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the city of
Hamadan in modern-day Iran was destroyed and every man, woman, and child executed by Mongol general Subadai, after surrendering to him but failing to have enough provisions for his Mongol scouting force. Several days after the initial razing of the city, Subadai sent a force back to the burning ruins and the site of the massacre to kill any inhabitants of the city who had been away at the time of the initial slaughter and had returned in the meantime. Mongol armies made use of local peoples and their soldiers, often incorporating them into their armies. Prisoners of war sometimes were given the choice between death and becoming part of the Mongol army to aid in future conquests. Due to the brutal methods employed to subdue their subjects, Mongols maintained long lasting resentment from those they conquered. This resentment towards the Mongol rule has been highlighted as a cause for the empire's rapid fracturing. In addition to intimidation tactics, the rapid expansion of the empire was facilitated by military hardiness (especially during bitterly cold winters), military skill, meritocracy, and discipline.
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1389:
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and settled populations should not be destroyed. To these simple practitioners of the open-air life the settled populations seemed corrupt, crowded, vicious, effeminate, dangerous, and incomprehensible; a detestable human efflorescence upon what would otherwise have been good pasture. They had no use whatever for the towns. **** But it was only under Hulagu in
Mesopotamia that these ideas seem to have been embodied in a deliberate policy. The Mongols here did not only burn and massacre; they destroyed the irrigation system that had endured for at least eight thousand years, and with that the mother civilization of all the Western world came to an end.
12057:
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1943:, news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion. As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend the kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year. Today researchers doubt that Ögedei's death was the sole reason for the Mongols withdrawal. Batu did not return to Mongolia, so a new khan was not elected until 1246. Climatic and environmental factors, as well as the strong fortifications and castles of Europe, played an important role in the Mongols' decision to withdraw.
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1968:
3312:
12396:
1322:
1718:
71:
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2840:(r. 1309–1318) was enthroned as khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ögedei's descendants and driving Chapar into exile. The Yuan and Ilkhanid armies eventually attacked the Chagatai Khanate. Recognising the potential economic benefits and the Genghisid legacy, Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan in 1326. He strengthened ties with the Muslim world as well, building mosques and other elaborate structures such as baths. By the second decade of the 14th century, Mongol invasions had further decreased. In 1323,
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2474:
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invasion, the territories of the
Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported that China's total population was roughly 60 million. While it is tempting to attribute this major decline in China's population solely to Mongol ferocity, today scholars have mixed opinions about this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to keep records rather than a
2533:
5008:
2682:, the Chatagai ruler Duwa initiated a peace proposal and persuaded the Ögedeids to submit to Temür Khan. In 1304, all of the khanates approved a peace treaty and accepted Yuan emperor Temür's supremacy. This established the nominal supremacy of the Yuan dynasty over the western khanates, which was to last for several decades. This supremacy was based on weaker foundations than that of the earlier Khagans and each of the four khanates continued to develop separately and function as independent states.
3434:
2648:
12477:
2088:
2401:
1203:
2182:
1532:
1990:
2691:, and international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe. Communication between the Yuan dynasty in China and the Ilkhanate in Persia further encouraged trade and commerce between east and west. Patterns of Yuan royal textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning Armenian decorations; trees and vegetables were transplanted across the empire; and technological innovations spread from Mongol dominions toward the West.
2802:
1483:
3251:
1625:, Liu Heima (劉黑馬, Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the Newly Submitted Army 新附軍.
3426:
2675:, greatly weakened the authority of the great khan over the entirety of the Mongol Empire and the empire fractured into autonomous khanates, the Yuan dynasty and the three western khanates: the Golden Horde, the Chagatai Khanate and the Ilkhanate. Only the Ilkhanate remained loyal to the Yuan court but endured its own power struggle, in part because of a dispute with the growing Islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire.
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3696:'s family. As the empire grew, any merchants or ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization received protection and sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing overland trade and resulting in some dramatic stories of those who travelled through what would become known as the
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12408:
1191:
1368:
regarded
Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance. War ensued, and Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the
3937:. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, from where it rapidly spread. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75–200 million with up to 50 million deaths in Europe alone.
2080:, the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Güyük's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastward at the time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum-Senggir (Hong-siang-yi-eulh) in
4989:
2790:(r. 1299–1304), the khan of the White Horde. Bayan, after receiving military support from the Mongols in Rus, requested assistance from both Temür Khan and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack against Kaidu's forces. Temür was amenable and attacked Kaidu a year later. After a bloody battle with Temür's armies near the
8266:"Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: a Little-Known Case of Transmission", in : Yvonne Dold-Samplonius, Joseph W. Dauben, Menso Folkerts & Benno van Dalen, éds., From China to Paris. 2000 Years Transmission of Mathematical Ideas. Series: Boethius 46, Stuttgart (Steiner), 2002, pp. 327–356.
3450:, Ögedei Khan twice ordered the armillary sphere of Zhongdu to be repaired (in 1233 and 1236) and also ordered in 1234 the revision and adoption of the Damingli calendar. He built a Confucian temple for Yelü Chucai in Karakorum around 1236 where Yelü Chucai created and regulated a calendar on the Chinese model.
976:. The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagatayid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. The conflict over whether the Mongol Empire would adopt a sedentary, cosmopolitan lifestyle or stick to its nomadic, steppe-based way of life was a major factor in the breakup.
1340:
most powerful Mongol leader at the time, he gave himself the name
Genghis Khan. He then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin, with the term Mongol coming to be used in reference to all Mongolic speaking tribes under the control of Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father's friend,
1986:
stature necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by
Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire — leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy.
3871:, some time after Russian rulers were accorded the status of tax collectors for the Mongols. The fact that the Russians collected tribute and taxes for the Mongols meant that the Mongols themselves rarely visited the lands which they owned. The Russians eventually gained military power, and their ruler
3979:
was subjected to massive changes as a result of the Mongol invasions. The population of the
Iranian plateau suffered from widespread disease and famine, resulting in the death of up to three-quarters of its population, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Historian Steven Ward estimates that Iran's
3156:
Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly armored than many of the armies they faced but were able to make up for it with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with multiple horses,
2446:
took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of great khan for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaiming him as the leader at the kurultai in
Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own kurultai at
1367:
Temujin forbade the looting of his enemies without permission, and he implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving them all to the aristocrats. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to the throne; they
1339:
Known during his childhood as Temüjin, Genghis Khan was a son of a Mongol chieftain and rose very rapidly as a young man by working with
Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. After Temujin went to war against Kurtait (also known as Wang Khan; given the Chinese title "Wang" for its meaning of King), who was the
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decrease, while others such as
Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols reduced much of the south Chinese population, and very debatably the Han Chinese population, to an invisible status through cancellation of the right to passports and denial of the right to direct land ownership. This meant that the
3671:
The Mongols had a history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols. Merchants provided information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats and official traders for the Mongols, and were essential for
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was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. Many merchants, messengers, and travelers from China, the Middle East, and Europe used the system. When the great khan died in Karakorum, news reached the Mongol
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who had worked at Maragheh under Tusi. Chioniades played an important role in transmitting several innovations from the Islamic world to Europe. These include the introduction of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe to Europe and a Greek description of the Tusi-couple, which would later have
3230:
All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance, and the gathering of sensitive information relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization, and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age
2148:
Möngke confiscated the estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the
1955:
took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's
1832:
They attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we
4028:
One of the more successful tactics employed by the Mongols was to wipe out urban populations that refused to surrender. During the Mongol invasion of Rus', almost all major cities were destroyed. If they chose to submit, the people were generally spared, though this was not guaranteed. For example,
3744:
After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ögedei and Güyük. Merchants brought clothing, food, information, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return the great khans gave the merchants tax exemptions and allowed them to use the official
2386:
In the southern part of the empire, Möngke Khan himself led his army, but did not complete the conquest of China. Military operations were generally successful, but prolonged, so the forces did not withdraw to the north as was customary when the weather turned hot. Disease ravaged the Mongol forces
2144:
Shiremun moved with his own forces toward the emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were
3998:
n this region nomadism really did attempt, and really did to a very considerable degree succeed in its attempt, to stamp a settled civilized system out of existence. When Jengis Khan first invaded China, we are told that there was a serious discussion among the Mongol chiefs whether all the towns
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in Rus had long made claims on nearby Georgia. Within four years, Ghazan began sending tribute to the Yuan court and appealing to other khans to accept Temür Khan as their overlord. He oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the Ilkhanate and the Yuan dynasty in
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surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of China. Kublai used his base to build a powerful empire, creating an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsoring arts and science. Mongol records list 20,166 public schools created during
2136:
organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of the Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was
1448:
as supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food, and the army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation. He also encouraged literacy
1296:
During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed their mildest, wettest conditions in more than a millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock, which significantly
3806:
The Mongol Empire, at its height of the largest contiguous empire in history, had a lasting impact, unifying large regions. Some of these (such as eastern and western Russia, and the western parts of China) remain unified today. Mongols might have been assimilated into local populations after the
2904:
Tugh Temür (1304–32) was knowledgeable about Chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet, calligrapher, and painter. In order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of the Mongol world, he sent Genghisid princes and descendants of notable Mongol generals to the Chagatai
2695:
was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing the Pax Mongolica: "... Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs and all lords of the state, e.g., the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, saluting his holiness to pay their respects."
2488:
Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariqboke, which included forces still loyal to Möngke's previous administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariqboke's supporters and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took
2072:
In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westward from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale
1292:
In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the
3631:
relays for the Yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special Yam tax.
3524:
vassal facilitated Choniades' movements between Constantinople, Trebizond and Tabriz. Prince Radna, the Mongol viceroy of Tibet based in Gansu province, patronized the Samarkandi astronomer al-Sanjufini. The Arabic astronomical handbook dedicated by al-Sanjufini to Prince Radna, a descendant of
2196:
Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing
3723:. It was rare, however, for anyone to journey the full length of Silk Road. Instead, merchants moved products like a bucket brigade, goods being traded from one middleman to another, moving from China all the way to the West; the goods moved over such long distances fetched extravagant prices.
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Increasingly isolated from their subjects, the Mongols quickly lost most of China to the rebellious Ming forces and in 1368 fled to their heartland in Mongolia. After the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty the Golden Horde lost touch with Mongolia and China, while the two main parts of the Chagatai
2754:
took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally accepted Islam as his own religion, marking a turning point in Mongol history after which Mongol Persia became more and more Islamic. Despite this, Ghazan continued to strengthen ties with Temür Khan and the Yuan dynasty in the east. It was
2123:
to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly invited Oghul Qaimish and the other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of
2112:, a grandson of Genghis from his son Tolui's lineage. Möngke was leading a Mongol army in Rus, the northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu's choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity.
1985:
threatened to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position. Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the kurultai convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of
1833:
came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.
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estimated that 30 million people were killed by the Mongol Empire. Other researchers estimate that as many as 80 million people were killed, with 50 million deaths being the middle ground. The population of China fell by half during fifty years of Mongol rule. Before the Mongol
3691:
arrangements, however, Mongol investors were not constrained using uncoined precious metals and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Italian cities, including
3445:
The Mongol Empire saw some significant developments in science due to the patronage of the Khans. Roger Bacon attributed the success of the Mongols as world conquerors principally to their devotion to mathematics. Astronomy was one branch of science that the Khans took a personal interest in.
1749:, but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded
2497:
In southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, a Muslim and the ruler of the Golden Horde, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal distribution of war booty, and Hulagu's massacres of Muslims
3581:
set up throughout the Empire. A messenger would typically travel 40 kilometres (25 miles) from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 200 km
2103:
stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on a new great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the
3296:
The Mongols imported Central Asian Muslims to serve as administrators in China and sent Han Chinese and Khitans from China to serve as administrators over the Muslim population in Bukhara in Central Asia, thus using foreigners to curtail the power of the local peoples of both lands.
3394:, which was written for the royal family some time after Genghis Khan's death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis's life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ögedei.
5049:
3353:
Initially there were few formal places of worship because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186–1241), several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital. Along with palaces, Ögedei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and
2387:
with bloody epidemics, and Möngke died there on 11 August 1259. This event began a new chapter in the history of the Mongols, as again a decision needed to be made on a new great khan. Mongol armies across the empire withdrew from their campaigns to convene a new kurultai.
2610:, established friendly relations with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate. Political disagreement among contending branches of the family over the office of great khan continued, but the economic and commercial success of the Mongol Empire continued despite the squabbling.
6920:
The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars= Historia Mongalorum Quo s Nos Tartaros Appellamus: Friar Giovanni Di Plano Carpini's Account of His Embassy to the Court of the Mongol Khan by Da Pian Del Carpine Giovanni and Erik Hildinger (Branden BooksApril 1996
3365:
Eventually, each of the successor states adopted the dominant religion of the local populations: the Mongol-ruled Chinese Yuan dynasty in the East (originally the Great Khan's domain) embraced Buddhism and Shamanism, while the three Western khanates adopted Islam.
2217:
to rule Persia and Mongol-held China respectively. In the southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to
3616:, built special relays for high officials, as well as ordinary relays, that had hostels. During Kublai's reign, the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations, which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and 6,000 boats.
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3183:
Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances, even in unusually cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. The Mongols were adept at river-work, crossing the river
4036:
were the last Mongol nomads to penetrate European territory, having migrated to Europe from Central Asia at the turn of the 17th century. In the winter of 1770–1771, approximately 200,000 Kalmyks began the journey from their pastures on the left bank of the
2964:, which started in the Mongol dominions and spread to Europe, added to the confusion. Disease devastated all the khanates, cutting off commercial ties and killing millions. The plague may have taken 50 million lives in Europe alone in the 14th century.
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if one mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped from the mount in front. Penalties were also decreed for rape and to some extent for murder. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment. Cities were
2416:. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other.
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commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in the south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between
2498:
increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260. Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.
4016:
estimates the population of Russia-in-Europe dropped from 7.5 million prior to the invasion to 7 million afterward. Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's two million population were victims of the Mongol invasion. Historian
5030:
4653:
2048:, former Mongol allies whose Grand Master Hasan Jalalud-Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Güyük by refusing to submit. Instead he murdered the Mongol generals in Persia. Güyük appointed his best friend's father
2201:
on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until
8633:
5993:
2233:. Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and went to war with the kingdom of
2358:
submitted to Mongol authority, joining them in their assault against the Muslims. While some cities surrendered without resisting, others, such as Mayafarriqin fought back; their populations were massacred and the cities were sacked.
4283:[In the first year of Bingyin , the emperor gathered all the kings and ministers to build the Jiumai White Banner, that is, the emperor was located at the source of the Onan River, and all the kings and ministers honored him as
1509:
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.
5257:
Pow, Stephen (2019), "Climatic and Environmental Limiting Factors in the Mongol Empire's Westward Expansion: Exploring Causes for the Mongol Withdrawal from Hungary in 1242", in Yang, L.; Bork, HR.; Fang, X.; Mischke, S. (eds.),
2427:. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion in the Middle East, and the Mongols were never again able to make serious military advances farther than Syria.
1849:, remained tense and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei was still alive. Ögedei continued with
4973:
4153:, as well as the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant to be applied to the entire Mongol Empire. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is rarely used in the broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the
2979:
between 1342 and 1369. Muslim and non-Muslim princes in the Chagatai Khanate warred with each other from 1331 to 1343, and the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set up their own puppet khans in
2383:. Dissension began brewing between the northwestern and southwestern sections of the Mongol Empire as Batu suspected that Hulagu's invasion of Western Asia would result in the elimination of Batu's own dominance there.
1441:; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season.
1779:, the first Kievan Rus' principality they were to attack. After a three-day siege involving fierce fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of the
2501:
Hulagu died on 8 February 1264. Berke sought to take advantage and invade Hulagu's realm, but he died along the way, and a few months later Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son
1380:(general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking the start of the Mongol Empire.
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crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in 1261.
2905:
Khanate, Ilkhan Abu Said, and Ozbeg. In response to the emissaries, they all agreed to send tribute each year. Furthermore, Tugh Temür gave lavish presents and an imperial seal to Eljigidey to mollify his anger.
3756:
businesses. He decreed that all merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all drafts drawn by high-ranking Mongol elites from the merchants. This policy continued under the Yuan dynasty.
3462:
instead gave Tusi a grant to build the Maragheh Observatory in Persia in 1259 and ordered him to prepare astronomical tables for him in 12 years, despite Tusi asking for 30 years. Tusi successfully produced the
1285:, encouraged disputes among the tribes, especially between the Tatars and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin. Khabul's successor was
8341:
Ostrowski, Donald. The tamma and the Dual-Administrative Structure of the Mongol Empire Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 61, no 2, 1998, p. 262–277 doi:
1964:, refused to come to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire.
2157:
Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, leading to the building of foreign merchants' quarters,
2763:
Ghazan's faith may have been Islamic, but he continued his ancestors' war with the Egyptian Mamluks, and consulted with his old Mongol advisers in his native tongue. He defeated the Mamluk army at the
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place from their cousins, the Chagataids. Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man
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The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century led to the collapse of the political, cultural, and economic unity along the Silk Road. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the route from the
2829:(r. 1313–41), who seized the throne of the Golden Horde and persecuted non-Muslim Mongols. The Yuan's influence on the Horde was largely reversed and border clashes between Mongol states resumed.
2108:, members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. Batu instead nominated
8186:
A Soup for the Qan: Chinese Dietary Medicine of the Mongol Era As Seen in Hu Sihui's Yinshan Zhengyao: Introduction, Translation, Commentary, and Chinese Text. Second Revised and Expanded Edition
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As the power of the Mongols declined, chaos erupted throughout the empire as non-Mongol leaders expanded their own influence. The Golden Horde lost all of its western dominions (including modern
2659:
Major changes occurred in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai Khan, after having conquered all of China and established the Yuan dynasty, died in 1294. He was succeeded by his grandson
2197:
edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the
3110:
The number of troops mustered by the Mongols is the subject of some scholarly debate, but was at least 105,000 in 1206. The Mongol military organization was simple but effective, based on the
1430:) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low-ranking clans.
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Thomas, Allsen. (1989). Mongolian Princes and Their Merchant Partners, 1200-1260. Asia Major, 2(2), third series, 83-126. Retrieved November 3, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41645437
999:(1260–1264) and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the
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relay stations of the Mongol Empire. Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Rus and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were made up from the imperial treasury.
1242:
overthrew the Liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. In the 1130s the Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the
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in the 1630s. The Golden Horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century and its rule on Eastern Europe is traditionally considered to have ended in 1480 with the
523:
2008:
Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue the policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished Töregene's supporters, except for governor
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in 1335, Mongol rule faltered and Persia fell into political anarchy. A year later his successor was killed by an Oirat governor, and the Ilkhanate was divided between the Suldus, the
3512:
an influence on Copernican heliocentrism. Choniades also translated several Zij treatises into Greek, including the Persian Zij-i Ilkhani by al-Tusi and the Maragheh observatory. The
2874:, elder brother of Tugh Temür, as great khan. He invaded with a commanding force, and Tugh Temür abdicated. Kusala was elected khan on 30 August 1329. Kusala was then poisoned by a
2273:
After stabilizing the empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and
8297:
Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia, Sixth-Twentieth Centuries, (ed.) Sneath, D. (Bellington WA, 2006), pp. 141–174 Google Scholar.
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Vasary, Istvan. (1976). THE GOLDEN HORDE TERM DARUĠA AND ITS SURVIVAL IN RUSSIA. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 30(2), 187–197. Retrieved 9 November 2020, from
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1289:, who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143.
