478:. Working in combination with the New Left Zengakuren "sects," Zenkyо̄tо̄ activists barricaded university campuses, occupied university buildings, halted classes, harassed administrators and professors, and made a variety demands, from concrete proposals for improving campus life to more abstract demands relating to ending the war in Vietnam and overthrowing the Japanese economic and political system. Activists regularly battled against police and each other on campus grounds, donning distinctive colored helmets so that they could recognize fellow members. In late 1968, at the zenith of the movement, tens of thousands of activists occupied
221:
93:
120:." This policy proved to be an unmitigated disaster for the JCP, which completely reversed itself by 1955, disavowing the violence and in part blaming it on the student activists themselves. This volte-face enraged many student activists, who began to increasingly question whether they should continue to follow the orders of the JCP.
292:. Above all, the passive role played by the JCP and other "Old Left" groups involved in the protest movement convinced a younger generation of activists to break free from what they saw as the stifling hierarchy and soul-crushing conformity of Old Left organizations to establish new forms of radical activism.
279:
The Anpo protests had a splintering effect on the student movement, as heated disagreements over who was to blame for the failure to stop the treaty led to infighting and recriminations. The first open splits within
Zengakuren occurred in the immediate aftermath, and thereafter the previously unified
609:
and forced it to fly to North Korea, which the hijackers believed to be a
Socialist paradise. Other members of the group carried out a string of high-profile bank robberies in 1971. However, a schism arose within the group over how best to continue their armed struggle. Those that wanted to relocate
597:
Together the twin defeats of the campus struggles in 1969 and the Anpo protests in 1970 led to a renewed round of recriminations and schisms, as New Left groups further split into dozens of warring factions amidst even more violent internal conflict. From 1969 to 2003, from 1 to 4 people died every
581:
to secure an abrogation of the US-Japan
Security Treaty. Throughout the decade of the 1960s, New Left activists had looked forward to the end of the revised treaty's initial 10-year term in 1970 as an opportunity to try to persuade the Japanese government to abrogate the treaty. In 1970, following
404:
but repulsed by the endless ideological hair-splitting and internecine violence of the New Left sects, sought to establish new types of movements that would be free of hierarchy and open to all, regardless of ideological orientation. In 1965, a group of intellectuals associated with philosopher
653:
Together the Asama
Mountain Lodge Incident and the Lod Airport Massacre have often been portrayed as an end point of Japan's New Left movement, as these extreme actions shocked the Japanese people and led to mass desertions from the remaining sects. However, the New Left sects did not entirely
259:
Finally on June 15, 1960, at the climax of the protests, the radical student activists once again smashing their way into the Diet compound to show their anger at the Treaty. This time, however, they were met by hundreds of police armed with truncheons, who attempted to force them back out,
598:
year as the result of internal conflict between New Left groups. With more moderate activists increasingly dropping out of the movement, control of the New Left sects was increasingly left in the hands of the most extreme radicals, some of whom ultimately resorted to terrorism.
248:
compound, where they proceeded to dance and sing protest songs for several hours before disbanding peacefully. This "violent" action drew condemnation from the JCP and other members of the nationwide coalition organized to protest the
Security Treaty.
271:, the Anpo protests failed to stop the revision of the Security Treaty, which took effect on June 19, 1960, bringing the protest movement to an end and sowing dissention and disillusionment among the ranks of the radical student activists.
428:," abbreviated Zenkyо̄tо̄ in Japanese, that any student or faculty member could join, regardless of ideological or party affiliation, for the purposes of carrying out joint struggles against university administrations and the Vietnam War.
486:. All told, some 165 university campuses witnessed significant protest activity in 1968 and 1969, and around 70 campuses were barricaded against police intrusion, with additional protests taking place at a large number of high schools.
