History of Europe - Knowledge

4923: 5875: 1042: 3726: 6064: 640: 1545: 1245: 415: 6459:"The postwar generations of European elites aimed to create more democratic societies. They wanted to reduce the extremes of wealth and poverty and provide essential social services in a way that prewar generations had not. They had had quite enough of unrest and conflict. For decades many Continental societies had more or less achieved these aims and had every reason to be proud of their progress. Europe was quiet and civilized. Europe's success was based on recent painful experience: the horrors of two world wars; the lessons of dictatorship; the experiences of fascism and communism. Above all, it was based on a feeling of European identity and common values – or so it appeared at the time." 6147: 5571: 345: 6513: 5463: 4080: 5423: 3019: 1898: 5440:. Hundreds of old Republican leaders were arrested and deported. Napoleon controlled the media and censored the news. In compensation for the loss of freedom, Napoleon gave the people new hospitals and asylums, beautified and modernized Paris, and built a modern railroad and transportation system that dramatically improved commerce. The economy grew, but industrialization was not as rapid as Britain, and France depended largely on small family-oriented firms as opposed to the large companies that were emerging in the United States and Germany. France was on the winning side in the 5261: 652: 3461: 3334: 1514: 4071: 1579: 6420:

management, and among states. Local Communist parties were opposed, and they lost prestige and influence and a role in government. In strategic terms, says Hogan, the Marshall Plan strengthened the West against the possibility of a communist invasion or political takeover. However, the Marshall Plan's role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way. Economic historians Bradford De Long and

3237: 30: 3066: 885: 1530: 5049: 870: 683: 4782: 2810: 3654: 5436:, nephew of Napoleon I, parlayed his famous name and to widespread popularity across France. He returned from exile in 1848, promising to stabilize the chaotic political situation. He was elected president and maneuvered successfully to name himself Emperor, a move approved later by a large majority of the French electorate. The first part of his Imperial term brought many important reforms, facilitated by Napoleon's control of the lawmaking body, the government, and the 907: 6529: 6347: 1502: 4429: 541: 1417: 2927: 4235: 3911: 3343: 3368: 2484: 6159: 5348: 4012: 781: 3505: 3833: 2678: 614: 3527: 1668: 2021: 5785: 2318: 5018: 4293: 5717:. The latter, consolidated during the period of British maritime hegemony in the 19th century, became the largest empire in history because of the improved ocean transportation technologies of the time as well as electronic communication. At its height in 1920, the British Empire covered a quarter of the Earth's land area and comprised a quarter of its population. Other European countries, such as 4952:, unmatched Royal Navy, and powerful bankers, became the world's first global power. The sun never set on its territories, while an informal empire operated through British financiers, entrepreneurs, traders and engineers who established operations in many countries, and largely dominated Latin America. The British were especially famous for financing and constructing railways around the world. 5668: 4599: 3442:, who ministered to the faithful in Rome, restoring their confidence in the Church of Jesus Christ that subsisted substantially in the Church of Rome. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the church institutions within their kingdoms. 3154: 4826:, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works. 2735:; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as France, England, Spain, and Portugal, although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. These new nation-states began writing in their own cultural vernaculars, instead of the traditional 823:, when the sites of Mycenae and Tiryns were again destroyed and lost their importance. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurred after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opened a new context, that of the protogeometric, the beginning of the geometric period, the 9152: 9205: 6116:. The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent. 4062:. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange. The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in light of the evidence. 4778:. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France. 4200:, reaching practically every country in Europe. The great enemy of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Austria, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between supporters of the Church versus active Masons. 20th-century 9859:(..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab 9136: 5310:, the social, political and ideological movement that tried to shape a Spanish national identity based on the Castilian model, in conflict with the other historical nations of the State. These nationalist policies, sometimes very aggressive, and still in force, are the seed of repeated territorial conflicts within the State. 9189: 4510:, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Internal tensions at Paris drove the Committee towards increasing assertions of radicalism and increasing suspicions. A few months into this phase, more and more prominent revolutionaries were being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre and his faction, for example 6428:

It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's

5792:

After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers, compounded by rising nationalism among ethnic groups, exploded in 1914, when World War I started. Over 65 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918; 20 million soldiers and civilians died.

4423:

From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life....

4057:

rather than tradition; it was especially favourable to science (especially Isaac Newton's physics) and hostile to religious orthodoxy (especially of the Catholic Church). It sought to analyze and reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge

3819:

was fought between 1618 and 1648, across Germany and neighbouring areas, and involved most of the major European powers except England and Russia, involving Catholics versus Protestants for the most part. The major impact of the war was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging

3542:

kingdoms were able to dominate colonial activity in the 16th century. The Portuguese forged the first global empire in the 15th and 16th century, whilst during the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the crown of Castile (and the overarching Hispanic Monarchy, including Portugal from

1684:

arose, providing for division of land and labour, as well as a broad if uneven hierarchy of law and protection. These localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked, and to a lord, who would provide and administer both local law to settle disputes among

6419:

grants and other funding to Western Europe, 1945 to 1951. Historian Michael J. Hogan argues that American aid was critical in stabilizing the economy and politics of Western Europe. It brought in modern management that dramatically increased productivity, and encouraged cooperation between labor and

13017:

In 470/469 BC, the strategist Kimon, mentioned above, defeated the Persian fleet at the mouth of the Eurymedon river. Subsequently, it seems that the royal house of the Odrysians in Thrace gained power and in about 465/464 BC emerged from the Persian shadow. The Odrysians became aware of the power

5334:, with strong support from modernizers and the media, became standard in Germany and eventually other West European nations. Voting reforms extended the franchise. Every country developed a sense of national origins – the historical accuracy was less important than the motivation toward patriotism. 5264:

School map of Spain from 1850. On it, the State is shown divided into four parts:- "Fully constitutional Spain", which includes Castile and Andalusia, but also the Galician-speaking territories. – "Annexed or assimilated Spain": the territories of the Crown of Aragon, the larger part of which, with

3953:

in 1704. The main issue was whether France under King Louis XIV would take control of Spain's very extensive possessions and thereby become by far the dominant power, or be forced to share power with other major nations. After initial allied successes, the long war produced a military stalemate and

3772:

The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the

12990:

Lazarovici, Gheorghe and Merlini, Marco, "4 Tărtăria Tablets: The Latest Evidence in an Archaeological Thriller", Western-Pontic Culture Ambience and Pattern: In memory of Eugen Comsa, edited by Lolita Nikolova, Marco Merlini and Alexandra Comsa, Warsaw, Poland: De Gruyter Open Poland, pp. 53-142,

5378:

system. The powerbase of their support was the aristocracy. However, their reactionary efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of the French revolution, and the Industrial Revolution brought important economical

4749:

in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and trapped the French Army in Egypt. Napoleon slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris, where he overthrew the government and

4359:

In 1789 France fell into revolution, and the world has never since been the same. The French Revolution was by far the most momentous upheaval of the whole revolutionary age. It replaced the "old regime" with "modern society," and at its extreme phase became very radical, so much so that all later

9173:

Tandy, p. xii. "Figure 1: Map of Epirus showing the locations of known sites with Mycenaean remains"; Tandy, p. 2. "The strongest evidence for Mycenaean presence in Epirus is found in the coastal zone of the lower Acheron River, which in antiquity emptied into a bay on the Ionian coast known from

3970:

That Treaty , which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large – the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great

1716:

568–774 AD. Although these powers covered large territories, they did not have the great resources and bureaucracy of the Roman empire to control regions and localities; more power and responsibilities were left to local lords. On the other hand, it also meant more freedom, particularly in more

6588:, which split into fifteen independent states. The most violent dissolution happened in Yugoslavia. Four out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state. 4809:

For nearly two decades the Italians had excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the

4303:

The Industrial Revolution saw major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport impacted Britain and subsequently spread to the United States and Western Europe. Technological advancements, most notably the utilization of the steam engine, were major catalysts in the industrialisation

3190:

during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. The Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance – a rebirth of civilization itself.

2950:

The Black Death touched every aspect of life, hastening a process of social, economic, and cultural transformation already underway.... Fields were abandoned, workplaces stood idle, international trade was suspended. Traditional bonds of kinship, village, and even religion were broken amid the

10316: 5407:

The middle classes and businessmen promoted liberalism, free trade and capitalism. Aristocratic elements concentrated in government service, the military and the established churches. Nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, and elsewhere) sought national unification and/or

2469:. It lingered longer in England and in peripheral areas linked to the Muslim world, where slavery continued to flourish. Church rules suppressed slavery of Christians. Most historians argue the transition was quite abrupt around 1000, but some see a gradual transition from about 300 to 1000. 4147:

is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature and man's place within it. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to

3457:. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism, they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths, traditions and customs. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became divided among Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Jews and a small Muslim population. 3042:

from China via the Arabs in the High Middle Ages. The adoption of the technology across the continent at dazzling speed for the remaining part of the 15th century would usher a revolution and by 1500 over 200 cities in Europe had presses that printed between 8 and 20 million books.

6408: 5555:

likewise brought together a multitude of languages and cultures, so that its military defeat in the First World War led to multiple splits that created independent Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and Poland, and briefly independent Ukraine, Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan.

3500:

grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were co-operation agreements among territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights.

1675:

Roman authority in the Western part of the empire had collapsed, and a power vacuum left in the wake of this collapse; the central organization, institutions, laws and power of Rome had broken down, resulting in many areas being open to invasion by migrating tribes. Over time,

3486:

interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organised.

4849:

By the 19th century, governments increasingly took over traditional religious roles, paying much more attention to efficiency and uniformity than to religiosity. Secular bodies took control of education away from the churches, abolished taxes and tithes for the support of

4835:. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized – new names were given, "left" and "right" for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution. 3314:, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. Oceanic explorations soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642. 4320:

in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world.