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Mesopotamia, for millennia a showplace and pinnacle of human civilization and achievement, was depopulated and pastoralized, never to resume its previous pre-eminence. In his
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was noted by Rashid al-Din as having solved some of the difficult problems of Euclidean geometry on his own and written to his brother Hulagu Khan to send him the astronomer
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Chinese had to depend on and be cared for chiefly by Mongols and Tartars, which also involved recruitment into the Mongol army. Other historians such as William McNeill and
2595:(southern Vietnam) ended in devastating defeat, but secured vassal statuses of those countries. The Mongol armies were repeatedly beaten in Đại Việt and were crushed at the
4008:, "terror and mass extermination of anyone opposing them was a well tested Mongol tactic." About half of the Russian population may have died during the invasion. However,
2434:, another brother of Hulagu and Möngke, heard of the great khan's death at the Huai River in China. Rather than returning to the capital, he continued his advance into the
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Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281 (Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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The Crimean Khanate and Poland-Lithuania: International Diplomacy on the European Periphery (15th–18th Century): A Study of Peace Treaties Followed by Annotated Documents
3606:. After his enthronement, Ögedei further expanded the road system, ordering the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of the Mongol Empire.
2956:, received escalating threats from the Mamluks and were eventually overrun in 1375. Along with the dissolution of the Ilkhanate in Persia, Mongol rulers in China and the
3264:, meaning "order" or "decree". A particular canon of this code was that those of rank shared much the same hardship as the common man. It also imposed severe penalties,
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by the Mongols in 1258 and subjected to a merciless sack, an event considered one of the most catastrophic events in the history of Islam, and sometimes compared to the
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The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir
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378:
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3293:, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the great khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new great khan.
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Allsen, Thomas T. (1986). Guard and Government in the Reign of The Grand Qan Möngke, 1251–59. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 46(2), 495–521. doi:10.2307/2719141
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Munkuyev, N.Ts. (1977). A NEW MONGOLIAN P'AI-TZŬ FROM SIMFEROPOL. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 31(2), 185–215. Retrieved 9 November 2020, from
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Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few. He proclaimed a new code of law of the empire,
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2174:. One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by
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in other cultures, being the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out in a line, surround an entire region, and then drive all of the
8290:
3719:, also traveled to the Mongol court to convert believers to their cause, or went as papal envoys to correspond with Mongol rulers in an attempt to secure a
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Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100),
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of the Ayyubids refused to show himself before Hulagu; however, he had accepted Mongol supremacy two decades earlier. When Hulagu headed further west, the
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The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their horses, rather than of people.
3129:, but troops armed with lances were equally skilled, and the Mongols recruited other military specialists from the lands they conquered. With experienced
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Allsen, Thomas T. (2011). "Imperial Posts, West, East and North: A Review Article: Adam J. Silverstein, Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic Morld,"
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4025:, an eyewitness, said that "the Mongols killed everybody regardless of gender or age" and "the Mongols especially 'found pleasure' in humiliating women."
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held around 400,000 books salvaged by Tusi from the siege of Baghdad and other cities. Chinese astronomers brought by Hulagu Khan worked there as well.
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in northern Vietnam in 1258, but they had to draw back. The Mongol Empire tried to invade Đại Việt again in 1285 and 1287 but were defeated both times.
1086:
The Mongol Empire is also referred to as the "Mongolian Empire" or the "Mongol World Empire" in some English sources. The empire referred to itself as
3072:
in 1680. The Golden Horde broke into smaller Turkic-hordes that declined steadily in power over four centuries. Among them, the khanate's shadow, the
3032:(r. 1333–70) was powerless to regulate those troubles, a sign that the empire had nearly reached its end. His court's unbacked currency had entered a
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found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77 to 300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed.
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The part of the empire that fell first was the Ilkhanate, which disintegrated in the period of 1335–1353. Next, the Yuan dynasty lost control of the
7376:(June 1989). Arbel, B.; et al. (eds.). "The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean: Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204".
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of the Golden Horde, also seeking a general peace, sent 20,000 men to buttress the Yuan frontier. Tokhta died in 1312, though, and was succeeded by
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continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance among the
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The center of the Islamic Empire at the time was Baghdad, which had held power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions. When its caliph
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The non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire include the introduction of a writing system, a Mongol alphabet based on the characters of the
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and other machines, the Mongols could lay siege to fortified positions, sometimes building machinery on the spot using available local resources.
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3458:. Möngke Khan's desire to have Tusi build him an observatory in Karakorum did not reach fruition as the Khan died on campaign in southern China.
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in 1273, the Mongols sought the final conquest of the Song dynasty in South China. In 1271, Kublai renamed the new Mongol regime in China as the
2001:
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Europe's knowledge of the known world was immensely expanded by the information which was brought back to it by ambassadors and merchants. When
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1582:, and other nations in the Kipchak-controlled steppes. In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the
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3933:. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a
1873:, though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with
4558:
3161:, considerably speeding up army movement. Skillful use of couriers enabled the leaders of these armies to maintain contact with each other.
2323:. With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region.
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which devastated Europe in the late 1340s may have traveled from China to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. In 1347, the
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to win the control of the Chinese people. Kublai moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq, the genesis for what later became the modern city of
2277:. Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army.
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After achieving actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia and successfully conquering China, Kublai pursued further expansion. His
7651:
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Khan (r. 1342–1357) briefly reasserted Jochid dominance over the Chaghataids. Demanding submission from an offshoot of the Ilkhanate in
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2024:, to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur,
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Bibliothèque nationale de France. Département des Manuscrits. Division occidentale. Nouvelle acquisition française 886, fol. 37v
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allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of
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Meanwhile, in the northwestern portion of the empire, Batu's successor and younger brother Berke sent punitive expeditions to
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and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke.
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History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 2. The so-called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia, 2 divions
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2560:. His establishment of a capital there was a controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to
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to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs.
824:
9987:
8473:
3752:. Because of money laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the
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The Cambridge History of China, vol. 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368, (ed.) Herbert Franke, Denis C. Twitchett
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The Armenian kingdom in Cilicia during the Crusades : the integration of Cilician Armenians with the Latins, 1080–1393
1124:, Kublai's power became limited to the eastern part of the empire, centered on China. Kublai officially issued an imperial
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3503:, able to understand four languages including Latin, built the Tabriz Observatory in 1295. The Byzantine Greek astronomer
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In spite of his conflicts with Kaidu and Duwa, Yuan emperor Temür established a tributary relationship with the war-like
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May, Timothy (2007). The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System (Yardley: Westholme Publishing)
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3346:. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a
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Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia: Aspects of the Administrative Economic and Social History, 11th-14th Century
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in 12 years, produced a revised edition of Euclid's elements and taught the innovative mathematical device called the
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2844:(r. 1316–35) of the Ilkhanate signed a peace treaty with Egypt. At his request, the Yuan court awarded his custodian
1799:
1610:, the town to which Wanyan Shouxu had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten and the
793:
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Möngke's brother Hulagu broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to
1644:. The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy. In East Asia, there were a number of
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enemies. After several months of travel, only one-third of the original group reached Dzungaria in northwest China.
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However, while the four khanates continued to interact with one another well into the 14th century, they did so as
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The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the
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on two separate occasions. However, he was not able to conquer Japan. In the period of the Mongol invasion, the
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The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age, (ed.) Nicola Di Cosmo, Allen J. Frank, Peter B. Golden
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Hsiao, Chi-chi'ng (1978). The Military Establishment of the Yuan Dynasty (Cambridge: Harvard University Press)
8288:"Ulus Emirs, Keshig Elders, Signatures, and Marriage Partners: The Evolution of a Classic Mongol Institution,"
6295:
Divine Knowledge: Buddhist Mathematics according to the anonymous Manual of Mongolian astrology and divination
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Divine Knowledge: Buddhist Mathematics according to the anonymous Manual of Mongolian astrology and divination
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In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of
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in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European, and
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Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei could be great khan.
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Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259
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Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251–1259
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successfully pushed Mongol garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temür Khan's empress while
763:
669:
8545:
Fiaschetti, Francesca (ed.). (2019). Diplomacy in the Age of Mongol Globalization, Eurasian Studies 17(2)
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Enkhbold, Enerelt. (2019). "The role of the ortoq in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships",
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began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master
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as chief commander of the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the
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Mongol scribes in the 14th century used a mixture of resin and vegetable pigments as a primitive form of
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of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.
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Duwa was challenged by Kaidu's son Chapar, but with the assistance of Temür, Duwa defeated the Ögedeids.
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conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Rus.
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Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the
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Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century
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as a way of documenting the entire world's history, to help establish the Mongols' own cultural legacy.
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The executed – the long and full beard probably means he is not a Mongol – has been thrown off a cliff.
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Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders,
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A Soup for the Qan: Chinese Dietary Medicine of the Mongol Era As Seen in Hu Sihui's Yinshan Zhengyao
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3350:. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation and from public service.
3212:
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within that area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and to slaughter them all.
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in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of
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by making it a client state and sent Mongol princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his
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History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 1. The Mongols proper and the Kalmuks
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Struggling for influence within the Golden Horde, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobeleg against
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Jackson, Peter. (2005). The Mongols and the West, 1221–1410 (Harlow and New York: Pearson Longman)
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Life After Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe During the 1940s and 1950s
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Guzman, Gregory G. (Spring 2010). "European Captives and Craftsmen Among the Mongols, 1231–1255".
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3060:. However, remnants of the Chagatai Khanate survived; the last Chagataid state to survive was the
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Dashdondog, Bayarsaikhan (2011). The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335). Leiden: Brill. DOI:
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some 600 years later. The relay stations had attached households to service them. Anyone with a
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The Mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against (Song) China, and the Chinese
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Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations with
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Biran, Michal (ed.). (2019). Mobility Transformations and Cultural Exchange in Mongol Eurasia,
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5284:"Deep ditches and well-built walls: a reappraisal of the Mongol withdrawal from Europe in 1242"
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2222:, and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well.
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Halperin, Charles (1988). Russia and The Golden Horde (Pennsylvania: Indiana University Press)
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3188:
in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the
2719:
1951:
Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widow
1775:, and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237 the Mongols were encroaching upon
12292:
12258:
12202:
11791:
11751:
11564:
11439:
10503:
10493:
10452:
10423:
10123:
10048:
10038:
9682:
9626:
8959:
8455:
In the Service of the Khan: Eminent Personalities of the Early Mongol-Yüan Period (1200-1300)
7577:
7144:
6715:
5291:
4415:
4221:
4103:
3903:
3884:
3216:
2871:
1599:
1075:
11679:
6389:
6323:
4190:
3772:
faith. In the East, the Han Chinese overthrew the Yuan dynasty in 1368, launching their own
3675:
Mongol government and elites provided capital for merchants and sent them far afield, in an
3547:
A 1305 letter (on a scroll measuring 302 by 50 cm or 9 ft 11 in by 1 ft
3114:
system. The army was built up from squads of ten men each, arbans (10 people), zuuns (100),
12324:
12187:
12131:
11884:
11714:
11684:
11559:
11490:
11461:
11380:
10714:
10552:
10542:
10180:
10167:
9931:
9582:
9574:
9054:
8320:"Where Did the Mongol Empire Come From? Medieval Mongol Ideas of People, State and Empire."
7412:
7086:
6470:
4753:
3891:
3472:
3455:
3438:
3399:
3379:
3102:
3037:
2913:
2780:
2672:
2668:
2468:
2320:
2297:
2285:
2171:
2159:
2053:
1967:
1564:
1396:
1306:
894:
11664:
8616:
8043:
Economic Structure of the Yüan Dynasty. Translation of Chapters 93 and 94 of the Yüan shih
4382:"The Mongol Empire's Northern Border: Re-evaluating the Surface Area of the Mongol Empire"
3794:
Map showing the boundary of the 13th century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols in
3020:
However, rival families of the Jochids began fighting for the throne of the Golden Horde (
927:
in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out
8:
12082:
12017:
11910:
11576:
11456:
11422:
11324:
11144:
11139:
10951:
10670:
10606:
10481:
10466:
9958:
9830:
8784:
7872:
7716:
7706:
7696:
3876:
3785:
3566:
3517:
3169:
2767:
in 1299, but he was only briefly able to occupy Syria, due to distracting raids from the
2755:
politically useful to advertise the great khan's authority in the Ilkhanate, because the
2618:
2541:
2424:
2274:
1908:
1641:
1360:
of the Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife
1278:
878:
188:
11292:
11282:
10375:
8647:
7721:
History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, part 3. The Mongols of Persia
4757:
2588:
2234:
2013:
11689:
11669:
11652:
11603:
11468:
11277:
11228:
11161:
11079:
11020:
11015:
11010:
10966:
10936:
10828:
10726:
10594:
10569:
10319:
10088:
8706:
8064:
Schurmann, Herbert. (1956). "Mongolian Tributary Practices of the Thirteenth Century,"
7935:
7681:
The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, (ed.) J. A. Boyle
7551:
7221:
7060:
7033:
6764:
6662:
6625:
6487:
6171:
6032:
Ole Jørgen Benedictow, The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Complete History (2004), p. 382.
5972:
5474:
4776:
4739:
4337:
4022:
3872:
3716:
3504:
3429:
A 1363 astronomical handbook with Middle Mongolian glosses. Known as the Sanjufini Zij.
3385:
3269:
3081:
2647:
2510:
to lead the Golden Horde. Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a
2167:
1924:
9652:
8984:
8924:
8305:
6837:
6785:
3679:(merchant partner) arrangement. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol-
3403:, or "Universal History". It was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan
3330:
At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found Mongol converts, from
3219:, their campaigns were almost exclusively land-based, with the seas controlled by the
2848:
the title of commander-in-chief of all Mongol khanates, but Chupan died in late 1327.
2747:
from 1297 to 1303. This was to mark the end of the southern expansion of the Mongols.
2724:
1004:
12517:
12483:
12357:
11798:
11694:
11630:
11625:
11554:
11451:
11166:
11094:
11089:
10931:
10860:
10843:
10838:
10833:
10633:
10584:
9019:
8498:
8463:
8438:
8401:
8371:
8253:
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8207:
8174:
8135:
8112:
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8004:
7981:
7958:
7921:
7898:
7858:
7819:
7796:
7763:
7590:
7555:
7532:
7509:
7486:
7463:
7438:
7416:
7395:
7359:
7336:
7317:
7294:
7257:
7232:
7205:
7175:
7148:
7122:
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7067:
7044:
7017:
6991:
6950:
6922:
6885:
6725:
6694:
6667:
6649:
6604:
6575:
6491:
6430:
6405:
6390:
6368:
6339:
6324:
6302:
6273:
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5478:
5470:
5263:
5177:
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4680:
4643:
4564:
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4445:
4329:
4231:
4196:
3934:
3922:
3914:
3315:
3041:
2937:
2355:
2175:
2077:
1920:
1811:
1254:
1059:
944:
424:
420:
182:
7974:
Muscovy and the Mongols: Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589
7194:
6815:
3437:
Mongols look on as Persian astronomers work. Early 14th century illustration in the
3080:, sacked Sarai. The Crimean Khanate lasted until 1783, whereas khanates such as the
2622:
2137:
acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke's cousin
12522:
12263:
12032:
12002:
11960:
11647:
11434:
11429:
11385:
11372:
11302:
11270:
11265:
11129:
11124:
11106:
11067:
11000:
10983:
10924:
10914:
10909:
10850:
10806:
10776:
10736:
10719:
10702:
10665:
10416:
10305:
10286:
9926:
9566:
9526:
8979:
8226:
8170:
8105:
Commodity and Exchange in the Mongol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles
8023:
7815:
7569:
7387:
7253:
7005:
6979:
6768:
6657:
6639:
6479:
6331:
6298:
6269:
5466:
5295:
5183:
4771:
4761:
4635:
4321:
3761:
3708:
3656:
3526:
3411:
2957:
2898:
2768:
2685:
Nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability, the
2664:
2553:
2473:
2464:
2435:
2347:
2238:
2105:
2021:
2017:
2009:
1997:
1912:
1653:
1649:
1607:
1587:
1454:
1141:
1113:
1016:
996:
953:, allowing the exchange of trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies across
928:
905:
604:
479:
461:
457:
341:
201:
151:
146:
141:
7189:
6483:
4639:
3203:
Traditionally known for their prowess with ground forces, the Mongols rarely used
1321:
1058:. The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan then retreated north and continued to rule the
12395:
12353:
12346:
12336:
12046:
11865:
11833:
11706:
11674:
11657:
11613:
11608:
11586:
11581:
11539:
11532:
11507:
11367:
11362:
11203:
11084:
10978:
10973:
10941:
10766:
10756:
10650:
10643:
10638:
10623:
10579:
10461:
10447:
10381:
10279:
10244:
10207:
10055:
10009:
9963:
9660:
8606:
8551:
8539:
8526:
8453:
8422:
8353:
8336:
8312:
8294:
8223:
Politics, Patronage and the Transmission of Knowledge in 13th–15th Century Tabriz
8192:
8159:
8090:
8074:
7879:
7843:
7785:
7726:
7688:
7674:
7660:
7505:
7459:
7430:
7313:
7247:
6960:
6040:
5053:
5034:
5015:
4996:
4977:
4270:
3965:
3464:
3447:
3220:
3126:
3077:
3065:
3061:
2697:
2561:
2532:
2038:
1993:
1957:
1916:
1866:
1717:
1282:
1043:
886:
244:
11287:
7832:
7453:
3980:
population did not reach its pre-Mongol levels again until the mid-20th century.
3029:
2930:
2854:
erupted in the Yuan dynasty in 1328–29. After the death of Yesün Temür in 1328,
2455:
in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.
2265:
1490:
Genghis quickly came into conflict with the Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the
753:
501:
281:
12412:
12065:
12041:
11992:
11942:
11808:
11803:
11766:
11741:
11724:
11635:
11620:
11591:
11549:
11397:
11357:
11352:
11307:
11233:
11193:
11183:
11173:
10988:
10867:
10761:
10628:
10510:
10265:
10251:
10093:
8929:
7693:
Buell, Paul. 'Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire, 1200–1370' 2003
7641:
7631:
6871:
4307:
4303:
3969:
3926:
3898:, the land of the Grand Khan in China, and give him a letter from the monarchs
3830:
in certain geographic regions, leading to changes in the demographics of Asia.
