Mongol Empire - Knowledge

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the city of Hamadan in modern-day Iran was destroyed and every man, woman, and child executed by Mongol general Subadai, after surrendering to him but failing to have enough provisions for his Mongol scouting force. Several days after the initial razing of the city, Subadai sent a force back to the burning ruins and the site of the massacre to kill any inhabitants of the city who had been away at the time of the initial slaughter and had returned in the meantime. Mongol armies made use of local peoples and their soldiers, often incorporating them into their armies. Prisoners of war sometimes were given the choice between death and becoming part of the Mongol army to aid in future conquests. Due to the brutal methods employed to subdue their subjects, Mongols maintained long lasting resentment from those they conquered. This resentment towards the Mongol rule has been highlighted as a cause for the empire's rapid fracturing. In addition to intimidation tactics, the rapid expansion of the empire was facilitated by military hardiness (especially during bitterly cold winters), military skill, meritocracy, and discipline.

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and settled populations should not be destroyed. To these simple practitioners of the open-air life the settled populations seemed corrupt, crowded, vicious, effeminate, dangerous, and incomprehensible; a detestable human efflorescence upon what would otherwise have been good pasture. They had no use whatever for the towns. **** But it was only under Hulagu in Mesopotamia that these ideas seem to have been embodied in a deliberate policy. The Mongols here did not only burn and massacre; they destroyed the irrigation system that had endured for at least eight thousand years, and with that the mother civilization of all the Western world came to an end.

12057: 2914: 3145: 1943:, news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion. As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend the kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year. Today researchers doubt that Ögedei's death was the sole reason for the Mongols withdrawal. Batu did not return to Mongolia, so a new khan was not elected until 1246. Climatic and environmental factors, as well as the strong fortifications and castles of Europe, played an important role in the Mongols' decision to withdraw. 3103: 2720: 12420: 1968: 3312: 12396: 1322: 1718: 71: 2266: 2840:(r. 1309–1318) was enthroned as khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ögedei's descendants and driving Chapar into exile. The Yuan and Ilkhanid armies eventually attacked the Chagatai Khanate. Recognising the potential economic benefits and the Genghisid legacy, Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan in 1326. He strengthened ties with the Muslim world as well, building mosques and other elaborate structures such as baths. By the second decade of the 14th century, Mongol invasions had further decreased. In 1323, 3657: 2474: 3959:

invasion, the territories of the Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported that China's total population was roughly 60 million. While it is tempting to attribute this major decline in China's population solely to Mongol ferocity, today scholars have mixed opinions about this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to keep records rather than a

2533: 5008: 2682:, the Chatagai ruler Duwa initiated a peace proposal and persuaded the Ögedeids to submit to Temür Khan. In 1304, all of the khanates approved a peace treaty and accepted Yuan emperor Temür's supremacy. This established the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty over the western khanates, which was to last for several decades. This supremacy was based on weaker foundations than that of the earlier Khagans and each of the four khanates continued to develop separately and function as independent states. 3434: 2648: 12477: 2088: 2401: 1203: 2182: 1532: 1990: 2691:, and international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe. Communication between the Yuan dynasty in China and the Ilkhanate in Persia further encouraged trade and commerce between east and west. Patterns of Yuan royal textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning Armenian decorations; trees and vegetables were transplanted across the empire; and technological innovations spread from Mongol dominions toward the West. 2802: 1483: 3251: 1625:, Liu Heima (劉黑馬, Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the Newly Submitted Army 新附軍. 3426: 2675:, greatly weakened the authority of the great khan over the entirety of the Mongol Empire and the empire fractured into autonomous khanates, the Yuan dynasty and the three western khanates: the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate and the Ilkhanate. Only the Ilkhanate remained loyal to the Yuan court but endured its own power struggle, in part because of a dispute with the growing Islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire. 3942: 12432: 3791: 2882: 2709: 3696:'s family. As the empire grew, any merchants or ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization received protection and sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing overland trade and resulting in some dramatic stories of those who travelled through what would become known as the 12460: 12408: 1191: 1368:

regarded Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance. War ensued, and Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the

3937:. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, from where it rapidly spread. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75–200 million with up to 50 million deaths in Europe alone. 2080:, the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Güyük's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastward at the time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum-Senggir (Hong-siang-yi-eulh) in 4989: 2790:(r. 1299–1304), the khan of the White Horde. Bayan, after receiving military support from the Mongols in Rus, requested assistance from both Temür Khan and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack against Kaidu's forces. Temür was amenable and attacked Kaidu a year later. After a bloody battle with Temür's armies near the 8266:"Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: a Little-Known Case of Transmission", in : Yvonne Dold-Samplonius, Joseph W. Dauben, Menso Folkerts & Benno van Dalen, éds., From China to Paris. 2000 Years Transmission of Mathematical Ideas. Series: Boethius 46, Stuttgart (Steiner), 2002, pp. 327–356. 3450:, Ögedei Khan twice ordered the armillary sphere of Zhongdu to be repaired (in 1233 and 1236) and also ordered in 1234 the revision and adoption of the Damingli calendar. He built a Confucian temple for Yelü Chucai in Karakorum around 1236 where Yelü Chucai created and regulated a calendar on the Chinese model. 976:. The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagatayid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. The conflict over whether the Mongol Empire would adopt a sedentary, cosmopolitan lifestyle or stick to its nomadic, steppe-based way of life was a major factor in the breakup. 1340:

most powerful Mongol leader at the time, he gave himself the name Genghis Khan. He then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin, with the term Mongol coming to be used in reference to all Mongolic speaking tribes under the control of Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father's friend,

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stature necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire — leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy.

3871:, some time after Russian rulers were accorded the status of tax collectors for the Mongols. The fact that the Russians collected tribute and taxes for the Mongols meant that the Mongols themselves rarely visited the lands which they owned. The Russians eventually gained military power, and their ruler 3979:

was subjected to massive changes as a result of the Mongol invasions. The population of the Iranian plateau suffered from widespread disease and famine, resulting in the death of up to three-quarters of its population, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Historian Steven Ward estimates that Iran's

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Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly armored than many of the armies they faced but were able to make up for it with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with multiple horses,

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took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of great khan for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the kurultai in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own kurultai at

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Temujin forbade the looting of his enemies without permission, and he implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving them all to the aristocrats. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to the throne; they

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Known during his childhood as Temüjin, Genghis Khan was a son of a Mongol chieftain and rose very rapidly as a young man by working with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. After Temujin went to war against Kurtait (also known as Wang Khan; given the Chinese title "Wang" for its meaning of King), who was the

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decrease, while others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols reduced much of the south Chinese population, and very debatably the Han Chinese population, to an invisible status through cancellation of the right to passports and denial of the right to direct land ownership. This meant that the

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The Mongols had a history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols. Merchants provided information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats and official traders for the Mongols, and were essential for

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was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. Many merchants, messengers, and travelers from China, the Middle East, and Europe used the system. When the great khan died in Karakorum, news reached the Mongol

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who had worked at Maragheh under Tusi. Chioniades played an important role in transmitting several innovations from the Islamic world to Europe. These include the introduction of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe to Europe and a Greek description of the Tusi-couple, which would later have

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All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance, and the gathering of sensitive information relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization, and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age

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Möngke confiscated the estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the

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took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's

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They attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we

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One of the more successful tactics employed by the Mongols was to wipe out urban populations that refused to surrender. During the Mongol invasion of Rus', almost all major cities were destroyed. If they chose to submit, the people were generally spared, though this was not guaranteed. For example,

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After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ögedei and Güyük. Merchants brought clothing, food, information, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return the great khans gave the merchants tax exemptions and allowed them to use the official

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In the southern part of the empire, Möngke Khan himself led his army, but did not complete the conquest of China. Military operations were generally successful, but prolonged, so the forces did not withdraw to the north as was customary when the weather turned hot. Disease ravaged the Mongol forces

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Shiremun moved with his own forces toward the emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were

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n this region nomadism really did attempt, and really did to a very considerable degree succeed in its attempt, to stamp a settled civilized system out of existence. When Jengis Khan first invaded China, we are told that there was a serious discussion among the Mongol chiefs whether all the towns

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in Rus had long made claims on nearby Georgia. Within four years, Ghazan began sending tribute to the Yuan court and appealing to other khans to accept Temür Khan as their overlord. He oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty in

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surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of China. Kublai used his base to build a powerful empire, creating an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsoring arts and science. Mongol records list 20,166 public schools created during

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organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of the Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was

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as supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food, and the army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation. He also encouraged literacy

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During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed their mildest, wettest conditions in more than a millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock, which significantly

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The Mongol Empire, at its height of the largest contiguous empire in history, had a lasting impact, unifying large regions. Some of these (such as eastern and western Russia, and the western parts of China) remain unified today. Mongols might have been assimilated into local populations after the

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Tugh Temür (1304–32) was knowledgeable about Chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet, calligrapher, and painter. In order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of the Mongol world, he sent Genghisid princes and descendants of notable Mongol generals to the Chagatai

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was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the Pax Mongolica: "... Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs and all lords of the state, e.g., the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, saluting his holiness to pay their respects."

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Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariqboke, which included forces still loyal to Möngke's previous administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariqboke's supporters and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took

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In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westward from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale

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In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the

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relays for the Yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special Yam tax.

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vassal facilitated Choniades' movements between Constantinople, Trebizond and Tabriz. Prince Radna, the Mongol viceroy of Tibet based in Gansu province, patronized the Samarkandi astronomer al-Sanjufini. The Arabic astronomical handbook dedicated by al-Sanjufini to Prince Radna, a descendant of

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Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing

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Increasingly isolated from their subjects, the Mongols quickly lost most of China to the rebellious Ming forces and in 1368 fled to their heartland in Mongolia. After the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty the Golden Horde lost touch with Mongolia and China, while the two main parts of the Chagatai

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took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally accepted Islam as his own religion, marking a turning point in Mongol history after which Mongol Persia became more and more Islamic. Despite this, Ghazan continued to strengthen ties with Temür Khan and the Yuan dynasty in the east. It was

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to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly invited Oghul Qaimish and the other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of

2112:, a grandson of Genghis from his son Tolui's lineage. Möngke was leading a Mongol army in Rus, the northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu's choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity. 1985:

threatened to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position. Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the kurultai convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of

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came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.

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estimated that 30 million people were killed by the Mongol Empire. Other researchers estimate that as many as 80 million people were killed, with 50 million deaths being the middle ground. The population of China fell by half during fifty years of Mongol rule. Before the Mongol

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arrangements, however, Mongol investors were not constrained using uncoined precious metals and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Italian cities, including

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The Mongol Empire saw some significant developments in science due to the patronage of the Khans. Roger Bacon attributed the success of the Mongols as world conquerors principally to their devotion to mathematics. Astronomy was one branch of science that the Khans took a personal interest in.

1749:, but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded 2497:

In southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, a Muslim and the ruler of the Golden Horde, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal distribution of war booty, and Hulagu's massacres of Muslims

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set up throughout the Empire. A messenger would typically travel 40 kilometres (25 miles) from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 200 km

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stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on a new great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the

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The Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China and sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, thus using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.

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Initially there were few formal places of worship because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186–1241), several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital. Along with palaces, Ögedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and

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with bloody epidemics, and Möngke died there on 11 August 1259. This event began a new chapter in the history of the Mongols, as again a decision needed to be made on a new great khan. Mongol armies across the empire withdrew from their campaigns to convene a new kurultai.

2610:, established friendly relations with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate. Political disagreement among contending branches of the family over the office of great khan continued, but the economic and commercial success of the Mongol Empire continued despite the squabbling. 6920:

The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars= Historia Mongalorum Quo s Nos Tartaros Appellamus: Friar Giovanni Di Plano Carpini's Account of His Embassy to the Court of the Mongol Khan by Da Pian Del Carpine Giovanni and Erik Hildinger (Branden BooksApril 1996

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Eventually, each of the successor states adopted the dominant religion of the local populations: the Mongol-ruled Chinese Yuan dynasty in the East (originally the Great Khan's domain) embraced Buddhism and Shamanism, while the three Western khanates adopted Islam.

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to rule Persia and Mongol-held China respectively. In the southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to

3616:, built special relays for high officials, as well as ordinary relays, that had hostels. During Kublai's reign, the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations, which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and 6,000 boats. 6036: 3183:

Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances, even in unusually cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. The Mongols were adept at river-work, crossing the river

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were the last Mongol nomads to penetrate European territory, having migrated to Europe from Central Asia at the turn of the 17th century. In the winter of 1770–1771, approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began the journey from their pastures on the left bank of the

2964:, which started in the Mongol dominions and spread to Europe, added to the confusion. Disease devastated all the khanates, cutting off commercial ties and killing millions. The plague may have taken 50 million lives in Europe alone in the 14th century. 3272:

if one mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped from the mount in front. Penalties were also decreed for rape and to some extent for murder. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment. Cities were

2416:. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other. 2032:

commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in the south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between

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increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260. Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.

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estimates the population of Russia-in-Europe dropped from 7.5 million prior to the invasion to 7 million afterward. Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's two million population were victims of the Mongol invasion. Historian

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on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until

8633: 5993: 2233:. Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and went to war with the kingdom of 2358:

submitted to Mongol authority, joining them in their assault against the Muslims. While some cities surrendered without resisting, others, such as Mayafarriqin fought back; their populations were massacred and the cities were sacked.

4283:[In the first year of Bingyin , the emperor gathered all the kings and ministers to build the Jiumai White Banner, that is, the emperor was located at the source of the Onan River, and all the kings and ministers honored him as 1509:

Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.

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Pow, Stephen (2019), "Climatic and Environmental Limiting Factors in the Mongol Empire's Westward Expansion: Exploring Causes for the Mongol Withdrawal from Hungary in 1242", in Yang, L.; Bork, HR.; Fang, X.; Mischke, S. (eds.),

2427:. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion in the Middle East, and the Mongols were never again able to make serious military advances farther than Syria. 1849:, remained tense and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei was still alive. Ögedei continued with 4973: 4153:, as well as the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant to be applied to the entire Mongol Empire. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the 2979:

between 1342 and 1369. Muslim and non-Muslim princes in the Chagatai Khanate warred with each other from 1331 to 1343, and the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set up their own puppet khans in

2383:. Dissension began brewing between the northwestern and southwestern sections of the Mongol Empire as Batu suspected that Hulagu's invasion of Western Asia would result in the elimination of Batu's own dominance there. 1441:; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season. 1779:, the first Kievan Rus' principality they were to attack. After a three-day siege involving fierce fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of the 2501:

Hulagu died on 8 February 1264. Berke sought to take advantage and invade Hulagu's realm, but he died along the way, and a few months later Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son

1380:(general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking the start of the Mongol Empire. 2493:

crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in 1261.

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Khanate, Ilkhan Abu Said, and Ozbeg. In response to the emissaries, they all agreed to send tribute each year. Furthermore, Tugh Temür gave lavish presents and an imperial seal to Eljigidey to mollify his anger.

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businesses. He decreed that all merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all drafts drawn by high-ranking Mongol elites from the merchants. This policy continued under the Yuan dynasty.

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instead gave Tusi a grant to build the Maragheh Observatory in Persia in 1259 and ordered him to prepare astronomical tables for him in 12 years, despite Tusi asking for 30 years. Tusi successfully produced the

1285:, encouraged disputes among the tribes, especially between the Tatars and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin. Khabul's successor was 8341:

Ostrowski, Donald. The tamma and the Dual-Administrative Structure of the Mongol Empire Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 61, no 2, 1998, p. 262–277 doi:

1964:, refused to come to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire. 2157:

Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, leading to the building of foreign merchants' quarters,

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Ghazan's faith may have been Islamic, but he continued his ancestors' war with the Egyptian Mamluks, and consulted with his old Mongol advisers in his native tongue. He defeated the Mamluk army at the

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place from their cousins, the Chagataids. Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man

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The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century led to the collapse of the political, cultural, and economic unity along the Silk Road. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the route from the

2829:(r. 1313–41), who seized the throne of the Golden Horde and persecuted non-Muslim Mongols. The Yuan's influence on the Horde was largely reversed and border clashes between Mongol states resumed. 2108:, members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. Batu instead nominated 8186:

A Soup for the Qan: Chinese Dietary Medicine of the Mongol Era As Seen in Hu Sihui's Yinshan Zhengyao: Introduction, Translation, Commentary, and Chinese Text. Second Revised and Expanded Edition

2967:

As the power of the Mongols declined, chaos erupted throughout the empire as non-Mongol leaders expanded their own influence. The Golden Horde lost all of its western dominions (including modern

2659:

Major changes occurred in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai Khan, after having conquered all of China and established the Yuan dynasty, died in 1294. He was succeeded by his grandson

2197:

edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the

3110:

The number of troops mustered by the Mongols is the subject of some scholarly debate, but was at least 105,000 in 1206. The Mongol military organization was simple but effective, based on the

1430:) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low-ranking clans. 7778:

Thomas, Allsen. (1989). Mongolian Princes and Their Merchant Partners, 1200-1260. Asia Major, 2(2), third series, 83-126. Retrieved November 3, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41645437

999:(1260–1264) and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the 3745:

relay stations of the Mongol Empire. Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Rus and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were made up from the imperial treasury.

1242:

overthrew the Liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. In the 1130s the Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the

1070:

in the 1630s. The Golden Horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century and its rule on Eastern Europe is traditionally considered to have ended in 1480 with the

523: 2008:

Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue the policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished Töregene's supporters, except for governor

4531: 2925:

in 1335, Mongol rule faltered and Persia fell into political anarchy. A year later his successor was killed by an Oirat governor, and the Ilkhanate was divided between the Suldus, the

3512:

an influence on Copernican heliocentrism. Choniades also translated several Zij treatises into Greek, including the Persian Zij-i Ilkhani by al-Tusi and the Maragheh observatory. The

2874:, elder brother of Tugh Temür, as great khan. He invaded with a commanding force, and Tugh Temür abdicated. Kusala was elected khan on 30 August 1329. Kusala was then poisoned by a 2273:

After stabilizing the empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and

8297:

Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth-Twentieth Centuries, (ed.) Sneath, D. (Bellington WA, 2006), pp. 141–174 Google Scholar.