565:). Meanwhile, as the violence on campuses spiraled out of control, leading to university closures and the cancellation of entrance examinations, public opinion turned against the student activists. In 1969, the passage of the
197:
chairman of the entire
Zengakuren organization and redirect the federation's protests toward more confrontational "direct action," over and against the wishes of the JCP and the JCP-linked "anti-mainstream faction"
654:
disappear after 1972. For example, remnants of Chūkaku-ha and
Kakumaru-ha waged a violent war against each other in the 1970s, resulting in several deaths per year, and New Left sects continued to carry out the
304:
63:
1597:
308:
1397:
295:
Immediately following the defeat of the protests, the Bund split into three warring factions and then dissolved. In 1961, the JCP's own "Structural Reform" faction, led by
185:
By
November, 1959, the Bund and the Kakukyōdō-affiliated students had gained control of approximately 60% of the Zengakuren jichikai, becoming the "mainstream faction" (
1689:
566:
618:, while those who wished to continue the revolution at home in Japan joined forces with the Kanagawa prefectural branch of the Revolutionary Left Faction to form the
139:" circulated around the world and had a great impact on Communist-affiliated youth and student organizations. Then in the fall, the Soviets brutally suppressed the
413:," abbreviated Beheiren in Japanese, to allow ordinary citizens a space to protest against the Vietnam war without becoming involved in arcane doctrinal disputes.
252:
The radical student activists were undeterred however, and in
January 1960, organized a sit-in in Tokyo's Haneda Airport to try to physically block Prime Minister
104:(the "All-Japan Federation of Student Self-Government Associations") that same year. However at least initially, Zengakuren remained firmly under the sway of the
319:. In 1966, the Kansai Bund merged with some other splinter groups to re-form the Communist League as a nationwide organization, which came to be nicknamed the "
194:
1592:
260:
precipitating a bloody struggle that lasted for many hours, long into the night. It was during this violent confrontation that female Bund activist
1518:
312:
135:." This speech went unreported in official Party organs, so the Stalinist Japanese Communist Party did not offer any reaction. But copies of this "
280:
nationwide student federation rapidly disintegrated into numerous warring factions, paving the way for the rise of the radical New Left "sects" (
132:
634:
decamped to the Middle East and promptly embarked on a campaign of international terrorism that lasted well into the 1980s, beginning with the
569:
gave police the legal basis to smash through the barricades, enter campuses, and restore order, dealing a harsh blow to the New Left movement.
1329:
1362:
646:
sessions before remaining members engaged in a dramatic hostage standoff with police broadcast live on national television in the 1972
437:
334:
Among many others, these five "sects" and a dizzying array of additional factions and sub-factions descended into a "season of schisms"
71:
1661:
154:
in
Japanese) by dissident student activists breaking free from the JCP, under the guidance of the charismatic half-blind philosopher
50:, adopted a more radical political stance compared to the established "Old Left," which in the case of Japan was emblematized by the
1407:
583:
289:
1301:
174:
Over the course of 1959, the Bund and Kakukyōdō worked in concert to seize control of the Zengakuren-member student associations (
1412:
267:
However, despite helping bring about the resignation of Kishi and the cancellation of a planned visit to Japan by U.S. President
1751:
529:) were based on his critique of the progressive liberal interpretations of these ideas by other Japanese intellectuals such as
1651:
1245:
643:
1587:
182:) at colleges and universities across Japan, in some cases, Bund leaders later confessed, by rigging leadership elections.
147:
74:. Much like its counterparts in the West, in the 1970s, the Japanese New Left became known for violent internal splits and
1827:
1822:
1200:
662:
well into the 1980s, with vestigial remnants of some sects such as Chūkaku-ha continuing to exist to the present day.
554:
311:, known best by its Japanese abbreviation "Kakumaru-ha." In 1965, the Socialist Party's Youth Alliance developed a "
299:, was expelled from the party, and the Zengakuren activists loyal to Kasuga formed the "Structural Reform" faction (
1513:
1422:
1417:
220:
117:
1322:
442:
In 1968 and 1969, student protests forced the closure of dozens of university campuses nationwide. Known as the
166:). In later years, these two groups would retroactively be viewed as early precursors to the New Left in Japan.