6446:

The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $ 15 billion to $ 20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall

3703:) rebelled. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equalled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia. More wars took place around the world in the mid-17th century than in almost any other period of recorded history. Across the 6486:, the solution was shock therapy, high interest rates, austerity, and selling off inefficient corporations as well as the public housing. One result was escalating social tensions in Britain. Thatcher eventually defeated her opponents and radically changed the 4947:

monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy merged many small city-states to become united nation-states. Germany in particular increasingly dominated the continent in economics and political power. Meanwhile, on a global scale, Great Britain, with its far-flung

12669:

Bojan Pancevski, "Merkel Says Auf Wiedersehen to a Diminished Europe: The long-serving German chancellor helped the EU survive a string of crises, but her caution and focus on her own country’s interests have undermined the continent’s once-grand aspirations"

3406:

During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than

4304:

process. It started in England and Scotland in the mid-18th century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of coal as the main fuel. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of

1544: 2786:, Hungary, and Poland managed to remain sovereign states. Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and Germany, when he was recalled to 10313: 5538:

had the advantage of size and a large army, but multiple disadvantages: rivals on four sides, unstable finances, a fragmented population, a thin industrial base, and minimal naval resources. It did have the advantage of good diplomats, typified by

6075:, most of the world sank into a Great Depression; prices and profits fell and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export-oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two-thirds. 11690: 6388:

were imposed by the Red Army in the East, while parliamentary democracy became dominant in the West. Most historians point to its success as the product of exhaustion with war and dictatorship, and the promise of continued economic prosperity.

5966:, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe from the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, based on national (ethnic) self-determination. It was a peaceful era with a few small wars before 1922 such as the 5248:, which survived until 1939. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the Kulturkampf of the 1870s. The Poles joined German Catholics in a well-organized new 3828:

and northern parts of Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from disease and starvation, as well as postponed births.

5285:

was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation state, through the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant ethnic group, in this case the Castilians, over those of other ethnic groups, who became

6441:

from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. It used trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the Soviet Union. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states. Historian Mark Kramer concludes:

3764:

Throughout the early part of this period, capitalism (through mercantilism) was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organisation, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a

12858: 5547:

going despite wars with the Ottomans, Frederick the Great, Napoleon and Bismarck, until the First World War. The Empire overnight disintegrated into multiple states based on ethnic nationalism and the principle of self-determination.

2955:

Depopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings including the

2856:. By the middle of the century, the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the Prussians before converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades. The order also came into conflict with the Eastern Orthodox Church of the 2518:

of Europe, which caused great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century.

4753:

Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He split up Austria's holdings and set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of feudal privileges. Napoleon's

2708:. The Roman Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and emperor. The geographic reach of the Roman Catholic Church expanded enormously due to the conversions of pagan kings (Scandinavia, 5756:

engineered a German hegemony that put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain to control the growing power of Germany. In this way, two opposing sides – the

9051: 2349:. His death marked the beginning of the end of the dynasty, which collapsed entirely by 888. The fragmentation of power led to semi-autonomy in the region, and has been defined as a critical starting point for the formation of 1963:(c. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing 6741:, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. In May 2010, the German parliament agreed to loan 22.4 billion euros to Greece over three years, with the stipulation that Greece follow strict austerity measures. See 4745:. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands. However the enemies of France, led by Britain, formed a 4830:

The greatest impact came in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich

12719:

Russia's invasion of its neighbor in Ukraine is the largest conventional military attack that's been seen since World War II, the senior defense official said Thursday outlining United States observations of the unfolding

4104:, absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly impose some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the Enlightenment exerted significant influence on the culture, politics, and governments of Europe. 14784: 5144:

The Greek drive for independence from the Ottoman Empire inspired supporters across Christian Europe, especially in Britain. France, Russia and Britain intervened to make this nationalist dream become reality with the

4938:

culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of

3277:

led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of Africa in search of a maritime route to India, followed by Spain near the close of the 15th century, dividing their exploration of the world according to the

5338:

was extended to girls at the elementary level. By the 1890s, strong movements emerged in some countries, including France, Germany and the United States, to extend compulsory education to the secondary level.

3679:(1618–1648) focused attention on the massive horrors that wars could bring to entire populations. The 1640s in particular saw more state breakdowns around the world than any previous or subsequent period. The 5408:

liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Greece successfully revolted against Ottoman rule in the 1820s.

13018:

vacuum resulting from the withdrawal of the Persians and claimed back supremacy over the region inhabited by several tribes. From this period onwards an indigenous ruling dynasty is comprehensible.

3491:

and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature. In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful sovereign states were appearing, built by the

4854:, and excluded bishops from the upper houses. Secular laws increasingly regulated marriage and divorce, and maintaining birth and death registers became the duty of local officials. Although the numerous 4169:(1751–72). These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as 12008: 1270:

Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only challenge to Roman ascent came from the

12648: 11958: 11683: 3683:, the largest state in Europe, temporarily disappeared. In addition, there were secessions and upheavals in several parts of the Spanish empire, the world's first global empire. In Britain the entire 2995:

into trade with other European countries. This fed the growth of powerful states in this part of Europe including Poland–Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy later on. The conventional end of the

6788: 5444:(1854–56), but after 1858 Napoleon's foreign-policy was less and less successful. Foreign-policy blunders finally destroyed his reign in 1870–71. His empire collapsed after being defeated in the 3602:; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain 2130:

permanently become part of Russia. This trend, which included the conquests by the invading Muslim forces and by that the spread of Islam as well continued under Umar's successors and under the

14403: 12803: 4483:

increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king tried to flee and join France's enemies. He was captured and on 21 January 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was guillotined.

2794:. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe. The areas of Eastern Europe and most of Central Asia that were under direct Mongol rule became known as the 12862: 7929:. This marks the end of Ottoman control of Central Europe and the beginning of Ottoman stagnation, establishing the Habsburg monarchy as the dominant power in Central and Southeastern Europe. 6690:. Russia's regime interpreted these expansions as violations against NATO's promise to not expand "one inch to the east" in 1990. Russia engaged in bilateral disputes about gas supplies with 4922: 4551:, which he dominated. He gained popularity in France by restoring the Church, keeping taxes low, centralizing power in Paris, and winning glory on the battlefield. In 1804 he crowned himself 1183:, toppled and incorporated its domains, as well as invading Egypt and going as far off as India, increasing contact with people and cultures in these regions that marked the beginning of the 11658: 5884: 3618:) and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies. 2723:

Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in western Europe began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in Italy, leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent

12840: 4448:, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a 3427:. These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralized and powerful. 3286:

along the shores of Africa and Asia, establishing the first direct European diplomatic contacts with Southeast Asian states in 1511, China in 1513 and Japan in 1542. In 1552, Russian tsar

2934:

The Late Middle Ages spanned around the 14th and late 15th centuries. Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the

6017:, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations." However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new 2364:

country. The powerful Bulgarian Empire was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural centre of Slavic Europe. The

9040: 3675:

The 17th century was an era of crisis. Many historians have rejected the idea, while others promote it as an invaluable insight into the warfare, politics, economics, and even art. The

6222:" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain defeated Germany's air attacks in the 3273:

The numerous wars did not prevent European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century,

12759: 11759: 4675:

Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, "meritocracy,

9016: 5265:

the exception of Aragon proper, are Catalan-speaking-, "Foral Spain", which includes Basque-speaking territories-, and "Colonial Spain", with the last overseas colonial territories.

14713: 9252:

The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the eastern Mediterranean in the Second Millennium BC III, Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000 – 2nd EuroConference, Vienna, 28 May – 1 June 2003

9087: 2392:, emerged among the Slavic peoples respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the 14484: 1136:. With the end of the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians were eventually forced to withdraw from their territories in Europe. The Greco-Persian Wars and the victory of the Greek 14744: 14725: 3266:

in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Western Europe was forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus' travel to the Americas in 1492, and

6600:

pushed for closer integration, co-operation in foreign and home affairs, and started to increase its membership into the neutral and former communist countries. In 1993, the

14754: 9113: 3769:. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which animated the Industrial Revolution after 1750. 4672:

Roberts finds that the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, from 1793 to 1815, caused 4 million deaths (of whom 1 million were civilians); 1.4 million were French.

4035:

lands, leaving organized religion in a weak condition. Throughout the 18th century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country."

3434:, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic dogma. Two important groups in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the 819:, although other theories describing natural disasters and climate change have been advanced as well. Whatever the causes, the Mycenaean civilization had disappeared after 14514: 14356: 2751:, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal. 11722: 6608:, succeeding the EEC. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that did not join were tied into the EU's economic market via the 14834: 14636: 12677: 4891: 4229: 14749: 14737: 14526: 4031:, a very large and complex internal bureaucracy, and a splendid court that rivaled Paris and London. However the government was living far beyond its means and seized 2584:

began to settle new lands. Vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the

2251:, whose first sovereign was Don Pelayo. The conquerors intended to continue their expansion in Europe and move northeast across the Pyrenees, but were defeated by the 12827: 6470:. Causes included obsolescent heavy industry, sudden high energy prices which caused sharp inflation, inefficient nationalized railways and heavy industries, lagging 3201:

influenced later absolutism and realpolitik. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power.

14769: 12094:[The great European immigration to Brazil and immigrants within the Spanish scenario of the Paulista coffee plantations: one of the issues (in) visibility]. 639: 6702:

in 2008. Public opinion in the EU turned against enlargement, partially due to what was seen as over-eager expansion including Turkey gaining candidate status. The

5752:

carried out a series of wars that resulted in the creation of Italy and Germany as nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. From 1870,

4805:

Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:

3899:. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies: Russia, Prussia and Austria (the 14794: 14464: 6776: 5534:

The power of nationalism to create new states was irresistible in the 19th century, and the process could lead to collapse in the absence of a strong nationalism.

2200:

was weakened because it was immersed in a serious internal crisis caused by a war of succession to the throne. The Muslims took advantage of the crisis within the

8292:

1918: World War I ends with the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers. Ten million soldiers killed; collapse of Russian, German, Austrian, and Ottoman empires.

14774: 4630:, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon. Having been defeated by a 995:

with different governments and cultures that achieved notable developments in government, philosophy, science, mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music.

12546: 5908:, chiefly to Britain and France; and the drawing of new national boundaries to better reflect the forces of nationalism. Multiple nations were required to sign 14759: 12698: 12640: 10385: 5455:

became a major issue, as France battle between secular and religious forces well into the 20th century, with the secular elements usually more successful. The

3820:

armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease, and the breakup of family life, devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the

3186:, a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north, west and 6540:

Western Europe began economic and then political integration, with the aim to unite the region and defend it. This process included organisations such as the

2802:, Islam became the official religion of the region in the early 14th century. The invading Mongols, together with their mostly Turkic subjects, were known as 1321:(2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000 km (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface, including 15009: 14708: 13726: 9669: 9280: 6838:, it faces deep political and cultural divisions, lags behind in the global race for innovation and technology and is increasingly squeezed by the mounting 1951:, or following his death in 395, when the empire was split into two parts, with capitals in Rome and Constantinople. Others place it yet later in 476, when 14789: 14479: 9648: 5306:) and other national minorities have been a historical constant. The nationalization process accelerated in the 19th century, in parallel to the origin of 135:

would continue for another 1000 years, the former lands of the Western Empire would be fragmented into a number of different states. At the same time, the

6482:. Germany and Sweden sought to create a social consensus behind a gradual restructuring. Germany's efforts proved highly successful. In Britain under the 3907:

between themselves, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively as well as pauperisation.