8345:

Vasary, Istvan. (1976). THE GOLDEN HORDE TERM DARUĠA AND ITS SURVIVAL IN RUSSIA. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 30(2), 187–197. Retrieved 9 November 2020, from

7656: 3000: 1289:, who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143. 3983:

Mesopotamia, for millennia a showplace and pinnacle of human civilization and achievement, was depopulated and pastoralized, never to resume its previous pre-eminence. In his

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was noted by Rashid al-Din as having solved some of the difficult problems of Euclidean geometry on his own and written to his brother Hulagu Khan to send him the astronomer

7684: 3964:

Chinese had to depend on and be cared for chiefly by Mongols and Tartars, which also involved recruitment into the Mongol army. Other historians such as William McNeill and

2595:(southern Vietnam) ended in devastating defeat, but secured vassal statuses of those countries. The Mongol armies were repeatedly beaten in Đại Việt and were crushed at the 4008:, "terror and mass extermination of anyone opposing them was a well tested Mongol tactic." About half of the Russian population may have died during the invasion. However, 2434:, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, heard of the great khan's death at the Huai River in China. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into the 8621: 8518:

Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4192:

The Crimean Khanate and Poland-Lithuania: International Diplomacy on the European Periphery (15th–18th Century): A Study of Peace Treaties Followed by Annotated Documents

3606:. After his enthronement, Ögedei further expanded the road system, ordering the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of the Mongol Empire. 2956:, received escalating threats from the Mamluks and were eventually overrun in 1375. Along with the dissolution of the Ilkhanate in Persia, Mongol rulers in China and the 3264:, meaning "order" or "decree". A particular canon of this code was that those of rank shared much the same hardship as the common man. It also imposed severe penalties, 2319:

by the Mongols in 1258 and subjected to a merciless sack, an event considered one of the most catastrophic events in the history of Islam, and sometimes compared to the

70: 960:

The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir

8522: 394: 378: 364: 350: 5116: 3293:, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the great khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new great khan. 8276:

Allsen, Thomas T. (1986). Guard and Government in the Reign of The Grand Qan Möngke, 1251–59. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 46(2), 495–521. doi:10.2307/2719141

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Munkuyev, N.Ts. (1977). A NEW MONGOLIAN P'AI-TZŬ FROM SIMFEROPOL. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 31(2), 185–215. Retrieved 9 November 2020, from

1433:

Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few. He proclaimed a new code of law of the empire,

8949: 516: 10076: 2174:. One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by 12542: 3176:

in other cultures, being the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out in a line, surround an entire region, and then drive all of the

8290: 3719:, also traveled to the Mongol court to convert believers to their cause, or went as papal envoys to correspond with Mongol rulers in an attempt to secure a 1403:

Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100),

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of the Ayyubids refused to show himself before Hulagu; however, he had accepted Mongol supremacy two decades earlier. When Hulagu headed further west, the

3417:

The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their horses, rather than of people.

3129:, but troops armed with lances were equally skilled, and the Mongols recruited other military specialists from the lands they conquered. With experienced 12537: 8279:

Allsen, Thomas T. (2011). "Imperial Posts, West, East and North: A Review Article: Adam J. Silverstein, Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic Morld,"

4411: 4025:, an eyewitness, said that "the Mongols killed everybody regardless of gender or age" and "the Mongols especially 'found pleasure' in humiliating women." 509: 3475:

held around 400,000 books salvaged by Tusi from the siege of Baghdad and other cities. Chinese astronomers brought by Hulagu Khan worked there as well.

2241:

in northern Vietnam in 1258, but they had to draw back. The Mongol Empire tried to invade Đại Việt again in 1285 and 1287 but were defeated both times.

1086:

The Mongol Empire is also referred to as the "Mongolian Empire" or the "Mongol World Empire" in some English sources. The empire referred to itself as

3072:

in 1680. The Golden Horde broke into smaller Turkic-hordes that declined steadily in power over four centuries. Among them, the khanate's shadow, the

3032:(r. 1333–70) was powerless to regulate those troubles, a sign that the empire had nearly reached its end. His court's unbacked currency had entered a 12225: 8944: 6940: 2145:

found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77 to 300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed.

1042:

The part of the empire that fell first was the Ilkhanate, which disintegrated in the period of 1335–1353. Next, the Yuan dynasty lost control of the

7376:(June 1989). Arbel, B.; et al. (eds.). "The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean: Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204". 2825:

of the Golden Horde, also seeking a general peace, sent 20,000 men to buttress the Yuan frontier. Tokhta died in 1312, though, and was succeeded by

1899:

continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance among the

9820: 7941: 5978: 2311:

The center of the Islamic Empire at the time was Baghdad, which had held power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions. When its caliph

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The non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire include the introduction of a writing system, a Mongol alphabet based on the characters of the

3141:

and other machines, the Mongols could lay siege to fortified positions, sometimes building machinery on the spot using available local resources.

4744: 3458:. Möngke Khan's desire to have Tusi build him an observatory in Karakorum did not reach fruition as the Khan died on campaign in southern China. 3375: 2544:

in 1273, the Mongols sought the final conquest of the Song dynasty in South China. In 1271, Kublai renamed the new Mongol regime in China as the

2001: 8611: 7839: 3890:

Europe's knowledge of the known world was immensely expanded by the information which was brought back to it by ambassadors and merchants. When

12512: 1582:, and other nations in the Kipchak-controlled steppes. In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the 10781: 8418: 9895: 8584: 6789: 4515: 3933:. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a 1873:, though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with 4558: 3161:, considerably speeding up army movement. Skillful use of couriers enabled the leaders of these armies to maintain contact with each other. 2323:. With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region. 12577: 12572: 10103: 8547: 3913:

which devastated Europe in the late 1340s may have traveled from China to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. In 1347, the

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to win the control of the Chinese people. Kublai moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, the genesis for what later became the modern city of

2277:. Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army. 6544: 6895: 2575:

After achieving actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia and successfully conquering China, Kublai pursued further expansion. His

7651: 6735: 2992:

Khan (r. 1342–1357) briefly reasserted Jochid dominance over the Chaghataids. Demanding submission from an offshoot of the Ilkhanate in

10147: 9427: 8589: 799: 12056: 9195: 9187: 592: 566: 7875: 6033: 12126: 12112: 7665: 4472: 4108: 3097: 2024:, to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur, 7679: 12547: 12507: 12136: 12116: 8674: 6845: 1803: 1388: 5861:

Bibliothèque nationale de France. Département des Manuscrits. Division occidentale. Nouvelle acquisition française 886, fol. 37v

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allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of

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Meanwhile, in the northwestern portion of the empire, Batu's successor and younger brother Berke sent punitive expeditions to

2141:

and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke.

12092: 11734: 11116: 10083: 9491: 8467: 8234: 8178: 7823: 7711:

History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 2. The so-called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia, 2 divions

7594: 7559: 7536: 7513: 7490: 7467: 7442: 7420: 7363: 7340: 7321: 7298: 7261: 7236: 7179: 7152: 7126: 7094: 7071: 7048: 7021: 6995: 6926: 6889: 6729: 6698: 6579: 6409: 6343: 6306: 6277: 5954: 5267: 4235: 4200: 2560:. His establishment of a capital there was a controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to 1517:

to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs.

824: 9987: 8473: 3752:. Because of money laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the 2596: 12552: 11924: 10071: 7667:

The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368, (ed.) Herbert Franke, Denis C. Twitchett

5947:

The Armenian kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades : the integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins, 1080–1393

1124:, Kublai's power became limited to the eastern part of the empire, centered on China. Kublai officially issued an imperial 11640: 3503:, able to understand four languages including Latin, built the Tabriz Observatory in 1295. The Byzantine Greek astronomer 12567: 12448: 12318: 12087: 9953: 9518: 9467: 9443: 9242: 9208: 8892: 4078: 3827: 3274: 2739:

In spite of his conflicts with Kaidu and Duwa, Yuan emperor Temür established a tributary relationship with the war-like

819: 809: 652: 597: 8568:

May, Timothy (2007). The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System (Yardley: Westholme Publishing)

5303: 12532: 11786: 10786: 9226: 9179: 8502: 8442: 8257: 8211: 8054: 7985: 7962: 4345: 3346:. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a 1730: 642: 561: 9260: 7914:

Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia: Aspects of the Administrative Economic and Social History, 11th-14th Century

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in 12 years, produced a revised edition of Euclid's elements and taught the innovative mathematical device called the

12557: 10430: 9888: 9475: 9403: 9387: 8405: 8375: 8139: 8116: 8031: 8008: 7925: 7902: 7862: 7800: 7767: 7209: 6954: 6608: 6434: 6372: 5046: 4684: 4647: 4568: 4525: 4482: 4449: 3390: 2844:(r. 1316–35) of the Ilkhanate signed a peace treaty with Egypt. At his request, the Yuan court awarded his custodian 1799: 1610:, the town to which Wanyan Shouxu had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten and the 793: 748: 743: 2408:

Möngke's brother Hulagu broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to

1644:. The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy. In East Asia, there were a number of 10293: 10156: 9459: 9419: 8535: 8349: 8332: 7781: 7528: 6397: 5120: 4053:

enemies. After several months of travel, only one-third of the original group reached Dzungaria in northwest China.

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However, while the four khanates continued to interact with one another well into the 14th century, they did so as

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The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the

2617:

on two separate occasions. However, he was not able to conquer Japan. In the period of the Mongol invasion, the

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The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, (ed.) Nicola Di Cosmo, Allen J. Frank, Peter B. Golden

7482: 7167: 6987: 6571: 4419: 4389: 2576: 2250: 1780: 1526: 758: 696: 647: 637: 609: 533: 8562:

Hsiao, Chi-chi'ng (1978). The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty (Cambridge: Harvard University Press)

8288:"Ulus Emirs, Keshig Elders, Signatures, and Marriage Partners: The Evolution of a Classic Mongol Institution," 6295:

Divine Knowledge: Buddhist Mathematics according to the anonymous Manual of Mongolian astrology and divination

6266:

Divine Knowledge: Buddhist Mathematics according to the anonymous Manual of Mongolian astrology and divination

2419:

In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of

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in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European, and

1071: 1008: 814: 17: 2124:

Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei could be great khan.

11845: 11729: 10202: 9972: 9881: 9371: 9169: 8912: 8897: 7756:

Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259

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Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259

6630: 3240: 3044:

successfully pushed Mongol garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temür Khan's empress while

763: 669: 8545:

Fiaschetti, Francesca (ed.). (2019). Diplomacy in the Age of Mongol Globalization, Eurasian Studies 17(2)

7833:

Enkhbold, Enerelt. (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships",

2296:

began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master

2052:

as chief commander of the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the

12466: 11855: 10892: 10222: 9982: 9913: 9542: 9510: 9361: 9309: 9161: 8667: 6721: 5027: 3410:

Mongol scribes in the 14th century used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of

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of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.

3045: 2953: 2821:

Duwa was challenged by Kaidu's son Chapar, but with the assistance of Temür, Duwa defeated the Ögedeids.

2764: 2584: 2073:

conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Rus.

1591: 1547:

Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the

1235: 725: 690: 614: 587: 582: 7141:

Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century

3844: 3407:

as a way of documenting the entire world's history, to help establish the Mongols' own cultural legacy.

12386: 12250: 12217: 12179: 12104: 10108: 9938: 8640: 8599: 8434: 8397: 8249: 8203: 8131: 8108: 7977: 7171: 7040: 7013: 6881: 6600: 6364: 4227: 3254:

The executed – the long and full beard probably means he is not a Mongol – has been thrown off a cliff.

2527: 1694: 1621:

Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders,

12282: 12235: 12192: 12074: 11813: 10961: 10525: 10118: 9977: 9395: 9353: 9336: 9270: 9250: 9234: 8996: 8167:

A Soup for the Qan: Chinese Dietary Medicine of the Mongol Era As Seen in Hu Sihui's Yinshan Zhengyao

7736: 7286: 3513: 3350:. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation and from public service. 3212: 3180:

within that area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and to slaughter them all.

2614: 2229:

in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of

1896: 1890: 1877:

by making it a client state and sent Mongol princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his

1850: 1821: 1708: 1704: 1645: 1499: 734: 720: 674: 664: 659: 7701:

History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 1. The Mongols proper and the Kalmuks

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Struggling for influence within the Golden Horde, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobeleg against

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Jackson, Peter. (2005). The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410 (Harlow and New York: Pearson Longman)

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Life After Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe During the 1940s and 1950s

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Guzman, Gregory G. (Spring 2010). "European Captives and Craftsmen Among the Mongols, 1231–1255".

4970: 4186: 3060:. However, remnants of the Chagatai Khanate survived; the last Chagataid state to survive was the 12582: 11985: 11838: 11719: 11260: 11213: 11156: 10855: 10799: 10547: 10344: 10212: 10033: 10028: 9994: 9301: 7273: 5457: 4063: 3508: 3197: 2863: 2351: 2301: 2260: 1784: 1603: 850: 829: 706: 8544: 8531:

Dashdondog, Bayarsaikhan (2011). The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335). Leiden: Brill. DOI:

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some 600 years later. The relay stations had attached households to service them. Anyone with a

2567:

The Mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against (Song) China, and the Chinese

1837:

Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations with

12527: 12502: 11970: 11860: 11761: 11756: 11444: 11392: 11312: 11245: 11149: 11134: 11027: 10794: 10748: 10589: 10476: 10312: 10217: 10004: 8939: 8660: 8149:

Biran, Michal (ed.). (2019). Mobility Transformations and Cultural Exchange in Mongol Eurasia,

6530: 6401: 6335: 5284:"Deep ditches and well-built walls: a reappraisal of the Mongol withdrawal from Europe in 1242" 4093: 3985: 3899: 3856: 3720: 3144: 2511: 2222:, and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well. 1776: 1633: 1540: 1329: 1000: 8556:

Halperin, Charles (1988). Russia and The Golden Horde (Pennsylvania: Indiana University Press)

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in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the

2719: 1951:

Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widow

1775:, and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237 the Mongols were encroaching upon 12292: 12258: 12202: 11791: 11751: 11564: 11439: 10503: 10493: 10452: 10423: 10123: 10048: 10038: 9682: 9626: 8959: 8455:

In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300)

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faith. In the East, the Han Chinese overthrew the Yuan dynasty in 1368, launching their own

3675:

Mongol government and elites provided capital for merchants and sent them far afield, in an

3547:

A 1305 letter (on a scroll measuring 302 by 50 cm or 9 ft 11 in by 1 ft

3114:

system. The army was built up from squads of ten men each, arbans (10 people), zuuns (100),

12324: 12187: 12131: 11884: 11714: 11684: 11559: 11490: 11461: 11380: 10714: 10552: 10542: 10180: 10167: 9931: 9582: 9574: 9054: 8320:"Where Did the Mongol Empire Come From? Medieval Mongol Ideas of People, State and Empire." 7412: 7086: 6470: 4753: 3891: 3472: 3455: 3438: 3399: 3379: 3102: 3037: 2913: 2780: 2672: 2668: 2468: 2320: 2297: 2285: 2171: 2159: 2053: 1967: 1564: 1396: 1306: 894: 11664: 8616: 8043:

Economic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty. Translation of Chapters 93 and 94 of the Yüan shih

4382:"The Mongol Empire's Northern Border: Re-evaluating the Surface Area of the Mongol Empire" 3794:

Map showing the boundary of the 13th century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols in

3020:

However, rival families of the Jochids began fighting for the throne of the Golden Horde (

927:

in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out

8: 12082: 12017: 11910: 11576: 11456: 11422: 11324: 11144: 11139: 10951: 10670: 10606: 10481: 10466: 9958: 9830: 8784: 7872: 7716: 7706: 7696: 3876: 3785: 3566: 3517: 3169: 2767:

in 1299, but he was only briefly able to occupy Syria, due to distracting raids from the

2755:

politically useful to advertise the great khan's authority in the Ilkhanate, because the

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of the Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife

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History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 3. The Mongols of Persia

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Schurmann, Herbert. (1956). "Mongolian Tributary Practices of the Thirteenth Century,"

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The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, (ed.) J. A. Boyle

7551: 7221: 7060: 7033: 6764: 6662: 6625: 6487: 6171: 6032:

Ole Jørgen Benedictow, The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Complete History (2004), p. 382.

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A 1363 astronomical handbook with Middle Mongolian glosses. Known as the Sanjufini Zij.

3385: 3269: 3081: 2647: 2510:

to lead the Golden Horde. Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a

2167: 1924: 9652: 8984: 8924: 8305: 6837: 6785: 3679:(merchant partner) arrangement. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol- 3403:, or "Universal History". It was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan 3330:

At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found Mongol converts, from

3219:, their campaigns were almost exclusively land-based, with the seas controlled by the 2848:

the title of commander-in-chief of all Mongol khanates, but Chupan died in late 1327.

2747:

from 1297 to 1303. This was to mark the end of the southern expansion of the Mongols.

2724: 1004: 12517: 12483: 12357: 11798: 11694: 11630: 11625: 11554: 11451: 11166: 11094: 11089: 10931: 10860: 10843: 10838: 10833: 10633: 10584: 9019: 8498: 8463: 8438: 8401: 8371: 8253: 8230: 8207: 8174: 8135: 8112: 8050: 8027: 8004: 7981: 7958: 7921: 7898: 7858: 7819: 7796: 7763: 7590: 7555: 7532: 7509: 7486: 7463: 7438: 7416: 7395: 7359: 7336: 7317: 7294: 7257: 7232: 7205: 7175: 7148: 7122: 7090: 7067: 7044: 7017: 6991: 6950: 6922: 6885: 6725: 6694: 6667: 6649: 6604: 6575: 6491: 6430: 6405: 6390: 6368: 6339: 6324: 6302: 6273: 5960: 5950: 5478: 5470: 5263: 5177: 4781: 4680: 4643: 4564: 4521: 4478: 4445: 4329: 4231: 4196: 3934: 3922: 3914: 3315: 3041: 2937: 2355: 2175: 2077: 1920: 1811: 1254: 1059: 944: 424: 420: 182: 7974:

Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589

7194: 6815: 3437:

Mongols look on as Persian astronomers work. Early 14th century illustration in the

3080:, sacked Sarai. The Crimean Khanate lasted until 1783, whereas khanates such as the 2622: 2137:

acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke's cousin

12522: 12263: 12032: 12002: 11960: 11647: 11434: 11429: 11385: 11372: 11302: 11270: 11265: 11129: 11124: 11106: 11067: 11000: 10983: 10924: 10914: 10909: 10850: 10806: 10776: 10736: 10719: 10702: 10665: 10416: 10305: 10286: 9926: 9566: 9526: 8979: 8226: 8170: 8105:

Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles

8023: 7815: 7569: 7387: 7253: 7005: 6979: 6768: 6657: 6639: 6479: 6331: 6298: 6269: 5466: 5295: 5183: 4771: 4761: 4635: 4321: 3761: 3708: 3656: 3526: 3411: 2957: 2898: 2768: 2685:

Nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability, the

2664: 2553: 2473: 2464: 2435: 2347: 2238: 2105: 2021: 2017: 2009: 1997: 1912: 1653: 1649: 1607: 1587: 1454: 1141: 1113: 1016: 996: 953:, allowing the exchange of trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies across 928: 905: 604: 479: 461: 457: 341: 201: 151: 146: 141: 7189: 6483: 4639: 3203:

Traditionally known for their prowess with ground forces, the Mongols rarely used

1321: 1058:. The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan then retreated north and continued to rule the 12395: 12353: 12346: 12336: 12046: 11865: 11833: 11706: 11674: 11657: 11613: 11608: 11586: 11581: 11539: 11532: 11507: 11367: 11362: 11203: 11084: 10978: 10973: 10941: 10766: 10756: 10650: 10643: 10638: 10623: 10579: 10461: 10447: 10381: 10279: 10244: 10207: 10055: 10009: 9963: 9660: 8606: 8551: 8539: 8526: 8453: 8422: 8353: 8336: 8312: 8294: 8223:

Politics, Patronage and the Transmission of Knowledge in 13th–15th Century Tabriz

8192: 8159: 8090: 8074: 7879: 7843: 7785: 7726: 7688: 7674: 7660: 7505: 7459: 7430: 7313: 7247: 6960: 6040: 5053: 5034: 5015: 4996: 4977: 4270: 3965: 3464: 3447: 3220: 3126: 3077: 3065: 3061: 2697: 2561: 2532: 2038: 1993: 1957: 1916: 1866: 1717: 1282: 1043: 886: 244: 11287: 7832: 7453: 3980:

population did not reach its pre-Mongol levels again until the mid-20th century.