3765:
3189:
3085:
3057:
3033:
3021:
2952:
in 1336. Following the downfall of their Mongol masters, the loyal vassal, the
2692:
2335:
2331:
1932:
1772:
1760:
1671:
1520:
1416:
1333:
1066:
dynasty in historiography, surviving as a rump state until the conquest by the
882:
870:
683:
93:
9673:
9647:
8626:
8386:
Along the Silk Roads in Mongol Eurasia: Generals, Merchants, and Intellectuals
7812:
The Mongols and the Black Sea Trade in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries
7391:
3749:
3481:
built a number of large observatories in China and his libraries included the
3451:
2933:
2109:
1590:. In 1230, the great Khan personally led his army in the campaign against the
1560:
1536:
980:
961:
256:
232:
12496:
12373:
12207:
12159:
12022:
11965:
11889:
11571:
11544:
11517:
11495:
11473:
11240:
11223:
11208:
11005:
10993:
10919:
10811:
10685:
10680:
10655:
10537:
10397:
9734:
9665:
8972:
8790:
8319:
7479:
China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries
7399:
7136:
6690:
6653:
5283:
4333:
4098:
4050:
4009:
3764:, sowing the seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the
3647:
3543:
2859:
2791:
2687:
2652:
2568:
2439:
2100:
1900:
1846:
1807:
1742:
1611:
1458:
1450:
1353:
1312:
1266:
1243:
1227:
1185:
1063:
969:
949:
940:
936:
932:
854:
169:
136:
60:
31:
11902:
11317:
11297:
9729:
5964:
4766:
4325:
2855:
2660:
1395:
ascended the throne in the Ikh Khuraldai region in the Onan river, from the
1032:
12424:
12363:
12329:
12164:
12146:
11781:
11522:
11512:
11478:
11407:
11402:
11329:
11119:
11101:
11062:
11057:
11037:
11032:
10904:
10897:
10887:
10882:
10877:
10771:
10709:
10690:
10675:
10611:
10272:
9904:
9634:
9074:
8991:
8967:
8882:
8816:
8739:
8719:
8519:
8459:
7355:
6907:
6747:
6671:
6644:
5998:
5299:
4785:
4574:
4543:
4500:
4284:
4266:
4248:
4206:
4128:
4068:
3976:
3955:
3852:
3799:
3773:
3711:
made a comparably epic journey along the route, venturing from his home of
3664:
3613:
3583:
3562:
3490:
3335:
3258:
The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called
3208:
3119:
3013:
3009:
2894:
2890:
2814:
2787:
2756:
2713:
2700:
and never again pooled their resources in a cooperative military endeavor.
2545:
2481:
2420:
2400:
2226:
1975:
1961:
1738:
1615:
1583:
1552:
1445:
1408:
1392:
1325:
1316:
1231:
1195:
1164:
1067:
1055:
1047:
1024:
1012:
913:
866:
483:
445:
385:
357:
220:
9079:
7223:
Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History
4308:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
3972:
was the main factor behind China's demographic decline during this period.
3941:
3311:
2862:
succeeded to the throne in Shangdu, leading to the civil war known as the
2443:
1919:
assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly, the Mongol advance
1802:
except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia
1685:
ordered the construction of a palace within the surrounding of its walls.
1121:
988:
12436:
12400:
12154:
11500:
11485:
11334:
11047:
10956:
10946:
10872:
10520:
10515:
10238:
9800:
9749:
9709:
9678:
8779:
8594:
8020:
Marco Polo Was in China: New Evidence from Currencies, Salts and Revenues
7638:(Trans. T. Minorsky & C. E. Bosworth), London: Luzac & Co. (1928)
6866:
6761:
5228:
4150:
4140:
4038:
4018:
3990:
3910:
3651:
3609:
3603:
3574:
3538:
3500:
3478:
3468:
3459:
3339:
3282:
3177:
3073:
2985:
2981:
2961:
2837:
2740:
2607:
2507:
2477:
2431:
2312:
2045:
2029:
1989:
1682:
1548:
1531:
1503:
1491:
1247:
1223:
1129:
1117:
1101:'nation of the great Mongols' or the 'great Mongol nation') in Mongol or
992:
441:
268:
8532:
7776:
7628:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2023. doi:10.1017/9781316337424
6175:
3433:
1952:
12368:
12270:
12169:
11933:
11527:
11344:
11218:
11178:
11111:
9845:
9754:
9104:
9089:
8826:
8579:
8346:
8329:
8079:
8063:
7917:
7873:"The Unity of the Mongol Empire and Continental Exchange over Eurasia,"
6160:
Buell, Paul D. (1979). "Sino-Khitan Administration in Mongol Bukhara".
4341:
3863:
Some of the other long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:
3848:
3834:
3732:
3704:
3693:
3660:
3497:
described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise.
3486:
3404:
3286:
2993:
2801:
2626:
2603:
2503:
2209:
In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers
2189:
2034:
1931:
and the Knights Templar were beaten by the Mongols at the banks of the
1838:
1662:
1622:
1482:
1461:
1078:, while the Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687.
1036:
1007:
families. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had
909:
428:
9873:
3277:
and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders. Under
3250:
3207:
power. In the 1260s and 1270s they used seapower while conquering the
3193:
2806:
2244:
1149:
1146:
11417:
11188:
11072:
11042:
10823:
10697:
10488:
10387:
10173:
10128:
9714:
9704:
9069:
9049:
9044:
9003:
8185:
8000:
7954:
7894:
6812:"History of Russia, Early Slavs history, Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion"
4132:
4042:
3918:
3712:
3697:
3641:
3620:
3592:
3521:
3347:
3134:
2976:
2886:
2867:
2851:
2376:
2092:
2049:
1971:
1756:
1726:
1678:
1629:
1556:
1514:
1434:
1219:
1207:
1051:
1020:
862:
625:
575:
371:
119:
113:
89:
6942:
Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800
5332:
The Academy of Russian science and the academy of Mongolian science
4628:"The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China"
4557:
Brook, Timothy; Walt van Praag, Michael van; Boltjes, Miekn (2018).
4381:
3599:
2940:
pushed the Mongols out of their territory, and the Uyghur commander
2936:(d. 1353), and Persian warlords. Taking advantage of the chaos, the
1982:
10818:
10601:
10559:
10498:
10370:
10162:
9840:
9059:
8919:
8801:
8559:
Henthorn, W. E. (1963). Korea: the Mongol invasions (Leiden: Brill)
8368:
In the Service of the Khans: Elites in Transition in Mongol Eurasia
7951:
Early Mongol Rule in Thirteenth-Century Iran: A Persian Renaissance
6765:"The Outline of History, Being a Plain History of Life and Mankind"
3838:
3826:
According to some interpretations, Genghis Khan's conquests caused
3812:
3808:
3795:
3688:
3494:
3359:
3331:
3290:
3138:
3115:
3025:
2949:
2945:
2875:
2744:
2580:
2549:
2203:
2087:
2081:
2057:
1759:, another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran the territories of the
1667:
1575:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1404:
1377:
1341:
1286:
1262:
1239:
1215:
1050:
in 1354 and 1368, respectively, and collapsed after its capital of
987:
councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers
984:
931:
in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the
858:
6108:
6106:
4560:
Sacred Mandates: Asian International Relations since Chinggis Khan
4442:
Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia
3577:. It had lavishly furnished and well-guarded relay posts known as
1614:
general Chagan invaded southern China. With the assistance of the
1361:
1202:
12341:
12012:
11955:
11950:
10731:
10660:
10616:
10471:
10392:
10360:
9810:
9805:
9795:
9780:
9084:
9039:
9034:
8821:
8811:
8749:
8416:“Some Royal Mongol Ladies: Alaqa-beki, *Ergene-Qatun and Others,”
7851:
Mongolian Rule in China: Local Administration in the Yuan Dynasty
7793:
The Coins of Mongol Empire and Clan Tamgha of Khans (XIII – XIV )
7200:. Translated by Walford (from French), Naomi. New Brunswick, NJ:
4699:
4136:
4046:
4033:
3930:
3628:
3624:
3582:(125 mi) per day, better than the fastest record set by the
3149:
3111:
3003:
2989:
2972:
2968:
2926:
2708:
2630:
2557:
2515:
2448:
2413:
2372:
2368:
2343:
2339:
2327:
2305:
2293:
2289:
2163:
2025:
1940:
1904:
1878:
1870:
1815:
1768:
1746:
1595:
1579:
1495:
1465:
1412:
1357:
1345:
1270:
1028:
954:
924:
164:
78:
10532:
8652:
8384:
Biran, Michal, Jonathan Brack & Francesca Fiaschetti (ed.).
8246:
Sudden Appearances: The Mongol Turn in Commerce, Belief, and Art
7411:(2nd ed.). Malden, MA; Oxford, England; Carlton, Victoria:
5098:
5096:
4461:
Kublai (18 December 1271), 《建國號詔》 , 《元典章》 (in Classical Chinese)
3807:
fall of the empire, and some of their descendants adopted local
3493:
were notable mathematicians in Yuan China. The Mongol physician
3425:
3362:
and Buddhism, although Ögedei's wife was a Nestorian Christian.
3185:
2999:
2514:
against the Egyptian Mamluks. Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at
2330:-ruled Syria, capturing small local states en route. The sultan
1842:
10564:
10439:
9790:
9764:
9759:
9094:
9064:
9024:
8774:
8734:
8729:
8724:
8714:
7271:
Jackson, Peter (1978). "The dissolution of the Mongol Empire".
6103:
4588:
The Cambridge History of China: Alien Regimes and Border States
3895:
3737:
3707:
traveled east along the Silk Road, and the Chinese Mongol monk
3355:
3319:
3224:
2941:
2881:
2845:
2822:
2751:
2592:
2409:
2380:
2281:
2230:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2185:
2120:
1936:
1928:
1874:
1862:
1858:
1824:, the pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through
1795:
1791:
1722:
1657:
1563:, as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was
1369:
1274:
1154:
890:
874:
469:
449:
198:
107:
7741:
The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion
5604:
5602:
5560:
5558:
5506:
5504:
5419:
5417:
5415:
3790:
3602:
built a wide system of roads, one of which carved through the
3200:
a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.
3133:
engineers and a bombardier corps which was expert at building
2723:
A European depiction of the four khans, Temür (Yuan), Chapar (
2536:
Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot.
2304:
in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu's army in 1257, except for
2181:
1567:. The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother
1559:
at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic
1498:
in northern China. He also had to deal with two other powers,
1190:
54:
12442:
12275:
11198:
9835:
9815:
9744:
9724:
9719:
9699:
9639:
8806:
8796:
8744:
5994:"READ: Unit 3 Introduction – Land-Based Empires 1450 to 1750"
5207:
5205:
5093:
3816:
3769:
3684:
3587:
3525:
Kublai Khan, was completed in 1363. It is notable for having
3343:
3323:
3260:
3130:
3053:
3006:
2996:, he boasted that "today three uluses are under my control".
2826:
2810:
2776:
2728:
2679:
2490:
2452:
2138:
2133:
2116:
1854:
1764:
1750:
1688:
1568:
1438:
1125:
973:
965:
901:
9220:(1205 / 1207 / 1209–10 / 1225–27)
7997:
The Silk Road and the Political Economy of the Mongol Empire
4740:"Pluvials, droughts, the Mongol Empire, and modern Mongolia"
3672:
many goods, since the Mongols produced little of their own.
2858:
became the new leader in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son
2423:, and engaged Kitbuqa's forces just north of Galilee at the
2044:
Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük's election. The
1935:
on 11 April 1241. Before Batu's forces could continue on to
1881:
with the Koreans through both diplomacy and military force.
1574:
Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the
1521:
Death of Genghis Khan and expansion under Ögedei (1227–1241)
1257:
was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations (
11997:
10334:
10299:
9785:
9739:
9099:
9029:
7648:(Trans. V. Minorsky and T. Minorsky), Leiden: Brill. (1956)
7162:
Franke, Herbert (1994). Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank (eds.).
6194:
5712:
5599:
5555:
5501:
5412:
5260:
Socio-Environmental Dynamics along the Historical Silk Road
4702:
Introduction to Altaic Philology: Turkic, Mongolian, Manchu
4131:" in this article refers exclusively to the realm based in
3820:
3715:(Beijing) as far as Europe. European missionaries, such as
3204:
3173:
2795:
2061:
1825:
1637:
10408:
6182:
6050:
6048:
5926:
5819:
5700:
5653:
5385:
5339:
5202:
4556:
4474:
In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia
1946:
900:
The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several
9825:
6717:
Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces
4867:
4848:
4846:
3993:
attributed this to a Mongol prejudice against urban life:
2636:
2198:
1681:
as their capital lasting until 1260. During that period,
8151:
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
6468:
in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships".
5402:
5400:
5375:
5373:
5371:
5369:
5367:
2663:, who continued Kublai's policies. At the same time the
2115:
Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his brothers,
1571:
until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.
8520:
Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281
8347:
THE GOLDEN HORDE TERM DARUĠA AND ITS SURVIVAL IN RUSSIA
7891:
The Mongols in Iran: Chingiz Khan to Uljaytu, 1220–1309
7035:
Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281
6150:
San, T. "Dynastic China: An Elementary History" .pg 297
6045:
5831:
5777:
3867:
Moscow rose to prominence while it was still under the
3076:, survived until 1502, when one of its successors, the
2885:
The successor states of the Mongol Empire in 1335: the
2521:
923:– 1227), whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all
7747:
6211:
6209:
5901:
5889:
4940:
4916:
4843:
3595:
in Central Europe within 4–6 weeks thanks to the Yam.
3024:, 1359–1381) after the assassination of his successor
2866:. Tugh Temür defeated Ragibagh, but the Chagatai khan
2412:
and leaving only a small contingent under his general
1660:, surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol
1011:, each pursuing its own interests and objectives: the
12384:
8950:
List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'
5843:
5397:
5364:
5157:
4952:
4928:
865:, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the
27:
13th- and 14th-century empire originating in Mongolia
8641:
The London School of Economics and Political Science
7196:
The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia
6780:
6778:
5798:
4679:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 214.
3358:
followers. The dominant religions at that time were
3048:
managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.
1606:
in 1232. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the
1513:
Genghis Khan arranged for the Chinese Taoist master
1364:, and went on to defeat the Naimans and the Tatars.
8080:Smith, John (1970). "Mongol and Nomadic Taxation,"
7837:, 38:4, 531–547, DOI: 10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799
6206:
4724:
4722:
4720:
4517:
Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols
3929:by an army of Mongol warriors under the command of
3811:. For example, the eastern khanate largely adopted
3040:due to the Yuan's harsh impositions. In the 1350s,
2908:
2878:commander under Tugh Temür, who returned to power.
2245:
New invasions of the Middle East and Southern China
2132:When Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin
1666:(overseers); he then moved his imperial court from
7743:, Yale University Press (2017). isbn 9780300125337
7220:
7193:
7059:
7032:
6804:
6092:
6090:
5588:
5586:
5522:
5520:
5454:
5437:
5435:
5433:
3211:of China, though their attempts to mount seaborne
2127:
2091:A stone turtle at the site of the Mongol capital,
1810:with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the
8945:Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe
8612:Paradoxplace Insight Pages on the Mongol Emperors
7170:. Vol. 6. Cambridge, England; New York, NY:
6775:
5490:
5488:
5315:
5313:
5239:
5237:
2300:surrendered in 1257 and was executed. All of the
531:
12494:
8359:
7548:The Early Mongols: Language, Culture and History
7083:The perilous frontier: nomadic empires and China
6687:The Black Death, 1346–1353: the Complete History
6060:
4717:
4677:Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire
3875:completely overthrew the Mongols and formed the
3776:and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism.
2743:after his series of military operations against
2731:(Golden Horde), and Öljaitü (Ilkhanate), in the
2041:, though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision.
1009:fractured into four separate khanates or empires
9365:(1220–22 / 1226–31 / 1237–64)
7619:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire
7587:Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World
7437:. New Brunswick, NJ: Collier-Macmillan Canada.
6626:"Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa"
6087:
5583:
5576:
5574:
5517:
5430:
4745:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4255:
3945:Dominican martyrs killed by Mongols during the
3828:wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale
3376:List of historical cities and towns of Mongolia
3285:. The empire was governed by a non-democratic,
7589:. New York, NY: Crown and Three Rivers Press.
7062:Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire
6870:
5772:Genghis bogdoos Ligden khutagt khurtel (khaad)
5485:
5310:
5234:
4298:
4296:
4294:
3196:. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim
2960:were also in turmoil. The plague known as the
2703:
2451:, and nearly all the senior princes and great
2362:
1737:Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the
912:of Temüjin, known by the more famous title of
490:; 'Chéngjísī Huángdì') in Spring 1206.
456:) already started to use the Chinese title of
317:23,500,000 km (9,100,000 sq mi)
309:12,000,000 km (4,600,000 sq mi)
12543:States and territories disestablished in 1368
11932:
11918:
10424:
9889:
8668:
7848:
7030:
6226:The Spread of Islam: The Contributing Factors
5742:
5740:
4412:"The Islamic World to 1600: The Golden Horde"
4281:元年丙寅,帝大会诸王群臣,建九斿白旗,即皇帝位于斡难河之源,诸王群臣共上尊号曰成吉思皇帝。
4185:
4144:
3883:proved that the Mongols were vulnerable, the
3281:, chiefs and generals were selected based on
2833:'s envoys backed Tokhta's son against Ozbeg.
2506:as new Ilkhan, and nominated Batu's grandson
2188:, Genghis Khan's grandson and founder of the
2060:at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and
1539:in 1229 as the successor of Genghis Khan. By
517:
301:4,000,000 km (1,500,000 sq mi)
11881:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
10104:Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty
8848:
8096:
7940:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6971:
6938:
5977:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5571:
5119:. Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Archived from
4890:. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 116.
4810:
4808:
4806:
4804:
4700:Igor de Rachewiltz; Volker Rybatzki (2010).
2783:with both the Ilkhans and the Yuan dynasty.
1167:. Some sources give the full Mongol name as
8634:"Remnants of the Mongol imperial tradition"
8617:William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols
8391:
8200:Islamic Chinoiserie: The Art of Mongol Iran
7584:
7451:
6838:"The Mongol invasion: the last Arpad kings"
6707:
6464:Enkhbold, Enerelt (2019). "The role of the
6200:
6188:
5825:
5706:
5659:
5391:
5345:
5211:
4888:Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection
4873:
4563:. University of Chicago Press. p. 45.
4291:
4127:As per modern historiographical norm, the "
3485:(Euclid) brought by Muslim mathematicians.
2484:'s grandson and founder of the Yuan dynasty
1907:, and the Christian military orders of the
1884:
1210:on the eve of the Mongol invasions, c. 1200
1128:on 18 December 1271 to give the empire the
1106:
1098:
877:; eastward and southward into parts of the
452:(Great Khans) of the "Great Mongol State" (
12538:States and territories established in 1206
11925:
11911:
10431:
10417:
9896:
9882:
8675:
8661:
8512:
7626:The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire
7333:Genghis Khan: Life, death and resurrection
6684:
6507:
5737:
4581:
4550:
4507:
4477:. Cambridge University Press. p. 50.
4464:
3414:; this is arguably its first known usage.
3384:The oldest surviving literary work in the
3192:(April 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king
2395:
2206:in the far northwest was counted in 1258.
1741:, Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the
1689:Invasions of Kievan Rus' and central China
1618:the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234.
1281:. The Jin emperors, following a policy of
1035:, the three western khanates accepted the
524:
510:
77:superimposed on a modern political map of
69:
8533:The Mongols and the Armenians (1220–1335)
8394:Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire
8040:
7809:
7568:
7164:Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368
6661:
6643:
6418:
6387:
5837:
5783:
5718:
5262:, Cham: Springer Open, pp. 301–321,
4801:
4775:
4765:
4693:
4520:. Harvard University Press. p. 293.
4455:
4302:
4195:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Publishers.