3625:

flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century, American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget. The

792:

Quite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior

15521: 14720: 13126: 5621:

and 7% to Australia. About 11 million of these people went to Latin America, of whom 38% were Italians, 28% were Spaniards and 11% were Portuguese.

4468: 4182: 796:. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, the centre of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script (called 10038: 869: 437:(Ahmarian) and Hungary (first full Aurignacian). By 35,000 BC, the Aurignacian culture and its technology had extended through most of Europe. The last 14491: 14256: 12785: 8866: 4626:

Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian army. He was forced to withdraw. On the march back his army was harassed by

2814: 1529: 14212: 9264: 4955:

Napoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–1806 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and demand for national unity.

14251: 8871: 4196:

was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism and Enlightenment ideas in Europe, from about 1700 to the 20th century. It expanded rapidly during the

3645:

produced in Saint-Domingue comprised thirty percent of total French trade while its sugar exports represented forty percent of the Atlantic market.

14631: 11651: 5874: 10932: 10192: 14851: 14779: 14732: 8007: 4985:

who achieved German unification in 1870 after the many smaller states followed Prussia's leadership in wars against Denmark, Austria and France.

3761:(ruled Prussia 1740–86), produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and powerful bureaucracies, all under the control of the king. 3385:, new ideas spread throughout Europe and challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Reformation under German 15742: 15121: 15088: 6842:. Europe has endured thanks in part to Ms. Merkel’s pragmatic stewardship, but it has been battered by crises during her entire time in office. 6791:

for both the UK and the remaining European Union countries. The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020. Later that year, Europe was affected by the

6769: 4479:

in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people. As

2452: 1104:, etc.) and Eastern Europe proper as well. During the 5th century BC, some of the Greek city states attempted to overthrow Persian rule in the 1041: 7944:, king of France to dominate European affairs; the second would lead to Russia's emergence as a great power and a recognizably European state. 7910: 5508:

industrialized rapidly and challenged Britain for economic leadership. Bismarck was removed from office in 1890 by an aggressive young Kaiser

563:

in the 5th and 4th millenniums BC. The modern indigenous populations of Europe are largely descended from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic

139:

began to become established as a distinct group in the central and eastern parts of Europe. The first great empire of the Middle Ages was the

15217: 15031: 12733: 9231: 8876: 6703: 6429:

rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "

3725: 1461: 11748: 8312:

strips Germany of its colonies, several provinces and its navy and air force; limits army; Allies occupy western areas; reparations ordered.

6580:

and Communist governments outside the Soviet Union were deposed. In 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany absorbed East Germany. In 1991 the

6358:, Europe was divided into spheres of influence between the victors of World War II, and soon became the principal zone of contention in the 3482:

that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a

2526:

had settled in Britain, Ireland, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The

14677: 8652: 8634: 8616: 6191: 5744:

in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe. In the second half of the 19th century, the

5229: 4691:, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power." 3450: 9008: 4360:

revolutionary movements have looked back to it as a predecessor to themselves.... From the 1760s to 1848, the role of France was decisive.

15732: 15036: 14573: 14519: 13153: 12568:. University of Missouri Press, Queen Elizabeth also had a major breakdown causing her to die cause of the stress overload. p. 107. 12490: 12330: 12055: 11383: 10873: 10289: 10153: 9687: 6780: 5512:, who pursued a disruptive foreign policy that polarized Europe into rival camps. These rival camps went to war with each other in 1914. 5371: 4526:(27 July 1794) and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies. 2574: 1995:. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe, and 12092:"A grande emigração européia para o Brasil e o imigrante espanhol no cenário da cafeicultura paulista: aspectos de uma (in)visibilidade" 11890: 11851: 11175: 10909: 9766: 9469: 9449: 9077: 4559:), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time the French fleet was demolished by the British at the 14764: 14703: 11787:

The History of Education: Educational Practice and Progress Considered as a Phase of the Development and Spread of Western Civilization

10067: 8861: 5501: 3598:). Spain had control of a large part of North America, all of Central America and a great part of South America, the Caribbean and the 2951:

horrors of death, flight, and failed expectations. "People cared no more for dead men than we care for dead goats," wrote one survivor.

9718: 4139:. Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered these figures and even attempted to apply their ideas of government in what was known as 80:

era, which spread slowly across Europe from southeast to the north and west. The later Neolithic period saw the introduction of early

14284: 13719: 12903: 8263: 6707: 5355: 4174: 3174:

Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient

2091: 1624:, would be the last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire, until his death in 395. The empire was split into two halves: the 6021:. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but succeeded in Russia. Italy adopted an authoritarian dictatorship known as 4694:

Furthermore, the French armies in the 1790s and 1800s directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe. They liberalised

2522:

From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The

1758:, solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in the west, the 1513: 1140:

directly influenced the entire further course of European history and would set its further tone. Some Greek city-states formed the

16000: 14651: 4342: 2377: 10831:

Freemasonry on both sides of the Atlantic: essays concerning the craft in the British Isles, Europe, the United States, and Mexico

3860:. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest, 2345:, Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the 15841: 15294: 14563: 14449: 14131: 12617: 10310:

The American Finances of the Spanish Empire : Royal Income and Expenditures in Colonial Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia, 1680–1809

7329: 6593: 6313: 6109: 6078:

In most of Europe, many nations turned to dictators and authoritarian regimes. The most momentous change of government came when

5945: 4866:

political movements tried to reduce the role of the Catholic Church. Likewise briefly in Germany in the 1870s there was a fierce

4388:

were deposed as were ultimately the Emperor Napoleon and all of the relatives he had installed on various European thrones. King

3946: 3027: 651: 6437:

The Soviet Union concentrated on its own recovery. It seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and it exacted

5290:

to be assimilated. Since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards Catalan-speaking territories (

3945:(1701–1715) was a major war with France opposed by a coalition of England, the Netherlands, the Habsburg monarchy, and Prussia. 1606:

in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of

15953: 14844: 13115: 11715: 9996:

Gerald Mako, "The Islamization of the Volga Bulghars: A Question Reconsidered", Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 18, 2011, 199–223.

8764: 8750: 8743: 8721: 8605: 7332:(missions and churches had been in existence well before this date, but their contacts with Rome had been loose or nonexistent) 6687: 6651: 6063: 5694:

from the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade. Both the

5119: 4453: 3720: 3060: 1955:, traditionally considered the last western emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the 229:, and the exploitation of the people and resources of colonies brought resources and wealth to Western Europe. After 1800, the 12671: 5366:

After the defeat of revolutionary France, the great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. The 1815

4858:

founded many colleges and universities, that was almost exclusively a state function across Europe. Imperial powers protected

2086:

were severely weakened by the time, amongst the most important reason(s) being the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent

14672: 13066: 13045: 12940: 12885: 12573: 12524: 12484: 12251: 12049: 11923: 11884: 11845: 11560: 11485: 11377: 11169: 10867: 10814: 10691: 10421: 10343: 10225: 9926: 9656: 9632: 9584: 9199: 9146: 7380: 5924:

on its shoulders – the humiliation and resentment in Germany was probably one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly a

4790: 4449: 4424:

The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity."

4053:

was a powerful, widespread cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century Europe emphasizing the power of

3879:. In the 16th and 17th centuries Central and Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination of the continent between 3730: 3591: 3132: 2220: 10349: 6818:

have come to seem ever more unrealistic. When she became chancellor in 2005, the EU was at a high point: It had adopted the

4407:(1775–1783) was the first successful revolt of a colony against a European power. It rejected aristocracy and established a 3570:

Colonial expansion continued in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the

14301: 13712: 12005: 5888:, showing the signing of the peace treaty by a minor German official opposite to the representatives of the winning powers. 4970: 4874:, but the Catholics successfully fought back. The Catholic Church concentrated more power in the papacy and fought against 4794: 3544: 2432:

states. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe including Poland and the newly settled

13001:

Rehm, Ellen (2010). "The Impact of the Achaemenids on Thrace: A Historical Review". In Nieling, Jens; Rehm, Ellen (eds.).

11955: 10241: 9410:

The Roman Empire and the Silk Routes: The Ancient World Economy & the Empires of Parthia, Central Asia & Han China

16091: 13668: 11146:

Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume I: The Nineteenth Century in Europe: Background and the Roman Catholic Phase

10924:

Robert C. Allen, "Why the industrial revolution was British: commerce, induced invention, and the scientific revolution"

8841: 8260: 7853: 7774: 7394:, a noble Visigoth, defeats a Muslim army that tried to conquer the Cantabrian coast. This helps establish the Christian 6581: 5745: 5115: 4822:

It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a

4563:, ending any plan to invade Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at 4411:

that attracted worldwide attention. The French Revolution (1789–1804) was a product of the same democratic forces in the

3548: 3214: 3111:. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of 3035: 2852:

were defeated by the Lithuanians, so in 1237 Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into the Teutonic Order as the

11196:

Aaron Gillette, "Why Did They Fight the Great War? A Multi-Level Class Analysis of the Causes of the First World War."

3543:

1580 to 1640) became the most powerful empire in the world. Spanish dominance in America was increasingly challenged by

3438:, who helped keep Spain, Portugal, Poland, and other European countries within the Catholic fold, and the Oratorians of 1306:

had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the

884: 15496: 15464: 15114: 14568: 14439: 14289: 13854: 13522: 13010: 11585: 10362:

French Saint Domingue at its height in the 1780s had become the single richest and most productive colony in the world.