3029: 2930: 2854:

erupted in the Yuan dynasty in 1328–29. After the death of Yesün Temür in 1328,

2455:

in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.

2265: 1490:

Genghis quickly came into conflict with the Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the

753: 501: 281: 12412: 12065: 12041: 11992: 11942: 11808: 11803: 11766: 11741: 11724: 11635: 11620: 11591: 11549: 11397: 11357: 11352: 11307: 11233: 11193: 11183: 11173: 10988: 10867: 10761: 10628: 10510: 10265: 10251: 10093: 8929: 7693:

Buell, Paul. 'Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire, 1200–1370' 2003

7641: 7631: 6871: 4307: 4303: 3969: 3926: 3898:, the land of the Grand Khan in China, and give him a letter from the monarchs 3830:

in certain geographic regions, leading to changes in the demographics of Asia.

3765: 3189: 3085: 3057: 3033: 3021: 2952:

in 1336. Following the downfall of their Mongol masters, the loyal vassal, the

2692: 2335: 2331: 1932: 1772: 1760: 1671: 1520: 1416: 1333: 1066:

dynasty in historiography, surviving as a rump state until the conquest by the

882: 870: 683: 93: 9673: 9647: 8626: 8386:

Along the Silk Roads in Mongol Eurasia: Generals, Merchants, and Intellectuals

7812:

The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries

7391: 3749: 3481:

built a number of large observatories in China and his libraries included the

3451: 2933: 2109: 1590:. In 1230, the great Khan personally led his army in the campaign against the 1560: 1536: 980: 961: 256: 232: 12496: 12373: 12207: 12159: 12022: 11965: 11889: 11571: 11544: 11517: 11495: 11473: 11240: 11223: 11208: 11005: 10993: 10919: 10811: 10685: 10680: 10655: 10537: 10397: 9734: 9665: 8972: 8790: 8319: 7479:

China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries

7399: 7136: 6690: 6653: 5283: 4333: 4098: 4050: 4009: 3764:, sowing the seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the 3647: 3543: 2859: 2791: 2687: 2652: 2568: 2439: 2100: 1900: 1846: 1807: 1742: 1611: 1458: 1450: 1353: 1312: 1266: 1243: 1227: 1185: 1063: 969: 949: 940: 936: 932: 854: 169: 136: 60: 31: 11902: 11317: 11297: 9729: 5964: 4766: 4325: 2855: 2660: 1395:

ascended the throne in the Ikh Khuraldai region in the Onan river, from the

1032: 12424: 12363: 12329: 12164: 12146: 11781: 11522: 11512: 11478: 11407: 11402: 11329: 11119: 11101: 11062: 11057: 11037: 11032: 10904: 10897: 10887: 10882: 10877: 10771: 10709: 10690: 10675: 10611: 10272: 9904: 9634: 9074: 8991: 8967: 8882: 8816: 8739: 8719: 8519: 8459: 7355: 6907: 6747: 6671: 6644: 5998: 5299: 4785: 4574: 4543: 4500: 4284: 4266: 4248: 4206: 4128: 4068: 3976: 3955: 3852: 3799: 3773: 3711:

made a comparably epic journey along the route, venturing from his home of

3664: 3613: 3583: 3562: 3490: 3335: 3258:

The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called

3208: 3119: 3013: 3009: 2894: 2890: 2814: 2787: 2756: 2713: 2700:

and never again pooled their resources in a cooperative military endeavor.

2545: 2481: 2420: 2400: 2226: 1975: 1961: 1738: 1615: 1583: 1552: 1445: 1408: 1392: 1325: 1316: 1231: 1195: 1164: 1067: 1055: 1047: 1024: 1012: 913: 866: 483: 445: 385: 357: 220: 9079: 7223:

Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History

4308:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 3972:

was the main factor behind China's demographic decline during this period.

3941: 3311: 2862:

succeeded to the throne in Shangdu, leading to the civil war known as the

2443: 1919:

assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly, the Mongol advance

1802:

except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia

1685:

ordered the construction of a palace within the surrounding of its walls.

1121: 988: 12436: 12400: 12154: 11500: 11485: 11334: 11047: 10956: 10946: 10872: 10520: 10515: 10238: 9800: 9749: 9709: 9678: 8779: 8594: 8020:

Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues

7638:(Trans. T. Minorsky & C. E. Bosworth), London: Luzac & Co. (1928) 6866: 6761: 5228: 4150: 4140: 4038: 4018: 3990: 3910: 3651: 3609: 3603: 3574: 3538: 3500: 3478: 3468: 3459: 3339: 3282: 3177: 3073: 2985: 2981: 2961: 2837: 2740: 2607: 2507: 2477: 2431: 2312: 2045: 2029: 1989: 1682: 1548: 1531: 1503: 1491: 1247: 1223: 1129: 1117: 1101:'nation of the great Mongols' or the 'great Mongol nation') in Mongol or 992: 441: 268: 8532: 7776: 7628:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2023. doi:10.1017/9781316337424 6175: 3433: 1952: 12368: 12270: 12169: 11933: 11527: 11344: 11218: 11178: 11111: 9845: 9754: 9104: 9089: 8826: 8579: 8346: 8329: 8079: 8063: 7917: 7873:"The Unity of the Mongol Empire and Continental Exchange over Eurasia," 6160:

Buell, Paul D. (1979). "Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara".

4341: 3863:

Some of the other long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:

3848: 3834: 3732: 3704: 3693: 3660: 3497:

described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.

3486: 3404: 3286: 2993: 2801: 2626: 2603: 2503: 2209:

In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers

2189: 2034: 1931:

and the Knights Templar were beaten by the Mongols at the banks of the

1838: 1662: 1622: 1482: 1461: 1078:, while the Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687. 1036: 1007:

families. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had

909: 428: 9873: 3277:

and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders. Under

3250: 3207:

power. In the 1260s and 1270s they used seapower while conquering the

3193: 2806: 2244: 1149: 1146: 11417: 11188: 11072: 11042: 10823: 10697: 10488: 10387: 10173: 10128: 9714: 9704: 9069: 9049: 9044: 9003: 8185: 8000: 7954: 7894: 6812:"History of Russia, Early Slavs history, Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion" 4132: 4042: 3918: 3712: 3697: 3641: 3620: 3592: 3521: 3347: 3134: 2976: 2886: 2867: 2851: 2376: 2092: 2049: 1971: 1756: 1726: 1678: 1629: 1556: 1514: 1434: 1219: 1207: 1051: 1020: 862: 625: 575: 371: 119: 113: 89: 6942:

Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800

5332:

The Academy of Russian science and the academy of Mongolian science

4628:"The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China" 4557:

Brook, Timothy; Walt van Praag, Michael van; Boltjes, Miekn (2018).

4381: 3599: 2940:

pushed the Mongols out of their territory, and the Uyghur commander

2936:(d. 1353), and Persian warlords. Taking advantage of the chaos, the 1982: 10818: 10601: 10559: 10498: 10370: 10162: 9840: 9059: 8919: 8801: 8559:

Henthorn, W. E. (1963). Korea: the Mongol invasions (Leiden: Brill)

8368:

In the Service of the Khans: Elites in Transition in Mongol Eurasia

7951:

Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance

6765:"The Outline of History, Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind" 3838: 3826:

According to some interpretations, Genghis Khan's conquests caused

3812: 3808: 3795: 3688: 3494: 3359: 3331: 3290: 3138: 3115: 3025: 2949: 2945: 2875: 2744: 2580: 2549: 2203: 2087: 2081: 2057: 1759:, another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran the territories of the 1667: 1575: 1427: 1423: 1420: 1404: 1377: 1341: 1286: 1262: 1239: 1215: 1050:

in 1354 and 1368, respectively, and collapsed after its capital of

987:

councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers

984: 931:

in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the

858: 6108: 6106: 4560:

Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan

4442:

Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia

3577:. It had lavishly furnished and well-guarded relay posts known as 1614:

general Chagan invaded southern China. With the assistance of the

1361: 1202: 12341: 12012: 11955: 11950: 10731: 10660: 10616: 10471: 10392: 10360: 9810: 9805: 9795: 9780: 9084: 9039: 9034: 8821: 8811: 8749: 8416:“Some Royal Mongol Ladies: Alaqa-beki, *Ergene-Qatun and Others,” 7851:

Mongolian Rule in China: Local Administration in the Yuan Dynasty

7793:

The Coins of Mongol Empire and Clan Tamgha of Khans (XIII – XIV )

7200:. Translated by Walford (from French), Naomi. New Brunswick, NJ: 4699: 4136: 4046: 4033: 3930: 3628: 3624: 3582:(125 mi) per day, better than the fastest record set by the 3149: 3111: 3003: 2989: 2972: 2968: 2926: 2708: 2630: 2557: 2515: 2448: 2413: 2372: 2368: 2343: 2339: 2327: 2305: 2293: 2289: 2163: 2025: 1940: 1904: 1878: 1870: 1815: 1768: 1746: 1595: 1579: 1495: 1465: 1412: 1357: 1345: 1270: 1028: 954: 924: 164: 78: 10532: 8652: 8384:

Biran, Michal, Jonathan Brack & Francesca Fiaschetti (ed.).

8246:

Sudden Appearances: The Mongol Turn in Commerce, Belief, and Art

7411:(2nd ed.). Malden, MA; Oxford, England; Carlton, Victoria: 5098: 5096: 4461:

Kublai (18 December 1271), 《建國號詔》 , 《元典章》 (in Classical Chinese)

3807:

fall of the empire, and some of their descendants adopted local

3493:

were notable mathematicians in Yuan China. The Mongol physician

3425: 3362:

and Buddhism, although Ögedei's wife was a Nestorian Christian.

3185: 2999: 2514:

against the Egyptian Mamluks. Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at

2330:-ruled Syria, capturing small local states en route. The sultan 1842: 10564: 10439: 9790: 9764: 9759: 9094: 9064: 9024: 8774: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8714: 7271:

Jackson, Peter (1978). "The dissolution of the Mongol Empire".

6103: 4588:

The Cambridge History of China: Alien Regimes and Border States

3895: 3737: 3707:

traveled east along the Silk Road, and the Chinese Mongol monk

3355: 3319: 3224: 2941: 2881: 2845: 2822: 2751: 2592: 2409: 2380: 2281: 2230: 2219: 2214: 2210: 2185: 2120: 1936: 1928: 1874: 1862: 1858: 1824:, the pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through 1795: 1791: 1722: 1657: 1563:, as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was 1369: 1274: 1154: 890: 874: 469: 449: 198: 107: 7741:

The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion

5604: 5602: 5560: 5558: 5506: 5504: 5419: 5417: 5415: 3790: 3602:

built a wide system of roads, one of which carved through the

3200:

a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.

3133:

engineers and a bombardier corps which was expert at building

2723:

A European depiction of the four khans, Temür (Yuan), Chapar (

2536:

Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.

2304:

in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu's army in 1257, except for

2181: 1567:. The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother 1559:

at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic

1498:

in northern China. He also had to deal with two other powers,

1190: 54: 12442: 12275: 11198: 9835: 9815: 9744: 9724: 9719: 9699: 9639: 8806: 8796: 8744: 5994:"READ: Unit 3 Introduction – Land-Based Empires 1450 to 1750" 5207: 5205: 5093: 3816: 3769: 3684: 3587: 3525:

Kublai Khan, was completed in 1363. It is notable for having

3343: 3323: 3260: 3130: 3053: 3006: 2996:, he boasted that "today three uluses are under my control". 2826: 2810: 2776: 2728: 2679: 2490: 2452: 2138: 2133: 2116: 1854: 1764: 1750: 1688: 1568: 1438: 1125: 973: 965: 901: 9220:(1205 / 1207 / 1209–10 / 1225–27) 7997:

The Silk Road and the Political Economy of the Mongol Empire

4740:"Pluvials, droughts, the Mongol Empire, and modern Mongolia" 3672:

many goods, since the Mongols produced little of their own.

2858:

became the new leader in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son

2423:, and engaged Kitbuqa's forces just north of Galilee at the 2044:

Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük's election. The

1935:

on 11 April 1241. Before Batu's forces could continue on to

1881:

with the Koreans through both diplomacy and military force.

1574:

Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the

1521:

Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241)

1257:

was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations (

11997: 10334: 10299: 9785: 9739: 9099: 9029: 7648:(Trans. V. Minorsky and T. Minorsky), Leiden: Brill. (1956) 7162:

Franke, Herbert (1994). Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank (eds.).

6194: 5712: 5599: 5555: 5501: 5412: 5260:

Socio-Environmental Dynamics along the Historical Silk Road

4702:

Introduction to Altaic Philology: Turkic, Mongolian, Manchu

4131:" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in 3820: 3715:(Beijing) as far as Europe. European missionaries, such as 3204: 3173: 2795: 2061: 1825: 1637: 10408: 6182: 6050: 6048: 5926: 5819: 5700: 5653: 5385: 5339: 5202: 4556: 4474:

In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia

1946: 900:

The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several

9825: 6717:

Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces

4867: 4848: 4846: 3993:

attributed this to a Mongol prejudice against urban life:

2636: 2198: 1681:

as their capital lasting until 1260. During that period,

8151:

Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient

6468:

in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships".

5402: 5400: 5375: 5373: 5371: 5369: 5367: 2663:, who continued Kublai's policies. At the same time the 2115:

Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his brothers,

1571:

until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.

8520:

Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281

8347:

THE GOLDEN HORDE TERM DARUĠA AND ITS SURVIVAL IN RUSSIA

7891:

The Mongols in Iran: Chingiz Khan to Uljaytu, 1220–1309

7035:

Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281

6150:

San, T. "Dynastic China: An Elementary History" .pg 297

6045: 5831: 5777: 3867:

Moscow rose to prominence while it was still under the

3076:, survived until 1502, when one of its successors, the 2885:

The successor states of the Mongol Empire in 1335: the

2521: 923:– 1227), whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all 7747: 6211: 6209: 5901: 5889: 4940: 4916: 4843: 3595:

in Central Europe within 4–6 weeks thanks to the Yam.

3024:, 1359–1381) after the assassination of his successor 2866:. Tugh Temür defeated Ragibagh, but the Chagatai khan 2412:

and leaving only a small contingent under his general

1660:, surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol 1011:, each pursuing its own interests and objectives: the 12384: 8950:

List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'

5843: 5397: 5364: 5157: 4952: 4928: 865:, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the 27:

13th- and 14th-century empire originating in Mongolia

8641:

The London School of Economics and Political Science

7196:

The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia

6780: 6778: 5798: 4679:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 214. 3358:

followers. The dominant religions at that time were

3048:

managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.

1606:

in 1232. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the

1513:

Genghis Khan arranged for the Chinese Taoist master

1364:, and went on to defeat the Naimans and the Tatars. 8080:Smith, John (1970). "Mongol and Nomadic Taxation," 7837:, 38:4, 531–547, DOI: 10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799 6206: 4724: 4722: 4720: 4517:

Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols

3929:by an army of Mongol warriors under the command of 3811:. For example, the eastern khanate largely adopted 3040:due to the Yuan's harsh impositions. In the 1350s, 2908: 2878:commander under Tugh Temür, who returned to power. 2245:

New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China

2132:When Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin 1666:(overseers); he then moved his imperial court from 7743:, Yale University Press (2017). isbn 9780300125337 7220: 7193: 7059: 7032: 6804: 6092: 6090: 5588: 5586: 5522: 5520: 5454: 5437: 5435: 5433: 3211:of China, though their attempts to mount seaborne 2127: 2091:A stone turtle at the site of the Mongol capital, 1810:with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the 8945:Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe 8612:Paradoxplace Insight Pages on the Mongol Emperors 7170:. Vol. 6. Cambridge, England; New York, NY: 6775: 5490: 5488: 5315: 5313: 5239: 5237: 2300:surrendered in 1257 and was executed. All of the 531: 12494: 8359: 7548:The Early Mongols: Language, Culture and History 7083:The perilous frontier: nomadic empires and China 6687:The Black Death, 1346–1353: the Complete History 6060: 4717: 4677:Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire 3875:completely overthrew the Mongols and formed the 3776:and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism. 2743:after his series of military operations against 2731:(Golden Horde), and Öljaitü (Ilkhanate), in the 2041:, though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision. 1009:fractured into four separate khanates or empires 9365:(1220–22 / 1226–31 / 1237–64) 7619:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire 7587:Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World 7437:. New Brunswick, NJ: Collier-Macmillan Canada. 6626:"Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa" 6087: 5583: 5576: 5574: 5517: 5430: 4745:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 4255: 3945:Dominican martyrs killed by Mongols during the 3828:wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale 3376:List of historical cities and towns of Mongolia 3285:. The empire was governed by a non-democratic, 7589:. New York, NY: Crown and Three Rivers Press. 7062:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire 6870: 5772:Genghis bogdoos Ligden khutagt khurtel (khaad) 5485: 5310: 5234: 4298: 4296: 4294: 3196:. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim 2960:were also in turmoil. The plague known as the 2703: 2451:, and nearly all the senior princes and great 2362: 1737:Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the 912:of Temüjin, known by the more famous title of 490:; 'Chéngjísī Huángdì') in Spring 1206. 456:) already started to use the Chinese title of 317:23,500,000 km (9,100,000 sq mi) 309:12,000,000 km (4,600,000 sq mi) 12543:States and territories disestablished in 1368 11932: 11918: 10424: 9889: 8668: 7848: 7030: 6226:The Spread of Islam: The Contributing Factors 5742: 5740: 4412:"The Islamic World to 1600: The Golden Horde" 4281:元年丙寅，帝大会诸王群臣，建九斿白旗，即皇帝位于斡难河之源，诸王群臣共上尊号曰成吉思皇帝。 4185: 4144: 3883:proved that the Mongols were vulnerable, the 3281:, chiefs and generals were selected based on 2833:'s envoys backed Tokhta's son against Ozbeg. 2506:as new Ilkhan, and nominated Batu's grandson 2188:, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the 2060:at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and 1539:in 1229 as the successor of Genghis Khan. By 517: 301:4,000,000 km (1,500,000 sq mi) 11881:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 10104:Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty 8848: 8096: 7940:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 6971: 6938: 5977:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5571: 5119:. Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Archived from 4890:. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 116. 4810: 4808: 4806: 4804: 4700:Igor de Rachewiltz; Volker Rybatzki (2010). 2783:with both the Ilkhans and the Yuan dynasty. 1167:. Some sources give the full Mongol name as 8634:"Remnants of the Mongol imperial tradition" 8617:William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols 8391: 8200:Islamic Chinoiserie: The Art of Mongol Iran 7584: 7451: 6838:"The Mongol invasion: the last Arpad kings" 6707: 6464:Enkhbold, Enerelt (2019). "The role of the 6200: 6188: 5825: 5706: 5659: 5391: 5345: 5211: 4888:Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection 4873: 4563:. University of Chicago Press. p. 45. 4291: 4127:As per modern historiographical norm, the " 3485:(Euclid) brought by Muslim mathematicians. 2484:'s grandson and founder of the Yuan dynasty 1907:, and the Christian military orders of the 1884: 1210:on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. 1200 1128:on 18 December 1271 to give the empire the 1106: 1098: 877:; eastward and southward into parts of the 452:(Great Khans) of the "Great Mongol State" ( 12538:States and territories established in 1206 11925: 11911: 10431: 10417: 9896: 9882: 8675: 8661: 8512: 7626:The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire 7333:Genghis Khan: Life, death and resurrection 6684: 6507: 5737: 4581: 4550: 4507: 4477:. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. 4464: 3414:; this is arguably its first known usage. 3384:The oldest surviving literary work in the 3192:(April 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king 2395: 2206:in the far northwest was counted in 1258. 1741:, Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the 1689:Invasions of Kievan Rus' and central China 1618:the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234. 1281:. The Jin emperors, following a policy of 1035:, the three western khanates accepted the 524: 510: 77:superimposed on a modern political map of 69: 8533:The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335) 8394:Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire 8040: 7809: 7568: 7164:Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368 6661: 6643: 6418: 6387: 5837: 5783: 5718: 5262:, Cham: Springer Open, pp. 301–321, 4801: 4775: 4765: 4693: 4520:. Harvard University Press. p. 293. 4455: 4302: 4195:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers. 4121: 3894:sailed in 1492, his mission was to reach 3815:, and the three western khanates adopted 3056:(Tamerlane) (1336–1405), who founded the 2809:in flight from the Mongols under general 2794:in 1301, Kaidu died and was succeeded by 2152: 1471: 8631: 8330:A NEW MONGOLIAN P'AI-TZŬ FROM SIMFEROPOL 8243: 8220: 7994: 7971: 7545: 7522: 7249:The Mongol Empire (World History Series) 7218: 7188: 7080: 6463: 6424: 6321: 5804: 5627: 5175: 4922: 4737: 4513: 4470: 4109:List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans 3940: 3843: 3789: 3725: 3655: 3542: 3432: 3424: 3310: 3249: 3143: 3101: 3098:Mongol military tactics and organization 3091: 2998: 2912: 2880: 2800: 2718: 2707: 2646: 2531: 2472: 2399: 2264: 2180: 2086: 2067: 1988: 1966: 1716: 1530: 1481: 1464:, who had previously served the khan of 1387: 1320: 1201: 1189: 1062:. The regime is thereafter known as the 873:, extending northward into parts of the 75:Expansion of the Mongol Empire 1206–1294 11705: 9903: 8488: 8068:, 19(3/4), 304-389. doi:10.2307/2718506 7911: 7790: 7499: 7476: 7429: 7285: 7270: 6713: 6623: 6292: 6263: 6054: 5746: 4946: 4014:Atlas of World Population History, 1978 3397:Another classic from the empire is the 3125:The Mongols were most famous for their 2613:In 1274 and again in 1281, Kublai Khan 1947:Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241–1251) 1851:offensives into the Indian subcontinent 1300: 964:or from one of his other sons, such as 849:of the 13th and 14th centuries was the 14: 12495: 10099:Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs 9295:(1277 / 1283 / 1287) 9254:(1236 / 1240 / 1252) 8128:Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia 8125: 8102: 7888: 7753: 7406: 7372: 7352:Kublai Khan: from Xanadu to superpower 7293:. Harlow, England; New York: Longman. 7161: 7116: 7057: 7010:Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia 7004: 6978: 6754: 6594: 6361:Conquest and Culture in Mongol Eurasia 6358: 5932: 5907: 5895: 5849: 5406: 5379: 5163: 4958: 4934: 4625: 4392:from the original on 29 September 2021 4223:The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe 4213: 3748:Policies changed under the Great Khan 3683:partnership closely resembled that of 3369: 2637:Disintegration into competing entities 2028:and Central Asian officials, favoring 1132:-style dynastic name of "Great Yuan" ( 434: 12513:Former countries in Mongolian history 11906: 10412: 9877: 9614: 9125: 8847: 8694: 8656: 8365: 8304:, online edition, 2013, available at 8197: 8164: 8017: 7636:Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion 7135: 7121:. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing. 7103: 6547:from the original on 10 February 2014 6159: 6127:Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean 5949:. Richmond: Curzon. pp. 159–61. 5635:Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion 5306:from the original on 10 January 2021. 4674: 4656:from the original on 7 September 2023 4348:from the original on 19 November 2018 3245: 2192:. From a medieval Persian manuscript. 1981:When Genghis Khan's youngest brother 1383: 1250:, great-grandfather of Genghis Khan. 1234:since the 10th century. In 1125, the 1179: 1109:the 'whole great nation') in Turkic. 889:; and reached westward as far as the 505: 12449: 9126: 8878:Administrative divisions and vassals 8451: 8428: 7948: 7646:Four Studies on Central Asia, vol. 1 7335:. New York, NY: Thomas Dunne Books. 7307: 7245: 7066:. New York, NY: Facts on File, Inc. 7039:. Cambridge, England; New York, NY: 6898:from the original on 17 October 2015 6792:from the original on 28 October 2004 6738:from the original on 15 October 2015 6565: 6531:"The Mongol Empire in World History" 6516:Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition 5795:Oljeitu's letter to Philipp the Fair 4829:Fundamental Principles of Mongol law 4114: 3172:. These hunts were distinctive from 2522:Campaigns of Kublai Khan (1264–1294) 1869:and stationing a Mongol overseer in 1753:immediately after their withdrawal. 1648:, but Ögedei's attempt to annex the 1419:, was founded and divided into day ( 1246:confederation, ruled at the time by 12578:Historical transcontinental empires 12573:Former countries in Chinese history 12319:The Cambridge History of Inner Asia 12088:Protectorate of the Western Regions 9145: 8476:from the original on 1 January 2024 7883:Journal of Central Eurasian Studies 7748:Administration, economy and finance 7525:The history of the Mongol conquests 7349: 7330: 7291:The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410 7081:Barfield, Thomas Jefferson (1992). 6814:. Parallelsixty.com. Archived from 6528: 6392:Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road 5730:Henryk Samsonowicz, Maria Bogucka. 5687: 5281: 5256: 4885: 4534:from the original on 6 October 2022 4491:from the original on 6 October 2022 4379: 4219: 4143:-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" ( 4079:Destruction under the Mongol Empire 4045:, through the territories of their 3168:(traditional hunt), as reported by 3164:Discipline was inculcated during a 2458: 1297:enhanced Mongol military strength. 24: 8082:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 8066:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 7610: 7605: 5944: 5190:from the original on 15 March 2016 3106:Reconstruction of a Mongol warrior 3028:Khan in 1359. The last Yuan ruler 2944:established an independent state ( 2430:In a separate part of the empire, 2315:refused to submit to the Mongols, 1798:in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus' 1646:Mongol campaigns into Goryeo Korea 1551:, an empire twice the size of the 25: 12594: 8682: 8622:Mongol invasion of Rus (pictures) 8573: 8491:Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times 7849:Endicott-West, Elizabeth (1989). 7502:Historical Dictionary of Mongolia 7458:. Translated by Haining, Thomas. 7455:Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy 6760: 6451:The Secret History of the Mongols 6326:Beyond the legacy of Genghis Khan 6239:Islam in Russia: The Four Seasons 5334:Tataro-Mongols in Europe and Asia 3561: in) from the Ilkhan Mongol 3391:The Secret History of the Mongols 3148:Reconstruction of Mongol general 2317:Baghdad was besieged and captured 1677:In 1235, the Mongols established 12475: 12458: 12430: 12418: 12406: 12394: 12055: 10294:The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars 10157:Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns 8632:Neumann, Iver B.; Wigen, Einar. 8388:. Univ of California Press, 2020 8318:Lkhamsuren, Munkherdene (2011). 8306:Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica 8084:, 30, 46–85. doi:10.2307/2718765 7621:, New York: Facts on File (2004) 7529:University of Pennsylvania Press 6932: 6914: 6860: 6848:from the original on 12 May 2008 6830: 6678: 6624:Wheelis, Mark (September 2002). 6617: 6588: 6559: 6522: 6498: 6457: 6443: 6398:University of Pennsylvania Press 6381: 6352: 6315: 6286: 6257: 6244: 6231: 6218: 6153: 6144: 6131: 6119: 6078: 6069: 6026: 6013: 5991: 5985: 5938: 5913: 5471:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2009.00259.x 5288:Libraries and Cultural Resources 3921:, a great trade emporium on the 3289:-style central assembly, called 3064:, until its defeat by the Oirat 2909:Rump states of the Mongol Empire 1800:had fallen to the Asian invaders 1598:captured the capital of Emperor 1194:Mongol tribes during the Khitan 392: 376: 362: 348: 10019:Second Mongol invasion of Burma 8695: 8431:Daily Life in the Mongol Empire 8315:(accessed on 20 September 2016) 8270: 7379:Mediterranean Historical Review 7310:Daily life in the Mongol empire 7058:Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). 6685:Benedictow, Ole Jørgen (2004). 6513: 5877: 5864: 5855: 5810: 5789: 5764: 5751: 5724: 5678: 5665: 5640: 5615: 5546: 5533: 5448: 5351: 5326: 5275: 5250: 5217: 5169: 5148: 5135: 5109: 5084: 5072: 5059: 5040: 5021: 5002: 4983: 4964: 4903: 4894: 4879: 4858: 4834: 4821: 4792: 4731: 4708: 4668: 4619: 4606: 4593: 4434: 4313:International Studies Quarterly 4089:Mongol khanate (disambiguation) 4084:Mongol dynasty (disambiguation) 3909:Some studies indicate that the 3736:of Genghis Khan, struck at the 3322:'s conversion from Buddhism to 3038:the Han-Chinese people revolted 2625:were fought along the coast of 2128:Rule of Möngke Khan (1251–1259) 2084:, possibly a victim of poison. 2076:Suspicious of Güyük's motives, 1478:Mongol invasion of Central Asia 1031:. In 1304, during the reign of 995:, who fought each other in the 12548:1368 disestablishments in Asia 12508:Former monarchies of East Asia 10044:Red Turban invasions of Goryeo 8600:The Mongol Empire for students 8495:University of California Press 7855:Harvard University Asia Center 7760:University of California Press 7523:Saunders, John Joseph (2001). 7483:University of California Press 7168:The Cambridge History of China 7031:Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). 6988:University of California Press 6939:Khodarkovsky, Michael (2002). 6572:University of Washington Press 6529:May, Timothy (February 2008). 6396:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: 5684:Sh.Tseyen-Oidov – Ibid. p. 64. 4798:E.D. Philips The Mongols p. 37 4632:The Cambridge History of China 4404: 4373: 4360: 4179: 3532: 3215:were unsuccessful. Around the 2292:. The Mongol Naiman commander 2251:Mongol invasions of the Levant 1781:Grand Principality of Vladimir 1527:Mongol invasions and conquests 1159: 1027:in China, based in modern-day 1015:khanate in the northwest, the 474: 413: 13: 1: 12563:Former countries in East Asia 10327:The Story of the Western Wing 10198:Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass 9922:Division of the Mongol Empire 9865:Timeline of the Mongol Empire 9562:Division of the Mongol Empire 8425:World History Connected, 2010 8360:Biography, society and gender 7219:Halperin, Charles J. (1985). 6484:10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799 6363:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: 5945:G., Ghazarian, Jacob (2000). 5759:History of the Mongols. p. II 5176:Henthorn, William E. (1963). 4640:10.1017/CHOL9780521243315.006 4380:Pow, Stephen (6 April 2020). 4279:] (in Literary Chinese). 4167: 3881:Great Stand on the Ugra River 3869:rule of the Mongol-Tatar yoke 3307:Religion in the Mongol Empire 3070:Dzungar conquest of Altishahr 2643:Division of the Mongol Empire 1818:nobles to surrender as well. 1733:from a 16th-century chronicle 1628:In the West Ögedei's general 1444:He appointed his stepbrother 1072:Great Stand on the Ugra River 917: 857:. Originating in present-day 444:announced the dynastic name " 10203:Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing) 9954:conquest of the Song dynasty 8595:The Mongols in World History 8580:Genghis Khan and the Mongols 8370:. Asiatische Studien 71(4). 8281:Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 6631:Emerging Infectious Diseases 5648:Mongol Empire and Its Legacy 4386:Genius Loci – Laszlovszky 60 4172: 3635: 3300: 3241:Society of the Mongol Empire 2733:Fleur des histoires d'orient 2350:and the Christian realms of 2284:denounced the menace of the 1828:in February 1246 and wrote: 1457:of the empire, ordering the 427:in the Chagatai Khanate and 55: 7: 12553:1206 establishments in Asia 10438: 10223:Jinan Great Southern Mosque 8812:Manghit / Mangudai 8366:Biran, Michal, ed. (2017). 