4121:
3894:sailed in 1492, his mission was to reach
3815:, and the three western khanates adopted
3056:(Tamerlane) (1336–1405), who founded the
2809:in flight from the Mongols under general
2794:in 1301, Kaidu died and was succeeded by
2152:
1471:
8631:
8330:A NEW MONGOLIAN P'AI-TZŬ FROM SIMFEROPOL
8243:
8220:
7994:
7971:
7545:
7522:
7249:The Mongol Empire (World History Series)
7218:
7188:
7080:
6463:
6424:
6321:
5804:
5627:
5175:
4922:
4737:
4513:
4470:
4109:List of medieval Mongol tribes and clans
3940:
3843:
3789:
3725:
3655:
3542:
3432:
3424:
3310:
3249:
3143:
3101:
3098:Mongol military tactics and organization
3091:
2998:
2912:
2880:
2800:
2718:
2707:
2646:
2531:
2472:
2399:
2264:
2180:
2086:
2067:
1988:
1966:
1716:
1530:
1481:
1464:, who had previously served the khan of
1387:
1320:
1201:
1189:
1062:. The regime is thereafter known as the
873:, extending northward into parts of the
75:Expansion of the Mongol Empire 1206–1294
11705:
9903:
8488:
8068:, 19(3/4), 304-389. doi:10.2307/2718506
7911:
7790:
7499:
7476:
7429:
7285:
7270:
6713:
6623:
6292:
6263:
6054:
5746:
4946:
4014:Atlas of World Population History, 1978
3397:Another classic from the empire is the
3125:The Mongols were most famous for their
2613:In 1274 and again in 1281, Kublai Khan
1947:Post-Ögedei power struggles (1241–1251)
1851:offensives into the Indian subcontinent
1300:
964:or from one of his other sons, such as
849:of the 13th and 14th centuries was the
14:
12495:
10099:Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs
9295:(1277 / 1283 / 1287)
9254:(1236 / 1240 / 1252)
8128:Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia
8125:
8102:
7888:
7753:
7406:
7372:
7352:Kublai Khan: from Xanadu to superpower
7293:. Harlow, England; New York: Longman.
7161:
7116:
7057:
7010:Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia
7004:
6978:
6754:
6594:
6361:Conquest and Culture in Mongol Eurasia
6358:
5932:
5907:
5895:
5849:
5406:
5379:
5163:
4958:
4934:
4625:
4392:from the original on 29 September 2021
4223:The Huns, Rome and the Birth of Europe
4213:
3748:Policies changed under the Great Khan
3683:partnership closely resembled that of
3369:
2637:Disintegration into competing entities
2028:and Central Asian officials, favoring
1132:-style dynastic name of "Great Yuan" (
434:
12513:Former countries in Mongolian history
11906:
10412:
9877:
9614:
9125:
8847:
8694:
8656:
8365:
8304:, online edition, 2013, available at
8197:
8164:
8017:
7636:Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion
7135:
7121:. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing.
7103:
6547:from the original on 10 February 2014
6159:
6127:Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean
5949:. Richmond: Curzon. pp. 159–61.
5635:Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion
5306:from the original on 10 January 2021.
4674:
4656:from the original on 7 September 2023
4348:from the original on 19 November 2018
3245:
2192:. From a medieval Persian manuscript.
1981:When Genghis Khan's youngest brother
1383:
1250:, great-grandfather of Genghis Khan.
1234:since the 10th century. In 1125, the
1179:
1109:the 'whole great nation') in Turkic.
889:; and reached westward as far as the
505:
12449:
9126:
8878:Administrative divisions and vassals
8451:
8428:
7948:
7646:Four Studies on Central Asia, vol. 1
7335:. New York, NY: Thomas Dunne Books.
7307:
7245:
7066:. New York, NY: Facts on File, Inc.
7039:. Cambridge, England; New York, NY:
6898:from the original on 17 October 2015
6792:from the original on 28 October 2004
6738:from the original on 15 October 2015
6565:
6531:"The Mongol Empire in World History"
6516:Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition
5795:Oljeitu's letter to Philipp the Fair
4829:Fundamental Principles of Mongol law
4114:
3172:. These hunts were distinctive from
2522:Campaigns of Kublai Khan (1264–1294)
1869:and stationing a Mongol overseer in
1753:immediately after their withdrawal.
1648:, but Ögedei's attempt to annex the
1419:, was founded and divided into day (
1246:confederation, ruled at the time by
12578:Historical transcontinental empires
12573:Former countries in Chinese history
12319:The Cambridge History of Inner Asia
12088:Protectorate of the Western Regions
9145:
8476:from the original on 1 January 2024
7883:Journal of Central Eurasian Studies
7748:Administration, economy and finance
7525:The history of the Mongol conquests
7349:
7330:
7291:The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410
7081:Barfield, Thomas Jefferson (1992).
6814:. Parallelsixty.com. Archived from
6528:
6392:Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road
5730:Henryk Samsonowicz, Maria Bogucka.
5687:
5281:
5256:
4885:
4534:from the original on 6 October 2022
4491:from the original on 6 October 2022
4379:
4219:
4143:-style dynastic name "Great Yuan" (
4079:Destruction under the Mongol Empire
4045:, through the territories of their
3168:(traditional hunt), as reported by
3164:Discipline was inculcated during a
2458:
1297:enhanced Mongol military strength.
24:
8082:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
8066:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
7610:
7605:
5944:
5190:from the original on 15 March 2016
3106:Reconstruction of a Mongol warrior
3028:Khan in 1359. The last Yuan ruler
2944:established an independent state (
2430:In a separate part of the empire,
2315:refused to submit to the Mongols,
1798:in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus'
1646:Mongol campaigns into Goryeo Korea
1551:, an empire twice the size of the
25:
12594:
8682:
8622:Mongol invasion of Rus (pictures)
8573:
8491:Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times
7849:Endicott-West, Elizabeth (1989).
7502:Historical Dictionary of Mongolia
7458:. Translated by Haining, Thomas.
7455:Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy
6760:
6451:The Secret History of the Mongols
6326:Beyond the legacy of Genghis Khan
6239:Islam in Russia: The Four Seasons
5334:Tataro-Mongols in Europe and Asia
3561: in) from the Ilkhan Mongol
3391:The Secret History of the Mongols
3148:Reconstruction of Mongol general
2317:Baghdad was besieged and captured
1677:In 1235, the Mongols established
12475:
12458:
12430:
12418:
12406:
12394:
12055:
10294:The Twenty-four Filial Exemplars
10157:Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns
8632:Neumann, Iver B.; Wigen, Einar.
8388:. Univ of California Press, 2020
8318:Lkhamsuren, Munkherdene (2011).
8306:Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica
8084:, 30, 46–85. doi:10.2307/2718765
7621:, New York: Facts on File (2004)
7529:University of Pennsylvania Press
6932:
6914:
6860:
6848:from the original on 12 May 2008
6830:
6678:
6624:Wheelis, Mark (September 2002).
6617:
6588:
6559:
6522:
6498:
6457:
6443:
6398:University of Pennsylvania Press
6381:
6352:
6315:
6286:
6257:
6244:
6231:
6218:
6153:
6144:
6131:
6119:
6078:
6069:
6026:
6013:
5991:
5985:
5938:
5913:
5471:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2009.00259.x
5288:Libraries and Cultural Resources
3921:, a great trade emporium on the
3289:-style central assembly, called
3064:, until its defeat by the Oirat
2909:Rump states of the Mongol Empire
1800:had fallen to the Asian invaders
1598:captured the capital of Emperor
1194:Mongol tribes during the Khitan
392:
376:
362:
348:
10019:Second Mongol invasion of Burma
8695:
8431:Daily Life in the Mongol Empire
8315:(accessed on 20 September 2016)
8270:
7379:Mediterranean Historical Review
7310:Daily life in the Mongol empire
7058:Atwood, Christopher P. (2004).
6685:Benedictow, Ole Jørgen (2004).
6513:
5877:
5864:
5855:
5810:
5789:
5764:
5751:
5724:
5678:
5665:
5640:
5615:
5546:
5533:
5448:
5351:
5326:
5275:
5250:
5217:
5169:
5148:
5135:
5109:
5084:
5072:
5059:
5040:
5021:
5002:
4983:
4964:
4903:
4894:
4879:
4858:
4834:
4821:
4792:
4731:
4708:
4668:
4619:
4606:
4593:
4434:
4313:International Studies Quarterly
4089:Mongol khanate (disambiguation)
4084:Mongol dynasty (disambiguation)
3909:Some studies indicate that the
3736:of Genghis Khan, struck at the
3322:'s conversion from Buddhism to
3038:the Han-Chinese people revolted
2625:were fought along the coast of
2128:Rule of Möngke Khan (1251–1259)
2084:, possibly a victim of poison.
2076:Suspicious of Güyük's motives,
1478:Mongol invasion of Central Asia
1031:. In 1304, during the reign of
995:, who fought each other in the
12548:1368 disestablishments in Asia
12508:Former monarchies of East Asia
10044:Red Turban invasions of Goryeo
8600:The Mongol Empire for students
8495:University of California Press
7855:Harvard University Asia Center
7760:University of California Press
7523:Saunders, John Joseph (2001).
7483:University of California Press
7168:The Cambridge History of China
7031:Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995).
6988:University of California Press
6939:Khodarkovsky, Michael (2002).
6572:University of Washington Press
6529:May, Timothy (February 2008).
6396:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania:
5684:Sh.Tseyen-Oidov – Ibid. p. 64.
4798:E.D. Philips The Mongols p. 37
4632:The Cambridge History of China
4404:
4373:
4360:
4179:
3532:
3215:were unsuccessful. Around the
2292:. The Mongol Naiman commander
2251:Mongol invasions of the Levant
1781:Grand Principality of Vladimir
1527:Mongol invasions and conquests
1159:
1027:in China, based in modern-day
1015:khanate in the northwest, the
474:
413:
13:
1:
12563:Former countries in East Asia
10327:The Story of the Western Wing
10198:Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass
9922:Division of the Mongol Empire
9865:Timeline of the Mongol Empire
9562:Division of the Mongol Empire
8425:World History Connected, 2010
8360:Biography, society and gender
7219:Halperin, Charles J. (1985).
6484:10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799
6363:. Cambridge, United Kingdom:
5945:G., Ghazarian, Jacob (2000).
5759:History of the Mongols. p. II
5176:Henthorn, William E. (1963).
4640:10.1017/CHOL9780521243315.006
4380:Pow, Stephen (6 April 2020).
4279:] (in Literary Chinese).
4167:
3881:Great Stand on the Ugra River
3869:rule of the Mongol-Tatar yoke
3307:Religion in the Mongol Empire
3070:Dzungar conquest of Altishahr
2643:Division of the Mongol Empire
1818:nobles to surrender as well.
1733:from a 16th-century chronicle
1628:In the West Ögedei's general
1444:He appointed his stepbrother
1072:Great Stand on the Ugra River
917:
857:. Originating in present-day
444:announced the dynastic name "
10203:Gulou and Zhonglou (Beijing)
9954:conquest of the Song dynasty
8595:The Mongols in World History
8580:Genghis Khan and the Mongols
8370:. Asiatische Studien 71(4).
8281:Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi
6631:Emerging Infectious Diseases
5648:Mongol Empire and Its Legacy
4386:Genius Loci – Laszlovszky 60
4172:
3635:
3300:
3241:Society of the Mongol Empire
2733:Fleur des histoires d'orient
2350:and the Christian realms of
2284:denounced the menace of the
1828:in February 1246 and wrote:
1457:of the empire, ordering the
427:in the Chagatai Khanate and
55:
7:
12553:1206 establishments in Asia
10438:
10223:Jinan Great Southern Mosque
8812:Manghit / Mangudai
8366:Biran, Michal, ed. (2017).
8041:Schurmann, Herbert (1956).
8018:Vogel, Hans-Ulrich (2012).
7912:Lambton, Ann, K.S. (1988).
7500:Sanders, Alan J.K. (2010).
6722:Georgetown University Press
5179:Korea: the Mongol invasions
4057:
3740:(Ghazni) mint, dated 1221/2
3046:Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen
2954:Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
2765:Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar
2704:Development of the khanates
2390:
2363:Death of Möngke Khan (1259)
2308:which held out until 1271.
2119:and Tukhtemur, and his son
2020:, with his favorite cousin
1841:, Ögedei's eldest son, and
1594:of China. Ögedei's general
1565:buried in a secret location
1453:into what would become the
1226:had been controlled by the
10:
12599:
12568:Former countries in Europe
12188:against Northwest khanates
10109:Yuan dynasty in Inner Asia
9988:Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)
9615:
9591:Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war
8648:Mongol Empire Google Earth
8435:Hackett Publishing Company
8398:Cambridge University Press
8392:Broadbridge, Anne (2018).
8250:University of Hawaii Press
8204:Edinburgh University Press
8132:Cambridge University Press
8109:Cambridge University Press
7978:Cambridge University Press
7810:Ciocîltan, Virgil (2012).
7754:Allsen, Thomas T. (1987).
7585:Weatherford, Jack (2004).
7452:Ratchnevsky, Paul (1993).
7172:Cambridge University Press
7041:Cambridge University Press
7014:Cambridge University Press
6882:Cambridge University Press
6601:Cambridge University Press
6566:Hahn, Reinhard F. (1991).
6365:Cambridge University Press
6359:Allsen, Thomas T. (2001).
5621:L. N.Gumilev, A. Kruchki.
4444:. The Curzon Press, 1997,
4228:Cambridge University Press
3783:
3645:
3639:
3598:Genghis and his successor
3536:
3420:
3373:
3304:
3238:
3234:
3095:
2917:Iron helmet, Mongol Empire
2640:
2597:Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288)
2525:
2462:
2254:
2248:
1888:
1845:, the beloved grandson of
1767:, the Kypchaks, Bashkirs,
1702:
1692:
1524:
1475:
1449:and the adaptation of the
1376:(Great Mongol State) at a
1348:, and Temujin's childhood
1310:
1304:
1183:
1174:
788:Hungary and Croatia (
482:since the enthronement of
29:
12533:Nomadic groups in Eurasia
12310:
12249:
12216:
12178:
12145:
12103:
12073:
12064:
12053:
11941:
11874:
11826:
11343:
10747:
10446:
10353:
10231:
10190:
10146:
10064:
10024:Esen Buqa–Ayurbarwada war
9912:
9862:
9773:
9692:
9625:
9621:
9610:
9554:
9503:
9406:(1223 / 1236–40)
9352:
9329:
9312:(1257 / 1284–88)
9282:
9207:
9152:
9141:
9121:
9012:
8958:
8935:Byzantine–Mongol Alliance
8870:
8866:
8843:
8758:
8705:
8701:
8690:
8550:30 September 2021 at the
8421:21 September 2020 at the
8342:10.1017/S0041977X0001380X
8244:Prazniak, Roxann (2019).
8221:Pfeiffer, Judith (2014).
8097:Culture, arts and science
7784:29 September 2021 at the
7546:Rybatzki, Volker (2009).
7392:10.1080/09518968908569567
7312:. Westport, Connecticut:
7110:Weidenfeld & Nicolson
6972:General and cited sources
6874:; Schumann, Dirk (2003).
6388:Elverskog, Johan (2010).
5885:The Empire of the Steppes
5117:"The Destruction of Kiev"
5052:10 September 2015 at the
5033:21 September 2015 at the
4995:22 September 2015 at the
4976:16 September 2015 at the
4145:
3947:Mongol invasion of Poland
3837:, which is still used in
3779:
3627:, the Mongols still used
3514:Byzantine-Mongol alliance
3052:Khanate were defeated by
2921:With the death of Ilkhan
2836:In the Chagatai Khanate,
2326:His army advanced toward
2012:. He also replaced young
1960:. But Batu, ruler of the
1891:Mongol invasion of Europe
1822:Giovanni de Plano Carpini
1790:The Mongols captured the
1709:Mongol invasions of Korea
1705:Mongol invasions of India
1652:met with little success.
1145:
851:largest contiguous empire
773:Poland and Bohemia (
740:
733:
714:
682:
624:
574:
553:
548:
543:
487:
465:
408:
321:
313:
305:
297:
292:
288:
275:
262:
250:
238:
226:
214:
210:
197:
175:
163:
129:
100:
85:
68:
41:
12558:Former countries in Asia
11981:Western Turkic Khaganate
11976:Eastern Turkic Khaganate
10138:Goryeo under Mongol rule
9944:Mongol conquest of China
8605:27 November 2020 at the
8489:Rossabi, Morris (1988).
8335:16 November 2020 at the
8300:Jackson, Peter. "YĀSĀ,"
8158:27 November 2020 at the
8089:27 November 2020 at the
8073:27 November 2020 at the
8047:Harvard University Press
7995:Prajakti, Kalra (2018).
7972:Ostrowsk, David (2010).
7878:28 November 2020 at the
7791:Badarch, Nyamaa (2005).
7617:Atwood, Christopher, P.
7477:Rossabi, Morris (1983).
7229:Indiana University Press
7202:Rutgers University Press
7117:Burgan, Michael (2005).
6947:Indiana University Press
6714:R. Ward, Steven (2009).
6425:Chambers, James (1979).
6322:Komaroff, Linda (2006).
6163:Journal of Asian History
4514:Robinson, David (2009).
4471:Robinson, David (2019).
4271:
4262:
4074:Xiongnu origin of Mongol
3529:glosses on its margins.
3439:Compendium of Chronicles
3034:hyperinflationary spiral
2831:Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan
2442:. Their younger brother
2438:area of China, near the
2257:Mongol invasion of China
2178:, a Parisian goldsmith.
2039:Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan
2000:'s submission. The 1246
1885:Push into central Europe
1853:, temporarily investing
1713:Mongol conquest of Tibet
1699:Mongol invasion of China
1608:Mongols captured Caizhou
1486:Mongol Empire circa 1207
1468:, to instruct his sons.
1169:Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus
30:Not to be confused with
11986:Second Turkic Khaganate
10213:Pagoda of Bailin Temple
10034:1344 Yellow River flood
10029:War of the Two Capitals
9939:Kublai Khan's campaigns
8888:Invasions and conquests
8807:Paiza / Gerege
8525:2 November 2022 at the
8513:Diplomatic and military
8352:9 November 2020 at the
8311:29 October 2020 at the
8293:9 November 2020 at the
8286:Atwood, Christopher P.
8126:Allsen, Thomas (2009).
8103:Allsen, Thomas (1997).
7889:Kolbas, Judith (2006).
7842:2 November 2022 at the
7274:Central Asiatic Journal
6842:Encyclopædia Britannica
6597:A History of Inner Asia
6536:World History Connected
6330:. Leiden, Netherlands:
6297:. Leiden, Netherlands:
6293:Baumann, Brian (2008).
6268:. Leiden, Netherlands:
6264:Baumann, Brian (2008).
6039:17 October 2015 at the
5080:The Mamluk-Ilkhanid war
5028:eds. Seaman, Marks 1991
5014:17 October 2015 at the
4767:10.1073/pnas.1318677111
4738:Pederson, Neil (2014).
4626:Allsen, Thomas (1994).
4326:10.1111/0020-8833.00053
4064:Mughal-Mongol genealogy
4004:David Nicole states in
3509:Ajall Shams al-Din Omar
3213:campaigns against Japan
3152:, Kyzyl National Museum
2870:(r. 1326–29) supported
2864:War of the Two Capitals
2760:the following decades.
2591:(northern Vietnam) and
2528:Kublai Khan's campaigns
2396:Dispute over succession
2288:, a well-known sect of
2261:Siege of Baghdad (1258)
2004:was written in Persian.
1804:connecting his invasion
1785:Battle of the Sit River
1695:Mongol invasion of Rus'
1163:) and to establish the
1112:After the 1260 to 1264
1081:
881:, mounted invasions of
11971:First Turkic Khaganate
10313:The Injustice to Dou E
10218:Temple of Azure Clouds
10148:Science and technology
10005:Battle of Ngasaunggyan
9949:anti-Mongol fortresses
9545:(1260 / 1301)
9273:(1274 / 1281)
8940:Franco-Mongol alliance
8538:1 January 2024 at the
7574:The Mongols and Russia
7407:Morgan, David (2007).
6645:10.3201/eid0809.010536
6570:. London and Seattle:
4418:. 1998. Archived from
4220:Kim, Hyun Jin (2013).