1387:
1147:
1000:
320:
541:
in particular would lead ultimately to the disintegration of their movement, as they focused increasingly on "
232:
from calling for a vote on extending the Diet Session, while being restrained by police officers, May 19, 1960
158:. Then in December 1958, another group of Trotskyist dissidents split from the Communist Party to form the
140:
1817:
400:
By the second half of the 1960s, many left-leaning activists, galvanized by Japan's support of America's
108:(JCP), having been founded with JCP urging and assistance. However, in 1950, in response to criticism by
100:
From 1948, Japan had a powerful, centralized, nationwide student movement thanks to the establishment of
1812:
1315:
241:
1402:
1377:
606:
1582:
1523:
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51:
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642:
retreated into the mountains north of Tokyo where they murdered twelve of their own members in
1256:
1727:
225:
105:
55:
1392:
635:
268:
113:
264:
was killed, shocking the nation and helping to precipitate the fall of the Kishi cabinet.
8:
1684:
374:), as student radicals armed themselves with colorful helmets and wooden staves known as
296:
75:
1779:
1443:
1357:
1276:
1166:
1142:
655:
155:
143:, sowing further confusion and disillusionment among the worldwide Communist movement.
590:
held a series of protest marches against the Security Treaty. However, prime minister
1528:
1488:
1280:
1241:
1196:
996:
631:
611:
594:
opted to ignore the protests completely and allow the treaty to automatically renew.
510:
244:, Bund and Kakukyōdō members led Zengakuren students to smash their way into Japan's
124:
43:
382:
or "volence sticks" and battled each other at least as much as they battled police.
1679:
1636:
1631:
1468:
1268:
1156:
615:
502:
489:
The New Left activists of 1968-1969 drew ideological inspiration from the works of
479:
475:
406:
1257:"Professor Aoki when he was interested in dynamic processes in the market economy"
229:
1533:
1231:
1211:
1186:
639:
619:
416:
Then in 1967, university students, inspired by the writings of activists such as
1593:
Japan Revolutionary Communist League, National Committee (Central Core Faction)
1483:
659:
421:
253:
92:
1272:
591:
577:
A second major blow to the New Left movements in Japan was the failure of the
305:
Japan Revolutionary Communist League, National Committee (Middle Core Faction)
1806:
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1438:
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1352:
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261:
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67:
59:
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146:
These developments led directly to the formation in 1957 of the Trotskyist
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623:
542:
401:
1170:
1772:
1656:
1556:
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101:
87:
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494:
128:
1598:
Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Revolutionary Marxist Faction)
1307:
309:
Japan Revolutionary Communist League (Revolutionary Marxist Faction)
1646:
1551:
1212:"The Japanese Student Movement in the Cold War Crucible, 1945-1972"
587:
586:, a number of New Left sects and the anti-Vietnam War organization
410:
391:
47:
1398:
Bombing of the Fusetsu no Gunzo and Institute of Northern Cultures
917:
307:, better known by its Japanese abbreviation "Chūkaku-ha," and the
1463:
1143:"Sons, Daughters, and Patriarchy: Gender and the 1968 Generation"
490:
193:) and making them strong enough to elect charismatic Bund member
116:
in Japan, ordering student activists into the mountains to form "
1641:
533:, whom he denounced as hypocritical. The students' devotion to
509:, and the homegrown philosophy of the Japanese poet and critic
66:, the movement grew and diversified before climaxing with the
1048:
929:
39:
1188:
Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo
815:
256:
from traveling to Washington, D.C. to sign the new treaty.