8041:Schurmann, Herbert (1956). 8018:Vogel, Hans-Ulrich (2012). 7912:Lambton, Ann, K.S. (1988). 7500:Sanders, Alan J.K. (2010). 6722:Georgetown University Press 5179:Korea: the Mongol invasions 4057: 3740:(Ghazni) mint, dated 1221/2 3046:Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen 2954:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia 2765:Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar 2704:Development of the khanates 2390: 2363:Death of Möngke Khan (1259) 2308:which held out until 1271. 2119:and Tukhtemur, and his son 2020:, with his favorite cousin 1841:, Ögedei's eldest son, and 1594:of China. Ögedei's general 1565:buried in a secret location 1453:into what would become the 1226:had been controlled by the 10: 12599: 12568:Former countries in Europe 12188:against Northwest khanates 10109:Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia 9988:Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288) 9615: 9591:Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war 8648:Mongol Empire Google Earth 8435:Hackett Publishing Company 8398:Cambridge University Press 8392:Broadbridge, Anne (2018). 8250:University of Hawaii Press 8204:Edinburgh University Press 8132:Cambridge University Press 8109:Cambridge University Press 7978:Cambridge University Press 7810:Ciocîltan, Virgil (2012). 7754:Allsen, Thomas T. (1987). 7585:Weatherford, Jack (2004). 7452:Ratchnevsky, Paul (1993). 7172:Cambridge University Press 7041:Cambridge University Press 7014:Cambridge University Press 6882:Cambridge University Press 6601:Cambridge University Press 6566:Hahn, Reinhard F. (1991). 6365:Cambridge University Press 6359:Allsen, Thomas T. (2001). 5621:L. N.Gumilev, A. Kruchki. 4444:. The Curzon Press, 1997, 4228:Cambridge University Press 3783: 3645: 3639: 3598:Genghis and his successor 3536: 3420: 3373: 3304: 3238: 3234: 3095: 2917:Iron helmet, Mongol Empire 2640: 2597:Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288) 2525: 2462: 2254: 2248: 1888: 1845:, the beloved grandson of 1767:, the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, 1702: 1692: 1524: 1475: 1449:and the adaptation of the 1376:(Great Mongol State) at a 1348:, and Temujin's childhood 1310: 1304: 1183: 1174: 788:Hungary and Croatia ( 482:since the enthronement of 29: 12533:Nomadic groups in Eurasia 12310: 12249: 12216: 12178: 12145: 12103: 12073: 12064: 12053: 11941: 11874: 11826: 11343: 10747: 10446: 10353: 10231: 10190: 10146: 10064: 10024:Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war 9912: 9862: 9773: 9692: 9625: 9621: 9610: 9554: 9503: 9406:(1223 / 1236–40) 9352: 9329: 9312:(1257 / 1284–88) 9282: 9207: 9152: 9141: 9121: 9012: 8958: 8935:Byzantine–Mongol Alliance 8870: 8866: 8843: 8758: 8705: 8701: 8690: 8550:30 September 2021 at the 8421:21 September 2020 at the 8342:10.1017/S0041977X0001380X 8244:Prazniak, Roxann (2019). 8221:Pfeiffer, Judith (2014). 8097:Culture, arts and science 7784:29 September 2021 at the 7546:Rybatzki, Volker (2009). 7392:10.1080/09518968908569567 7312:. Westport, Connecticut: 7110:Weidenfeld & Nicolson 6972:General and cited sources 6874:; Schumann, Dirk (2003). 6388:Elverskog, Johan (2010). 5885:The Empire of the Steppes 5117:"The Destruction of Kiev" 5052:10 September 2015 at the 5033:21 September 2015 at the 4995:22 September 2015 at the 4976:16 September 2015 at the 4145: 3947:Mongol invasion of Poland 3837:, which is still used in 3779: 3627:, the Mongols still used 3514:Byzantine-Mongol alliance 3052:Khanate were defeated by 2921:With the death of Ilkhan 2836:In the Chagatai Khanate, 2326:His army advanced toward 2012:. He also replaced young 1960:. But Batu, ruler of the 1891:Mongol invasion of Europe 1822:Giovanni de Plano Carpini 1790:The Mongols captured the 1709:Mongol invasions of Korea 1705:Mongol invasions of India 1652:met with little success. 1145: 851:largest contiguous empire 773:Poland and Bohemia ( 740: 733: 714: 682: 624: 574: 553: 548: 543: 487: 465: 408: 321: 313: 305: 297: 292: 288: 275: 262: 250: 238: 226: 214: 210: 197: 175: 163: 129: 100: 85: 68: 41: 12558:Former countries in Asia 11981:Western Turkic Khaganate 11976:Eastern Turkic Khaganate 10138:Goryeo under Mongol rule 9944:Mongol conquest of China 8605:27 November 2020 at the 8489:Rossabi, Morris (1988). 8335:16 November 2020 at the 8300:Jackson, Peter. "YĀSĀ," 8158:27 November 2020 at the 8089:27 November 2020 at the 8073:27 November 2020 at the 8047:Harvard University Press 7995:Prajakti, Kalra (2018). 7972:Ostrowsk, David (2010). 7878:28 November 2020 at the 7791:Badarch, Nyamaa (2005). 7617:Atwood, Christopher, P. 7477:Rossabi, Morris (1983). 7229:Indiana University Press 7202:Rutgers University Press 7117:Burgan, Michael (2005). 6947:Indiana University Press 6714:R. Ward, Steven (2009). 6425:Chambers, James (1979). 6322:Komaroff, Linda (2006). 6163:Journal of Asian History 4514:Robinson, David (2009). 4471:Robinson, David (2019). 4271: 4262: 4074:Xiongnu origin of Mongol 3529:glosses on its margins. 3439:Compendium of Chronicles 3034:hyperinflationary spiral 2831:Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan 2442:. Their younger brother 2438:area of China, near the 2257:Mongol invasion of China 2178:, a Parisian goldsmith. 2039:Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan 2000:'s submission. The 1246 1885:Push into central Europe 1853:, temporarily investing 1713:Mongol conquest of Tibet 1699:Mongol invasion of China 1608:Mongols captured Caizhou 1486:Mongol Empire circa 1207 1468:, to instruct his sons. 1169:Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus 30:Not to be confused with 11986:Second Turkic Khaganate 10213:Pagoda of Bailin Temple 10034:1344 Yellow River flood 10029:War of the Two Capitals 9939:Kublai Khan's campaigns 8888:Invasions and conquests 8807:Paiza / Gerege 8525:2 November 2022 at the 8513:Diplomatic and military 8352:9 November 2020 at the 8311:29 October 2020 at the 8293:9 November 2020 at the 8286:Atwood, Christopher P. 8126:Allsen, Thomas (2009). 8103:Allsen, Thomas (1997). 7889:Kolbas, Judith (2006). 7842:2 November 2022 at the 7274:Central Asiatic Journal 6842:Encyclopædia Britannica 6597:A History of Inner Asia 6536:World History Connected 6330:. Leiden, Netherlands: 6297:. Leiden, Netherlands: 6293:Baumann, Brian (2008). 6268:. Leiden, Netherlands: 6264:Baumann, Brian (2008). 6039:17 October 2015 at the 5080:The Mamluk-Ilkhanid war 5028:eds. Seaman, Marks 1991 5014:17 October 2015 at the 4767:10.1073/pnas.1318677111 4738:Pederson, Neil (2014). 4626:Allsen, Thomas (1994). 4326:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 4064:Mughal-Mongol genealogy 4004:David Nicole states in 3509:Ajall Shams al-Din Omar 3213:campaigns against Japan 3152:, Kyzyl National Museum 2870:(r. 1326–29) supported 2864:War of the Two Capitals 2760:the following decades. 2591:(northern Vietnam) and 2528:Kublai Khan's campaigns 2396:Dispute over succession 2288:, a well-known sect of 2261:Siege of Baghdad (1258) 2004:was written in Persian. 1804:connecting his invasion 1785:Battle of the Sit River 1695:Mongol invasion of Rus' 1163:) and to establish the 1112:After the 1260 to 1264 1081: 881:, mounted invasions of 11971:First Turkic Khaganate 10313:The Injustice to Dou E 10218:Temple of Azure Clouds 10148:Science and technology 10005:Battle of Ngasaunggyan 9949:anti-Mongol fortresses 9545:(1260 / 1301) 9273:(1274 / 1281) 8940:Franco-Mongol alliance 8538:1 January 2024 at the 7574:The Mongols and Russia 7407:Morgan, David (2007). 6645:10.3201/eid0809.010536 6570:. London and Seattle: 4418:. 1998. Archived from 4220:Kim, Hyun Jin (2013). 4187:Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz 4001: 3950: 3900:Ferdinand II of Aragon 3860: 3857:Siege of Moscow (1382) 3851:and the armies of the 3803: 3741: 3721:Franco-Mongol alliance 3668: 3570: 3516:and the fact that the 3442: 3430: 3327: 3255: 3153: 3107: 3017: 2918: 2901: 2818: 2736: 2716: 2656: 2537: 2512:Franco-Mongol alliance 2485: 2405: 2270: 2193: 2153:Administrative reforms 2149:descendants of Tolui. 2096: 2005: 1978: 1835: 1734: 1634:Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu 1544: 1487: 1472:Push into Central Asia 1400: 1336: 1330:National Palace Museum 1211: 1199: 12113:against Western Turks 11851:Medieval great powers 10049:Battle of Lake Poyang 10039:Red Turban Rebellions 8429:Lane, George (2009). 8191:13 April 2021 at the 7949:Lane, George (2003). 7673:10 April 2022 at the 7624:Biran M, Kim H, eds. 7578:Yale University Press 7308:Lane, George (2006). 7119:Empire of the Mongols 7104:Brent, Peter (1976). 6595:Soucek, Svat (2000). 6504:Enkhbold op cit pp. 7 5292:University of Calgary 5282:Pow, Stephen (2012). 5186:. pp. 160, 183. 4416:University of Calgary 4160:of the Mongol Empire. 4104:List of Mongol states 3996: 3944: 3904:Isabella I of Castile 3885:Grand Duchy of Moscow 3847: 3793: 3729: 3659: 3546: 3436: 3428: 3314: 3253: 3217:Eastern Mediterranean 3147: 3105: 3092:Military organization 3002: 2916: 2884: 2804: 2722: 2711: 2650: 2583:were costly, and his 2542:the fall of Xiangyang 2535: 2476: 2403: 2268: 2225:Kublai conquered the 2184: 2090: 2068:Death of Güyük (1248) 1992: 1970: 1830: 1720: 1543:, early 14th century. 1534: 1485: 1391: 1324: 1205: 1193: 1076:Grand Duchy of Moscow 1039:of the Yuan dynasty. 1019:in Central Asia, the 478:) practically in the 423:in the Golden Horde, 130:Common languages 12325:Greater Central Asia 11861:European colonialism 11846:Ancient great powers 9436:Serbia and Bulgaria 8627:Worldwide Death Toll 8302:Encyclopædia Iranica 8198:Kadoi, Yuka (2009). 8165:Buell, Paul (2010). 7835:Central Asian Survey 7504:. Lanham, Maryland: 7413:Blackwell Publishing 6844:. 20 November 2013. 6471:Central Asian Survey 6427:The Devil's Horsemen 6299:Koninklijke Brill NV 6270:Koninklijke Brill NV 5921:Culture and Conquest 5872:Culture and Conquest 5732:A Republic of Nobles 5594:Mongols and the West 5321:Mongols and the West 5300:10.11575/PRISM/25533 4864:Vladimortsov. p. 74. 4840:Ratchnevsky. p. 191. 4675:Buell, Paul (2018). 4634:. pp. 321–413. 4614:Culture and Conquest 4601:Mongols and the West 4158:disintegrated nature 3887:gained independence. 3507:studied there under 3473:Maragheh observatory 3380:Mongolian literature 3088:lasted even longer. 2569:Song imperial family 2540:In the south, after 2321:rupture of the Kaaba 2298:Rukn al-Din Khurshah 2269:The siege of Baghdad 2172:Persian architecture 2160:Buddhist monasteries 1307:Rise of Genghis Khan 1301:Rise of Genghis Khan 895:Carpathian Mountains 885:, and conquered the 534:Mongol invasions and 431:in the Yuan dynasty. 11856:Modern great powers 10232:Society and culture 9959:Battle of Xiangyang 9683:Khagans of the Yuan 9412:Poland and Bohemia 9188:Khwarazmian Empire 8913:Society and economy 7687:2 June 2021 at the 7246:Hull, Mary (1997). 7227:. Bloomington, IN: 6963:on 17 October 2015. 6788:. Users.erols.com. 6332:Koninklijk Brill NV 5935:, pp. 541–550. 4900:Morgan. pp. 99–101. 4758:2014PNAS..111.4375P 4422:on 13 November 2010 4149:) as proclaimed by 4006:The Mongol Warlords 3954:Western researcher 3786:History of Mongolia 3567:Philip IV of France 3518:Empire of Trebizond 3370:Arts and literature 2678:After the death of 2671:and the subsequent 2585:attempted invasions 2518:on 21 August 1264. 2425:Battle of Ain Jalut 2302:Ismaili strongholds 2056:and conquering the 2035:Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus 1897:advance into Europe 983:died (1259), rival 879:Indian subcontinent 805:Bulgaria and Serbia 419:Especially western 43:Great Mongol Nation 10320:The Orphan of Zhao 10089:Imperial Preceptor 9428:Holy Roman Empire 8883:Banner/Bunchuk/Tug 8452:Wang, May (1993). 7659:6 May 2021 at the 7552:Indiana University 7350:Man, John (2007). 7331:Man, John (2004). 7145:St. Martin's Press 6818:on 21 January 2010 6786:"Mongol Conquests" 6215:Foltz. pp. 105–06. 5721:, pp. 344–66. 5496:Mongol Imperialism 4886:Man, John (2004). 4306:(September 1997). 4265:[Chronicle of 3986:Outline of History 3951: 3861: 3804: 3742: 3717:William of Rubruck 3669: 3571: 3505:Gregory Chioniades 3443: 3431: 3386:Mongolian language 3328: 3256: 3246:Law and governance 3154: 3108: 3082:Khanate of Bukhara 3018: 2919: 2902: 2819: 2737: 2717: 2657: 2606:, the khan of the 2577:invasions of Burma 2538: 2486: 2406: 2404:The Mongols at war 2271: 2194: 2168:Christian churches 2097: 2016:, the khan of the 2006: 1979: 1735: 1642:Khwarizmian Empire 1545: 1488: 1401: 1384:Early organization 1337: 1212: 1200: 1180:Pre-empire context 1054:was taken over by 12382: 12381: 12358:Chinese Turkestan 12306: 12305: 12127:Mongolian Plateau 11900: 11899: 11822: 11821: 11787:Polish–Lithuanian 10962:Gurjara-Pratihara 10406: 10405: 9871: 9870: 9858: 9857: 9854: 9853: 9606: 9605: 9602: 9601: 9583:Kaidu–Kublai war 9575:Berke–Hulagu war 9567:Toluid Civil War 9348: 9347: 9117: 9116: 9113: 9112: 8920:House of Borjigin 8839: 8838: 8835: 8834: 8585:The Mongol Empire 8469:978-3-447-03339-8 8325:, 13(2), 211–237. 8236:978-90-04-26257-7 8180:978-90-47-44470-1 7825:978-90-04-22666-1 7596:978-0-609-80964-8 7570:Vernadsky, George 7561:978-0-933070-57-8 7538:978-0-8122-1766-7 7515:978-0-8108-6191-6 7492:978-0-520-04383-1 7469:978-0-631-18949-7 7444:978-1-4128-0519-3 7422:978-1-4051-3539-9 7365:978-0-553-81718-8 7342:978-0-312-36624-7 7323:978-0-313-33226-5 7300:978-0-582-36896-5 7263:978-1-56006-312-4 7238:978-0-253-20445-5 7181:978-0-521-24331-5 7154:978-0-312-23338-9 7137:Foltz, Richard C. 7128:978-1-4381-0318-1 7106:The Mongol Empire 7096:978-1-55786-324-9 7073:978-0-8160-4671-3 7050:978-0-521-46226-6 7023:978-0-521-60270-9 7006:Allsen, Thomas T. 6997:978-0-520-05527-8 6980:Allsen, Thomas T. 6927:978-0-8283-2017-7 6891:978-0-521-00922-5 6731:978-1-58901-258-5 6700:978-1-84383-214-0 6581:978-0-295-98651-7 6411:978-0-8122-4237-9 6345:978-90-04-15083-6 6308:978-90-04-15575-6 6279:978-90-04-15575-6 6252:The Mongol Empire 6084:Sverdrup. p. 110. 6075:Sverdrup. p. 109. 5956:978-0-7007-1418-6 5770:Sh.Tseyen-Oidov. 5269:978-3-030-00727-0 5123:on 19 August 2016 5090:Grousset. p. 259. 4728:Barfield. p. 184. 4714:Rybatzki. p. 116. 4237:978-1-107-06722-6 4202:978-90-04-19190-7 4115:Explanatory notes 4094:Göktürk Khaganate 3935:biological weapon 3923:Crimean Peninsula 3802:States, and China 3703:Western explorer 3612:, founder of the 3446:According to the 3400:Jami' al-tawarikh 3316:Persian miniature 3042:Gongmin of Goryeo 2667:, along with the 2619:battles of Bun'ei 2280:The Muslims from 2176:Guillaume Boucher 2078:Sorghaghtani Beki 1974:consolidates the 1397:Jami' al-tawarikh 1374:Yekhe Mongol Ulus 1372:(Emperor) of the 1293:Mongols in 1161. 1255:Mongolian plateau 1095:yeke Mongγol ulus 1060:Mongolian Plateau 1023:in Iran, and the 947:, in an enforced 842: 841: 837: 836: 800:Holy Roman Empire 500: 499: 454:Yeke Mongγol Ulus 404: 403: 400: 399: 277:• 1333–1368 264:• 1260–1294 252:• 1251–1259 240:• 1246–1248 228:• 1229–1241 216:• 1206–1227 183:Elective monarchy 56:Yeke Mongɣol Ulus 16:(Redirected from 12590: 12488: 12480: 12479: 12478: 12471: 12463: 12462: 12461: 12451: 12435: 12434: 12433: 12423: 12422: 12421: 12411: 12410: 12409: 12399: 12398: 12390: 12071: 12070: 12059: 11927: 11920: 11913: 11904: 11903: 11703: 11702: 11368:Austro-Hungarian 11068:Chagatai Khanate 10433: 10426: 10419: 10410: 10409: 10376:ʼPhags-pa script 10306:The Chalk Circle 10287:Zhongyuan Yinyun 10174:Shiyi Dexiaofang 9932:Kaidu–Kublai war 9927:Toluid Civil War 9898: 9891: 9884: 9875: 9874: 9669: 9656: 9653:Töregene Khatun 9643: 9623: 9622: 9612: 9611: 9594: 9586: 9578: 9570: 9546: 9538: 9530: 9522: 9514: 9495: 9487: 9479: 9471: 9463: 9455: 9447: 9439: 9431: 9423: 9415: 9407: 9399: 9391: 9383: 9375: 9367: 9366: 9340: 9321: 9313: 9305: 9297: 9296: 9274: 9264: 9256: 9255: 9246: 9238: 9230: 9222: 9221: 9199: 9191: 9183: 9173: 9165: 9150: 9149: 9143: 9142: 9123: 9122: 9085:Shangdu (Xanadu) 9075:Sarai Batu/Berke 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However, the 4125: 3927:came under siege 3819:, largely under 3762:Byzantine Empire 3709:Rabban Bar Sauma 3560: 3559: 3555: 3552: 3527:Middle Mongolian 3412:correction fluid 2975:) to Poland and 2958:Chagatai Khanate 2923:Abu Said Bahatur 2899:Chagatai Khanate 2769:Chagatai Khanate 2698:sovereign states 2673:Kaidu–Kublai war 2669:Berke–Hulagu war 2665:Toluid Civil War 2629:near modern-day 2554:Emperor of China 2469:Berke–Hulagu war 2465:Toluid Civil War 2459:Mongol Civil War 2106:Mongol heartland 2018:Chagatai Khanate 2010:Arghun the Elder 1998:Pope Innocent IV 1913:Teutonic Knights 1650:Korean Peninsula 1604:siege of Kaifeng 1455:Mongolian script 1214:The area around 1161: 1152: 1120:and his brother 1108: 1100: 1093: 1017:Chagatai Khanate 997:Toluid Civil War 922: 919: 906:Mongol heartland 820:Byzantine Thrace 546: 545: 538: 526: 519: 512: 503: 502: 491: 489: 480:Chinese language 476: 467: 438: 432: 421:Kipchak dialects 417: 396: 395: 388: 380: 379: 366: 365: 352: 351: 344: 343:Chagatai Khanate 338: 337: 323: 322: 142:Turkic languages 73: 58: 52: 39: 38: 21: 12598: 12597: 12593: 12592: 12591: 12589: 12588: 12587: 12493: 12492: 12491: 12487:from Wikivoyage 12481: 12476: 12474: 12464: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12450:sister projects 12447:at Knowledge's 12441: 12431: 12429: 12419: 12417: 12407: 12405: 12393: 12385: 12383: 12378: 12354:Western Regions 12347:Chinese Tartary 12337:Eurasian nomads 12302: 12259:against Dzungar 12245: 12226:against Mongols 12212: 12174: 12141: 12099: 12083:against Xiongnu 12066:Chinese empires 12060: 12051: 11943:Nomadic empires 11937: 11931: 11901: 11896: 11885:American Empire 11870: 11866:African empires 11818: 11701: 11393:Central African 11339: 11157:Romano-Germanic 10743: 10477:Middle Assyrian 10450: 10442: 10437: 10407: 10402: 10382:History of Yuan 10349: 10280:Wenxian Tongkao 10245:History of Liao 10227: 10208:Miaoying Temple 10186: 10142: 10060: 10056:Ispah rebellion 9908: 9902: 9872: 9867: 9850: 9769: 9688: 9667: 9654: 9641: 9617: 9598: 9592: 9584: 9576: 9568: 9550: 9544: 9536: 9528: 9520: 9512: 9499: 9493: 9485: 9477: 9469: 9461: 9453: 9445: 9437: 9429: 9421: 9413: 9405: 9397: 9389: 9388:Volga Bulgaria 9381: 9373: 9364: 9362: 9344: 9338: 9325: 9319: 9311: 9303: 9294: 9292: 9278: 9272: 9262: 9253: 9251: 9244: 9243:Southern China 9236: 9228: 9227:Northern China 9219: 9217: 9203: 9197: 9189: 9181: 9171: 9163: 9137: 9136: 9109: 9008: 8985:House of Ögedei 8954: 8925:House of Ögedei 8893:Destructiveness 8862: 8861: 8831: 8768: 8754: 8697: 8686: 8681: 8636: 8607:Wayback Machine 8576: 8571: 8552:Wayback Machine 8540:Wayback Machine 8527:Wayback Machine 8515: 8505: 8479: 8477: 8470: 8445: 8423:Wayback Machine 8408: 8378: 8362: 8354:Wayback Machine 8337:Wayback Machine 8313:Wayback Machine 8295:Wayback Machine 8273: 8260: 8237: 8214: 8193:Wayback Machine 8181: 8160:Wayback Machine 8142: 8119: 8099: 8091:Wayback Machine 8075:Wayback Machine 8057: 8034: 8011: 7988: 7965: 7933: 7932: 7928: 7905: 7880:Wayback Machine 7865: 7844:Wayback Machine 7826: 7803: 7795:. Ulaanbaatar. 