4187:Kołodziejczyk, Dariusz
4001:
3950:
3900:Ferdinand II of Aragon
3860:
3857:Siege of Moscow (1382)
3851:and the armies of the
3803:
3741:
3721:Franco-Mongol alliance
3668:
3570:
3516:and the fact that the
3442:
3430:
3327:
3255:
3153:
3107:
3017:
2918:
2901:
2818:
2736:
2716:
2656:
2537:
2512:Franco-Mongol alliance
2485:
2405:
2270:
2193:
2153:Administrative reforms
2149:descendants of Tolui.
2096:
2005:
1978:
1835:
1734:
1634:Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu
1544:
1487:
1472:Push into Central Asia
1400:
1336:
1330:National Palace Museum
1211:
1199:
12113:against Western Turks
11851:Medieval great powers
10049:Battle of Lake Poyang
10039:Red Turban Rebellions
8429:Lane, George (2009).
8191:13 April 2021 at the
7949:Lane, George (2003).
7673:10 April 2022 at the
7624:Biran M, Kim H, eds.
7578:Yale University Press
7308:Lane, George (2006).
7119:Empire of the Mongols
7104:Brent, Peter (1976).
6595:Soucek, Svat (2000).
6504:Enkhbold op cit pp. 7
5292:University of Calgary
5282:Pow, Stephen (2012).
5186:. pp. 160, 183.
4416:University of Calgary
4160:of the Mongol Empire.
4104:List of Mongol states
3996:
3944:
3904:Isabella I of Castile
3885:Grand Duchy of Moscow
3847:
3793:
3729:
3659:
3546:
3436:
3428:
3314:
3253:
3217:Eastern Mediterranean
3147:
3105:
3092:Military organization
3002:
2916:
2884:
2804:
2722:
2711:
2650:
2583:were costly, and his
2542:the fall of Xiangyang
2535:
2476:
2403:
2268:
2225:Kublai conquered the
2184:
2090:
2068:Death of Güyük (1248)
1992:
1970:
1830:
1720:
1543:, early 14th century.
1534:
1485:
1391:
1324:
1205:
1193:
1076:Grand Duchy of Moscow
1039:of the Yuan dynasty.
1019:in Central Asia, the
478:) practically in the
423:in the Golden Horde,
130:Common languages
12325:Greater Central Asia
11861:European colonialism
11846:Ancient great powers
9436:Serbia and Bulgaria
8627:Worldwide Death Toll
8302:Encyclopædia Iranica
8198:Kadoi, Yuka (2009).
8165:Buell, Paul (2010).
7835:Central Asian Survey
7504:. Lanham, Maryland:
7413:Blackwell Publishing
6844:. 20 November 2013.
6471:Central Asian Survey
6427:The Devil's Horsemen
6299:Koninklijke Brill NV
6270:Koninklijke Brill NV
5921:Culture and Conquest
5872:Culture and Conquest
5732:A Republic of Nobles
5594:Mongols and the West
5321:Mongols and the West
5300:10.11575/PRISM/25533
4864:Vladimortsov. p. 74.
4840:Ratchnevsky. p. 191.
4675:Buell, Paul (2018).
4634:. pp. 321–413.
4614:Culture and Conquest
4601:Mongols and the West
4158:disintegrated nature
3887:gained independence.
3507:studied there under
3473:Maragheh observatory
3380:Mongolian literature
3088:lasted even longer.
2569:Song imperial family
2540:In the south, after
2321:rupture of the Kaaba
2298:Rukn al-Din Khurshah
2269:The siege of Baghdad
2172:Persian architecture
2160:Buddhist monasteries
1307:Rise of Genghis Khan
1301:Rise of Genghis Khan
895:Carpathian Mountains
885:, and conquered the
534:Mongol invasions and
431:in the Yuan dynasty.
11856:Modern great powers
10232:Society and culture
9959:Battle of Xiangyang
9683:Khagans of the Yuan
9412:Poland and Bohemia
9188:Khwarazmian Empire
8913:Society and economy
7687:2 June 2021 at the
7246:Hull, Mary (1997).
7227:. Bloomington, IN:
6963:on 17 October 2015.
6788:. Users.erols.com.
6332:Koninklijk Brill NV
5935:, pp. 541–550.
4900:Morgan. pp. 99–101.
4758:2014PNAS..111.4375P
4422:on 13 November 2010
4149:) as proclaimed by
4006:The Mongol Warlords
3954:Western researcher
3786:History of Mongolia
3567:Philip IV of France
3518:Empire of Trebizond
3370:Arts and literature
2678:After the death of
2671:and the subsequent
2585:attempted invasions
2518:on 21 August 1264.
2425:Battle of Ain Jalut
2302:Ismaili strongholds
2056:and conquering the
2035:Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus
1897:advance into Europe
983:died (1259), rival
879:Indian subcontinent
805:Bulgaria and Serbia
419:Especially western
43:Great Mongol Nation
10320:The Orphan of Zhao
10089:Imperial Preceptor
9428:Holy Roman Empire
8883:Banner/Bunchuk/Tug
8452:Wang, May (1993).
7659:6 May 2021 at the
7552:Indiana University
7350:Man, John (2007).
7331:Man, John (2004).
7145:St. Martin's Press
6818:on 21 January 2010
6786:"Mongol Conquests"
6215:Foltz. pp. 105–06.
5721:, pp. 344–66.
5496:Mongol Imperialism
4886:Man, John (2004).
4306:(September 1997).
4265:[Chronicle of
3986:Outline of History
3951:
3861:
3804:
3742:
3717:William of Rubruck
3669:
3571:
3505:Gregory Chioniades
3443:
3431:
3386:Mongolian language
3328:
3256:
3246:Law and governance
3154:
3108:
3082:Khanate of Bukhara
3018:
2919:
2902:
2819:
2737:
2717:
2657:
2606:, the khan of the
2577:invasions of Burma
2538:
2486:
2406:
2404:The Mongols at war
2271:
2194:
2168:Christian churches
2097:
2016:, the khan of the
2006:
1979:
1735:
1642:Khwarizmian Empire
1545:
1488:
1401:
1384:Early organization
1337:
1212:
1200:
1180:Pre-empire context
1054:was taken over by
12382:
12381:
12358:Chinese Turkestan
12306:
12305:
12127:Mongolian Plateau
11900:
11899:
11822:
11821:
11787:Polish–Lithuanian
10962:Gurjara-Pratihara
10406:
10405:
9871:
9870:
9858:
9857:
9854:
9853:
9606:
9605:
9602:
9601:
9583:Kaidu–Kublai war
9575:Berke–Hulagu war
9567:Toluid Civil War
9348:
9347:
9117:
9116:
9113:
9112:
8920:House of Borjigin
8839:
8838:
8835:
8834:
8585:The Mongol Empire
8469:978-3-447-03339-8
8325:, 13(2), 211–237.
8236:978-90-04-26257-7
8180:978-90-47-44470-1
7825:978-90-04-22666-1
7596:978-0-609-80964-8
7570:Vernadsky, George
7561:978-0-933070-57-8
7538:978-0-8122-1766-7
7515:978-0-8108-6191-6
7492:978-0-520-04383-1
7469:978-0-631-18949-7
7444:978-1-4128-0519-3
7422:978-1-4051-3539-9
7365:978-0-553-81718-8
7342:978-0-312-36624-7
7323:978-0-313-33226-5
7300:978-0-582-36896-5
7263:978-1-56006-312-4
7238:978-0-253-20445-5
7181:978-0-521-24331-5
7154:978-0-312-23338-9
7137:Foltz, Richard C.
7128:978-1-4381-0318-1
7106:The Mongol Empire
7096:978-1-55786-324-9
7073:978-0-8160-4671-3
7050:978-0-521-46226-6
7023:978-0-521-60270-9
7006:Allsen, Thomas T.
6997:978-0-520-05527-8
6980:Allsen, Thomas T.
6927:978-0-8283-2017-7
6891:978-0-521-00922-5
6731:978-1-58901-258-5
6700:978-1-84383-214-0
6581:978-0-295-98651-7
6411:978-0-8122-4237-9
6345:978-90-04-15083-6
6308:978-90-04-15575-6
6279:978-90-04-15575-6
6252:The Mongol Empire
6084:Sverdrup. p. 110.
6075:Sverdrup. p. 109.
5956:978-0-7007-1418-6
5770:Sh.Tseyen-Oidov.
5269:978-3-030-00727-0
5123:on 19 August 2016
5090:Grousset. p. 259.
4728:Barfield. p. 184.
4714:Rybatzki. p. 116.
4237:978-1-107-06722-6
4202:978-90-04-19190-7
4115:Explanatory notes
4094:Göktürk Khaganate
3935:biological weapon
3923:Crimean Peninsula
3802:States, and China
3703:Western explorer
3612:, founder of the
3446:According to the
3400:Jami' al-tawarikh
3316:Persian miniature
3042:Gongmin of Goryeo
2667:, along with the
2619:battles of Bun'ei
2280:The Muslims from
2176:Guillaume Boucher
2078:Sorghaghtani Beki
1974:consolidates the
1397:Jami' al-tawarikh
1374:Yekhe Mongol Ulus
1372:(Emperor) of the
1293:Mongols in 1161.
1255:Mongolian plateau
1095:yeke Mongγol ulus
1060:Mongolian Plateau
1023:in Iran, and the
947:, in an enforced
842:
841:
837:
836:
800:Holy Roman Empire
500:
499:
454:Yeke Mongγol Ulus
404:
403:
400:
399:
277:• 1333–1368
264:• 1260–1294
252:• 1251–1259
240:• 1246–1248
228:• 1229–1241
216:• 1206–1227
183:Elective monarchy
56:Yeke Mongɣol Ulus
16:(Redirected from
12590:
12488:
12480:
12479:
12478:
12471:
12463:
12462:
12461:
12451:
12435:
12434:
12433:
12423:
12422:
12421:
12411:
12410:
12409:
12399:
12398:
12390:
12071:
12070:
12059:
11927:
11920:
11913:
11904:
11903:
11703:
11702:
11368:Austro-Hungarian
11068:Chagatai Khanate
10433:
10426:
10419:
10410:
10409:
10376:ʼPhags-pa script
10306:The Chalk Circle
10287:Zhongyuan Yinyun
10174:Shiyi Dexiaofang
9932:Kaidu–Kublai war
9927:Toluid Civil War
9898:
9891:
9884:
9875:
9874:
9669:
9656:
9653:Töregene Khatun
9643:
9623:
9622:
9612:
9611:
9594:
9586:
9578:
9570:
9546:
9538:
9530:
9522:
9514:
9495:
9487:
9479:
9471:
9463:
9455:
9447:
9439:
9431:
9423:
9415:
9407:
9399:
9391:
9383:
9375:
9367:
9366:
9340:
9321:
9313:
9305:
9297:
9296:
9274:
9264:
9256:
9255:
9246:
9238:
9230:
9222:
9221:
9199:
9191:
9183:
9173:
9165:
9150:
9149:
9143:
9142:
9123:
9122:
9085:Shangdu (Xanadu)
9075:Sarai Batu/Berke
8980:Chagatai Khanate
8868:
8867:
8845:
8844:
8703:
8702:
8692:
8691:
8677:
8670:
8663:
8654:
8653:
8644:
8638:
8508:
8485:
8483:
8481:
8448:
8411:
8381:
8263:
8240:
8217:
8184:
8145:
8122:
8060:
8037:
8014:
7991:
7968:
7945:
7939:
7931:
7908:
7885:1 (2009): 15–42.
7868:
7829:
7806:
7773:
7600:
7581:
7565:
7542:
7527:. Philadelphia:
7519:
7496:
7481:. Berkeley, CA:
7473:
7448:
7431:Prawdin, Michael
7426:
7403:
7369:
7346:
7327:
7304:
7282:
7267:
7254:Greenhaven Press
7242:
7226:
7215:
7199:
7185:
7158:
7143:. New York, NY:
7132:
7113:
7100:
7077:
7065:
7054:
7038:
7027:
7001:
6965:
6964:
6959:. Archived from
6936:
6930:
6918:
6912:
6911:
6905:
6903:
6864:
6858:
6857:
6855:
6853:
6834:
6828:
6827:
6825:
6823:
6808:
6802:
6801:
6799:
6797:
6782:
6773:
6772:
6769:Internet Archive
6758:
6752:
6751:
6745:
6743:
6711:
6705:
6704:
6682:
6676:
6675:
6665:
6647:
6621:
6615:
6614:
6592:
6586:
6585:
6563:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6552:
6526:
6520:
6519:
6511:
6505:
6502:
6496:
6495:
6461:
6455:
6454:
6447:
6441:
6440:
6422:
6416:
6415:
6395:
6385:
6379:
6378:
6356:
6350:
6349:
6329:
6319:
6313:
6312:
6290:
6284:
6283:
6261:
6255:
6248:
6242:
6235:
6229:
6222:
6216:
6213:
6204:
6201:Weatherford 2004
6198:
6192:
6189:Weatherford 2004
6186:
6180:
6179:
6157:
6151:
6148:
6142:
6135:
6129:
6123:
6117:
6110:
6101:
6094:
6085:
6082:
6076:
6073:
6067:
6066:Halperin. p. 28.
6064:
6058:
6052:
6043:
6030:
6024:
6017:
6011:
6010:
6008:
6006:
5989:
5983:
5982:
5976:
5968:
5942:
5936:
5930:
5924:
5917:
5911:
5905:
5899:
5893:
5887:
5881:
5875:
5868:
5862:
5859:
5853:
5847:
5841:
5835:
5829:
5826:Weatherford 2004
5823:
5817:
5816:Howorth. p. 145.
5814:
5808:
5802:
5796:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5775:
5768:
5762:
5755:
5749:
5744:
5735:
5728:
5722:
5716:
5710:
5707:Weatherford 2004
5704:
5698:
5691:
5685:
5682:
5676:
5669:
5663:
5660:Weatherford 2004
5657:
5651:
5644:
5638:
5631:
5625:
5619:
5613:
5606:
5597:
5590:
5581:
5578:
5569:
5562:
5553:
5550:
5544:
5537:
5531:
5524:
5515:
5508:
5499:
5492:
5483:
5482:
5452:
5446:
5439:
5428:
5421:
5410:
5404:
5395:
5392:Weatherford 2004
5389:
5383:
5377:
5362:
5355:
5349:
5346:Weatherford 2004
5343:
5337:
5330:
5324:
5317:
5308:
5307:
5279:
5273:
5272:
5254:
5248:
5241:
5232:
5221:
5215:
5212:Weatherford 2004
5209:
5200:
5199:
5197:
5195:
5173:
5167:
5161:
5155:
5152:
5146:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5130:
5128:
5113:
5107:
5100:
5091:
5088:
5082:
5076:
5070:
5063:
5057:
5044:
5038:
5025:
5019:
5006:
5000:
4987:
4981:
4968:
4962:
4956:
4950:
4944:
4938:
4932:
4926:
4920:
4914:
4907:
4901:
4898:
4892:
4891:
4883:
4877:
4874:Weatherford 2004
4871:
4865:
4862:
4856:
4850:
4841:
4838:
4832:
4825:
4819:
4812:
4799:
4796:
4790:
4789:
4779:
4769:
4735:
4729:
4726:
4715:
4712:
4706:
4705:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4672:
4666:
4665:
4663:
4661:
4623:
4617:
4616:. pp. xiii, 235.
4610:
4604:
4597:
4591:
4585:
4579:
4578:
4554:
4548:
4547:
4541:
4539:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4498:
4496:
4468:
4462:
4459:
4453:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4408:
4402:
4401:
4399:
4397:
4377:
4371:
4364:
4358:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4300:
4289:
4288:
4259:
4253:
4252:
4246:
4244:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4183:
4161:
4148:
4147:
4139:). However, the
4125:
3927:came under siege
3819:, largely under
3762:Byzantine Empire
3709:Rabban Bar Sauma
3560:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3527:Middle Mongolian
3412:correction fluid
2975:) to Poland and
2958:Chagatai Khanate
2923:Abu Said Bahatur
2899:Chagatai Khanate
2769:Chagatai Khanate
2698:sovereign states
2673:Kaidu–Kublai war
2669:Berke–Hulagu war
2665:Toluid Civil War
2629:near modern-day
2554:Emperor of China
2469:Berke–Hulagu war
2465:Toluid Civil War
2459:Mongol Civil War
2106:Mongol heartland
2018:Chagatai Khanate
2010:Arghun the Elder
1998:Pope Innocent IV
1913:Teutonic Knights
1650:Korean Peninsula
1604:siege of Kaifeng
1455:Mongolian script
1214:The area around
1161:
1152:
1120:and his brother
1108:
1100:
1093:
1017:Chagatai Khanate
997:Toluid Civil War
922:
919:
906:Mongol heartland
820:Byzantine Thrace
546:
545:
538:
526:
519:
512:
503:
502:
491:
489:
480:Chinese language
476:
467:
438:
432:
421:Kipchak dialects
417:
396:
395:
388:
380:
379:
366:
365:
352:
351:
344:
343:Chagatai Khanate
338:
337:
323:
322:
142:Turkic languages
73:
58:
52:
39:
38:
21:
12598:
12597:
12593:
12592:
12591:
12589:
12588:
12587:
12493:
12492:
12491:
12487:from Wikivoyage
12481:
12476:
12474:
12464:
12459:
12457:
12454:
12450:sister projects
12447:at Knowledge's
12441:
12431:
12429:
12419:
12417:
12407:
12405:
12393:
12385:
12383:
12378:
12354:Western Regions
12347:Chinese Tartary
12337:Eurasian nomads
12302:
12259:against Dzungar
12245:
12226:against Mongols
12212:
12174:
12141:
12099:
12083:against Xiongnu
12066:Chinese empires
12060:
12051:
11943:Nomadic empires
11937:
11931:
11901:
11896:
11885:American Empire
11870:
11866:African empires
11818:
11701:
11393:Central African
11339:
11157:Romano-Germanic
10743:
10477:Middle Assyrian
10450:
10442:
10437:
10407:
10402:
10382:History of Yuan
10349:
10280:Wenxian Tongkao
10245:History of Liao
10227:
10208:Miaoying Temple
10186:
10142:
10060:
10056:Ispah rebellion
9908:
9902:
9872:
9867:
9850:
9769:
9688:
9667:
9654:
9641:
9617:
9598:
9592:
9584:
9576:
9568:
9550:
9544:
9536:
9528:
9520:
9512:
9499:
9493:
9485:
9477:
9469:
9461:
9453:
9445:
9437:
9429:
9421:
9413:
9405:
9397:
9389:
9388:Volga Bulgaria
9381:
9373:
9364:
9362:
9344:
9338:
9325:
9319:
9311:
9303:
9294:
9292:
9278:
9272:
9262:
9253:
9251:
9244:
9243:Southern China
9236:
9228:
9227:Northern China
9219:
9217:
9203:
9197:
9189:
9181:
9171:
9163:
9137:
9136:
9109:
9008:
8985:House of Ögedei
8954:
8925:House of Ögedei
8893:Destructiveness
8862:
8861:
8831:
8768:
8754:
8697:
8686:
8681:
8636:
8607:Wayback Machine
8576:
8571:
8552:Wayback Machine
8540:Wayback Machine
8527:Wayback Machine
8515:
8505:
8479:
8477:
8470:
8445:
8423:Wayback Machine
8408:
8378:
8362:
8354:Wayback Machine
8337:Wayback Machine
8313:Wayback Machine
8295:Wayback Machine
8273:
8260:
8237:
8214:
8193:Wayback Machine
8181:
8160:Wayback Machine
8142:
8119:
8099:
8091:Wayback Machine
8075:Wayback Machine
8057:
8034:
8011:
7988:
7965:
7933:
7932:
7928:
7905:
7880:Wayback Machine
7865:
7844:Wayback Machine
7826:
7803:
7795:. Ulaanbaatar.