228:
Diet members attempt to prevent Speaker of the Lower House
162:, better known by its German-inspired nickname "The Bund" (
1690:
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
567:
Act on Temporary Measures concerning University Management
1096:
1094:
890:
315:" (Kaihо̄-Ha) that rejected Trotskyism and advocated for
1233:
Education Reform in Japan: A Case of Immobilist Politics
878:
866:
854:
46:
movements that, like their counterparts in the Western
1038:
1036:
953:
776:
749:
725:
677:
474:, "university struggles"), the protests were part of a
72:
barricaded dozens of Japanese universities in 1968–1969
1118:
1091:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1009:
842:
832:
830:
805:
803:
766:
764:
385:
941:
601:
On March 31, 1970, nine members of the Second Bund's
409:'s "Science of Thought" study group established the "
112:, the JCP embarked on a course of immediate, violent
1079:
1033:
965:
788:
1106:
1060:
1021:
827:
800:
761:
701:
689:
303:) of Zengakuren. In 1963 Kakukyōdō split into the
737:
713:
78:, which caused the movement's influence to wane.
16:Diverse array of 1960s Japanese leftist movements
1804:
1552:Beheiren (Citizen's League for Peace in Vietnam)
1519:Japan Socialist Youth League, Liberation Faction
431:
224:A scrum at the rostrum of the National Diet, as
169:
1261:Evolutionary and Institutional Economics Review
352:characterized by internecine violence known as
343:
133:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences
31:
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451:
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25:
1323:
513:. Yoshimoto's interpretation of "autonomy" (
368:
360:(literally, "internal violence," borrowing "
42:refers to a diverse array of 1960s Japanese
457:
1330:
1316:
911:Zengakuren: Japan's Revolutionary Students
501:, French existentialist philosophers like
1160:
913:. Berkeley: Ishi Press. pp. 253–254.
209:
123:Another blow came in February 1956, when
1408:1974 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries bombing
1302:Legacy of 1960 protest movement lives on
1254:
959:
288:) that would play a leading role in the
219:
91:
1413:1974 French Embassy attack in The Hague
1229:
947:
58:. After emerging in the lead-up to the
1805:
1363:1968–1969 Japanese university protests
908:
438:1968–1969 Japanese university protests
1337:
1311:
1219:The Asia Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
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411:Citizen's League for Peace in Vietnam
236:On November 27, 1959, as part of the
1588:Japan Revolutionary Communist League
983:
426:All-Campus Joint Struggle Committees
290:1968–69 Japanese university protests
274:
96:Zengakuren protestors in Tokyo, 1968
572:
386:The rise of Beheiren and Zenkyо̄tо̄
13:
995:] (in Japanese). Tokyo: 筑摩書房.
14:
1839:
1295:
118:mountain village guerrilla squads
1514:East Asia Anti-Japan Armed Front
1418:1975 AIA building hostage crisis
424:and others, began establishing "
1230:Schoppa, Leonard James (2002).
977:
902:
476:worldwide protest cycle in 1968
1388:Bombing of the Soji-ji Ossuary
1148:The American Historical Review
240:against proposed revision the
148:Revolutionary Communist League
1:
1210:Kapur, Nick (July 15, 2022).
926:, pp. 134, 149–150, 251.
665:
648:Asama Mountain Lodge Incident
584:1968-1969 university protests
432:1968–1969 university protests
170:Seizing control of Zengakuren
1255:Shiozawa, Yoshinori (2017).
670:
482:in what became known as the
7:
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524:
516:
463:
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355:
344:
326:
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201:
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32:
10:
1844:
1828:Far-left politics in Japan
1823:Political history of Japan
1752:Children of the Revolution
1662:Women's liberation (Japan)
1134:
909:Dowsey, Stuart J. (1970).
460:'university troubles") or
435:
389:
242:U.S.-Japan Security Treaty
213:
85:
81:
64:U.S.-Japan Security Treaty
1762:
1709:
1702:
1670:
1617:
1610:
1573:
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1504:
1497:
1431:
1423:Japan Airlines Flight 472
1403:Japan Airlines Flight 404
1378:Japan Airlines Flight 351
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1273:10.1007/s40844-017-0083-4
658:against the expansion of
607:Japan Airlines Flight 351
470:
452:
338:
26:
1583:Communist League (Japan)
1193:Harvard University Press
988:
938:, pp. 155, 168–169.
638:in 1972. Meanwhile, the
52:Japanese Communist Party
1703:Representation in media
1373:Folk guerrilla concerts
1141:Evans, Sara M. (2009).