7786:Wayback Machine 7770: 7750: 7689:Wayback Machine 7675:Wayback Machine 7661:Wayback Machine 7642:Bartold, Vasily 7632:Bartold, Vasily 7613: 7611:General surveys 7608: 7606:Further reading 7603: 7597: 7562: 7539: 7516: 7506:Scarecrow Press 7493: 7470: 7460:Wiley-Blackwell 7445: 7423: 7366: 7343: 7324: 7314:Greenwood Press 7301: 7264: 7239: 7212: 7182: 7155: 7129: 7097: 7074: 7051: 7024: 6998: 6974: 6969: 6968: 6957: 6949:. p. 142. 6937: 6933: 6919: 6915: 6901: 6899: 6892: 6884:. p. 143. 6872:Bessel, Richard 6865: 6861: 6851: 6849: 6836: 6835: 6831: 6821: 6819: 6810: 6809: 6805: 6795: 6793: 6784: 6783: 6776: 6759: 6755: 6741: 6739: 6732: 6712: 6708: 6701: 6693:. p. 382. 6683: 6679: 6622: 6618: 6611: 6603:. p. 116. 6593: 6589: 6582: 6564: 6560: 6550: 6548: 6527: 6523: 6512: 6508: 6503: 6499: 6462: 6458: 6449: 6448: 6444: 6437: 6423: 6419: 6412: 6386: 6382: 6375: 6367:. p. 169. 6357: 6353: 6346: 6320: 6316: 6309: 6301:. p. 296. 6291: 6287: 6280: 6272:. p. 304. 6262: 6258: 6249: 6245: 6236: 6232: 6223: 6219: 6214: 6207: 6199: 6195: 6187: 6183: 6158: 6154: 6149: 6145: 6136: 6132: 6124: 6120: 6111: 6104: 6095: 6088: 6083: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6065: 6061: 6053: 6046: 6041:Wayback Machine 6031: 6027: 6018: 6014: 6004: 6002: 5990: 5986: 5970: 5969: 5957: 5943: 5939: 5931: 5927: 5918: 5914: 5906: 5902: 5894: 5890: 5883:René Grousset. 5882: 5878: 5869: 5865: 5860: 5856: 5848: 5844: 5836: 5832: 5824: 5820: 5815: 5811: 5803: 5799: 5794: 5790: 5782: 5778: 5769: 5765: 5756: 5752: 5745: 5738: 5729: 5725: 5717: 5713: 5705: 5701: 5692: 5688: 5683: 5679: 5670: 5666: 5658: 5654: 5645: 5641: 5632: 5628: 5620: 5616: 5607: 5600: 5591: 5584: 5579: 5572: 5563: 5556: 5551: 5547: 5538: 5534: 5525: 5518: 5509: 5502: 5493: 5486: 5453: 5449: 5440: 5431: 5422: 5413: 5405: 5398: 5390: 5386: 5378: 5365: 5356: 5352: 5344: 5340: 5331: 5327: 5318: 5311: 5280: 5276: 5270: 5255: 5251: 5242: 5235: 5225:English History 5223:Matthew Paris. 5222: 5218: 5210: 5203: 5193: 5191: 5174: 5170: 5162: 5158: 5153: 5149: 5143:Delhi Sultanate 5140: 5136: 5126: 5124: 5115: 5114: 5110: 5101: 5094: 5089: 5085: 5077: 5073: 5064: 5060: 5054:Wayback Machine 5045: 5041: 5035:Wayback Machine 5026: 5022: 5016:Wayback Machine 5007: 5003: 4997:Wayback Machine 4988: 4984: 4978:Wayback Machine 4969: 4965: 4957: 4953: 4945: 4941: 4933: 4929: 4921: 4917: 4908: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4884: 4880: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4859: 4851: 4844: 4839: 4835: 4826: 4822: 4813: 4802: 4797: 4793: 4752:(12): 4375–79. 4736: 4732: 4727: 4718: 4713: 4709: 4698: 4694: 4687: 4673: 4669: 4659: 4657: 4650: 4624: 4620: 4611: 4607: 4598: 4594: 4586: 4582: 4571: 4555: 4551: 4537: 4535: 4528: 4512: 4508: 4494: 4492: 4485: 4469: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4440:Michael Biran. 4439: 4435: 4425: 4423: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4395: 4393: 4378: 4374: 4365: 4361: 4351: 4349: 4304:Taagepera, Rein 4301: 4292: 4285:Emperor Genghis 4277:History of Yuan 4273: 4264: 4261: 4260: 4256: 4242: 4240: 4238: 4218: 4214: 4203: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4164: 4126: 4122: 4117: 4060: 3968:argue that the 3966:David O. Morgan 3877:Russian Tsardom 3788: 3782: 3654: 3644: 3638: 3604:Altai mountains 3557: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3541: 3535: 3465:Ilkhanic Tables 3423: 3382: 3372: 3309: 3303: 3248: 3243: 3237: 3100: 3094: 3078:Crimean Khanate 3066:Dzungar Khanate 3062:Yarkent Khanate 2911: 2805:Hungarian King 2725:House of Ögedei 2706: 2651:The funeral of 2645: 2639: 2562:Chinese culture 2530: 2524: 2471: 2461: 2398: 2393: 2365: 2286:Nizari Ismailis 2263: 2253: 2247: 2155: 2130: 2070: 2054:Nizari Ismailis 1949: 1929:Croatian allies 1893: 1887: 1867:Delhi Sultanate 1715: 1701: 1693:Main articles: 1691: 1586:regime and the 1529: 1523: 1480: 1474: 1386: 1319: 1309: 1303: 1283:divide and rule 1238:founded by the 1222:, and parts of 1188: 1182: 1177: 1091: 1089: 1087: 1084: 1044:Tibetan Plateau 929:invading armies 920: 887:Iranian Plateau 843: 838: 715:Other invasions 539: 535: 532: 530: 496: 495: 494: 484:Genghis Emperor 440:Decades before 439: 435: 418: 414: 393: 386: 377: 363: 349: 342: 278: 265: 253: 241: 229: 217: 193: 159: 125: 81: 76: 64: 53: 50: 48: 46: 44: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12596: 12586: 12585: 12583:Former empires 12580: 12575: 12570: 12565: 12560: 12555: 12550: 12545: 12540: 12535: 12530: 12525: 12520: 12515: 12510: 12505: 12490: 12489: 12472: 12443: 12440: 12439: 12427: 12415: 12403: 12380: 12379: 12377: 12376: 12371: 12366: 12361: 12351: 12350: 12349: 12339: 12334: 12333: 12332: 12322: 12314: 12312: 12311:Related topics 12308: 12307: 12304: 12303: 12301: 12300: 12295: 12290: 12285: 12280: 12279: 12278: 12268: 12267: 12266: 12255: 12253: 12247: 12246: 12244: 12243: 12238: 12233: 12231:against Turpan 12228: 12222: 12220: 12214: 12213: 12211: 12210: 12205: 12200: 12195: 12190: 12184: 12182: 12176: 12175: 12173: 12172: 12167: 12162: 12157: 12151: 12149: 12143: 12142: 12140: 12139: 12134: 12129: 12124: 12119: 12109: 12107: 12101: 12100: 12098: 12097: 12096: 12095: 12093:Chief Official 12085: 12079: 12077: 12068: 12062: 12061: 12054: 12052: 12050: 12049: 12044: 12039: 12038: 12037: 12036: 12035: 12025: 12020: 12010: 12005: 12000: 11995: 11990: 11989: 11988: 11983: 11978: 11973: 11963: 11958: 11953: 11947: 11945: 11939: 11938: 11936:history series 11930: 11929: 11922: 11915: 11907: 11898: 11897: 11895: 11894: 11893: 11892: 11887: 11878: 11876: 11872: 11871: 11869: 11868: 11863: 11858: 11853: 11848: 11843: 11842: 11841: 11830: 11828: 11824: 11823: 11820: 11819: 11817: 11816: 11811: 11806: 11801: 11796: 11795: 11794: 11784: 11779: 11774: 11769: 11764: 11759: 11754: 11749: 11744: 11739: 11738: 11737: 11732: 11722: 11717: 11711: 11709: 11700: 11699: 11698: 11697: 11692: 11687: 11682: 11677: 11667: 11662: 11661: 11660: 11650: 11645: 11644: 11643: 11638: 11633: 11623: 11618: 11617: 11616: 11611: 11601: 11600: 11599: 11594: 11589: 11584: 11579: 11569: 11568: 11567: 11562: 11552: 11547: 11542: 11537: 11536: 11535: 11530: 11525: 11520: 11515: 11505: 11504: 11503: 11498: 11488: 11483: 11482: 11481: 11476: 11466: 11465: 11464: 11459: 11449: 11448: 11447: 11442: 11432: 11427: 11426: 11425: 11420: 11415: 11410: 11405: 11395: 11390: 11389: 11388: 11383: 11375: 11370: 11365: 11360: 11355: 11349: 11347: 11341: 11340: 11338: 11337: 11332: 11327: 11322: 11321: 11320: 11315: 11310: 11305: 11300: 11295: 11290: 11280: 11275: 11274: 11273: 11268: 11263: 11258: 11253: 11248: 11238: 11237: 11236: 11231: 11226: 11221: 11211: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11191: 11186: 11181: 11176: 11171: 11170: 11169: 11164: 11154: 11153: 11152: 11147: 11142: 11137: 11132: 11127: 11114: 11109: 11104: 11099: 11098: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11077: 11076: 11075: 11070: 11065: 11060: 11050: 11045: 11040: 11035: 11030: 11025: 11024: 11023: 11018: 11013: 11008: 10998: 10997: 10996: 10991: 10986: 10981: 10971: 10970: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10949: 10944: 10939: 10934: 10929: 10928: 10927: 10922: 10917: 10907: 10902: 10901: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10885: 10880: 10875: 10865: 10864: 10863: 10858: 10848: 10847: 10846: 10841: 10836: 10831: 10821: 10816: 10815: 10814: 10804: 10803: 10802: 10797: 10789: 10784: 10779: 10774: 10769: 10764: 10759: 10753: 10751: 10749:Post-classical 10745: 10744: 10742: 10741: 10740: 10739: 10729: 10724: 10723: 10722: 10717: 10707: 10706: 10705: 10695: 10694: 10693: 10688: 10683: 10678: 10673: 10668: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10647: 10646: 10641: 10636: 10631: 10621: 10620: 10619: 10614: 10604: 10599: 10598: 10597: 10592: 10587: 10582: 10577: 10567: 10562: 10557: 10556: 10555: 10550: 10548:Middle Kingdom 10545: 10535: 10530: 10529: 10528: 10523: 10518: 10508: 10507: 10506: 10504:Neo-Babylonian 10501: 10496: 10494:Old Babylonian 10486: 10485: 10484: 10479: 10469: 10464: 10458: 10456: 10444: 10443: 10436: 10435: 10428: 10421: 10413: 10404: 10403: 10401: 10400: 10395: 10390: 10385: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10357: 10355: 10351: 10350: 10348: 10347: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10331: 10330: 10323: 10316: 10309: 10297: 10290: 10283: 10276: 10269: 10266:Shilin Guangji 10262: 10255: 10248: 10241: 10235: 10233: 10229: 10228: 10226: 10225: 10220: 10215: 10210: 10205: 10200: 10194: 10192: 10188: 10187: 10185: 10184: 10177: 10170: 10165: 10160: 10152: 10150: 10144: 10143: 10141: 10140: 10135: 10134: 10133: 10132: 10131: 10121: 10116: 10106: 10101: 10096: 10094:Zhongshu Sheng 10091: 10086: 10081: 10080: 10079: 10068: 10066: 10062: 10061: 10059: 10058: 10053: 10052: 10051: 10046: 10036: 10031: 10026: 10021: 10016: 10015: 10014: 10013: 10012: 10007: 9997: 9992: 9991: 9990: 9980: 9975: 9970: 9969: 9968: 9967: 9966: 9961: 9951: 9936: 9935: 9934: 9929: 9918: 9916: 9910: 9909: 9901: 9900: 9893: 9886: 9878: 9869: 9868: 9863: 9860: 9859: 9856: 9855: 9852: 9851: 9849: 9848: 9843: 9838: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9818: 9813: 9808: 9803: 9798: 9793: 9788: 9783: 9777: 9775: 9771: 9770: 9768: 9767: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9742: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9696: 9694: 9690: 9689: 9687: 9686: 9676: 9671: 9666:Oghul Qaimish 9663: 9658: 9650: 9645: 9637: 9631: 9629: 9619: 9618: 9608: 9607: 9604: 9603: 9600: 9599: 9597: 9596: 9588: 9580: 9572: 9564: 9558: 9556: 9552: 9551: 9549: 9548: 9540: 9532: 9524: 9516: 9507: 9505: 9501: 9500: 9498: 9497: 9489: 9481: 9473: 9465: 9457: 9449: 9441: 9433: 9425: 9417: 9409: 9401: 9393: 9385: 9377: 9369: 9358: 9356: 9350: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9342: 9333: 9331: 9327: 9326: 9324: 9323: 9315: 9307: 9299: 9288: 9286: 9280: 9279: 9277: 9276: 9267: 9266: 9258: 9248: 9240: 9232: 9224: 9213: 9211: 9205: 9204: 9202: 9201: 9193: 9185: 9177: 9176: 9175: 9158: 9156: 9147: 9139: 9138: 9135: 9134: 9131: 9127: 9119: 9118: 9115: 9114: 9111: 9110: 9108: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9087: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9052: 9047: 9042: 9037: 9032: 9027: 9022: 9016: 9014: 9010: 9009: 9007: 9006: 9001: 9000: 8999: 8989: 8988: 8987: 8977: 8976: 8975: 8964: 8962: 8956: 8955: 8953: 8952: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8930:Mongol Armenia 8927: 8922: 8916: 8915: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8874: 8872: 8864: 8863: 8860: 8859: 8856: 8853: 8849: 8841: 8840: 8837: 8836: 8833: 8832: 8830: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8799: 8794: 8787: 8782: 8777: 8771: 8769: 8767: 8766: 8763: 8759: 8756: 8755: 8753: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8717: 8711: 8709: 8699: 8698: 8688: 8687: 8680: 8679: 8672: 8665: 8657: 8651: 8650: 8645: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8609: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8575: 8574:External links 8572: 8570: 8569: 8566: 8563: 8560: 8557: 8554: 8542: 8529: 8514: 8511: 8510: 8509: 8504:978-0306825170 8503: 8486: 8468: 8449: 8444:978-0872209688 8443: 8426: 8412: 8406: 8389: 8382: 8376: 8361: 8358: 8357: 8356: 8343: 8339: 8326: 8316: 8298: 8284: 8283:, 17:1, 237–76 8277: 8272: 8269: 8268: 8267: 8264: 8259:978-0824876579 8258: 8241: 8235: 8218: 8213:978-0748635825 8212: 8195: 8179: 8162: 8146: 8140: 8123: 8117: 8098: 8095: 8094: 8093: 8077: 8061: 8056:978-0674432925 8055: 8038: 8032: 8015: 8009: 7992: 7987:978-0521894104 7986: 7969: 7964:978-0415297509 7963: 7946: 7926: 7909: 7903: 7886: 7869: 7863: 7846: 7830: 7824: 7807: 7801: 7788: 7774: 7768: 7749: 7746: 7745: 7744: 7737:Jackson, Peter 7734: 7724: 7717:Howorth, Henry 7714: 7707:Howorth, Henry 7704: 7697:Howorth, Henry 7694: 7691: 7677: 7663: 7649: 7639: 7629: 7622: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7601: 7595: 7582: 7566: 7560: 7543: 7537: 7520: 7514: 7497: 7491: 7474: 7468: 7449: 7443: 7427: 7421: 7404: 7370: 7364: 7347: 7341: 7328: 7322: 7305: 7299: 7287:Jackson, Peter 7283: 7268: 7262: 7243: 7237: 7216: 7210: 7190:Grousset, Rene 7186: 7180: 7159: 7153: 7133: 7127: 7114: 7101: 7095: 7078: 7072: 7055: 7049: 7028: 7022: 7002: 6996: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6967: 6966: 6955: 6931: 6913: 6890: 6859: 6829: 6803: 6774: 6753: 6730: 6724:. p. 39. 6706: 6699: 6677: 6638:(9): 971–975. 6616: 6609: 6587: 6580: 6558: 6521: 6518:. p. 364. 6506: 6497: 6478:(4): 531–547. 6456: 6442: 6435: 6417: 6410: 6380: 6373: 6351: 6344: 6314: 6307: 6285: 6278: 6256: 6243: 6230: 6217: 6205: 6203:, p. 135. 6193: 6181: 6152: 6143: 6130: 6118: 6102: 6086: 6077: 6068: 6059: 6057:, p. 379. 6044: 6025: 6012: 5992:Getz, Trevor. 5984: 5955: 5937: 5925: 5912: 5910:, p. 106. 5900: 5898:, p. 445. 5888: 5876: 5863: 5854: 5852:, p. 413. 5842: 5838:Vernadsky 1953 5830: 5828:, p. 236. 5818: 5809: 5797: 5788: 5784:Vernadsky 1953 5776: 5763: 5750: 5747:Prawdin (1961) 5736: 5723: 5719:Vernadsky 1953 5711: 5709:, p. 195. 5699: 5686: 5677: 5664: 5662:, p. 120. 5652: 5639: 5626: 5614: 5598: 5582: 5580:Wassaf. p. 12. 5570: 5554: 5545: 5532: 5516: 5500: 5484: 5447: 5429: 5411: 5409:, p. 213. 5396: 5394:, p. 179. 5384: 5382:, p. 255. 5363: 5350: 5348:, p. 163. 5338: 5325: 5309: 5274: 5268: 5249: 5233: 5216: 5214:, p. 158. 5201: 5168: 5166:, p. 297. 5156: 5147: 5134: 5108: 5092: 5083: 5071: 5058: 5039: 5020: 5001: 4982: 4971:Collectif 2002 4963: 4961:, p. 509. 4951: 4949:, p. 221. 4939: 4937:, p. 277. 4927: 4915: 4902: 4893: 4878: 4866: 4857: 4853:Secret history 4842: 4833: 4820: 4800: 4791: 4730: 4716: 4707: 4704:. p. 169. 4692: 4685: 4667: 4648: 4618: 4605: 4592: 4580: 4569: 4549: 4526: 4506: 4483: 4463: 4454: 4433: 4403: 4372: 4359: 4320:(3): 475–504. 4290: 4254: 4236: 4230:. p. 29. 