cuba 3938:Iran 3629:2024 3600:ISSN 3542:2024 3517:2024 3492:2024 3467:2024 3439:2024 3414:2024 3389:2024 3378:ISSN 3317:2024 3288:OSTI 3263:ISBN 3240:ISSN 3193:ISSN 3156:2024 3131:2020 2940:ISBN 2883:2009 2815:2015 2684:ISSN 2624:2021 2581:2006 2568:ISBN 2544:2010 2477:ISSN 2424:2022 2398:2022 2366:ISBN 2324:2019 2298:2018 2279:D.C. 2245:2015 2217:2013 2191:2024 2162:ISSN 2080:2024 2055:2024 2021:ISBN 1990:2017 1947:2008 1904:2012 1872:ISSN 1845:2021 1815:2015 1785:2021 1734:2022 1709:2021 1690:PMID 1655:2021 1623:2021 1597:2021 1569:2021 1556:ISBN 1528:2024 1503:2008 1473:2023 1409:DEMO 1405:ITER 1346:Asia 1278:coal 1266:wind 1158:The 851:and 842:The 762:wear 599:The 538:The 448:news 237:and 235:RBMK 139:coal 137:and 125:and 72:heat 7647:Law 7546:Ice 7386:law 7364:law 7342:law 7270:Use 7207:law 7190:ore 7151:Law 7027:gas 7013:Law 7008:Bio 6945:Law 6910:Air 5915:by 5831:PFR 5622:PMR 5600:AVR 5522:Gas 5460:by 5428:KKN 5362:ATR 5277:EC6 5237:by 5185:EPR 5118:BWR 3853:UAE 3590:hdl 3580:doi 3352:doi 3232:doi 3220:151 3183:doi 3123:CNN 3048:doi 2995:doi 2674:hdl 2664:doi 2467:hdl 2459:doi 2447:320 2152:hdl 2144:doi 2048:IEA 2013:doi 1682:doi 1678:370 1548:doi 1326:or 1311:or 1231:UAE 979:in 962:or 951:in 943:in 908:or 892:in 618:BWR 431:by 194:in 64:APS 56:NPP 39:in 7982:: 7037:, 7033:, 7029:, 5565:He 5531:CO 5407:CO 5328:R3 3922:GW 3862:GW 3812:GW 3771:GW 3714:GW 3620:. 3598:. 3588:. 3578:. 3566:. 3562:. 3550:^ 3533:. 3508:. 3483:. 3458:. 3447:^ 3430:. 3405:. 3376:. 3372:. 3350:. 3340:36 3338:. 3334:. 3308:. 3238:. 3230:. 3218:. 3214:. 3191:. 3181:. 3179:11 3177:. 3173:. 3147:. 3121:. 3098:26 3096:. 3092:. 3042:. 3038:. 3014:. 2993:. 2983:36 2981:. 2805:. 2722:. 2682:. 2672:. 2662:. 2650:. 2646:. 2632:^ 2615:. 2562:. 2509:. 2497:^ 2483:. 2475:. 2465:. 2457:. 2445:. 2441:. 2414:. 2388:. 2345:. 2341:. 2315:. 2264:. 2236:. 2225:^ 2182:. 2160:. 2150:. 2142:. 2130:. 2126:. 2107:. 2088:^ 2071:. 2046:. 2035:^ 2019:. 1998:^ 1981:. 1963:. 1937:. 1892:. 1868:54 1862:. 1831:. 1801:. 1768:. 1725:. 1696:. 1688:. 1676:. 1672:. 1646:. 1625:. 1614:. 1588:. 1554:. 1519:. 1489:. 1291:, 1073:. 859:. 692:, 688:, 660:. 612:. 535:. 50:A 43:, 7041:) 6894:e 6887:t 6880:v 6130:e 6123:t 6116:v 5705:) 5701:( 5533:2 5485:O 5483:2 5481:H 5409:2 5349:O 5347:2 5345:H 5254:O 5252:2 5250:D 4291:e 4284:t 4277:v 3924:e 3864:e 3814:e 3773:e 3716:e 3698:e 3691:t 3684:v 3631:. 3606:. 3592:: 3582:: 3574:: 3568:8 3544:. 3519:. 3494:. 3469:. 3441:. 3416:. 3391:. 3358:. 3354:: 3346:: 3319:. 3294:. 3271:. 3246:. 3234:: 3226:: 3199:. 3185:: 3158:. 3133:. 3056:. 3050:: 3044:2 3001:. 2997:: 2989:: 2948:. 2885:. 2864:. 2817:. 2726:. 2690:. 2676:: 2666:: 2658:: 2652:8 2626:. 2583:. 2546:. 2491:. 2469:: 2461:: 2453:: 2426:. 2400:. 2374:. 2326:. 2300:. 2247:. 2219:. 2193:. 2168:. 2154:: 2146:: 2138:: 2132:8 2111:. 2082:. 2057:. 2029:. 2015:: 1992:. 1967:. 1949:. 1906:. 1878:. 1847:. 1817:. 1787:. 1736:. 1711:. 1684:: 1657:. 1599:. 1571:. 1550:: 1530:. 1505:. 1475:. 1453:. 1116:. 1006:. 838:. 498:) 492:( 487:) 483:( 473:· 466:· 459:· 452:· 425:. 62:( 54:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.