9501: 8881: 8703: 8677:(opening of unrestrained border crossings between east and west, which effectively deprived the wall of any relevance). 6640: 6507: 6258: 6133: 4667: 4444:

had nearly bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, King Louis XVI had to convene the

3794: 3680: 3552: 3497: 3446: 2147: 1822: 11459: 9744: 6734: 4416: 15848: 15415: 15210: 14361: 13784: 12543: 11635: 11610: 11535: 11510: 11440: 10903: 10147: 9883: 9557: 9532: 9481: 9421: 9392: 9363: 8075: 7805: 6839: 6831: 6541: 5819:(France, Britain and Russia), which were joined by Italy in 1915, Romania in 1916 and the United States in 1917. The 3872: 2437: 1987:, in the years 541–542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people. It caused 1433: 1117: 12859:"Bulgaria Showcases World's Oldest Gold, Varna Chalcolithic Necropolis Treasure, in European Parliament in Brussels" 10375: 5543:. They employed a grand strategy for survival that balanced out different forces, set up buffer zones, and kept the 5252:, and defeated Bismarck politically. He responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the Centre Party. 4733:

France conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a

2173:

on 30 April and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his Arab superior,

15335: 14918: 14856: 14590: 14167: 13653: 13248: 13082: 10042: 7786: 7650: 6847: 6483: 6297: 5244:. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to reestablish an independent 4844: 4476: 4472: 4397: 4389: 3789:. Much of modern-day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the 2396:

who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced seagoing vessels such as the

1856: 1621: 1480: 1473: 1109: 929:, also known as the classical era, classical period, classical age, or simply antiquity, is the period of cultural 128: 11341:

Tsarist Russia and Balkan nationalism: Russian influence in the internal affairs of Bulgaria and Serbia, 1879–1886

11132:, ‘’The Development of Modern Europe Volume II The Merging of European into World History’’ (1930) v. 2 pp 88–89. 9673: 6463:

The post-war period witnessed a significant rise in the standard of living of the Western European working class.

1244: 16081: 15367: 14687: 14546: 13678: 13281: 13146: 10263: 8851: 8699: 8623: 8068: 7620: 6585: 6533: 6079: 5856: 4128: 4006: 3864:

gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the

3658: 2558: 310: 15375: 12706: 12268:

Liberalism, fascism, or social democracy: Social classes and the political origins of regimes in interwar Europe

5006:

or the "Risorgimento". It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated different states of the

2888:

marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the

2243:, the Astures defeated the Arab-Moors, who decided to retire. The Christian victory marked the beginning of the 15710: 14580: 13465: 13298: 13236: 12407: 10186: 7140: 6875:

4600 - 4200 BC: First European proto-civilisation, first golden artefacts and first fortified stone town - the

6757: 6742: 6718: 6650:, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact. In 2004, the EU 6137: 5162: 5039: 4393: 3888: 2969: 2917: 2885: 2849: 2763: 1479:

The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally

1382: 12794:. Writing by Robert Birsel and Frank Jack Daniel; Editing by William Mallard, Angus MacSwan and David Clarke. 5178:

was established in 1870/1872 for the diocese of Bulgaria as well as for those, wherein at least two-thirds of

1750:

In the feudal system, new princes and kings arose, the most powerful of which was arguably the Frankish ruler

414: 16055: 16017: 15893: 15881: 15683: 15647: 15107: 14965: 14536: 14509: 14098: 13991: 13804: 13673: 13582: 12751: 11809: 11684:"Novetats legislatives en matèria lingüística aprovades el 2019 que afecten els territoris de parla catalana" 11652:"Novetats legislatives en matèria lingüística aprovades el 2018 que afecten els territoris de parla catalana" 9381:

The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean: The Ancient World Economy and the Kingdoms of Africa, Arabia and India

8145: 7933: 7670: 6503: 6487: 6354:

The world wars ended the pre-eminent position of Britain, France and Germany in Europe and the world. At the

5335: 5270: 4917: 4855: 4267: 3942: 3936: 3849: 3716: 3583: 3559:

colonial efforts of the 17th and 18th centuries. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of

3375: 2935: 2877: 1754:. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans by 17: 12784:

Tsvetkova, Maria; Vasovic, Aleksandar; Zinets, Natalia; Charlish, Alan; Grulovic, Fedja (27 February 2022).

8742:

2004: Slovenia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus and Malta

6280:

This period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942–45, separately from the war-related deaths, the

5702:

quickly grew into the first global political and economic systems with territories spread around the world.

4364:

The era of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic wars was a difficult time for monarchs. Tsar

3852:

became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the

3389:

questioned Papal authority. The most common dating of the Reformation begins in 1517, when Luther published

15958: 15938: 15642: 15203: 14553: 14459: 14057: 13829: 8846: 8566: 7448: 6855: 6146: 6086:, created in 1919. However the League failed to resolve any major crises, undermined by the bellicosity of 5893: 5014:

in 1860. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian nationalism and Italian historiography.

4178: 2942:, killed people in a matter of days, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. 2545:

in 1185. The crusaders invaded the Byzantine Empire, captured Constantinople in 1204 and established their

1818: 1191: 392: 148: 65: 9261: 9109: 8856: 8242: 6834:. Today’s EU, by contrast, is geographically and economically diminished. Having lost the U.K. because of 15668: 15599: 15543: 14908: 14682: 14230: 14217: 14124: 13632: 13627: 13243: 10985:

The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800: The Challenge

8803: 8796: 8728: 8577: 8398: 8152: 6890: 6597: 6553: 6402: 6341: 6207: 5994: 5836: 5820: 5570: 5064: 4746: 3579: 2779: 2635:. The influential popes of the Catholic Church called volunteer armies from across Europe to a series of 2562: 2087: 1410: 1354: 1211: 353: 322: 14903: 14341: 12091: 6512: 5111: 3107:

began their rise, and the early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of

1144:

to continue fighting Persia, but Athens' position as leader of this league led Sparta to form the rival

832:

The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of technological history that saw the slow spread of

344: 16133: 16065: 16060: 15864: 15782: 15252: 14812: 14641: 14368: 14246: 14224: 14072: 14024: 13916: 13911: 13688: 13683: 13139: 10929: 10496:

Burke, Peter (2009). "The Crisis in the Arts of the Seventeenth Century: A Crisis of Representation?".

10176: 10139: 9840: 8210: 7644: 7616: 7594: 7561: 7434: 7052: 6101: 5788:

Trenches and sand bags were defences against machine guns and artillery on the Western Front, 1914–1918

5509: 5479: 5452: 5158: 5099:. Austria, with German backing, tried to crush Serbia in 1914 but Russia intervened, thus igniting the 4974: 4871: 4742: 4568: 4555:. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria ( 4495: 4441: 4186: 2623:. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in Western Europe and the ascent of the famous Italian 2570: 2542: 2462: 388: 10076: 6622:

was created in 1999 and replaced all previous currencies in participating states in 2002, forming the

16050: 16005: 15799: 15019: 14824: 14597: 14331: 14306: 13658: 13412: 13373: 9860: 8831: 8594: 8341: 8022: 7464: 6072: 5905: 5146: 5139: 5076: 5022: 4907: 4832: 4619: 4611: 4499: 4491: 4385: 3400: 2535: 2139: 2119: 1026:; the citizens of Athens voted on legislation and executive bills themselves. Athens was the home of 124:

began in the late 4th century AD and made gradual incursions into various parts of the Roman Empire.

8509:

begins a process of voluntarily dismantling with the granting of independence to India and Pakistan.

8060:; Treaty of Vienna; France is reduced to 1789 boundaries; Reactionary forces dominate across Europe. 5823:

involved especially brutal combat without any territorial gains by either side. Single battles like

5601:

in 19th-century Europe, subsequent wars and political changes on the continent. From the end of the

4969:

In the German states east of Prussia Napoleon abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as

4506:, during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles and those convicted by the 3496:

who were centralising power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand, the Parliament in the

1501: 15153: 15148: 14351: 14321: 14316: 14221: 14029: 13876: 12738: 9824: 8757: 8202: 7955: 7542: 6958: 6499: 6438: 6246: 6002: 5974:(1919–1921). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the " 5967: 5937: 5765:

of 1907 (Britain, France and Russia) – formed in Europe, escalating military forces and alliances.

5672: 4758:

was centered on Milan; Genoa became a republic; the Roman Republic was formed as well as the small

4580: 4457: 3876: 3158: 2845: 2806:. In Russia, the Tatars ruled the various states of the Rus' through vassalage for over 300 years. 2566: 2554: 2440:

also appeared in the Balkans. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of

1948: 1810: 1806: 734: 591: 564: 527: 468:

area and the Gravettian of mainly France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal and Ukraine. The

93: 11791: 11004: 9227: 8523:; stimulates large-scale modernization of European industries and reduction of trade restrictions. 7823: 5462: 3430:

The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the

16086: 15627: 15144: 15014: 14454: 14423: 14034: 13996: 13663: 13321: 13111: 13099: 12133: 8782: 8108: 7640: 7580: 7512: 7497: 6738: 6577: 6467: 6274: 6254: 6018: 5921: 5726: 5718: 5658: 5179: 5057: 4944: 4727: 4676: 4464: 4445: 4275: 4243: 4032: 3774: 3478:

Another development was the idea of 'European superiority'. There was a movement by some such as

3099:

in 1789. The period is characterised by the rise in importance of science and increasingly rapid

2783: 2620: 2508: 2373: 1713: 1453: 856: 717:

was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100 BC. The major Mycenaean cities were

607: 318: 7627: 3252: 2292: 2138:. Over the next centuries Muslim forces were able to take further European territory, including 1712:

493–553 AD in Italy and parts of the western Balkans. The Ostrogoths were later replaced by the

15831: 15747: 15555: 15362: 14996: 14955: 14945: 14531: 14117: 13976: 13487: 13316: 10295: 8836: 8584: 8552: 8437: 8411: 8330: 8224: 8180: 7813: 7725: 7554: 7516: 7493: 7369: 6980: 6961:

begins, that may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow spread of

6925: 6609: 6305: 6242: 6125: 6030: 6014: 6006: 5955: 5925: 5860: 5806: 5758: 5729:, pursued colonial empires as well (mostly in Africa), but they were smaller. Russia built its 5722: 5706: 5662: 5646: 5634: 5598: 5540: 5493: 5422: 5322:

and literary culture. This stimulated, and was in turn strongly supported by, the emergence of

5249: 5245: 5187: 5183: 5080: 5043: 4964: 4815: 4798: 4507: 4381: 4278:

initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

4140: 4101: 3923: 3626: 3603: 3587: 3391: 3283: 3263: 3208:

took place in Europe starting towards the second half of the Renaissance period, with the 1543

3124: 3018: 3012: 2913: 2822: 2365: 2296: 2048: 2012: 1992: 1968: 1897: 1868: 1830: 1826: 1790: 1406: 1366: 706: 583: 572: 544: 375: 361: 12514: 12472: 12327: 12241: 12039: 12004:, edited by John Merriman and Jay Winter, (Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006) vol 1, pp. 233–242. 11913: 11367: 10857: 10683: 10215: 10133: 9918: 9911: 9691: 9622: 8806:

opens with some of the most intense combat operations in Europe since the end of the Cold War.