4212: 4201: 4177: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4163: 4162: 4119: 4118: 4116: 4113: 4112: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4059: 4056: 4055: 4054: 4030: 4026: 3995: 3994: 3981: 3973: 3970:bubonic plague 3939: 3938: 3907: 3888: 3798:, Russia, the 3781: 3778: 3766:Ottoman Empire 3640:Main article: 3637: 3634: 3537:Main article: 3534: 3531: 3422: 3419: 3371: 3368: 3305:Main article: 3302: 3299: 3247: 3244: 3239:Main article: 3236: 3233: 3190:Battle of Mohi 3096:Main article: 3093: 3090: 3086:Kazakh Khanate 3058:Timurid Empire 3022:Great Troubles 2910: 2907: 2712:Mongol rider, 2705: 2702: 2693:Pope John XXII 2641:Main article: 2638: 2635: 2548:and sought to 2526:Main article: 2523: 2520: 2460: 2457: 2397: 2394: 2392: 2389: 2364: 2361: 2332:Al-Nasir Yusuf 2249:Main article: 2246: 2243: 2154: 2151: 2129: 2126: 2099:Güyük's widow 2069: 2066: 1948: 1945: 1889:Main article: 1886: 1883: 1690: 1687: 1672:Ganghwa Island 1656:, the king of 1555:or the Muslim 1535:Coronation of 1525:Main article: 1522: 1519: 1476:Main article: 1473: 1470: 1417:imperial guard 1411:(10,000). The 1385: 1382: 1334:Taipei, Taiwan 1305:Main article: 1302: 1299: 1184:Main article: 1181: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1114:succession war 1083: 1080: 902:nomadic tribes 883:Southeast Asia 871:Eastern Europe 840: 839: 835: 834: 833: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 807: 802: 797: 786: 771: 766: 761: 756: 751: 749:Volga Bulgaria 746: 738: 737: 731: 730: 729: 728: 723: 716: 712: 711: 710: 709: 704: 693: 686: 684:Southeast Asia 680: 679: 678: 677: 672: 667: 662: 657: 656: 655: 650: 645: 640: 628: 622: 621: 620: 619: 618: 617: 607: 602: 601: 600: 590: 585: 578: 572: 571: 570: 569: 564: 557: 551: 550: 544: 541: 540: 529: 528: 521: 514: 506: 498: 497: 493: 492: 442:Kublai Emperor 433: 411: 410: 409: 406: 405: 402: 401: 398: 397: 390: 382: 381: 374: 368: 367: 360: 354: 353: 346: 335: 332: 331: 326: 319: 318: 315: 311: 310: 307: 303: 302: 299: 295: 294: 290: 289: 286: 285: 279: 276: 273: 272: 266: 263: 260: 259: 254: 251: 248: 247: 242: 239: 236: 235: 230: 227: 224: 223: 218: 215: 212: 211: 208: 207: 204: 195: 194: 192: 191: 185: 179: 177: 173: 172: 167: 161: 160: 158: 157: 154: 149: 144: 139: 133: 131: 127: 126: 124: 123: 117: 111: 104: 102: 98: 97: 94:Nomadic empire 87: 83: 82: 74: 66: 65: 45: 42: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12595: 12584: 12581: 12579: 12576: 12574: 12571: 12569: 12566: 12564: 12561: 12559: 12556: 12554: 12551: 12549: 12546: 12544: 12541: 12539: 12536: 12534: 12531: 12529: 12528:Mongol states 12526: 12524: 12521: 12519: 12516: 12514: 12511: 12509: 12506: 12504: 12503:Mongol Empire 12501: 12500: 12498: 12486: 12485: 12484:Travel guides 12473: 12469: 12468: 12456: 12455: 12452: 12446: 12445:Mongol Empire 12438: 12428: 12426: 12416: 12414: 12404: 12402: 12397: 12392: 12391: 12388: 12375: 12374:Greater China 12372: 12370: 12367: 12365: 12362: 12359: 12355: 12352: 12348: 12345: 12344: 12343: 12340: 12338: 12335: 12331: 12328: 12327: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12320: 12316: 12315: 12313: 12309: 12299: 12296: 12294: 12291: 12289: 12286: 12284: 12281: 12277: 12274: 12273: 12272: 12269: 12265: 12262: 12261: 12260: 12257: 12256: 12254: 12252: 12248: 12242: 12239: 12237: 12234: 12232: 12229: 12227: 12224: 12223: 12221: 12219: 12215: 12209: 12208:Northern Yuan 12206: 12204: 12201: 12199: 12196: 12194: 12191: 12189: 12186: 12185: 12183: 12181: 12177: 12171: 12168: 12166: 12163: 12161: 12160:Northern Liao 12158: 12156: 12153: 12152: 12150: 12148: 12144: 12138: 12135: 12133: 12130: 12128: 12125: 12123: 12122:against Tibet 12120: 12118: 12117:Eastern Turks 12114: 12111: 12110: 12108: 12106: 12102: 12094: 12091: 12090: 12089: 12086: 12084: 12081: 12080: 12078: 12076: 12072: 12069: 12067: 12063: 12058: 12048: 12045: 12043: 12040: 12034: 12031: 12030: 12029: 12028:Mongol Empire 12026: 12024: 12023:Khamag Mongol 12021: 12019: 12016: 12015: 12014: 12011: 12009: 12006: 12004: 12001: 11999: 11996: 11994: 11991: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11977: 11974: 11972: 11969: 11968: 11967: 11964: 11962: 11959: 11957: 11954: 11952: 11949: 11948: 11946: 11944: 11940: 11935: 11928: 11923: 11921: 11916: 11914: 11909: 11908: 11905: 11891: 11890:Soviet empire 11888: 11886: 11883: 11882: 11880: 11879: 11877: 11875:Miscellaneous 11873: 11867: 11864: 11862: 11859: 11857: 11854: 11852: 11849: 11847: 11844: 11840: 11837: 11836: 11835: 11832: 11831: 11829: 11825: 11815: 11812: 11810: 11807: 11805: 11802: 11800: 11797: 11793: 11790: 11789: 11788: 11785: 11783: 11780: 11778: 11775: 11773: 11770: 11768: 11765: 11763: 11760: 11758: 11755: 11753: 11750: 11748: 11745: 11743: 11740: 11736: 11733: 11731: 11728: 11727: 11726: 11723: 11721: 11718: 11716: 11713: 11712: 11710: 11708: 11704: 11696: 11693: 11691: 11688: 11686: 11683: 11681: 11678: 11676: 11673: 11672: 11671: 11668: 11666: 11663: 11659: 11656: 11655: 11654: 11651: 11649: 11646: 11642: 11639: 11637: 11634: 11632: 11629: 11628: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11619: 11615: 11612: 11610: 11607: 11606: 11605: 11602: 11598: 11595: 11593: 11590: 11588: 11585: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11575: 11574: 11573: 11570: 11566: 11563: 11561: 11558: 11557: 11556: 11553: 11551: 11548: 11546: 11543: 11541: 11538: 11534: 11531: 11529: 11526: 11524: 11521: 11519: 11516: 11514: 11511: 11510: 11509: 11506: 11502: 11499: 11497: 11494: 11493: 11492: 11489: 11487: 11484: 11480: 11477: 11475: 11474:German Empire 11472: 11471: 11470: 11467: 11463: 11460: 11458: 11455: 11454: 11453: 11450: 11446: 11443: 11441: 11438: 11437: 11436: 11433: 11431: 11428: 11424: 11421: 11419: 11416: 11414: 11411: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11400: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11379: 11378: 11376: 11374: 11371: 11369: 11366: 11364: 11361: 11359: 11356: 11354: 11351: 11350: 11348: 11346: 11342: 11336: 11333: 11331: 11328: 11326: 11323: 11319: 11316: 11314: 11311: 11309: 11306: 11304: 11301: 11299: 11296: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11285: 11284: 11281: 11279: 11276: 11272: 11269: 11267: 11264: 11262: 11259: 11257: 11254: 11252: 11249: 11247: 11244: 11243: 11242: 11239: 11235: 11232: 11230: 11227: 11225: 11222: 11220: 11217: 11216: 11215: 11214:Turco-Persian 11212: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11197: 11195: 11192: 11190: 11187: 11185: 11182: 11180: 11177: 11175: 11172: 11168: 11165: 11163: 11160: 11159: 11158: 11155: 11151: 11148: 11146: 11143: 11141: 11138: 11136: 11133: 11131: 11128: 11126: 11123: 11122: 11121: 11118: 11115: 11113: 11110: 11108: 11105: 11103: 11100: 11096: 11093: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11082: 11081: 11078: 11074: 11071: 11069: 11066: 11064: 11061: 11059: 11056: 11055: 11054: 11051: 11049: 11046: 11044: 11041: 11039: 11036: 11034: 11031: 11029: 11026: 11022: 11019: 11017: 11014: 11012: 11009: 11007: 11004: 11003: 11002: 10999: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10980: 10977: 10976: 10975: 10972: 10968: 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10954: 10953: 10950: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10935: 10933: 10930: 10926: 10923: 10921: 10918: 10916: 10913: 10912: 10911: 10908: 10906: 10903: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10870: 10869: 10866: 10862: 10859: 10857: 10854: 10853: 10852: 10849: 10845: 10842: 10840: 10837: 10835: 10832: 10830: 10827: 10826: 10825: 10822: 10820: 10817: 10813: 10810: 10809: 10808: 10805: 10801: 10798: 10796: 10793: 10792: 10790: 10788: 10785: 10783: 10780: 10778: 10775: 10773: 10770: 10768: 10765: 10763: 10760: 10758: 10755: 10754: 10752: 10750: 10746: 10738: 10735: 10734: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10721: 10718: 10716: 10713: 10712: 10711: 10708: 10704: 10701: 10700: 10699: 10696: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10672: 10669: 10667: 10664: 10663: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10645: 10642: 10640: 10637: 10635: 10632: 10630: 10627: 10626: 10625: 10622: 10618: 10615: 10613: 10610: 10609: 10608: 10605: 10603: 10600: 10596: 10593: 10591: 10588: 10586: 10583: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10573: 10572: 10571: 10568: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10558: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10540: 10539: 10536: 10534: 10531: 10527: 10524: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10514: 10513: 10512: 10509: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10491: 10490: 10487: 10483: 10480: 10478: 10475: 10474: 10473: 10470: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10449: 10445: 10441: 10434: 10429: 10427: 10422: 10420: 10415: 10414: 10411: 10399: 10398:Northern Yuan 10396: 10394: 10391: 10389: 10386: 10384: 10383: 10379: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10366:Mongol Empire 10364: 10362: 10359: 10358: 10356: 10352: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10329: 10328: 10324: 10322: 10321: 10317: 10315: 10314: 10310: 10308: 10307: 10303: 10302: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10295: 10291: 10289: 10288: 10284: 10282: 10281: 10277: 10275: 10274: 10270: 10268: 10267: 10263: 10261: 10260: 10256: 10254: 10253: 10249: 10247: 10246: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10236: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10214: 10211: 10209: 10206: 10204: 10201: 10199: 10196: 10195: 10193: 10189: 10183: 10182: 10178: 10176: 10175: 10171: 10169: 10166: 10164: 10161: 10159: 10158: 10154: 10153: 10151: 10149: 10145: 10139: 10136: 10130: 10127: 10126: 10125: 10122: 10120: 10117: 10115: 10112: 10111: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10102: 10100: 10097: 10095: 10092: 10090: 10087: 10085: 10082: 10078: 10075: 10074: 10073: 10070: 10069: 10067: 10063: 10057: 10054: 10050: 10047: 10045: 10042: 10041: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10020: 10017: 10011: 10008: 10006: 10003: 10002: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9995:Java invasion 9993: 9989: 9986: 9985: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9965: 9962: 9960: 9957: 9956: 9955: 9952: 9950: 9947: 9946: 9945: 9942: 9941: 9940: 9937: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9924: 9923: 9920: 9919: 9917: 9915: 9911: 9906: 9899: 9894: 9892: 9887: 9885: 9880: 9879: 9876: 9866: 9861: 9847: 9844: 9842: 9839: 9837: 9834: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9822: 9819: 9817: 9814: 9812: 9809: 9807: 9804: 9802: 9799: 9797: 9794: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9779: 9778: 9776: 9772: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9735:Chagatai Khan 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9697: 9695: 9691: 9684: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9664: 9662: 9659: 9657: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9644: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9632: 9630: 9628: 9624: 9620: 9613: 9609: 9595: 9589: 9587: 9581: 9579: 9573: 9571: 9565: 9563: 9560: 9559: 9557: 9553: 9547: 9541: 9539: 9533: 9531: 9525: 9523: 9517: 9515: 9509: 9508: 9506: 9502: 9496: 9490: 9488: 9482: 9480: 9474: 9472: 9466: 9464: 9458: 9456: 9450: 9448: 9444:Latin Empire 9442: 9440: 9434: 9432: 9426: 9424: 9418: 9416: 9410: 9408: 9402: 9400: 9394: 9392: 9386: 9384: 9378: 9376: 9370: 9368: 9360: 9359: 9357: 9355: 9351: 9341: 9335: 9334: 9332: 9328: 9322: 9316: 9314: 9308: 9306: 9300: 9298: 9290: 9289: 9287: 9285: 9281: 9275: 9269: 9268: 9265: 9259: 9257: 9249: 9247: 9241: 9239: 9233: 9231: 9225: 9223: 9215: 9214: 9212: 9210: 9206: 9200: 9194: 9192: 9186: 9184: 9178: 9174: 9168: 9167: 9166: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9155: 9151: 9148: 9144: 9140: 9132: 9129: 9128: 9124: 9120: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9017: 9015: 9011: 9005: 9002: 8998: 8995: 8994: 8993: 8990: 8986: 8983: 8982: 8981: 8978: 8974: 8973:Northern Yuan 8971: 8970: 8969: 8966: 8965: 8963: 8961: 8957: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8917: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8898:Imperial Seal 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8857: 8854: 8851: 8850: 8846: 8842: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8803: 8800: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8792: 8791:Pax Mongolica 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8772: 8770: 8764: 8761: 8760: 8757: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8712: 8710: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8684:Mongol Empire 8678: 8673: 8671: 8666: 8664: 8659: 8658: 8655: 8649: 8646: 8642: 8635: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8604: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8577: 8567: 8564: 8561: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8549: 8546: 8543: 8541: 8537: 8534: 8530: 8528: 8524: 8521: 8517: 8516: 8506: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8487: 8475: 8471: 8465: 8461: 8458:. Wiesbaden: 8457: 8456: 8450: 8446: 8440: 8436: 8432: 8427: 8424: 8420: 8417: 8413: 8409: 8407:9781108347990 8403: 8399: 8395: 8390: 8387: 8383: 8379: 8377:9781108347990 8373: 8369: 8364: 8363: 8355: 8351: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8338: 8334: 8331: 8327: 8324: 8321: 8317: 8314: 8310: 8307: 8303: 8299: 8296: 8292: 8289: 8285: 8282: 8278: 8275: 8274: 8265: 8261: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8242: 8238: 8232: 8228: 8224: 8219: 8215: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8196: 8194: 8190: 8187: 8182: 8176: 8172: 8168: 8163: 8161: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8147: 8143: 8141:9780511497445 8137: 8133: 8129: 8124: 8120: 8118:9780521583015 8114: 8110: 8106: 8101: 8100: 8092: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8078: 8076: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8062: 8058: 8052: 8048: 8044: 8039: 8035: 8033:9789004231931 8029: 8025: 8021: 8016: 8012: 8010:9780415786997 8006: 8002: 7998: 7993: 7989: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7970: 7966: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7947: 7943: 7937: 7929: 7927:9780887061332 7923: 7919: 7915: 7910: 7906: 7904:9780700706679 7900: 7896: 7892: 7887: 7884: 7881: 7877: 7874: 7871:Kim, Hodong. 7870: 7866: 7864:9780674585256 7860: 7856: 7852: 7847: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7831: 7827: 7821: 7817: 7813: 7808: 7804: 7802:9789992904237 7798: 7794: 7789: 7787: 7783: 7780: 7779: 7775: 7771: 7769:9780520055278 7765: 7761: 7757: 7752: 7751: 7742: 7738: 7735: 7732: 7728: 7727:Morgan, David 7725: 7722: 7718: 7715: 7712: 7708: 7705: 7702: 7698: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7686: 7683: 7682: 7678: 7676: 7672: 7669: 7668: 7664: 7662: 7658: 7655: 7654: 7650: 7647: 7643: 7640: 7637: 7633: 7630: 7627: 7623: 7620: 7616: 7615: 7598: 7592: 7588: 7583: 7579: 7576:. New Haven: 7575: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7544: 7540: 7534: 7530: 7526: 7521: 7517: 7511: 7507: 7503: 7498: 7494: 7488: 7484: 7480: 7475: 7471: 7465: 7461: 7457: 7456: 7450: 7446: 7440: 7436: 7435:Mongol Empire 7432: 7428: 7424: 7418: 7414: 7410: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7380: 7375: 7374:Morgan, David 7371: 7367: 7361: 7357: 7353: 7348: 7344: 7338: 7334: 7329: 7325: 7319: 7315: 7311: 7306: 7302: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7275: 7269: 7265: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7250: 7244: 7240: 7234: 7230: 7225: 7224: 7217: 7213: 7211:9780813506272 7207: 7203: 7198: 7197: 7191: 7187: 7183: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7160: 7156: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7138: 7134: 7130: 7124: 7120: 7115: 7111: 7107: 7102: 7098: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7079: 7075: 7069: 7064: 7063: 7056: 7052: 7046: 7042: 7037: 7036: 7029: 7025: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6976: 6962: 6958: 6956:0-253-21770-9 6952: 6948: 6944: 6943: 6935: 6928: 6924: 6917: 6909: 6897: 6893: 6887: 6883: 6879: 6878: 6873: 6868: 6863: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6833: 6817: 6813: 6807: 6791: 6787: 6781: 6779: 6770: 6766: 6763: 6757: 6749: 6737: 6733: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6718: 6710: 6702: 6696: 6692: 6691:Boydell Press 6688: 6681: 6673: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6632: 6627: 6620: 6612: 6610:0-521-65704-0 6606: 6602: 6598: 6591: 6583: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6568:Spoken Uyghur 6562: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6537: 6532: 6525: 6517: 6510: 6501: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6472: 6467: 6460: 6452: 6446: 6438: 6436:0-689-10942-3 6432: 6428: 6421: 6413: 6407: 6403: 6399: 6394: 6393: 6384: 6376: 6374:0-521-80335-7 6370: 6366: 6362: 6355: 6347: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6328: 6327: 6318: 6310: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6289: 6281: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6260: 6253: 6247: 6240: 6234: 6227: 6221: 6212: 6210: 6202: 6197: 6191:, p. 69. 6190: 6185: 6177: 6173: 6170:(2): 137–38. 6169: 6165: 6164: 6156: 6147: 6140: 6134: 6128: 6122: 6115: 6109: 6107: 6099: 6093: 6091: 6081: 6072: 6063: 6056: 6051: 6049: 6042: 6038: 6035: 6029: 6023:. pp. 117–18. 6022: 6016: 6001: 6000: 5995: 5988: 5980: 5974: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5952: 5948: 5941: 5934: 5929: 5922: 5916: 5909: 5904: 5897: 5892: 5886: 5880: 5873: 5867: 5858: 5851: 5846: 5840:, p. 93. 5839: 5834: 5827: 5822: 5813: 5806: 5805:Saunders 2001 5801: 5792: 5786:, p. 74. 5785: 5780: 5773: 5767: 5760: 5754: 5748: 5743: 5741: 5733: 5727: 5720: 5715: 5708: 5703: 5696: 5690: 5681: 5674: 5668: 5661: 5656: 5649: 5643: 5636: 5630: 5624: 5618: 5611: 5605: 5603: 5595: 5589: 5587: 5577: 5575: 5567: 5561: 5559: 5549: 5543:. pp. 127–28. 5542: 5536: 5530:. pp. 132–35. 5529: 5523: 5521: 5513: 5507: 5505: 5497: 5491: 5489: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5465:(1): 122–50. 5464: 5460: 5459: 5458:The Historian 5451: 5445:. pp. 103–04. 5444: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5426: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5408: 5403: 5401: 5393: 5388: 5381: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5360: 5354: 5347: 5342: 5335: 5329: 5322: 5316: 5314: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5278: 5271: 5265: 5261: 5253: 5246: 5240: 5238: 5230: 5226: 5220: 5213: 5208: 5206: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5180: 5172: 5165: 5160: 5151: 5144: 5138: 5122: 5118: 5112: 5105: 5102:Timothy May. 5099: 5097: 5087: 5081: 5075: 5068: 5062: 5055: 5051: 5048: 5043: 5036: 5032: 5029: 5024: 5017: 5013: 5010: 5005: 4998: 4994: 4991: 4986: 4979: 4975: 4972: 4967: 4960: 4955: 4948: 4943: 4936: 4931: 4925:, p. 81. 4924: 4923:Saunders 2001 4919: 4912: 4906: 4897: 4889: 4882: 4876:, p. 70. 4875: 4870: 4861: 4854: 4849: 4847: 4837: 4830: 4827:Riasanovsky. 