1057:, p. 151, 166–167.
1720:Night and Fog in Japan
1627:Ainu Revolution Theory
521:) and "subjectivity" (
369:
233:
210:The 1960 Anpo protests
97:
1728:Ecstasy of the Angels
1162:10.1086/ahr.114.2.331
984:Suga, Hidemi (2006).
824:, p. 20-21, 147.
226:Japan Socialist Party
223:
206:) of the Zengakuren.
106:Japan Communist Party
95:
56:Japan Socialist Party
1393:Lod Airport massacre
1383:Asama-Sansō incident
1185:Kapur, Nick (2018).
899:, pp. 132, 150.
636:Lod Airport Massacre
610:overseas became the
582:the collapse of the
269:Dwight D. Eisenhower
141:Hungarian Revolution
114:communist revolution
1685:Anti-Stalinist left
887:, pp. 148–149.
875:, pp. 150–152.
863:, pp. 147–150.
785:, pp. 152–153.
758:, pp. 13, 146.
734:, pp. 128–129.
686:, pp. 144–145.
346:bunretsu no kisetsu
127:secretly denounced
1818:Socialism in Japan
1780:Hear the Wind Sing
1358:Sanrizuka Struggle
656:Sanrizuka Struggle
579:1970 Anpo protests
366:" from the German
313:Liberation Faction
234:
98:
60:1960 Anpo protests
1813:New Left in Japan
1800:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1698:
1697:
1606:
1605:
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1529:Japanese Red Army
1489:Takaaki Yoshimoto
1339:New Left in Japan
1304:- The Japan Times
1247:978-1-134-86516-1
1191:. Cambridge, MA:
1127:, pp. 18–19.
1103:, pp. 17–18.
1018:, pp. 13–14.
632:Japanese Red Army
612:Japanese Red Army
511:Takaaki Yoshimoto
275:Post-Anpo schisms
125:Nikita Khrushchev
1835:
1765:
1712:
1707:
1706:
1680:Anti-Americanism
1673:
1637:Anti-Japaneseism
1632:Anti-imperialism
1620:
1615:
1614:
1576:
1559:
1545:
1524:Red Army Faction
1507:
1502:
1501:
1469:Fusako Shigenobu
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851:, p. 30-33.
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616:Shigenobu Fusako
603:Red Army Faction
573:1970s and beyond
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527:
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503:Jean-Paul Sartre
480:Shinjuku Station
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407:Shunsuke Tsurumi
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160:Communist League
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1506:Insurrectionary
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620:United Red Army
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493:theorists like
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390:Main articles:
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156:Kan'ichi Kuroda
131:in his speech "
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70:movement which
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1544:Multi-tendency
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1807:Categories
1764:Literature
1657:Trotskyism
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1459:Makoto Oda
1125:Kapur 2022
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666:References
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102:Zengakuren
88:Zengakuren
1281:158246477
1238:Routledge
1176:April 15,
671:Citations
622:, led by
614:, led by
605:hijacked
537:shutaisei
525:shutaisei
495:Karl Marx
356:uchi-geba
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189:shūryū-ha
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1286:July 14,
1171:30223782
986:1968-Nen
588:Beheiren
396:Zenkyōtō
392:Beheiren
178:jichikai
68:Zenkyōtō
48:New Left
21:New Left
1464:Ryū Ōta
1135:Sources
553:) and "
491:Marxist
378:gebabо̄
82:Origins
44:leftist
1755:(2010)
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1731:(1972)
1723:(1960)
1642:Maoism
1498:Groups
1346:Events
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561:hansei
370:gewalt
284:sekuto
1277:S2CID
1225:(14).
1215:(PDF)
1167:JSTOR
991:[
989:1968年
339:分裂の季節
164:Bunto
40:Japan
1711:Film
1288:2021
1242:ISBN
1197:ISBN
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993:1968
626:and
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471:大学闘争
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453:大学紛争
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1269:doi
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