7901:

ends the Thirty Years' War, and introduces the principle of the integrity of the nation state.

6814:

Ms. Merkel leaves in her wake a weakened Europe, a region whose aspirations to act as a third

6320:

had a similar death toll. Millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers.

6245:(British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). The Allied Forces won in North Africa, 5451:

France became a republic, but until the 1880s there was a strong popular demand for monarchy.

5318:

An important component of nationalism was the study of the nation's heritage, emphasizing the

4642:

and the occupation of Paris. Under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the island of

3192: 2608:

colonised southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern.

2421: 1991:

to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700. It also may have contributed to the success of the

1132:

had been overrun by the Persians, but the Greek city states reached a decisive victory at the

777:

and Italy. Mycenaean artefacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenean world.

16110: 15985: 15383: 15159: 15026: 13946: 13906: 13886: 13866: 13769: 13567: 13432: 11874: 11835: 11159: 11125: 10906: 10806: 10064: 9774: 9464: 9082: 8771: 8688: 8492: 8036: 7995: 7862: 7692: 7598: 7501: 7470: 7252: 7245: 7180: 7082: 6991: 6807: 6753: 6647: 6285: 6270: 6046: 5986: 5971: 5963: 5456: 5359: 5126:, which was never able to tame the multiple nationalities and religions and it flew apart in 4763: 4639: 4523: 4313: 4287: 4247: 4246:", from 1789 to 1914 saw the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the 4153: 4144: 4092: 4028: 3766: 3420: 3279: 3205: 3163: 3120: 3100: 3092: 3056: 2909: 1729: 1121: 988: 933:

between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD comprising the interwoven civilizations of

449:. This technology/culture has been theorised to have come with migrations of people from the 230: 6237:

Over the next year the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats. War raged between the

2268: 15836: 15777: 15720: 15678: 15632: 15469: 15310: 15289: 15183: 15043: 14408: 14294: 14062: 13881: 13622: 13617: 13557: 13492: 13397: 13100:

Contains information on historical trends in living standards in various European countries

9836: 9714: 8966: 8913: 8681: 8545: 8470: 8444: 8173: 8134: 8099:, the first steamship built for regularly scheduled transatlantic crossings enters service. 7948: 7891: 7751: 7681: 7587: 7546: 7391: 7317: 7297: 7282: 7278: 7205: 6823: 6273:

and Germany surrendered. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, causing

6250: 6227: 6038: 5951: 5901: 5417: 5331: 5282: 5205: 4994: 4564: 4330: 4197: 4100:

Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers collaborated with

4079: 4044: 3962:

argues that the many wars almost never accomplished more than they cost. British historian

3904: 3884: 3816: 3810: 3676: 3483: 3460: 3396: 3248: 3167: 3136: 3128: 2921: 2697: 2693: 2500: 2381: 1782: 1653: 1625: 1555: 1488: 1437: 1199: 1172: 1145: 1125: 815:

on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The collapse is commonly attributed to the

738: 587: 576: 314: 290: 132: 12907: 12118:

The New Cambridge Modern History: Vol. XII: The Shifting Balance of World Forces 1898–1945

10453:

De Vries, Jan (2009). "The Economic Crisis of the Seventeenth Century after Fifty Years".

9973: 9956: 9608:

The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade

7296:

and deposes the last Roman emperor in the west: traditionally seen as the end date of the

6098:

Italy, and by the non-participation of the United States. By 1937 it was largely ignored.

5260: 4519: 4316:) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all-metal 3468: 484:

ended. Magdalenian culture persisted until c. 10,000 BC, when it quickly evolved into two

445:. Around 29,000 BC a new technology/culture appeared in the western region of Europe: the 8: 16022: 15943: 15794: 15787: 15767: 15715: 15673: 15652: 15516: 15459: 15315: 15269: 15264: 15226: 14839: 14829: 14656: 14541: 14272: 14192: 14177: 14082: 14067: 14014: 13961: 13956: 13931: 13789: 13587: 13517: 13460: 13377: 13203: 12799: 12732:

Karmanau, Yuras; Heintz, Jim; Isachenkov, Vladimir; Litvinova, Dasha (24 February 2022).

12613: 10998: 9046: 8810: 8799:, countries with the most cases are Russia, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Italy. 8775: 8666: 8541: 8169: 8103: 8032: 7963: 7922: 7898: 7848: 7718: 7481: 7445: 7395: 7387: 7358: 7101: 7002: 6973: 6897: 6883: 6851: 6569: 6471: 6195: 5832: 5828: 5565: 5445: 5437: 5392: 5307: 5295: 5175: 5003: 4999: 4935: 4927: 4903: 4899: 4719: 4715: 4684: 4584: 4560: 4552: 4487: 4404: 4377: 4369: 4334: 3986: 3857: 3845: 3837: 3798: 3758: 3704: 3692: 3571: 3479: 3431: 3303: 3240: 3209: 3183: 3052: 2961: 2732: 2616: 2550: 2530:

had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, the Roman Catholic

2515: 2334: 2248: 2240: 2058:

From the 7th century Byzantine history was greatly affected by the rise of Islam and the

2052: 1988: 1976: 1876: 1860: 1850: 1721: 1709: 1693: 1176: 1050: 946: 926: 901: 812: 714: 695: 677: 535: 422: 302: 234: 202: 113: 97: 50: 14052: 13704: 13093: 12121: 11785: 11133: 9439: 8970: 8917: 6218:. Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the " 5989:. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of " 213:

changed how warfare was conducted and how knowledge was preserved and disseminated. The

15752: 15538: 15452: 15420: 15330: 15325: 15320: 15179: 15164: 14981: 14950: 14940: 14418: 14382: 14172: 13986: 13936: 13896: 13849: 13844: 13834: 13819: 13814: 13809: 13794: 13779: 13774: 13764: 13759: 13754: 13749: 13693: 13597: 13381: 13333: 13328: 13231: 13221: 13178: 13170: 13056: 12973: 12459:

The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952

11322: 11248: 11240: 10630: 10521: 10513: 10478: 10470: 10380: 8990: 8659: 8408: 8282: 8214: 8138: 8079: 8057: 7987:

invents a new efficient steam engine accelerating the Industrial Revolution in Britain.

7959: 7937: 7873: 7830: 7819: 7790: 7706: 7520: 7413: 7376: 7322: 7062: 7032: 6918: 6699: 6613: 6475: 6308:, disabled people, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system of 6262: 6215: 5990: 5844: 5749: 5367: 5241: 5213: 5118:; the Kingdom of Serbia joined the union on 1 December 1918, and the country was named 5072: 4978: 4895: 4755: 4651: 4623: 4588: 4540: 4259: 3981: 3950: 3696: 3688: 3670: 3634: 3575: 3357: 3333: 3104: 3073: 2889: 2865: 2744: 2433: 2224: 2135: 2127: 2071: 2040: 1952: 1880: 1834: 1798: 1701: 1583: 1402: 1184: 1129: 1113: 982: 758: 408: 334: 306: 294: 222: 46: 12609: 10617:

Kamen, Henry (1968). "The Economic and Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War".

6374:

military alliance. Later, the Soviet Union and its satellites in 1955 established the

1018:. Athens was a powerful Hellenic city-state and governed itself with an early form of 551:

Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 8th millennium BC in the Balkans. The

481: 404: 15995: 15990: 15948: 15903: 15571: 15528: 15501: 15486: 15447: 15410: 15139: 15069: 15062: 14977: 14878: 14866: 14615: 14444: 14346: 14326: 14311: 14144: 14077: 14019: 13981: 13971: 13951: 13941: 13926: 13921: 13901: 13871: 13839: 13824: 13799: 13572: 13547: 13527: 13507: 13497: 13387: 13369: 13338: 13271: 13188: 13062: 13041: 13006: 12977: 12936: 12743: 12569: 12520: 12480: 12247: 12227: 12045: 11919: 11880: 11841: 11631: 11606: 11581: 11556: 11531: 11506: 11481: 11436: 11373: 11165: 10899: 10863: 10810: 10687: 10676: 10525: 10482: 10417: 10339: 10221: 10182: 10143: 10094: 10026: 9922: 9879: 9828: 9820: 9652: 9628: 9580: 9553: 9528: 9477: 9417: 9388: 9359: 9330: 9195: 9142: 8982: 8931: 8732: 8710: 8641: 8495:, Mussolini is executed. World War II ends with Europe in ruins and Germany defeated. 8481: 8426: 8422: 8362: 8316: 8309: 8286: 8253: 8206: 8184: 8064: 8050: 8015: 7926: 7915: 7866: 7837: 7769: 7747: 7736: 7634: 7569: 7508: 7248:

officially recognises Christianity, marking the end of the persecution of Christians.

7105: 7094: 7077: 6792: 6730: 6601: 6557: 6545: 6421: 6370:. The United States and the majority of European liberal democracies established the 6363: 6223: 6105: 6083: 5909: 5897: 5753: 5695: 5676: 5638: 5489: 5466: 5319: 5237: 5221: 5199: 5035: 5007: 4982: 4859: 4823: 4775: 4771: 4759: 4723: 4688: 4680: 4635: 4572: 4338: 4251: 4225: 4170: 4160: 4059: 3955: 3900: 3861: 3853: 3790: 3700: 3564: 3539: 3439: 3371: 3299: 3287: 3096: 3077: 3069: 3023: 2987:, an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, 2869: 2861: 2829: 2748: 2531: 2326: 2280: 2178: 2162: 2131: 2079: 2025: 2008: 1920: 1802: 1759: 1705: 1322: 1215: 1203: 1180: 1161: 1149: 1133: 1101: 1085: 1003: 942: 876: 673: 442: 380: 246: 242: 14336: 10799: 8994: 8322:

1921–22: Ireland divided; Irish Free State becomes independent and civil war erupts.