4824: 4817: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4795: 4787: 4783: 4778: 4773: 4768: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4746: 4741: 4734: 4725: 4723: 4721: 4711: 4703: 4696: 4688: 4686:9781538111376 4682: 4678: 4671: 4655: 4651: 4649:9781139054744 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4622: 4615: 4609: 4602: 4596: 4589: 4584: 4576: 4572: 4570:9780226562933 4566: 4562: 4561: 4553: 4545: 4533: 4529: 4527:9780674036086 4523: 4519: 4518: 4510: 4502: 4490: 4486: 4484:9781108482448 4480: 4476: 4475: 4467: 4458: 4451: 4450:0-7007-0631-3 4447: 4443: 4437: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4407: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4376: 4369: 4363: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4268: 4258: 4250: 4239: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4224: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4198: 4194: 4193: 4188: 4182: 4178: 4159: 4156: 4152: 4142: 4138: 4135:(present-day 4134: 4130: 4124: 4120: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4099:Mongolization 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4061: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4024: 4020: 4015: 4011: 4010:Colin McEvedy 4007: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3977:Islamic world 3974: 3971: 3967: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3952: 3948: 3943: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3917:possessor of 3916: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3865: 3864: 3858: 3855:initiate the 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3840: 3836: 3831: 3829: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3801: 3800:Central Asian 3797: 3792: 3787: 3777: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3758: 3755: 3751: 3746: 3739: 3735: 3734: 3728: 3724: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3673: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3649: 3648:Pax Mongolica 3643: 3633: 3630: 3626: 3623:and southern 3622: 3617: 3615: 3611: 3607: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3594: 3591:forces under 3589: 3585: 3580: 3576: 3568: 3564: 3545: 3540: 3530: 3528: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3440: 3435: 3427: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3408: 3406: 3402: 3401: 3395: 3393: 3392: 3387: 3381: 3377: 3367: 3363: 3361: 3357: 3351: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3308: 3298: 3294: 3292: 3288: 3287:parliamentary 3284: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3270:death penalty 3267: 3263: 3262: 3252: 3242: 3232: 3228: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3201: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3181: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3151: 3146: 3142: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3127:horse archers 3123: 3121: 3117: 3113: 3104: 3099: 3089: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3015: 3011: 3008: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2939: 2935: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2915: 2906: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2883: 2879: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2847: 2843: 2842:Abu Said Khan 2839: 2834: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2799: 2797: 2793: 2792:Zawkhan River 2789: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2761: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2715: 2710: 2701: 2699: 2694: 2690: 2689: 2688:Pax Mongolica 2683: 2681: 2676: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2654: 2653:Chagatai Khan 2649: 2644: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2615:invaded Japan 2611: 2609: 2605: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2570: 2565: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2552:his image as 2551: 2547: 2543: 2534: 2529: 2519: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2483: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2466: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2440:Yangtze River 2437: 2433: 2428: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2411: 2402: 2388: 2384: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2360: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2324: 2322: 2318: 2314: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2276: 2267: 2262: 2258: 2252: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2223: 2221: 2216: 2212: 2207: 2205: 2200: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2140: 2135: 2125: 2122: 2118: 2113: 2111: 2107: 2102: 2101:Oghul Qaimish 2094: 2089: 2085: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2065: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1984: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1963: 1959: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1939:and northern 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1892: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1847:Chagatai Khan 1844: 1840: 1834: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1808:Transcaucasia 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1700: 1696: 1686: 1684: 1680: 1675: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1624: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1600:Wanyan Shouxu 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1572: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1542: 1541:Rashid al-Din 1538: 1533: 1528: 1518: 1516: 1511: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1484: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1451:Uyghur script 1447: 1442: 1440: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1426:) and night ( 1425: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1381: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1354:blood brother 1351: 1347: 1343: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1318: 1314: 1313:Khamag Mongol 1308: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1288: 1287:Ambaghai Khan 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1268: 1267:Khamag Mongol 1264: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1249: 1245: 1244:Khamag Mongol 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1209: 1204: 1197: 1192: 1187: 1186:Proto-Mongols 1172: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1156: 1151: 1148: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1110: 1104: 1103:kür uluγ ulus 1096: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1064:Northern Yuan 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 977: 975: 971: 967: 963: 958: 956: 952: 951: 950:Pax Mongolica 946: 945:Mediterranean 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 915: 911: 907: 903: 898: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 847:Mongol Empire 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 806: 803: 801: 798: 795: 791: 787: 784: 780: 776: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 760: 757: 755: 752: 750: 747: 745: 742: 741: 739: 736: 732: 727: 724: 722: 719: 718: 717: 713: 708: 705: 702: 698: 694: 692: 689: 688: 687: 685: 681: 676: 673: 671: 668: 666: 663: 661: 658: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 635: 634: 631: 630: 629: 627: 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11491:Indo-Persian 11479:Nazi Germany 11423:Contemporary 11325:Vijayanagara 11224:Great Seljuk 11135:Thessalonica 11063:Golden Horde 11052: 10703:Carthaginian 10482:Neo-Assyrian 10467:Neo-Sumerian 10380: 10365: 10354:Other topics 10325: 10318: 10311: 10304: 10292: 10285: 10278: 10273:Menggu Ziyun 10271: 10264: 10257: 10250: 10243: 10191:Architecture 10179: 10172: 10155: 9905:Yuan dynasty 9635:Genghis Khan 9404:Kievan Rus' 9382:(1237–1300s) 9374:(1237–1300s) 9218:Western Xia 9180:Qara Khitai 9013:Major cities 8992:Golden Horde 8968:Yuan dynasty 8855:Organization 8789: 8740:Khong Tayiji 8683: 8490: 8478:. Retrieved 8460:Harrassowitz 8454: 8430: 8414:Paul Buell, 8393: 8385: 8367: 8322: 8301: 8280: 8271:Institutions 8245: 8222: 8199: 8166: 8150: 8127: 8104: 8081: 8065: 8042: 8019: 7996: 7973: 7950: 7913: 7890: 7882: 7850: 7834: 7811: 7792: 7777: 7755: 7740: 7730: 7720: 7710: 7700: 7680: 7666: 7652: 7645: 7635: 7625: 7618: 7586: 7573: 7547: 7524: 7501: 7478: 7454: 7434: 7408: 7383: 7377: 7356:Bantam Books 7351: 7332: 7309: 7290: 7278: 7272: 7248: 7222: 7195: 7163: 7140: 7118: 7105: 7082: 7061: 7034: 7009: 6983: 6961:the original 6941: 6934: 6916: 6908:Google Books 6906:– via 6900:. Retrieved 6876: 6862: 6850:. Retrieved 6841: 6832: 6820:. Retrieved 6816:the original 6806: 6794:. Retrieved 6767:– via 6762:Wells, H. G. 6756: 6748:Google Books 6746:– via 6740:. Retrieved 6716: 6709: 6686: 6680: 6635: 6629: 6619: 6596: 6590: 6567: 6561: 6549:. Retrieved 6540: 6534: 6524: 6515: 6514:Liu, Guoli. 6509: 6500: 6475: 6469: 6465: 6459: 6450: 6445: 6429:. Atheneum. 6426: 6420: 6391: 6383: 6360: 6354: 6325: 6317: 6294: 6288: 6265: 6259: 6251: 6246: 6238: 6233: 6225: 6220: 6196: 6184: 6167: 6161: 6155: 6146: 6138: 6133: 6126: 6121: 6113: 6100:. pp. 80–81. 6097: 6080: 6071: 6062: 6055:Prawdin 1961 6028: 6020: 6015: 6003:. Retrieved 5999:Khan Academy 5997: 5987: 5946: 5940: 5928: 5920: 5915: 5903: 5891: 5884: 5879: 5874:. pp. 32–35. 5871: 5866: 5857: 5845: 5833: 5821: 5812: 5800: 5791: 5779: 5771: 5766: 5758: 5753: 5731: 5726: 5714: 5702: 5694: 5689: 5680: 5672: 5667: 5655: 5647: 5642: 5634: 5629: 5623:Black legend 5622: 5617: 5609: 5593: 5565: 5548: 5540: 5535: 5527: 5511: 5495: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5442: 5424: 5387: 5358: 5353: 5341: 5333: 5328: 5320: 5287: 5277: 5259: 5252: 5244: 5224: 5219: 5192:. Retrieved 5178: 5171: 5159: 5154:Bor. p. 186. 5150: 5142: 5137: 5125:. Retrieved 5121:the original 5111: 5103: 5086: 5079: 5074: 5066: 5061: 5042: 5023: 5004: 4985: 4966: 4954: 4947:Rossabi 1983 4942: 4930: 4918: 4911:Genghis Khan 4910: 4905: 4896: 4887: 4881: 4869: 4860: 4852: 4836: 4828: 4823: 4818:. pp. 49–73. 4815: 4794: 4749: 4743: 4733: 4710: 4701: 4695: 4676: 4670: 4658:. Retrieved 4631: 4621: 4613: 4608: 4600: 4595: 4587: 4583: 4575:Google Books 4573:– via 4559: 4552: 4544:Google Books 4542:– via 4536:. Retrieved 4516: 4509: 4501:Google Books 4499:– via 4493:. Retrieved 4473: 4466: 4457: 4441: 4436: 4424:. Retrieved 4420:the original 4406: 4394:. Retrieved 4385: 4375: 4370:. p. 5. 4367: 4362: 4350:. Retrieved 4317: 4311: 4280: 4276: 4257: 4249:Google Books 4247:– via 4241:. Retrieved 4222: 4215: 4207:Google Books 4205:– via 4191: 4181: 4154: 4129:Yuan dynasty 4123: 4069:Tellurocracy 4013: 4005: 3997: 3984: 3960: 3956:R. J. Rummel 3879:. After the 3862: 3853:Golden Horde 3832: 3825: 3805: 3774:Ming dynasty 3759: 3753: 3747: 3743: 3731: 3702: 3680: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3665:Golden Horde 3618: 3614:Yuan dynasty 3608: 3597: 3584:Pony Express 3578: 3572: 3499: 3491:Guo Shoujing 3483:Wu-hu-lie-ti 3482: 3477: 3444: 3416: 3409: 3398: 3396: 3389: 3383: 3364: 3352: 3336:Christianity 3329: 3295: 3278: 3265: 3259: 3257: 3229: 3209:Song dynasty 3202: 3198:Khwarezmshah 3182: 3165: 3163: 3159:supply lines 3155: 3124: 3118:(1000), and 3109: 3050: 3030:Toghan Temür 3019: 3014:Mengli Giray 2966: 2920: 2903: 2895:Yuan dynasty 2891:Golden Horde 2850: 2835: 2820: 2815:Golden Horde 2785: 2772: 2762: 2757:Golden Horde 2749: 2738: 2732: 2714:Yuan dynasty 2686: 2684: 2677: 2658: 2612: 2601: 2574: 2566: 2546:Yuan dynasty 2539: 2508:Möngke Temür 2500: 2496: 2487: 2482:Genghis Khan 2429: 2418: 2407: 2385: 2366: 2325: 2310: 2279: 2272: 2239:Trần dynasty 2227:Dali Kingdom 2224: 2208: 2195: 2156: 2147: 2143: 2131: 2114: 2098: 2075: 2071: 2046:Hashshashins 2043: 2007: 1980: 1976:Golden Horde 1962:Golden Horde 1950: 1927:army, their 1909:Hospitallers 1894: 1836: 1831: 1820: 1789: 1755: 1739:Song dynasty 1736: 1721:The sack of 1676: 1661: 1627: 1620: 1616:Song dynasty 1588:Water Tatars 1573: 1553:Roman Empire 1546: 1512: 1508: 1489: 1446:Shikhikhutug 1443: 1432: 1407:(1000), and 1402: 1393:Genghis Khan 1373: 1366: 1349: 1338: 1326:Genghis Khan 1317:Genghis Khan 1295: 1291: 1258: 1252: 1232:Liao dynasty 1213: 1196:Liao dynasty 1168: 1165:Yuan dynasty 1158: 1138:Dai Ön Ulus' 1137: 1133: 1111: 1102: 1094: 1085: 1068:Qing dynasty 1048:China proper 1041: 1025:Yuan dynasty 1013:Golden Horde 978: 959: 948: 914:Genghis Khan 899: 869:to parts of 867:Sea of Japan 846: 844: 810:Latin Empire 598:Nizari state 555:Central Asia 473: 453: 436: 415: 387:Yuan dynasty 358:Golden Horde 329:Succeeded by 328: 282:Toghon Temür 221:Genghis Khan 36: 12137:Tarim Basin 11229:Khwarezmian 11162:Carolingian 10967:Rashtrakuta 10671:Shaishunaga 10570:Hellenistic 10553:New Kingdom 10543:Old Kingdom 10239:Yuan poetry 10077:family tree 9710:Sartaq Khan 9679:Kublai Khan 9674:Möngke Khan 9648:Ögedei Khan 9627:Great Khans 9593:(1314–1318) 9585:(1268–1301) 9537:(1260–1323) 9521:(1253–1256) 9504:Middle East 9398:(1238–1239) 9339:(1221–1327) 9198:(1219–1256) 9190:(1219–1221) 9172:(1264–1308) 9164:(1207-1308) 9030:Azov (Azaq) 8696:Terminology 8480:28 December 7731:The Mongols 7409:The Mongols 6867:Andrea Peto 6852:15 February 6822:15 February 6796:15 February 6551:15 February 6237:Bukharaev. 6139:The Mongols 6116:. pp. 74–75 6114:The Mongols 6098:The Mongols 6021:The Mongols 5933:Franke 1994 5908:Atwood 2004 5896:Atwood 2004 5850:Franke 1994 5695:Kublai Khan 5673:Kublai Khan 5566:The Mongols 5552:Lane. p. 9. 5541:The Mongols 5528:The Mongols 5512:The Mongols 5443:The Mongols 5425:The Mongols 5407:Atwood 2004 5380:Atwood 2004 5359:Kublai Khan 5245:The Mongols 5229:J. A. Giles 5227:(trans. by 5164:Atwood 2004 5047:Hucker 1985 5009:Schram 1987 4959:Atwood 2004 4935:Atwood 2004 4816:The Mongols 4660:7 September 4368:The Mongols 4243:20 November 4039:Volga River 4019:Andrea Peto 3991:H. G. Wells 3911:Black Death 3823:influence. 3652:Black Death 3610:Kublai Khan 3539:Yam (route) 3533:Mail system 3501:Ghazan Khan 3479:Kublai Khan 3469:Tusi couple 3460:Hulagu Khan 3452:Möngke Khan 3340:Manichaeism 3074:Great Horde 2986:Moghulistan 2982:Transoxiana 2962:Black Death 2934:Togha Temür 2838:Esen Buqa I 2741:Shan people 2608:White Horde 2572:his reign. 2478:Kublai Khan 2432:Kublai Khan 2313:al-Mustasim 2275:south China 2030:Han Chinese 2022:Yesü Möngke 2014:Qara Hülëgü 1683:Ogedei Khan 1663:darughachis 1636:, the last 1592:Jin dynasty 1584:Eastern Xia 1549:Caspian Sea 1537:Ögedei Khan 1504:Qara Khitai 1492:Western Xia 1248:Khabul Khan 1236:Jin dynasty 1224:North China 1118:Kublai Khan 1056:Ming forces 993:Kublai Khan 981:Möngke Khan 921: 1162 648:Eastern Xia 638:Western Xia 562:Qara Khitai 448:" in 1271, 269:Kublai Khan 257:Möngke Khan 233:Ögedei Khan 187:Later also 122:(1271–1368) 116:(1235–1260) 110:(1206–1235) 12497:Categories 12369:Sinosphere 12271:Lifan Yuan 12170:Later Liao 11934:Inner Asia 11799:Portuguese 11680:Revival Le 11670:Vietnamese 11313:Later Tran 11283:Vietnamese 11179:Singhasari 11167:Holy Roman 10791:Bulgarian 10727:Satavahana 10698:Phoenician 10634:Achaemenid 10595:Indo-Greek 10575:Macedonian 10489:Babylonian 10065:Government 9846:Nogai Khan 9730:Özbeg Khan 9661:Güyük Khan 9555:Civil wars 9543:Palestine 9452:Lithuania 9372:Circassia 9105:Xacitarxan 9090:Soltaniyeh 8827:Darughachi 8323:Inner Asia 7918:SUNY Press 7386:(1): 204. 7281:: 208–351. 6902:13 October 6742:13 October 6400:. p. 6334:. p. 5633:Barthold. 5608:Barthold. 5231:). p. 348. 5184:E.J. Brill 5127:12 October 4426:3 December 4352:8 December 4168:References 4021:says that 3849:Tokhtamysh 3835:Old Uyghur 3784:See also: 3768:under the 3705:Marco Polo 3694:Marco Polo 3661:Tuda Mengu 3646:See also: 3487:Zhu Shijie 3405:Abaqa Khan 3374:See also: 3318:depicting 3135:trebuchets 3122:(10,000). 2994:Azerbaijan 2856:Tugh Temür 2779:, who was 2771:under its 2661:Temür Khan 2627:Hakata Bay 2602:Nogai and 2463:See also: 2255:See also: 2237:under the 2199:tax burden 2190:Il-Khanate 1996:demanding 1994:Güyük Khan 1933:Sajo River 1921:at Legnica 1703:See also: 1632:destroyed 1623:Shi Tianze 1462:Tata-tonga 1344:chieftain 1311:See also: 1198:(907–1125) 1037:suzerainty 1001:Chagatayid 939:, and the 910:leadership 908:under the 759:Durdzuketi 744:Kievan Rus 446:Great Yuan 429:Old Uyghur 245:Güyük Khan 189:hereditary 176:Government 165:Demonym(s) 12283:Manchuria 12236:Manchuria 12193:Manchuria 11792:Couronian 11430:Ethiopian 11418:Manchukuo 11373:Brazilian 11219:Ghaznavid 11189:Srivijaya 11140:Trebizond 11125:Byzantine 11107:North Sea 11102:Norwegian 11090:Almoravid 11073:Ilkhanate 11043:Majapahit 11016:Muromachi 10925:Solomonic 10910:Ethiopian 10824:Caliphate 10757:Aragonese 10585:Ptolemaic 10388:Khanbaliq 10129:Dpon-chen 10119:Manchuria 10084:Empresses 9715:Orda Khan 9705:Batu Khan 9569:(1260–64) 9513:(1241–43) 9511:Anatolia 9486:(1287–88) 9478:(1285–86) 9470:(1264–65) 9462:(1259–60) 9454:(1258–59) 9430:(1241–42) 9422:(1241–42) 9414:(1240–41) 9390:(1229–36) 9380:Chechnya 9320:(1300–02) 9284:Southeast 9263:(1253–56) 9245:(1235–79) 9237:(1231–60) 9229:(1211–34) 9182:(1216–18) 9170:Sakhalin 9130:Campaigns 9080:Saray-Jük 9070:Samarkand 9045:Karakorum 9004:Ilkhanate 8762:Political 8001:Routledge 7955:Routledge 7936:cite book 7895:Routledge 7433:(1961) . 7400:0951-8967 7087:Blackwell 6654:1080-6040 6492:203044817 6241:. p. 145. 6228:. p. 274. 5973:cite book 5761:. p. 355. 5757:d.Ohson. 5734:. p. 179. 5697:. p. 207. 5650:. p. 302. 5646:Prawdin. 5637:. p. 446. 5612:. p. 488. 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