7786:Wayback Machine
7770:
7750:
7689:Wayback Machine
7675:Wayback Machine
7661:Wayback Machine
7642:Bartold, Vasily
7632:Bartold, Vasily
7613:
7611:General surveys
7608:
7606:Further reading
7603:
7597:
7562:
7539:
7516:
7506:Scarecrow Press
7493:
7470:
7460:Wiley-Blackwell
7445:
7423:
7366:
7343:
7324:
7314:Greenwood Press
7301:
7264:
7239:
7212:
7182:
7155:
7129:
7097:
7074:
7051:
7024:
6998:
6974:
6969:
6968:
6957:
6949:. p. 142.
6937:
6933:
6919:
6915:
6901:
6899:
6892:
6884:. p. 143.
6872:Bessel, Richard
6865:
6861:
6851:
6849:
6836:
6835:
6831:
6821:
6819:
6810:
6809:
6805:
6795:
6793:
6784:
6783:
6776:
6759:
6755:
6741:
6739:
6732:
6712:
6708:
6701:
6693:. p. 382.
6683:
6679:
6622:
6618:
6611:
6603:. p. 116.
6593:
6589:
6582:
6564:
6560:
6550:
6548:
6527:
6523:
6512:
6508:
6503:
6499:
6462:
6458:
6449:
6448:
6444:
6437:
6423:
6419:
6412:
6386:
6382:
6375:
6367:. p. 169.
6357:
6353:
6346:
6320:
6316:
6309:
6301:. p. 296.
6291:
6287:
6280:
6272:. p. 304.
6262:
6258:
6249:
6245:
6236:
6232:
6223:
6219:
6214:
6207:
6199:
6195:
6187:
6183:
6158:
6154:
6149:
6145:
6136:
6132:
6124:
6120:
6111:
6104:
6095:
6088:
6083:
6079:
6074:
6070:
6065:
6061:
6053:
6046:
6041:Wayback Machine
6031:
6027:
6018:
6014:
6004:
6002:
5990:
5986:
5970:
5969:
5957:
5943:
5939:
5931:
5927:
5918:
5914:
5906:
5902:
5894:
5890:
5883:René Grousset.
5882:
5878:
5869:
5865:
5860:
5856:
5848:
5844:
5836:
5832:
5824:
5820:
5815:
5811:
5803:
5799:
5794:
5790:
5782:
5778:
5769:
5765:
5756:
5752:
5745:
5738:
5729:
5725:
5717:
5713:
5705:
5701:
5692:
5688:
5683:
5679:
5670:
5666:
5658:
5654:
5645:
5641:
5632:
5628:
5620:
5616:
5607:
5600:
5591:
5584:
5579:
5572:
5563:
5556:
5551:
5547:
5538:
5534:
5525:
5518:
5509:
5502:
5493:
5486:
5453:
5449:
5440:
5431:
5422:
5413:
5405:
5398:
5390:
5386:
5378:
5365:
5356:
5352:
5344:
5340:
5331:
5327:
5318:
5311:
5280:
5276:
5270:
5255:
5251:
5242:
5235:
5225:English History
5223:Matthew Paris.
5222:
5218:
5210:
5203:
5193:
5191:
5174:
5170:
5162:
5158:
5153:
5149:
5143:Delhi Sultanate
5140:
5136:
5126:
5124:
5115:
5114:
5110:
5101:
5094:
5089:
5085:
5077:
5073:
5064:
5060:
5054:Wayback Machine
5045:
5041:
5035:Wayback Machine
5026:
5022:
5016:Wayback Machine
5007:
5003:
4997:Wayback Machine
4988:
4984:
4978:Wayback Machine
4969:
4965:
4957:
4953:
4945:
4941:
4933:
4929:
4921:
4917:
4908:
4904:
4899:
4895:
4884:
4880:
4872:
4868:
4863:
4859:
4851:
4844:
4839:
4835:
4826:
4822:
4813:
4802:
4797:
4793:
4752:(12): 4375–79.
4736:
4732:
4727:
4718:
4713:
4709:
4698:
4694:
4687:
4673:
4669:
4659:
4657:
4650:
4624:
4620:
4611:
4607:
4598:
4594:
4586:
4582:
4571:
4555:
4551:
4537:
4535:
4528:
4512:
4508:
4494:
4492:
4485:
4469:
4465:
4460:
4456:
4440:Michael Biran.
4439:
4435:
4425:
4423:
4410:
4409:
4405:
4395:
4393:
4378:
4374:
4365:
4361:
4351:
4349:
4304:Taagepera, Rein
4301:
4292:
4285:Emperor Genghis
4277:History of Yuan
4273:
4264:
4261:
4260:
4256:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4218:
4214:
4203:
4184:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4164:
4126:
4122:
4117:
4060:
3968:argue that the
3966:David O. Morgan
3877:Russian Tsardom
3788:
3782:
3654:
3644:
3638:
3604:Altai mountains
3557:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3541:
3535:
3465:Ilkhanic Tables
3423:
3382:
3372:
3309:
3303:
3248:
3243:
3237:
3100:
3094:
3078:Crimean Khanate
3066:Dzungar Khanate
3062:Yarkent Khanate
2911:
2805:Hungarian King
2725:House of Ögedei
2706:
2651:The funeral of
2645:
2639:
2562:Chinese culture
2530:
2524:
2471:
2461:
2398:
2393:
2365:
2286:Nizari Ismailis
2263:
2253:
2247:
2155:
2130:
2070:
2054:Nizari Ismailis
1949:
1929:Croatian allies
1893:
1887:
1867:Delhi Sultanate
1715:
1701:
1693:Main articles:
1691:
1586:regime and the
1529:
1523:
1480:
1474:
1386:
1319:
1309:
1303:
1283:divide and rule
1238:founded by the
1222:, and parts of
1188:
1182:
1177:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1044:Tibetan Plateau
929:invading armies
920:
887:Iranian Plateau
843:
838:
715:Other invasions
539:
535:
532:
530:
496:
495:
494:
484:Genghis Emperor
440:Decades before
439:
435:
418:
414:
393:
386:
377:
363:
349:
342:
278:
265:
253:
241:
229:
217:
193:
159:
125:
81:
76:
64:
53:
50:
48:
46:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12596:
12586:
12585:
12583:Former empires
12580:
12575:
12570:
12565:
12560:
12555:
12550:
12545:
12540:
12535:
12530:
12525:
12520:
12515:
12510:
12505:
12490:
12489:
12472:
12443:
12440:
12439:
12427:
12415:
12403:
12380:
12379:
12377:
12376:
12371:
12366:
12361:
12351:
12350:
12349:
12339:
12334:
12333:
12332:
12322:
12314:
12312:
12311:Related topics
12308:
12307:
12304:
12303:
12301:
12300:
12295:
12290:
12285:
12280:
12279:
12278:
12268:
12267:
12266:
12255:
12253:
12247:
12246:
12244:
12243:
12238:
12233:
12231:against Turpan
12228:
12222:
12220:
12214:
12213:
12211:
12210:
12205:
12200:
12195:
12190:
12184:
12182:
12176:
12175:
12173:
12172:
12167:
12162:
12157:
12151:
12149:
12143:
12142:
12140:
12139:
12134:
12129:
12124:
12119:
12109:
12107:
12101:
12100:
12098:
12097:
12096:
12095:
12093:Chief Official
12085:
12079:
12077:
12068:
12062:
12061:
12054:
12052:
12050:
12049:
12044:
12039:
12038:
12037:
12036:
12035:
12025:
12020:
12010:
12005:
12000:
11995:
11990:
11989:
11988:
11983:
11978:
11973:
11963:
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8574:External links
8572:
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8511:
8510:
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8283:, 17:1, 237–76
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8259:978-0824876579
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7737:Jackson, Peter
7734:
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7717:Howorth, Henry
7714:
7707:Howorth, Henry
7704:
7697:Howorth, Henry
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7287:Jackson, Peter
7283:
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7190:Grousset, Rene
7186:
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6774:
6753:
6730:
6724:. p. 39.
6706:
6699:
6677:
6638:(9): 971–975.
6616:
6609:
6587:
6580:
6558:
6521:
6518:. p. 364.
6506:
6497:
6478:(4): 531–547.
6456:
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6380:
6373:
6351:
6344:
6314:
6307:
6285:
6278:
6256:
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6230:
6217:
6205:
6203:, p. 135.
6193:
6181:
6152:
6143:
6130:
6118:
6102:
6086:
6077:
6068:
6059:
6057:, p. 379.
6044:
6025:
6012:
5992:Getz, Trevor.
5984:
5955:
5937:
5925:
5912:
5910:, p. 106.
5900:
5898:, p. 445.
5888:
5876:
5863:
5854:
5852:, p. 413.
5842:
5838:Vernadsky 1953
5830:
5828:, p. 236.
5818:
5809:
5797:
5788:
5784:Vernadsky 1953
5776:
5763:
5750:
5747:Prawdin (1961)
5736:
5723:
5719:Vernadsky 1953
5711:
5709:, p. 195.
5699:
5686:
5677:
5664:
5662:, p. 120.
5652:
5639:
5626:
5614:
5598:
5582:
5580:Wassaf. p. 12.
5570:
5554:
5545:
5532:
5516:
5500:
5484:
5447:
5429:
5411:
5409:, p. 213.
5396:
5394:, p. 179.
5384:
5382:, p. 255.
5363:
5350:
5348:, p. 163.
5338:
5325:
5309:
5274:
5268:
5249:
5233:
5216:
5214:, p. 158.
5201:
5168:
5166:, p. 297.
5156:
5147:
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5108:
5092:
5083:
5071:
5058:
5039:
5020:
5001:
4982:
4971:Collectif 2002
4963:
4961:, p. 509.
4951:
4949:, p. 221.
4939:
4937:, p. 277.
4927:
4915:
4902:
4893:
4878:
4866:
4857:
4853:Secret history
4842:
4833:
4820:
4800:
4791:
4730:
4716:
4707:
4704:. p. 169.
4692:
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4580:
4569:
4549:
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4506:
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4403:
4372:
4359:
4320:(3): 475–504.
4290:
4254:
4236:
4230:. p. 29.
4212:
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4026:
3995:
3994:
3981:
3973:
3970:bubonic plague
3939:
3938:
3907:
3888:
3798:, Russia, the
3781:
3778:
3766:Ottoman Empire
3640:Main article:
3637:
3634:
3537:Main article:
3534:
3531:
3422:
3419:
3371:
3368:
3305:Main article:
3302:
3299:
3247:
3244:
3239:Main article:
3236:
3233:
3190:Battle of Mohi
3096:Main article:
3093:
3090:
3086:Kazakh Khanate
3058:Timurid Empire
3022:Great Troubles
2910:
2907:
2712:Mongol rider,
2705:
2702:
2693:Pope John XXII
2641:Main article:
2638:
2635:
2548:and sought to
2526:Main article:
2523:
2520:
2460:
2457:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2364:
2361:
2332:Al-Nasir Yusuf
2249:Main article:
2246:
2243:
2154:
2151:
2129:
2126:
2099:Güyük's widow
2069:
2066:
1948:
1945:
1889:Main article:
1886:
1883:
1690:
1687:
1672:Ganghwa Island
1656:, the king of
1555:or the Muslim
1535:Coronation of
1525:Main article:
1522:
1519:
1476:Main article:
1473:
1470:
1417:imperial guard
1411:(10,000). The
1385:
1382:
1334:Taipei, Taiwan
1305:Main article:
1302:
1299:
1184:Main article:
1181:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1114:succession war
1083:
1080:
902:nomadic tribes
883:Southeast Asia
871:Eastern Europe
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12503:Mongol Empire
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12484:Travel guides
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12445:Mongol Empire
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12374:Greater China
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12223:
12221:
12219:
12215:
12209:
12208:Northern Yuan
12206:
12204:
12201:
12199:
12196:
12194:
12191:
12189:
12186:
12185:
12183:
12181:
12177:
12171:
12168:
12166:
12163:
12161:
12160:Northern Liao
12158:
12156:
12153:
12152:
12150:
12148:
12144:
12138:
12135:
12133:
12130:
12128:
12125:
12123:
12122:against Tibet
12120:
12118:
12117:Eastern Turks
12114:
12111:
12110:
12108:
12106:
12102:
12094:
12091:
12090:
12089:
12086:
12084:
12081:
12080:
12078:
12076:
12072:
12069:
12067:
12063:
12058:
12048:
12045:
12043:
12040:
12034:
12031:
12030:
12029:
12028:Mongol Empire
12026:
12024:
12023:Khamag Mongol
12021:
12019:
12016:
12015:
12014:
12011:
12009:
12006:
12004:
12001:
11999:
11996:
11994:
11991:
11987:
11984:
11982:
11979:
11977:
11974:
11972:
11969:
11968:
11967:
11964:
11962:
11959:
11957:
11954:
11952:
11949:
11948:
11946:
11944:
11940:
11935:
11928:
11923:
11921:
11916:
11914:
11909:
11908:
11905:
11891:
11890:Soviet empire
11888:
11886:
11883:
11882:
11880:
11879:
11877:
11875:Miscellaneous
11873:
11867:
11864:
11862:
11859:
11857:
11854:
11852:
11849:
11847:
11844:
11840:
11837:
11836:
11835:
11832:
11831:
11829:
11825:
11815:
11812:
11810:
11807:
11805:
11802:
11800:
11797:
11793:
11790:
11789:
11788:
11785:
11783:
11780:
11778:
11775:
11773:
11770:
11768:
11765:
11763:
11760:
11758:
11755:
11753:
11750:
11748:
11745:
11743:
11740:
11736:
11733:
11731:
11728:
11727:
11726:
11723:
11721:
11718:
11716:
11713:
11712:
11710:
11708:
11704:
11696:
11693:
11691:
11688:
11686:
11683:
11681:
11678:
11676:
11673:
11672:
11671:
11668:
11666:
11663:
11659:
11656:
11655:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11642:
11639:
11637:
11634:
11632:
11629:
11628:
11627:
11624:
11622:
11619:
11615:
11612:
11610:
11607:
11606:
11605:
11602:
11598:
11595:
11593:
11590:
11588:
11585:
11583:
11580:
11578:
11575:
11574:
11573:
11570:
11566:
11563:
11561:
11558:
11557:
11556:
11553:
11551:
11548:
11546:
11543:
11541:
11538:
11534:
11531:
11529:
11526:
11524:
11521:
11519:
11516:
11514:
11511:
11510:
11509:
11506:
11502:
11499:
11497:
11494:
11493:
11492:
11489:
11487:
11484:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11474:German Empire
11472:
11471:
11470:
11467:
11463:
11460:
11458:
11455:
11454:
11453:
11450:
11446:
11443:
11441:
11438:
11437:
11436:
11433:
11431:
11428:
11424:
11421:
11419:
11416:
11414:
11411:
11409:
11406:
11404:
11401:
11400:
11399:
11396:
11394:
11391:
11387:
11384:
11382:
11379:
11378:
11376:
11374:
11371:
11369:
11366:
11364:
11361:
11359:
11356:
11354:
11351:
11350:
11348:
11346:
11342:
11336:
11333:
11331:
11328:
11326:
11323:
11319:
11316:
11314:
11311:
11309:
11306:
11304:
11301:
11299:
11296:
11294:
11291:
11289:
11286:
11285:
11284:
11281:
11279:
11276:
11272:
11269:
11267:
11264:
11262:
11259:
11257:
11254:
11252:
11249:
11247:
11244:
11243:
11242:
11239:
11235:
11232:
11230:
11227:
11225:
11222:
11220:
11217:
11216:
11215:
11214:Turco-Persian
11212:
11210:
11207:
11205:
11202:
11200:
11197:
11195:
11192:
11190:
11187:
11185:
11182:
11180:
11177:
11175:
11172:
11168:
11165:
11163:
11160:
11159:
11158:
11155:
11151:
11148:
11146:
11143:
11141:
11138:
11136:
11133:
11131:
11128:
11126:
11123:
11122:
11121:
11118:
11115:
11113:
11110:
11108:
11105:
11103:
11100:
11096:
11093:
11091:
11088:
11086:
11083:
11082:
11081:
11078:
11074:
11071:
11069:
11066:
11064:
11061:
11059:
11056:
11055:
11054:
11051:
11049:
11046:
11044:
11041:
11039:
11036:
11034:
11031:
11029:
11026:
11022:
11019:
11017:
11014:
11012:
11009:
11007:
11004:
11003:
11002:
10999:
10995:
10992:
10990:
10987:
10985:
10982:
10980:
10977:
10976:
10975:
10972:
10968:
10965:
10963:
10960:
10958:
10955:
10954:
10953:
10950:
10948:
10945:
10943:
10940:
10938:
10935:
10933:
10930:
10926:
10923:
10921:
10918:
10916:
10913:
10912:
10911:
10908:
10906:
10903:
10899:
10896:
10894:
10891:
10889:
10886:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10870:
10869:
10866:
10862:
10859:
10857:
10854:
10853:
10852:
10849:
10845:
10842:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10830:
10827:
10826:
10825:
10822:
10820:
10817:
10813:
10810:
10809:
10808:
10805:
10801:
10798:
10796:
10793:
10792:
10790:
10788:
10785:
10783:
10780:
10778:
10775:
10773:
10770:
10768:
10765:
10763:
10760:
10758:
10755:
10754:
10752:
10750:
10746:
10738:
10735:
10734:
10733:
10730:
10728:
10725:
10721:
10718:
10716:
10713:
10712:
10711:
10708:
10704:
10701:
10700:
10699:
10696:
10692:
10689:
10687:
10684:
10682:
10679:
10677:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10663:
10662:
10659:
10657:
10654:
10652:
10649:
10645:
10642:
10640:
10637:
10635:
10632:
10630:
10627:
10626:
10625:
10622:
10618:
10615:
10613:
10610:
10609:
10608:
10605:
10603:
10600:
10596:
10593:
10591:
10588:
10586:
10583:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10572:
10571:
10568:
10566:
10563:
10561:
10558:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10540:
10539:
10536:
10534:
10531:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10513:
10512:
10509:
10505:
10502:
10500:
10497:
10495:
10492:
10491:
10490:
10487:
10483:
10480:
10478:
10475:
10474:
10473:
10470:
10468:
10465:
10463:
10460:
10459:
10457:
10454:
10449:
10445:
10441:
10434:
10429:
10427:
10422:
10420:
10415:
10414:
10411:
10399:
10398:Northern Yuan
10396:
10394:
10391:
10389:
10386:
10384:
10383:
10379:
10377:
10374:
10372:
10369:
10367:
10366:Mongol Empire
10364:
10362:
10359:
10358:
10356:
10352:
10346:
10343:
10341:
10338:
10336:
10333:
10329:
10328:
10324:
10322:
10321:
10317:
10315:
10314:
10310:
10308:
10307:
10303:
10302:
10301:
10298:
10296:
10295:
10291:
10289:
10288:
10284:
10282:
10281:
10277:
10275:
10274:
10270:
10268:
10267:
10263:
10261:
10260:
10256:
10254:
10253:
10249:
10247:
10246:
10242:
10240:
10237:
10236:
10234:
10230:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10216:
10214:
10211:
10209:
10206:
10204:
10201:
10199:
10196:
10195:
10193:
10189:
10183:
10182:
10178:
10176:
10175:
10171:
10169:
10166:
10164:
10161:
10159:
10158:
10154:
10153:
10151:
10149:
10145:
10139:
10136:
10130:
10127:
10126:
10125:
10122:
10120:
10117:
10115:
10112:
10111:
10110:
10107:
10105:
10102:
10100:
10097:
10095:
10092:
10090:
10087:
10085:
10082:
10078:
10075:
10074:
10073:
10070:
10069:
10067:
10063:
10057:
10054:
10050:
10047:
10045:
10042:
10041:
10040:
10037:
10035:
10032:
10030:
10027:
10025:
10022:
10020:
10017:
10011:
10008:
10006:
10003:
10002:
10001:
9998:
9996:
9995:Java invasion
9993:
9989:
9986:
9985:
9984:
9981:
9979:
9976:
9974:
9971:
9965:
9962:
9960:
9957:
9956:
9955:
9952:
9950:
9947:
9946:
9945:
9942:
9941:
9940:
9937:
9933:
9930:
9928:
9925:
9924:
9923:
9920:
9919:
9917:
9915:
9911:
9906:
9899:
9894:
9892:
9887:
9885:
9880:
9879:
9876:
9866:
9861:
9847:
9844:
9842:
9839:
9837:
9834:
9832:
9829:
9827:
9824:
9822:
9819:
9817:
9814:
9812:
9809:
9807:
9804:
9802:
9799:
9797:
9794:
9792:
9789:
9787:
9784:
9782:
9779:
9778:
9776:
9772:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9758:
9756:
9753:
9751:
9748:
9746:
9743:
9741:
9738:
9736:
9735:Chagatai Khan
9733:
9731:
9728:
9726:
9723:
9721:
9718:
9716:
9713:
9711:
9708:
9706:
9703:
9701:
9698:
9697:
9695:
9691:
9684:
9680:
9677:
9675:
9672:
9670:
9664:
9662:
9659:
9657:
9651:
9649:
9646:
9644:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9632:
9630:
9628:
9624:
9620:
9613:
9609:
9595:
9589:
9587:
9581:
9579:
9573:
9571:
9565:
9563:
9560:
9559:
9557:
9553:
9547:
9541:
9539:
9533:
9531:
9525:
9523:
9517:
9515:
9509:
9508:
9506:
9502:
9496:
9490:
9488:
9482:
9480:
9474:
9472:
9466:
9464:
9458:
9456:
9450:
9448:
9444:Latin Empire
9442:
9440:
9434:
9432:
9426:
9424:
9418:
9416:
9410:
9408:
9402:
9400:
9394:
9392:
9386:
9384:
9378:
9376:
9370:
9368:
9360:
9359:
9357:
9355:
9351:
9341:
9335:
9334:
9332:
9328:
9322:
9316:
9314:
9308:
9306:
9300:
9298:
9290:
9289:
9287:
9285:
9281:
9275:
9269:
9268:
9265:
9259:
9257:
9249:
9247:
9241:
9239:
9233:
9231:
9225:
9223:
9215:
9214:
9212:
9210:
9206:
9200:
9194:
9192:
9186:
9184:
9178:
9174:
9168:
9167:
9166:
9160:
9159:
9157:
9155:
9151:
9148:
9144:
9140:
9132:
9129:
9128:
9124:
9120:
9106:
9103:
9101:
9098:
9096:
9093:
9091:
9088:
9086:
9083:
9081:
9078:
9076:
9073:
9071:
9068:
9066:
9063:
9061:
9058:
9056:
9053:
9051:
9048:
9046:
9043:
9041:
9038:
9036:
9033:
9031:
9028:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9017:
9015:
9011:
9005:
9002:
8998:
8995:
8994:
8993:
8990:
8986:
8983:
8982:
8981:
8978:
8974:
8973:Northern Yuan
8971:
8970:
8969:
8966:
8965:
8963:
8961:
8957:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8931:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8917:
8914:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8898:Imperial Seal
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8876:
8875:
8873:
8869:
8865:
8857:
8854:
8851:
8850:
8846:
8842:
8828:
8825:
8823:
8820:
8818:
8815:
8813:
8810:
8808:
8805:
8803:
8800:
8798:
8795:
8793:
8792:
8791:Pax Mongolica
8788:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8773:
8772:
8770:
8764:
8761:
8760:
8757:
8751:
8748:
8746:
8743:
8741:
8738:
8736:
8733:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8721:
8718:
8716:
8713:
8712:
8710:
8708:
8704:
8700:
8693:
8689:
8685:
8684:Mongol Empire
8678:
8673:
8671:
8666:
8664:
8659:
8658:
8655:
8649:
8646:
8642:
8635:
8630:
8628:
8625:
8623:
8620:
8618:
8615:
8613:
8610:
8608:
8604:
8601:
8598:
8596:
8593:
8591:
8588:
8586:
8583:
8581:
8578:
8577:
8567:
8564:
8561:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8549:
8546:
8543:
8541:
8537:
8534:
8530:
8528:
8524:
8521:
8517:
8516:
8506:
8500:
8496:
8492:
8487:
8475:
8471:
8465:
8461:
8458:. Wiesbaden:
8457:
8456:
8450:
8446:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8427:
8424:
8420:
8417:
8413:
8409:
8407:9781108347990
8403:
8399:
8395:
8390:
8387:
8383:
8379:
8377:9781108347990
8373:
8369:
8364:
8363:
8355:
8351:
8348:
8344:
8340:
8338:
8334:
8331:
8327:
8324:
8321:
8317:
8314:
8310:
8307:
8303:
8299:
8296:
8292:
8289:
8285:
8282:
8278:
8275:
8274:
8265:
8261:
8255:
8251:
8247:
8242:
8238:
8232:
8228:
8224:
8219:
8215:
8209:
8205:
8201:
8196:
8194:
8190:
8187:
8182:
8176:
8172:
8168:
8163:
8161:
8157:
8154:
8152:
8147:
8143:
8141:9780511497445
8137:
8133:
8129:
8124:
8120:
8118:9780521583015
8114:
8110:
8106:
8101:
8100:
8092:
8088:
8085:
8083:
8078:
8076:
8072:
8069:
8067:
8062:
8058:
8052:
8048:
8044:
8039:
8035:
8033:9789004231931
8029:
8025:
8021:
8016:
8012:
8010:9780415786997
8006:
8002:
7998:
7993:
7989:
7983:
7979:
7975:
7970:
7966:
7960:
7956:
7952:
7947:
7943:
7937:
7929:
7927:9780887061332
7923:
7919:
7915:
7910:
7906:
7904:9780700706679
7900:
7896:
7892:
7887:
7884:
7881:
7877:
7874:
7871:Kim, Hodong.
7870:
7866:
7864:9780674585256
7860:
7856:
7852:
7847:
7845:
7841:
7838:
7836:
7831:
7827:
7821:
7817:
7813:
7808:
7804:
7802:9789992904237
7798:
7794:
7789:
7787:
7783:
7780:
7779:
7775:
7771:
7769:9780520055278
7765:
7761:
7757:
7752:
7751:
7742:
7738:
7735:
7732:
7728:
7727:Morgan, David
7725:
7722:
7718:
7715:
7712:
7708:
7705:
7702:
7698:
7695:
7692:
7690:
7686:
7683:
7682:
7678:
7676:
7672:
7669:
7668:
7664:
7662:
7658:
7655:
7654:
7650:
7647:
7643:
7640:
7637:
7633:
7630:
7627:
7623:
7620:
7616:
7615:
7598:
7592:
7588:
7583:
7579:
7576:. New Haven:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7557:
7553:
7549:
7544:
7540:
7534:
7530:
7526:
7521:
7517:
7511:
7507:
7503:
7498:
7494:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7475:
7471:
7465:
7461:
7457:
7456:
7450:
7446:
7440:
7436:
7435:Mongol Empire
7432:
7428:
7424:
7418:
7414:
7410:
7405:
7401:
7397:
7393:
7389:
7385:
7381:
7380:
7375:
7374:Morgan, David
7371:
7367:
7361:
7357:
7353:
7348:
7344:
7338:
7334:
7329:
7325:
7319:
7315:
7311:
7306:
7302:
7296:
7292:
7288:
7284:
7280:
7276:
7275:
7269:
7265:
7259:
7255:
7251:
7250:
7244:
7240:
7234:
7230:
7225:
7224:
7217:
7213:
7211:9780813506272
7207:
7203:
7198:
7197:
7191:
7187:
7183:
7177:
7173:
7169:
7165:
7160:
7156:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7138:
7134:
7130:
7124:
7120:
7115:
7111:
7107:
7102:
7098:
7092:
7088:
7084:
7079:
7075:
7069:
7064:
7063:
7056:
7052:
7046:
7042:
7037:
7036:
7029:
7025:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6976:
6962:
6958:
6956:0-253-21770-9
6952:
6948:
6944:
6943:
6935:
6928:
6924:
6917:
6909:
6897:
6893:
6887:
6883:
6879:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6847:
6843:
6839:
6833:
6817:
6813:
6807:
6791:
6787:
6781:
6779:
6770:
6766:
6763:
6757:
6749:
6737:
6733:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6718:
6710:
6702:
6696:
6692:
6691:Boydell Press
6688:
6681:
6673:
6669:
6664:
6659:
6655:
6651:
6646:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6632:
6627:
6620:
6612:
6610:0-521-65704-0
6606:
6602:
6598:
6591:
6583:
6577:
6573:
6569:
6568:Spoken Uyghur
6562:
6546:
6542:
6538:
6537:
6532:
6525:
6517:
6510:
6501:
6493:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6473:
6472:
6467:
6460:
6452:
6446:
6438:
6436:0-689-10942-3
6432:
6428:
6421:
6413:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6394:
6393:
6384:
6376:
6374:0-521-80335-7
6370:
6366:
6362:
6355:
6347:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6328:
6327:
6318:
6310:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6289:
6281:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6260:
6253:
6247:
6240:
6234:
6227:
6221:
6212:
6210:
6202:
6197:
6191:, p. 69.
6190:
6185:
6177:
6173:
6170:(2): 137–38.
6169:
6165:
6164:
6156:
6147:
6140:
6134:
6128:
6122:
6115:
6109:
6107:
6099:
6093:
6091:
6081:
6072:
6063:
6056:
6051:
6049:
6042:
6038:
6035:
6029:
6023:. pp. 117–18.
6022:
6016:
6001:
6000:
5995:
5988:
5980:
5974:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5952:
5948:
5941:
5934:
5929:
5922:
5916:
5909:
5904:
5897:
5892:
5886:
5880:
5873:
5867:
5858:
5851:
5846:
5840:, p. 93.
5839:
5834:
5827:
5822:
5813:
5806:
5805:Saunders 2001
5801:
5792:
5786:, p. 74.
5785:
5780:
5773:
5767:
5760:
5754:
5748:
5743:
5741:
5733:
5727:
5720:
5715:
5708:
5703:
5696:
5690:
5681:
5674:
5668:
5661:
5656:
5649:
5643:
5636:
5630:
5624:
5618:
5611:
5605:
5603:
5595:
5589:
5587:
5577:
5575:
5567:
5561:
5559:
5549:
5543:. pp. 127–28.
5542:
5536:
5530:. pp. 132–35.
5529:
5523:
5521:
5513:
5507:
5505:
5497:
5491:
5489:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5465:(1): 122–50.
5464:
5460:
5459:
5458:The Historian
5451:
5445:. pp. 103–04.
5444:
5438:
5436:
5434:
5426:
5420:
5418:
5416:
5408:
5403:
5401:
5393:
5388:
5381:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5370:
5368:
5360:
5354:
5347:
5342:
5335:
5329:
5322:
5316:
5314:
5305:
5301:
5297:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5278:
5271:
5265:
5261:
5253:
5246:
5240:
5238:
5230:
5226:
5220:
5213:
5208:
5206:
5189:
5185:
5181:
5180:
5172:
5165:
5160:
5151:
5144:
5138:
5122:
5118:
5112:
5105:
5102:Timothy May.
5099:
5097:
5087:
5081:
5075:
5068:
5062:
5055:
5051:
5048:
5043:
5036:
5032:
5029:
5024:
5017:
5013:
5010:
5005:
4998:
4994:
4991:
4986:
4979:
4975:
4972:
4967:
4960:
4955:
4948:
4943:
4936:
4931:
4925:, p. 81.
4924:
4923:Saunders 2001
4919:
4912:
4906:
4897:
4889:
4882:
4876:, p. 70.
4875:
4870:
4861:
4854:
4849:
4847:
4837:
4830:
4827:Riasanovsky.
4824:
4817:
4811:
4809:
4807:
4805:
4795:
4787:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4759:
4755:
4751:
4747:
4746:
4741:
4734:
4725:
4723:
4721:
4711:
4703:
4696:
4688:
4686:9781538111376
4682:
4678:
4671:
4655:
4651:
4649:9781139054744
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4622:
4615:
4609:
4602:
4596:
4589:
4584:
4576:
4572:
4570:9780226562933
4566:
4562:
4561:
4553:
4545:
4533:
4529:
4527:9780674036086
4523:
4519:
4518:
4510:
4502:
4490:
4486:
4484:9781108482448
4480:
4476:
4475:
4467:
4458:
4451:
4450:0-7007-0631-3
4447:
4443:
4437:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4407:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4369:
4363:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4305:
4299:
4297:
4295:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4268:
4258:
4250:
4239:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4224:
4216:
4208:
4204:
4198:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4182:
4178:
4159:
4156:
4152:
4142:
4138:
4135:(present-day
4134:
4130:
4124:
4120:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4099:Mongolization
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4052:
4048:
4044:
4040:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4024:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4010:Colin McEvedy
4007:
4003:
4002:
4000:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3978:
3977:Islamic world
3974:
3971:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3953:
3952:
3948:
3943:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3917:possessor of
3916:
3912:
3908:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3865:
3864:
3858:
3855:initiate the
3854:
3850:
3846:
3842:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3829:
3824:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3801:
3800:Central Asian
3797:
3792:
3787:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3758:
3755:
3751:
3746:
3739:
3735:
3734:
3728:
3724:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3701:
3699:
3695:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3678:
3673:
3666:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3648:Pax Mongolica
3643:
3633:
3630:
3626:
3623:and southern
3622:
3617:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3594:
3591:forces under
3589:
3585:
3580:
3576:
3568:
3564:
3545:
3540:
3530:
3528:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3449:
3440:
3435:
3427:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3387:
3381:
3377:
3367:
3363:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3308:
3298:
3294:
3292:
3288:
3287:parliamentary
3284:
3280:
3276:
3271:
3270:death penalty
3267:
3263:
3262:
3252:
3242:
3232:
3228:
3226:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3210:
3206:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3160:
3151:
3146:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3127:horse archers
3123:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3104:
3099:
3089:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3015:
3011:
3008:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2915:
2906:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2842:Abu Said Khan
2839:
2834:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2792:Zawkhan River
2789:
2784:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2761:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2710:
2701:
2699:
2694:
2690:
2689:
2688:Pax Mongolica
2683:
2681:
2676:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2654:
2653:Chagatai Khan
2649:
2644:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2615:invaded Japan
2611:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2573:
2570:
2565:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2552:his image as
2551:
2547:
2543:
2534:
2529:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2499:
2495:
2492:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2470:
2466:
2456:
2454:
2450:
2445:
2441:
2440:Yangtze River
2437:
2433:
2428:
2426:
2422:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2402:
2388:
2384:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2360:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2278:
2276:
2267:
2262:
2258:
2252:
2242:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2223:
2221:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2205:
2200:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2140:
2135:
2125:
2122:
2118:
2113:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2101:Oghul Qaimish
2094:
2089:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2065:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1963:
1959:
1954:
1944:
1942:
1939:and northern
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1882:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1847:Chagatai Khan
1844:
1840:
1834:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1808:Transcaucasia
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1626:
1624:
1619:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1600:Wanyan Shouxu
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1542:
1541:Rashid al-Din
1538:
1533:
1528:
1518:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1484:
1479:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1451:Uyghur script
1447:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1429:
1426:) and night (
1425:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1365:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1354:blood brother
1351:
1347:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1314:
1313:Khamag Mongol
1308:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1288:
1287:Ambaghai Khan
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1267:Khamag Mongol
1264:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1249:
1245:
1244:Khamag Mongol
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1209:
1204:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1186:Proto-Mongols
1172:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1151:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1110:
1104:
1103:kür uluγ ulus
1096:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1064:Northern Yuan
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1040:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
977:
975:
971:
967:
963:
958:
956:
952:
951:
950:Pax Mongolica
946:
945:Mediterranean
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
915:
911:
907:
903:
898:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
847:Mongol Empire
831:
828:
826:
823:
821:
818:
816:
813:
811:
808:
806:
803:
801:
798:
795:
791:
787:
784:
780:
776:
772:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
742:
741:
739:
736:
732:
727:
724:
722:
719:
718:
717:
713:
708:
705:
702:
698:
694:
692:
689:
688:
687:
685:
681:
676:
673:
671:
668:
666:
663:
661:
658:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
634:
631:
630:
629:
627:
623:
616:
613:
612:
611:
608:
606:
603:
599:
596:
595:
594:
591:
589:
586:
584:
581:
580:
579:
577:
573:
568:
565:
563:
560:
559:
558:
556:
552:
547:
542:
537:
527:
522:
520:
515:
513:
508:
507:
504:
485:
481:
477:
471:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
437:
430:
426:
422:
416:
412:
407:
391:
389:
384:
383:
375:
373:
370:
369:
361:
359:
356:
355:
347:
345:
340:
339:
336:
334:
333:
330:
327:
325:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
291:
287:
283:
280:
274:
270:
267:
261:
258:
255:
249:
246:
243:
237:
234:
231:
225:
222:
219:
213:
209:
205:
203:
200:
196:
190:
186:
184:
181:
180:
178:
174:
171:
168:
166:
162:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
137:Middle Mongol
135:
134:
132:
128:
121:
118:
115:
112:
109:
106:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
88:
84:
80:
72:
67:
62:
61:Middle Mongol
57:
40:
37:
33:
32:Mughal Empire
19:
18:Mongol-Tatars
12482:
12470:from Commons
12465:
12444:
12364:China proper
12330:Central Asia
12317:
12165:Eastern Liao
12155:Western Liao
12027:
11776:
11641:Contemporary
11491:Indo-Persian
11479:Nazi Germany
11423:Contemporary
11325:Vijayanagara
11224:Great Seljuk
11135:Thessalonica
11063:Golden Horde
11052:
10703:Carthaginian
10482:Neo-Assyrian
10467:Neo-Sumerian
10380:
10365:
10354:Other topics
10325:
10318:
10311:
10304:
10292:
10285:
10278:
10273:Menggu Ziyun
10271:
10264:
10257:
10250:
10243:
10191:Architecture
10179:
10172:
10155:
9905:Yuan dynasty
9635:Genghis Khan
9404:Kievan Rus'
9382:(1237–1300s)
9374:(1237–1300s)
9218:Western Xia
9180:Qara Khitai
9013:Major cities
8992:Golden Horde
8968:Yuan dynasty
8855:Organization
8789:
8740:Khong Tayiji
8683:
8490:
8478:. Retrieved
8460:Harrassowitz
8454:
8430:
8414:Paul Buell,
8393:
8385:
8367:
8322:
8301:
8280:
8271:Institutions
8245:
8222:
8199:
8166:
8150:
8127:
8104:
8081:
8065:
8042:
8019:
7996:
7973:
7950:
7913:
7890:
7882:
7850:
7834:
7811:
7792:
7777:
7755:
7740:
7730:
7720:
7710:
7700:
7680:
7666:
7652:
7645:
7635:
7625:
7618:
7586:
7573:
7547:
7524:
7501:
7478:
7454:
7434:
7408:
7383:
7377:
7356:Bantam Books
7351:
7332:
7309:
7290:
7278:
7272:
7248:
7222:
7195:
7163:
7140:
7118:
7105:
7082:
7061:
7034:
7009:
6983:
6961:the original
6941:
6934:
6916:
6908:Google Books
6906:– via
6900:. Retrieved
6876:
6862:
6850:. Retrieved
6841:
6832:
6820:. Retrieved
6816:the original
6806:
6794:. Retrieved
6767:– via
6762:Wells, H. G.