6045:. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent: 3848:, which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, 2876:

in 1386, bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania:

15980: 15594: 15550: 15279: 15259: 15004: 14930: 14913: 14891: 14646: 13966: 13891: 13861: 13562: 13477: 13422: 13392: 13343: 13303: 13286: 13276: 13211: 13183: 12965: 12755: 11555:(in Catalan). Departament de Justícia de la Generalitat de Catalunya. p. 410. 11314: 11252: 11232: 11129: 10622: 10505: 10462: 10005: 9968: 9832: 9351: 9313: 8974: 8921: 8736: 8627: 8573: 8415: 8376: 8337: 8326: 8093: 7973:

invents first practical steam engine which begins Industrial Revolution in Britain.

7535: 7527: 7485: 7427: 7336: 7312: 7048: 6711: 6549: 6521: 6379: 6355: 6266: 6211: 6199: 6183: 6113: 6095: 6058: 5975: 5917: 5840: 5824: 5691: 5687: 5630: 5401: 5299: 5278: 5225: 5011: 4863: 4767: 4707: 4650:), raised an army, but was finally defeated by a British and Prussian force at the 4576: 4548: 4373: 4365: 4024: 3919: 3892: 3825: 3778: 3638: 3607: 3508: 3307: 3295: 3231: 3095:, roughly from 1500 to 1800, or from the discovery of the New World in 1492 to the 3039: 2984: 2901: 2837: 2682: 2527: 2478: 2456: 2304: 2300: 2143: 2032: 1964: 1892: 1649: 1641: 1633: 1599: 1573: 1484: 1469: 1441: 1350: 1165: 1153: 1152:

ensued, and the Peloponnesian League was victorious. Subsequently, discontent with

1046: 1035: 1019: 1015: 860: 852: 603: 595: 552: 531: 349: 289:. The last decades saw the fall of remaining dictatorships in Western Europe and a 249:

saw long-established political systems upset and turned over. In the 20th century,

180: 168: 117: 34: 15604: 9957:"Beyond War and Contracts: The Medieval and Religious Roots of the European State" 6378:. The Warsaw Pact had a much larger ground force, but the American-French-British 4882:. It sponsored devotional reforms that gained wide support among the churchgoers. 4070: 3011:, which lasted until 1922 and included Egypt, Syria, and most of the Balkans. The 2611:

The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and

1967:

was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the

1732:

culture of art and his court fostered a flowering of literature and philosophy in

1688:

The western provinces soon were to be dominated by three great powers: first, the

1578: 1202:. In the beginning of the 2nd century BC, only three major kingdoms remained: the 16010: 15930: 15898: 15579: 15274: 15173: 15078: 14985: 14972: 14960: 14935: 14925: 14861: 13602: 13577: 13365: 13348: 13193: 12969: 12930: 12681: 12563: 12550: 12334: 12012: 11962: 11463: 10948:

R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (5th ed. 1978), p. 341

10936: 10913: 10411: 10405: 10403: 10333: 10320: 10071: 9574: 9473: 9268: 8588: 8474: 8296: 8195: 8043: 7970: 7880: 7456: 7402: 7365: 7227: 7066: 6998: 6984: 6722: 6385: 6301: 6042: 5941: 5864: 5794: 5680: 5614: 5602: 5544: 5535: 5525: 5521: 5351: 5274: 5233: 5217: 5209: 5100: 5096: 5088: 4734: 4631: 4592: 4556: 4503: 4255: 3993:, introduced new tactical and strategic concepts, fought mostly successful wars ( 3963: 3959: 3746: 3684: 3662: 3595: 3531: 3454: 3424: 3065: 2943: 2740: 2593: 2585: 2504: 2417: 2369: 2308: 2260: 2252: 2174: 2166: 2115: 2103: 2099: 1786: 1741: 1591: 1207: 1011: 848: 825: 816: 580: 560: 499: 469: 192: 140: 121: 29: 11280:

The Course of German Nationalism: From Frederick the Great to Bismarck 1763–1867

5025:

began as a rebellion by Greek revolutionaries against the ruling Ottoman Empire.

4770:, with his brother as King. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the 4615: 4297: 4165: 4027:, south, to the Black Sea, and south-east and to central Asia. Russia boasted a 253:

led to a remaking of the map of Europe as the large empires were broken up into

15584: 15533: 15511: 15506: 15491: 15481: 15474: 14501: 14182: 13552: 13542: 13537: 13532: 13512: 13502: 13417: 13360: 13253: 13216: 13033: 12402:

Second Source List and Detailed Death Tolls for the Twentieth Century Hemoclysm

12209:

Carole Fink, "The Paris Peace Conference and the Question of Minority Rights,"

11293:

The Risorgimento Revisited: Nationalism and Culture in Nineteenth-century Italy

10844:

Living the Enlightenment: Freemasonry and politics in eighteenth-century Europe

10649:

The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo

10509: 10466: 10245: 9827:(535–552). Particular events taken to mark its end include the founding of the 9413: 9384: 9281:

The Mycenaeans and Italy: the archaeological and archaeometric ceramic evidence

8948: 8714: 8506: 8499: 8463: 8380: 8365:; ends in 1939 with victory of Nationalists who are aided by Germany and Italy. 8274: 8123: 8086: 7977: 7714: 7664: 7343: 7256: 7194: 7144: 7055: 7025: 6932: 6904: 6827: 6667: 6605: 6452: 6367: 6091: 5959: 5868: 5848: 5815: 5802: 5798: 5762: 5737: 5730: 5714: 5699: 5650: 5642: 5552: 5529: 5287: 5171: 5068: 4949: 4851: 4786: 4515: 4490:

abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of

4412: 4263: 4112: 3915: 3896: 3880: 3865: 3754: 3630: 3382: 3282:

in 1494. They were the first states to set up colonies in America and European

3259: 3175: 3008: 3000: 2965: 2905: 2881: 2873: 2857: 2853: 2771: 2652: 2640: 2448: 2389: 2361: 2350: 2312: 2256: 2036: 1996: 1984: 1972: 1771: 1763: 1747:

In the Eastern part the dominant state was the remaining Eastern Roman Empire.

1611: 1595: 1569: 1520: 1465: 1449: 1445: 1292: 1264: 1260: 1235: 1175:

united the Greek city states under his control. The son of Philip II, known as

1157: 1073: 1007: 999: 978: 950: 934: 915: 801: 556: 511: 298: 286: 210: 205:

is usually dated to the end of the 15th century. Technological changes such as

195:. At the end of the Middle Ages, there was a transitional period, known as the 184: 105: 12841:"Mystery of the Varna Gold: What Caused These Ancient Societies to Disappear?" 12699:"US orders 7,000 more troops to Europe following Russia's invasion of Ukraine" 10400: 7379:

helps the Byzantine Empire stop the Arabic invasion of Europe, and breaks the

7021:, an epic poem that represents the first extended work of European literature. 4766:

was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months. He later formed the

4019:

Russia fought numerous wars to achieve rapid expansion toward the east – i.e.

3610:, large parts of Africa and the Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the 2791: 1859:(or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the 702:

and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC.

16127: 16106: 16045: 15083: 14886: 14585: 14413: 13648: 13447: 12694: 12428: 11822:

A world restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the problems of peace, 1812–22

11267:

The Bee and the Eagle: Napoleonic France and the End of the Holy Roman Empire

9816: 9444: 9308:

See A. Stoia and the other essays in M.L. Stig Sørensen and R. Thomas, eds.,

8692: 8601: 8520: 8394: 8386:

1939: Britain and France hurriedly rearm; failed to arrange treaty with USSR.

8369: 8246: 8191: 8002: 7797: 7762: 7729: 7685: 7609: 7605: 7438: 7350: 7137: 7130: 6876: 6803: 6632: 6430: 6416: 6398: 6337: 6289: 6203: 6151: 6141: 6034: 5879: 5618: 5610: 5505: 5497: 5483: 5426: 5383: 5127: 5060: 5048: 4862:

in African and Asian colonies. In France and other largely Catholic nations,

4726:. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and 4511: 4480: 4408: 4271: 4108: 3994: 3990: 3821: 3750: 3488: 3464: 3408: 3386: 3267: 3244: 3236: 3187: 3004: 2992: 2841: 2809: 2755: 2686: 2656: 2534:

of Hungary was recognised in central Europe. With the brief exception of the

2488: 2465:

had mostly died out in western Europe by about the year 1000 AD, replaced by

2385: 2338: 2337:, was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the 2186: 1916: 1901: 1829:). The Arab invasion from the east was stopped after the intervention of the 1814: 1767: 1724:

began the cultural romanisation of the new world he had constructed. He made

1645: 1436:

were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a

1338: 1315: 1198:. The Diadochi fought against each other in a series of conflicts called the 1141: 1105: 1077: 682: 626: 618: 477: 460:

Around 16,000 BC, Europe witnessed the appearance of a new culture, known as

266: 218: 14896: 12473:"The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program" 11553:

Repressió borbònica i resistència identitària a la Catalunya del segle XVIII

9493: 8978: 8926: 8901: 15637: 14207: 14202: 13607: 13437: 13308: 13226: 12446:

The Semblance Of Peace: The Political Settlement After The Second World War

11915:

The Middle Classes in Europe, 1789–1914: France, Germany, Italy, and Russia

10626: 9943:

Early Medieval World, The: From the Fall of Rome to the Time of Charlemagne

9811:

Events used to mark the period's beginning include the sack of Rome by the

9740: 9572: 8986: 8935: 8609: 8455: 8451: 8405: 8390: 8348: 7905: 7710: 7565: 7460: 7274: 6573: 6350:

East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 20 November 1961

6175: 6129: 6087: 6026: 5710: 5654: 5586: 5504:

diplomacy to preserve Germany's new role and keep Europe at peace. The new

5433: 5323: 4911: 4818:

the long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin:

4781: 4695: 4655: 4647: 4543:

was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars. In 1799 on

4317: 4309: 4201: 4136: 4120: 4088: 3653: 3622: 3521: 3493: 3258:

Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the

3179: 3108: 2803: 2795: 2720:, and the Crusades. Most of Europe was Roman Catholic in the 15th century. 2612: 2546: 2409: 1944: 1936: 1909: 1864: 1755: 1737: 1617: 1603: 1551: 1457: 1303: 1252: 1239: 1231: 962: 954: 938: 507: 503: 472:

prevailed in Northern Europe in the 14th and the 13th millennium BC as the

438: 418: 369: 274: 262: 258: 254: 238: 226: 109: 11456: 11211:

The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume 3, The Nineteenth Century

9355: 8519:

1948–1951: U.S. provides large sums to rebuild Western Europe through the

6528: 6158: 2208:

society to carry out their conquests. This territory, under the Arab name

1879:, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the 1700:

481–843 AD, which covered much of present France and Germany; second, the

906: 464:, possibly rooted in the old Gravettian. This culture soon superseded the 429:

Nevertheless, the definitive advance of these technologies is made by the

183:

were marked by large population declines, as Europe was threatened by the

15772: 15247: 14469: 14197: 14187: 13592: 13470: 13455: 13427: 13263: 13005:. Black Sea Studies. Vol. 11. Aarhus University Press. p. 143. 11938: 9874:

Kennedy, Hugh (1995). "The Muslims in Europe". In McKitterick, Rosamund,

9296:, (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980 9262:

Use and appreciation of Mycenaean pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy

8674: 8670: 8645: 8559: 8534: 8267: 8245:

begin exhibitions of projected films before the paying public with their

8161: 8116: 7841: 7779: 7743: 7699: 7409: 7304: 7213: 6962: 6561: 6517: 6479: 6375: 6346: 6238: 6187: 6179: 6082:

in 1933. The main institution that was meant to bring stability was the

5998: 5904:

with Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as

5779: 5741: 5606: 5594: 5575: 5441: 5220:

with the tsar as King of Poland. Large-scale nationalist revolts erupted

5092: 4940: 4867: 4699: 4544: 4352: 4348: 4193: 4149: 3786: 3782: 3633:

was one of richest European colonies in the 18th century, operating on a

3599: 3412: 3352: 3323: 3148: 3116: 3088: 2996: 2980: 2939: 2864:. In 1240 the Orthodox Novgorod army defeated the Catholic Swedes in the 2818: 2713: 2672: 2601: 2288: 2284: 2244: 2134:, which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the 2107: 2075: 1905: 1846: 1751: 1681: 1636:) centred in Constantinople. The Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by 1394: 1288: 1137: 1065: 1023: 833: 793: 515: 495: 473: 461: 430: 282: 250: 214: 196: 144: 136: 96:, Europe saw migrations from the east and southeast. The period known as 73: 54: 11494: 10517: 10474: 9453:. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 331. 9345: 8648:

which inadvertently leads to the fall of Communism and the Soviet Union.

8425:

becomes the last nation to hold out against the Nazis after winning the

8089:

invents first practical photographic method, in effect the first camera.

6277:, the majority of whom were civilians (approximately 38 to 55 million). 5985:

The Allied victory in the First World War seemed to mark the triumph of

3793:, which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The 3115:, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the 2264: 2067: 633:

town, believed to be the oldest prehistoric town in Europe, flourished.

15099: 14398: 13355: 12929:

Kruk, Janusz; Milisauskas, Sarunas (2002). Milisauskas, Sarunas (ed.).

12113: 11326: 11244: 8950: 8433: 7991: 7984: 7809: 7576: 7531: 7489: 7477: 7420: 7308: 7234: 7119: 7112: 6951: 6911: 6815: 6524:, November 1989; it would begin to be torn apart in the following days. 6219: 6167: 6010: 5913: 5852: 5375: 5167: 5123: 4973:

in 1806. He imposed rational legal systems and his organization of the

4875: 4583:, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at 4428: 4132: 4116: 3883:, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (involved in series of wars, like 3734: 3560: 3556: 3197: 2976: 2799: 2728: 2724: 2717: 2624: 2232: 2209: 2205: 2194: 2181:

was brought under Muslim rule – save for small areas in the northwest (

2111: 2059: 2055:

in 680) were constantly rivaling the hegemony of the Byzantine Empire.

1956: 1940: 1429: 1398: 1378: 1374: 1280: 1081: 1054: 766: 762: 630: 568: 540: 446: 156: 152: 101: 89: 81: 58: 15195: 10634: 9688:"Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague" 8949:

A. Vekua; D. Lordkipanidze; G.P. Rightmire; J. Agusti; R. Ferring; G.

8477:, Soviet forces begin recapturing Nazi-occupied territory in the East. 8295:

1918: Collapse of the German Empire and monarchic system; founding of

7826:

begin first global circumnavigation. Their expedition returns in 1522.

5871:, surrendered and dissolved, followed by Germany on 11 November 1918. 3903:). By the turn of the 19th century they had become new powers, having 2833: 2592:

river, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded

1785:

was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian

1590:

When Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the

1416: 373:

migrated from Africa to Europe before the emergence of modern humans.

131:

in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. While the

15762: 15757: 15609: 13402: 12886:"World's Oldest Gold Object May Have Just Been Unearthed in Bulgaria" 9987:

Michael G. Lamoureux, "The influence of Vikings on European culture".

8459: 8278: 8220: 8156: 7941: 7801: 7755: 7238: 7187: 7176: 7073: 7045: 6983:

falls after a period of palace destruction, marking the beginning of

6936: 6869: 6726: 6663: 6532:

Changes in national boundaries after the end of the Cold War and the

6317: 6231: 5885:

The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919

5590: 5397: 5387: 5291: 5107: 4879: 4467:, and over the following two years passed various laws including the 4262:

in 1815, Europe experienced the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the

4258:. Following the reorganisation of the political map of Europe at the 4234: 4209: 3910: 3871:

From the Union of Krewo, central and eastern Europe was dominated by

3742: 3707:, the mid-17th century experienced almost unprecedented death rates. 3642: 3615: 3416: 3112: 3081: 2988: 2957: 2767: 2709: 2648: 2644: 2492: 2441: 2425: 2170: 2158: 1960: 1928: 1924: 1794: 1677: 1607: 1535:

The Roman Empire at its greatest extent in 117 AD, under the emperor

1421: 1334: 1272: 1194:, his empire split into multiple kingdoms ruled by his generals, the 1097: 1061: 966: 919: 911: 599: 486: 465: 454: 400: 357: 206: 176: 77: 13131: 12399: 11318: 9194:( ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 64. 7653:; end of effective ability of emperors to exercise control in Italy. 3367: 2926: 2483: 2017:

The Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000.

476:(also termed the British Late Magdalenian) did shortly after in the 15737: 15725: 14558: 13612: 13407: 12475:. In Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nolling, Wilhelm; Layard, Richard (eds.). 11236: 10409: 8630:

begins open, overground opposition to the Communist rule in Poland.

8513: 8485: 8235: 8029: 7677: 7657: 7550: 7452: 7260: 7165: 7151: 7123: 6675: 6671: 6643:, but at a much lower level of involvement than the United States. 6636: 6635:, and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003–2011 6624: 6565: 6359: 6329: 6293: 6163: 5979: 5582: 5347: 5095:

and with Russian support sought to pull the other Slavs out of the

4627: 4603: 4535: 4433: 4124: 4011: 3504: 3342: 3310:

into Russia, and the Russians would soon after conquer the rest of

3274: 2787: 2775: 2668: 2636: 2628: 2397: 2357: 2346: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2182: 2123: 2083: 1980: 1932: 1872: 1386: 1370: 1346: 1330: 1296: 1284: 1276: 1256: 1195: 1060:

The Hellenic city-states established colonies on the shores of the

1027: 837: 805: 797: 780: 710: 396: 270: 172: 160: 85: 84:

and the use of copper-based tools and weapons, and the building of

14109: 12772:... mounts to the largest ground war in Europe since World War II. 12185:

The Illusion of Peace: International Relations in Europe 1918–1933

11941:(1811–1832) was the son of Napoleon I but he never actually ruled. 11480:(in Catalan) (del 1979 ed.). Edicions del 1979. p. 230. 11419:

God's Playground: A History of Poland, Vol. 2: 1795 to the Present

7419:

813: Third Council of Tours: Priests are ordered to preach in the

6025:

in 1922. Authoritarian regimes replaced democracy in the 1930s in

5667: 3832: 3423:

who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the

2677: 2514:

The High Middle Ages of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a

1959:. Others point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of 1943:(284–305). Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of 613: 241:

to Western Europe, while several countries transitioned away from

15284: 13482: 13293: 13104: 12790: 12731: 8071:

the first steam train railway for passenger traffic in the world.

7884: 7354: 7293: 7289: 7217: 7209: 6966: 6768:

secession of Crimea and its largely internationally unrecognized

6749: 6695: 6691: 6655: 6022: 4579:

was set up. On 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the

4205: 4020: 3435: 3311: 2705: 2605: 2466: 2405: 2342: 2236: 2228: 2213: 2044: 1725: 1697: 1661: 1629: 1492: 1342: 1295:), Rome became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under 1219: 1093: 1089: 930: 841: 820: 750: 718: 709:

which flourished during the period roughly between 1600 BC, when

687: 491: 450: 384: 12828:

Survival of Information: the earliest prehistoric town in Europe

12198:

The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933

12002:

Europe 1789–1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire

11758:(in Catalan). Ponència del Consell de l'advocacia de Catalunya. 11716:"Comportament lingüístic davant dels cossos policials espanyols" 11528:

En cristiano! Policia i Guàrdia Civil contra la llengua catalana

9078:"Bulgarians find oldest European town, a salt production center" 8358:

1935: Italy conquers Ethiopia; League sanctions are ineffective.

7133:

crosses the Rubicon river, marking the beginning of a civil war.

6832:

had just expanded by absorbing former members of the Soviet bloc

6714:) in Ireland, although a second vote passed in Ireland in 2009. 6407: 5609:

in 1918, millions of Europeans emigrated. Of these, 71% went to

5091:

of 1878. The Serbs developed a larger vision for nationalism in

4547:(9 November) he overthrew the government, replacing it with the 4107:

Originating in the 17th century, it was sparked by philosophers

3621:

This expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them.

3526: 2930:

The spread of the "Black Death" from 1347 to 1351 through Europe

2868:, and, two years later, they defeated the Livonian Order in the 1667: 441:

seem to have been forced to retreat to the southern half of the

14140: 12816:... he biggest assault on a European state since World War Two. 12313:(2000) 816pp covers far more details by a political historian. 12026:

Otto von Bismarck and imperial Germany: a historical assessment

10855: 10260:

The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia

9438: 8789: 7090: 6835: 6784: 6761: 6683: 6659: 6589: 6568:, which weakened Soviet influence in Europe. In 1989 after the 6466:

Western Europe's industrial nations in the 1970s were hit by a

6281: 5810: 5784: 5492:

in the 1860s engineered a series of short, decisive wars, that

5303: 4711: 4054: 3611: 3038:

circa 1439 in Mainz, building upon the impetus provided by the

2701: 2632: 2597: 2523: 2413: 2401: 2393: 2330: 1947:(379–395) and Christianity's official supplanting of the pagan 1775: 1689: 1657: 1632:, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the 1558:

is shown in red and the Eastern Roman Empire is shown in purple

1536: 1390: 1362: 1358: 1318: 1311: 1248: 1069: 992: 958: 875:

Indo-European migrations from c. 4000-1500 BC according to the

785: 774: 770: 754: 742: 730: 722: 434: 188: 164: 69: 12783: 12477:

Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today

10135:

The Body in History: Europe from the Palaeolithic to the Futur

9009:"When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved" 8302:

1918: Worldwide Spanish flu epidemic kills millions in Europe.