6756:
6748:Google Books
6746:– via
6740:. Retrieved
6716:
6709:
6686:
6680:
6635:
6629:
6619:
6596:
6590:
6567:
6561:
6549:. Retrieved
6540:
6534:
6524:
6515:
6514:Liu, Guoli.
6509:
6500:
6475:
6469:
6465:
6459:
6450:
6445:
6429:. Atheneum.
6426:
6420:
6391:
6383:
6360:
6354:
6325:
6317:
6294:
6288:
6265:
6259:
6251:
6246:
6238:
6233:
6225:
6220:
6196:
6184:
6167:
6161:
6155:
6146:
6138:
6133:
6126:
6121:
6113:
6100:. pp. 80–81.
6097:
6080:
6071:
6062:
6055:Prawdin 1961
6028:
6020:
6015:
6003:. Retrieved
5999:Khan Academy
5997:
5987:
5946:
5940:
5928:
5920:
5915:
5903:
5891:
5884:
5879:
5874:. pp. 32–35.
5871:
5866:
5857:
5845:
5833:
5821:
5812:
5800:
5791:
5779:
5771:
5766:
5758:
5753:
5731:
5726:
5714:
5702:
5694:
5689:
5680:
5672:
5667:
5655:
5647:
5642:
5634:
5629:
5623:Black legend
5622:
5617:
5609:
5593:
5565:
5548:
5540:
5535:
5527:
5511:
5495:
5462:
5456:
5450:
5442:
5424:
5387:
5358:
5353:
5341:
5333:
5328:
5320:
5287:
5277:
5259:
5252:
5244:
5224:
5219:
5192:. Retrieved
5178:
5171:
5159:
5154:Bor. p. 186.
5150:
5142:
5137:
5125:. Retrieved
5121:the original
5111:
5103:
5086:
5079:
5074:
5066:
5061:
5042:
5023:
5004:
4985:
4966:
4954:
4947:Rossabi 1983
4942:
4930:
4918:
4911:Genghis Khan
4910:
4905:
4896:
4887:
4881:
4869:
4860:
4852:
4836:
4828:
4823:
4818:. pp. 49–73.
4815:
4794:
4749:
4743:
4733:
4710:
4701:
4695:
4676:
4670:
4658:. Retrieved
4631:
4621:
4613:
4608:
4600:
4595:
4587:
4583:
4575:Google Books
4573:– via
4559:
4552:
4544:Google Books
4542:– via
4536:. Retrieved
4516:
4509:
4501:Google Books
4499:– via
4493:. Retrieved
4473:
4466:
4457:
4441:
4436:
4424:. Retrieved
4420:the original
4406:
4394:. Retrieved
4385:
4375:
4370:. p. 5.
4367:
4362:
4350:. Retrieved
4317:
4311:
4280:
4276:
4257:
4249:Google Books
4247:– via
4241:. Retrieved
4222:
4215:
4207:Google Books
4205:– via
4191:
4181:
4154:
4129:Yuan dynasty
4123:
4069:Tellurocracy
4013:
4005:
3997:
3984:
3960:
3956:R. J. Rummel
3879:. After the
3862:
3853:Golden Horde
3832:
3825:
3805:
3774:Ming dynasty
3759:
3753:
3747:
3743:
3731:
3702:
3680:
3676:
3674:
3670:
3665:Golden Horde
3618:
3614:Yuan dynasty
3608:
3597:
3584:Pony Express
3578:
3572:
3499:
3491:Guo Shoujing
3483:Wu-hu-lie-ti
3482:
3477:
3444:
3416:
3409:
3398:
3396:
3389:
3383:
3364:
3352:
3336:Christianity
3329:
3295:
3278:
3265:
3259:
3257:
3229:
3209:Song dynasty
3202:
3198:Khwarezmshah
3182:
3165:
3163:
3159:supply lines
3155:
3124:
3118:(1000), and
3109:
3050:
3030:Toghan Temür
3019:
3014:Mengli Giray
2966:
2920:
2903:
2895:Yuan dynasty
2891:Golden Horde
2850:
2835:
2820:
2815:Golden Horde
2785:
2772:
2762:
2757:Golden Horde
2749:
2738:
2732:
2714:Yuan dynasty
2686:
2684:
2677:
2658:
2612:
2601:
2574:
2566:
2546:Yuan dynasty
2539:
2508:Möngke Temür
2500:
2496:
2487:
2482:Genghis Khan
2429:
2418:
2407:
2385:
2366:
2325:
2310:
2279:
2272:
2239:Trần dynasty
2227:Dali Kingdom
2224:
2208:
2195:
2156:
2147:
2143:
2131:
2114:
2098:
2075:
2071:
2046:Hashshashins
2043:
2007:
1980:
1976:Golden Horde
1962:Golden Horde
1950:
1927:army, their
1909:Hospitallers
1894:
1836:
1831:
1820:
1789:
1755:
1739:Song dynasty
1736:
1721:The sack of
1676:
1661:
1627:
1620:
1616:Song dynasty
1588:Water Tatars
1573:
1553:Roman Empire
1546:
1512:
1508:
1489:
1446:Shikhikhutug
1443:
1432:
1407:(1000), and
1402:
1393:Genghis Khan
1373:
1366:
1349:
1338:
1326:Genghis Khan
1317:Genghis Khan
1295:
1291:
1258:
1252:
1232:Liao dynasty
1213:
1196:Liao dynasty
1168:
1165:Yuan dynasty
1158:
1138:Dai Ön Ulus'
1137:
1133:
1111:
1102:
1094:
1085:
1068:Qing dynasty
1048:China proper
1041:
1025:Yuan dynasty
1013:Golden Horde
978:
959:
948:
914:Genghis Khan
899:
869:to parts of
867:Sea of Japan
846:
844:
810:Latin Empire
598:Nizari state
555:Central Asia
473:
453:
436:
415:
387:Yuan dynasty
358:Golden Horde
329:Succeeded by
328:
282:Toghon Temür
221:Genghis Khan
36:
12137:Tarim Basin
11229:Khwarezmian
11162:Carolingian
10967:Rashtrakuta
10671:Shaishunaga
10570:Hellenistic
10553:New Kingdom
10543:Old Kingdom
10239:Yuan poetry
10077:family tree
9710:Sartaq Khan
9679:Kublai Khan
9674:Möngke Khan
9648:Ögedei Khan
9627:Great Khans
9593:(1314–1318)
9585:(1268–1301)
9537:(1260–1323)
9521:(1253–1256)
9504:Middle East
9398:(1238–1239)
9339:(1221–1327)
9198:(1219–1256)
9190:(1219–1221)
9172:(1264–1308)
9164:(1207-1308)
9030:Azov (Azaq)
8696:Terminology
8480:28 December
7731:The Mongols
7409:The Mongols
6867:Andrea Peto
6852:15 February
6822:15 February
6796:15 February
6551:15 February
6237:Bukharaev.
6139:The Mongols
6116:. pp. 74–75
6114:The Mongols
6098:The Mongols
6021:The Mongols
5933:Franke 1994
5908:Atwood 2004
5896:Atwood 2004
5850:Franke 1994
5695:Kublai Khan
5673:Kublai Khan
5566:The Mongols
5552:Lane. p. 9.
5541:The Mongols
5528:The Mongols
5512:The Mongols
5443:The Mongols
5425:The Mongols
5407:Atwood 2004
5380:Atwood 2004
5359:Kublai Khan
5245:The Mongols
5229:J. A. Giles
5227:(trans. by
5164:Atwood 2004
5047:Hucker 1985
5009:Schram 1987
4959:Atwood 2004
4935:Atwood 2004
4816:The Mongols
4660:7 September
4368:The Mongols
4243:20 November
4039:Volga River
4019:Andrea Peto
3991:H. G. Wells
3911:Black Death
3823:influence.
3652:Black Death
3610:Kublai Khan
3539:Yam (route)
3533:Mail system
3501:Ghazan Khan
3479:Kublai Khan
3469:Tusi couple
3460:Hulagu Khan
3452:Möngke Khan
3340:Manichaeism
3074:Great Horde
2986:Moghulistan
2982:Transoxiana
2962:Black Death
2934:Togha Temür
2838:Esen Buqa I
2741:Shan people
2608:White Horde
2572:his reign.
2478:Kublai Khan
2432:Kublai Khan
2313:al-Mustasim
2275:south China
2030:Han Chinese
2022:Yesü Möngke
2014:Qara Hülëgü
1683:Ogedei Khan
1663:darughachis
1636:, the last
1592:Jin dynasty
1584:Eastern Xia
1549:Caspian Sea
1537:Ögedei Khan
1504:Qara Khitai
1492:Western Xia
1248:Khabul Khan
1236:Jin dynasty
1224:North China
1118:Kublai Khan
1056:Ming forces
993:Kublai Khan
981:Möngke Khan
921: 1162
648:Eastern Xia
638:Western Xia
562:Qara Khitai
448:" in 1271,
269:Kublai Khan
257:Möngke Khan
233:Ögedei Khan
187:Later also
122:(1271–1368)
116:(1235–1260)
110:(1206–1235)
12497:Categories
12369:Sinosphere
12271:Lifan Yuan
12170:Later Liao
11934:Inner Asia
11799:Portuguese
11680:Revival Le
11670:Vietnamese
11313:Later Tran
11283:Vietnamese
11179:Singhasari
11167:Holy Roman
10791:Bulgarian
10727:Satavahana
10698:Phoenician
10634:Achaemenid
10595:Indo-Greek
10575:Macedonian
10489:Babylonian
10065:Government
9846:Nogai Khan
9730:Özbeg Khan
9661:Güyük Khan
9555:Civil wars
9543:Palestine
9452:Lithuania
9372:Circassia
9105:Xacitarxan
9090:Soltaniyeh
8827:Darughachi
8323:Inner Asia
7918:SUNY Press
7386:(1): 204.
7281:: 208–351.
6902:13 October
6742:13 October
6400:. p.
6334:. p.
5633:Barthold.
5608:Barthold.
5231:). p. 348.
5184:E.J. Brill
5127:12 October
4426:3 December
4352:8 December
4168:References
4021:says that
3849:Tokhtamysh
3835:Old Uyghur
3784:See also:
3768:under the
3705:Marco Polo
3694:Marco Polo
3661:Tuda Mengu
3646:See also:
3487:Zhu Shijie
3405:Abaqa Khan
3374:See also:
3318:depicting
3135:trebuchets
3122:(10,000).
2994:Azerbaijan
2856:Tugh Temür
2779:, who was
2771:under its
2661:Temür Khan
2627:Hakata Bay
2602:Nogai and
2463:See also:
2255:See also:
2237:under the
2199:tax burden
2190:Il-Khanate
1996:demanding
1994:Güyük Khan
1933:Sajo River
1921:at Legnica
1703:See also:
1632:destroyed
1623:Shi Tianze
1462:Tata-tonga
1344:chieftain
1311:See also:
1198:(907–1125)
1037:suzerainty
1001:Chagatayid
939:, and the
910:leadership
908:under the
759:Durdzuketi
744:Kievan Rus
446:Great Yuan
429:Old Uyghur
245:Güyük Khan
189:hereditary
176:Government
165:Demonym(s)
12283:Manchuria
12236:Manchuria
12193:Manchuria
11792:Couronian
11430:Ethiopian
11418:Manchukuo
11373:Brazilian
11219:Ghaznavid
11189:Srivijaya
11140:Trebizond
11125:Byzantine
11107:North Sea
11102:Norwegian
11090:Almoravid
11073:Ilkhanate
11043:Majapahit
11016:Muromachi
10925:Solomonic
10910:Ethiopian
10824:Caliphate
10757:Aragonese
10585:Ptolemaic
10388:Khanbaliq
10129:Dpon-chen
10119:Manchuria
10084:Empresses
9715:Orda Khan
9705:Batu Khan
9569:(1260–64)
9513:(1241–43)
9511:Anatolia
9486:(1287–88)
9478:(1285–86)
9470:(1264–65)
9462:(1259–60)
9454:(1258–59)
9430:(1241–42)
9422:(1241–42)
9414:(1240–41)
9390:(1229–36)
9380:Chechnya
9320:(1300–02)
9284:Southeast
9263:(1253–56)
9245:(1235–79)
9237:(1231–60)
9229:(1211–34)
9182:(1216–18)
9170:Sakhalin
9130:Campaigns
9080:Saray-Jük
9070:Samarkand
9045:Karakorum
9004:Ilkhanate
8762:Political
8001:Routledge
7955:Routledge
7936:cite book
7895:Routledge
7433:(1961) .
7400:0951-8967
7087:Blackwell
6654:1080-6040
6492:203044817
6241:. p. 145.
6228:. p. 274.
5973:cite book
5761:. p. 355.
5757:d.Ohson.
5734:. p. 179.
5697:. p. 207.
5650:. p. 302.
5646:Prawdin.
5637:. p. 446.
5612:. p. 488.
5610:Turkestan
5596:. p. 109.
5592:Jackson.
5568:. p. 138.
5514:. p. 129.
5498:. p. 280.
5479:144625106
5427:. p. 159.
5319:Jackson.
5247:. p. 104.
5145:. p. 105.
5141:Jackson.
5104:Chormaqan
5067:Chormaqan
5037:, p. 175.
5018:, p. 130.
4980:, p. 147.
4913:. p. 288.
4855:. p. 203.
4603:. p. 127.
4599:Jackson.
4590:. p. 413.
4334:0020-8833
4173:Citations
4043:Dzungaria
3809:religions
3713:Khanbaliq
3698:Silk Road
3642:Silk Road
3636:Silk Road
3621:Manchuria
3593:Batu Khan
3522:Ilkhanate
3348:shamanist
3301:Religions
3275:destroyed
3139:catapults
3116:Mingghans
2977:Lithuania
2938:Georgians
2887:Ilkhanate
2868:Eljigidey
2852:Civil war
2377:Lithuania
2336:Armenians
2093:Karakorum
2050:Eljigidei
1972:Batu Khan
1925:Hungarian
1905:Moravians
1757:Batu Khan
1731:miniature
1729:in 1238,
1727:Batu Khan
1679:Karakorum
1630:Chormaqan
1557:Caliphate
1515:Qiu Chuji
1435:Ikh Zasag
1405:Mingghans
1220:Manchuria
1208:Old World
1122:Ariq Böke
1021:Ilkhanate
989:Ariq Böke
935:with the
863:East Asia
815:Lithuania
764:Circassia
626:East Asia
615:Palestine
583:Caucassus
576:West Asia
536:conquests
372:Ilkhanate
284:(nominal)
271:(nominal)
120:Khanbaliq
114:Karakorum
90:Khaganate
12518:Khanates
12298:Xinjiang
12288:Mongolia
12264:genocide
12198:Mongolia
12033:Chagatai
11966:Göktürks
11772:Japanese
11735:Scottish
11715:American
11707:Colonial
11636:Imperial
11604:Moroccan
11540:Japanese
11518:Afsharid
11377:Burmese
11363:Austrian
11318:Later Le
11293:Early Le
11278:Venetian
11204:Tiwanaku
11117:Hellenic
11080:Moroccan
11011:Kamakura
11001:Japanese
10984:Saffarid
10937:Georgian
10851:Chalukya
10829:Rashidun
10819:Calakmul
10787:Bruneian
10666:Haryanka
10644:Sasanian
10639:Parthian
10590:Bactrian
10580:Seleucid
10560:Goguryeo
10538:Egyptian
10472:Assyrian
10462:Akkadian
10453:Colonies
10371:Borjigin
10181:Nong Shu
10163:Jiaochao
10114:Mongolia
10072:Emperors
9973:Sakhalin
9841:Boroldai
9821:Khubilai
9801:Bo'orchu
9774:Military
9668:(regent)
9655:(regent)
9642:(regent)
9527:Baghdad
9476:Hungary
9420:Hungary
9363:Georgia
9310:Vietnam
9162:Siberia
9060:Maragheh
8960:Khanates
8908:Religion
8903:Military
8852:Politics
8802:Kurultai
8765:Military
8603:Archived
8548:Archived
8536:Archived
8523:Archived
8474:Archived
8419:Archived
8350:Archived
8333:Archived
8309:Archived
8291:Archived
8189:Archived
8156:Archived
8153:62(2–3).
8087:Archived
8071:Archived
7876:Archived
7840:Archived
7782:Archived
7685:Archived
7671:Archived
7657:Archived
7572:(1953).
7289:(2005).
7192:(1970).
7139:(1999).
7008:(2004).
6982:(1987).
6896:Archived
6846:Archived
6790:Archived
6736:Archived
6672:12194776
6545:Archived
6224:Ezzati.
6176:41930343
6137:Morgan.
6125:Morgan.
6112:Morgan.
6096:Morgan.
6037:Archived
6019:Morgan.
6005:19 April
5965:45337730
5923:. p. 39.
5919:Allsen.
5870:Allsen.
5774:. p. 81.
5675:. p. 74.
5564:Morgan.
5539:Morgan.
5526:Morgan.
5510:Morgan.
5494:Allsen.
5441:Morgan.
5423:Morgan.
5361:. p. 28.
5336:. p. 89.
5323:. p. 95.
5304:Archived
5243:Morgan.
5194:13 March
5188:Archived
5106:. p. 32.
5078:Amitai.
5069:. p. 29.
5056:, p. 66.
5050:Archived
5031:Archived
5012:Archived
4999:, p. 50.
4993:Archived
4990:May 2004
4974:Archived
4831:. p. 83.
4814:Morgan.
4786:24616521
4654:Archived
4612:Allsen.
4538:18 March
4532:Archived
4495:18 March
4489:Archived
4390:Archived
4366:Morgan.
4346:Archived
4189:(2011).
4155:de facto
4058:See also
4023:Rogerius
3961:de facto
3949:in 1260.
3892:Columbus
3873:Ivan III
3839:Mongolia
3813:Buddhism
3796:Mongolia
3689:commenda
3565:to King
3495:Hu Sihui
3360:Tengrism
3332:Buddhism
3291:kurultai
3227:forces.
3221:Crusader
3084:and the
3026:Berdibek
2950:Anatolia
2946:Eretnids
2860:Ragibagh
2773:de facto
2745:Thailand
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1769:Mordvins
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1428:khevtuul
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1378:Kurultai
1263:Keraites
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1216:Mongolia
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985:kurultai
970:Chagatai
893:and the
859:Mongolia
670:Sakhalin
588:Anatolia
567:Khwarezm
425:Chagatai
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12523:Mongols
12413:History
12387:Portals
12342:Tartary
12132:Beiting
12047:Dzungar
12042:Timurid
11993:Tibetan
11956:Xianbei
11951:Xiongnu
11839:largest
11834:Empires
11814:Swedish
11809:Spanish
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11767:Italian
11742:Chinese
11730:English
11725:British
11720:Belgian
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11626:Russian
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10499:Kassite
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8822:Kheshig
8750:Tarkhan
8590:Mongols
6663:2732530
6254:. p. 60
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4777:3970536
4754:Bibcode
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