6783:, 52% of voters voted to leave the EU, leading to the complex 5831:

killed hundreds of thousands. Czarist Russia collapsed in the

5017: 4737:. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the 4292: 2317: 277:

into capitalist and communist states, many of them members of

13094:

EurhistXX: The Network for the Contemporary History of Europe

12239: 11071:

European Diplomatic History, 1789–1815: France Against Europe

11017:

Andrew Roberts, "Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,'"

10338:(reprint ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 63. 9812: 8562:

signals the end of the effective power of the British Empire.

8352: 7361: 7172: 7017: 7012: 6947: 6940: 6679: 6309: 5327: 4738: 4703: 4312:(fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in 4305: 4219: 3958:, which was based on a balance of power in Europe. Historian 3472: 3449:

was notably tolerant of the Protestant movement, as well the

3291: 3191:

Important political precedents were also set in this period.

2736: 2700:

was adopted by the newly created kingdoms of Central Europe:

2615:. The most famous are the great cathedrals as expressions of 2380:

of Bulgarian cultural prosperity during the reign of emperor

2154: 2102:, and decisively conquered Syria and Mesopotamia, as well as 2063: 2020: 1733: 1671:

Europe in 526 AD with the three dominating powers of the west

1307: 1031: 746: 726: 699: 694:

The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was the

9457: 9271:, Gert Jan van Wijngaarden, Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 5855:

to power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union. With

1409:

in the subject territories ended in the 3rd century, when a

14480:

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)

14474: 13003:

Achaemenid Impact in the Black Sea: Communication of Powers

12795: 12747: 12734:"Russia presses invasion to outskirts of Ukrainian capital" 12565:

Is There Still a West?: The Future of the Atlantic Alliance

12511:

Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Bloc and the Cold War in Europe,"

12172:

The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia

11837:

Conservative Thinkers: From John Adams to Winston Churchill

11783: 11305:

Levine, Louis (1914). "Pan-Slavism and European Politics".

8902:"Body size downgrading of mammals over the late Quaternary" 8817: 8527: 8231: 7267: 7198: 6819: 6737:) to handle their debts led to social unrest including the 6618: 6371: 6333: 5087:

independence in 1867 and finally gained recognition in the

4643: 4598: 4522:

were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the

2589: 2581: 2429: 2095: 1983:

that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital

1685:

the peasants, as well as protection from outside invaders.

1637: 1326: 1171:

Hellenic infighting left Greek city states vulnerable, and

278: 11223:

Kohn, Hans (1950). "Napoleon and the Age of Nationalism".

10996: 10335:

Colonialism and Science: Saint Domingue and the Old Regime

6210:

with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the

5679:

that regulated European colonization in Africa during the

5597:

in the 19th and 20th centuries, as a result of a dramatic

5002:

emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for

4934:

The political development of nationalism and the push for

4654:

on 18 June 1815 and exiled to the small British island of

4618:

of nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at

4456:. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously 3153: 3015:

marked an essential part of the history of the continent.

1550:

The partition of the Roman Empire in 395, at the death of

1460:, Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored 391:

in Europe has been dated to 45,000 BC, referred to as the

13734: 12702: 11628:

Racisme i supremacisme polítics a l'Espanya contemporània

11603:

L'intent franquista de genocidi cultural contra Catalunya

11466:, páginas 45–46, L'Espill, nº 24, Universitat de València 10744: 10742: 6192:

Germany subsequently took over the rest of Czechoslovakia

5900:; peace treaties with defeated enemies, most notably the 4591:

divided Europe between France and Russia and created the

4173:

The political ideals of the Enlightenment influenced the

2577:. The Byzantine Empire was fully re-established in 1261. 1582:

Migrations from the 2nd to the 5th century. See also the

11503:

Recopilació d'accions genocides contra la nació catalana

10774:

Sootin, Harry. "Isaac Newton." New York, Messner (1955).

10441:

Crisis in Europe 1560–1660: Essays from Past and Present

10178:

The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800

9191:

In the shadow of Olympus : the emergence of Macedon

8319:

begins operations; largely ineffective; defunct by 1939.

6616:

which lifted border controls between member states. The

5705:

Subsequent major European colonial empires included the

3087:

The Early Modern period spans the centuries between the

3026:

was a limited elective monarchy composed of hundreds of

2964:. The unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the 2321:

Europe in 1000, with most European states already formed

1999:

was one of the largest and wealthiest cities in Europe.

1939:

itself had not served as the capital since the reign of

1923:". It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from 1080:). By the late 6th century BC, the Greek city states in 514:

succeeded the Hamburg culture with the influence of the

309:

to capitalism. The 21st century began with most of them

12904:"Heritage :: World's oldest gold :: Europost" 12638: 12300:(2nd ed. 1986) provides a broad survey by an economist, 9624:

Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2

7405:, the Franks stop the advance of the Arabs into Europe. 6698:

which endangered the European supply, and engaged in a

6415:

The United States gave away about $ 20 billion in

5174:

in the late 18th and early 19th century. An autonomous

4892:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

4810:

Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality.

4567:, forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition (see 4230:

International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)

387:

to be discovered in Europe. The earliest appearance of

217:

saw the fragmentation of religious thought, leading to

12561: 11605:(in Catalan). Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat. 11580:(in Catalan) (62 ed.). Edicions 62. p. 320. 10739: 9855:

Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security

9463:

Brian Todd Carey, Joshua Allfree, John Cairns (2006).

8872:

List of sovereign states by date of formation § Europe

7812:, triggering discussions which would soon lead to the 7441:, initiating Christian mission among the Slav peoples. 6226:. Hitler's goal was to control Eastern Europe but the 6067:

Adolf Hitler addressing the Reichstag on 23 March 1933

5733:

through conquest by land in Eastern Europe, and Asia.

3665:, which began the first part of the Thirty Years' War. 3515: 3007:

in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their

2503:

occurred between the two remaining Christian seats in

2098:, the second Caliph, the Muslims entirely toppled the 1762:. Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The 1563: 957:

flourished and had major influence throughout much of

285:, respectively. The West's remaining colonial empires 12956:

Owens, Gareth A. (1999). "Balkan Neolithic Scripts".

12602: 11989:

The French Nation: From Napoleon to Pétain, 1814–1940

11030:

Roberts, "Why Napoleon merits the title 'the Great,"

9138:

Migrations and invasions in Greece and adjacent areas

8368:

1938: Germany escalates the persecution of Jews with

7579:

adopts Christianity, often seen as the origin of the

5863:, Germany had run out of manpower. Germany's allies, 4638:

in October 1813, he was forced to abdicate after the

3997:, Seven Years' War) and doubled the size of Prussia. 3306:'s voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of the Tatar 2239:

soldiers, to confront Munuza's Muslim troops. In the

2223:(717) ended unsuccessfully after the intervention of 1931:, which re-founded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma (" 1840: 1088:, while the latter had made territorial gains in the 12433:

Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity

12387:

No Simple Victory: World War II in Europe, 1939–1945

11112:(Paris, 1926), pp. 187–88, quoted in Crane Brinson, 10859:

Freemasonry in Context: History, Ritual, Controversy

10435: 10433: 9573:

Di Berardino, A.; D'Onofrio, G.; Studer, B. (2008).

9112:. Oxfordbibliographiesonline.com. 15 February 2010. 9041:"Archaeologists find Europe's most prehistoric town" 8375:

1938: Appeasement of Germany by Britain and France;

7645:

anti-Byzantine uprising of the Bulgarians and Vlachs

6451:

Looking at the half century after the war historian

6433:" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix. 4785:

The cumulative crises and disruptions of Napoleon's

3729:

Maria Theresa being crowned Queen of Hungary in the

3103:, secularised civic politics, and the nation state. 2543:

anti-Byzantine uprising of the Bulgarians and Vlachs

2263:

in 732. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the '

1908:

offering their fealty to the Virgin Mary inside the

1793:), followed by the onslaught of the arising Islamic 379:, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in 13110: 12151:

Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy

10605:

Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War

10579:

Frederick the Great: The Ruler, the Writer, the Man

9876:

The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500 – c. 700

8760:

begins. Unemployment rises in some parts of Europe.

8533:1955: USSR creates a rival military coalition, the 7590:, which divides the Christian church for centuries. 7568:is crowned as "Emperor" by the Pope, beginning the 5228:but were harshly crushed by Russia, which tried to 4469:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

4308:, improved roads and railways. The introduction of 4266:and the peak of the British Empire, as well as the 4183:

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

3801:and general immunity to European religious strife. 2999:is usually associated with the fall of the city of 2455:converted to Islam under the missionary efforts of 1168:between the 5th century BC and the 1st century AD. 1164:. At the same time at the north ruled the Thracian 598:at around c. 4200 BC. through the areas around the 14492:Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation 13061:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 13040:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 12641:"NATO's Eastward Expansion: Calming Russian Fears" 11365: 10798: 10675: 9910: 9283:, University of Glasgow, Department of Archaeology 9039: 8867:List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe 6882:5000 - 3500 BC: First European proto-script - the 6850:on 24 February 2022, in a major escalation of the 6787:separation process and negotiations, which led to 5114:from Austria-Hungary to unite with the pan-Slavic 4661: 4602:Napoleon's army at the retreat from Russia at the 4518:. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary 4400:lost the better part of the First British Empire. 4238:The boundaries set by the Congress of Vienna, 1815 4015:Russian expansion in Eurasia between 1533 and 1894 2541:Bulgarian sovereignty was re-established with the 1610:, which he renamed Nova Roma – it was later named 12786:"Putin puts nuclear 'deterrence' forces on alert" 12470: 11550: 10734:The Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents 10430: 10410:Geoffrey Parker and Lesley M. Smith, ed. (1997). 9913:The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe 9649:Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture 7765:departs to India starting direct trade with Asia. 3741:The "absolute" rule of powerful monarchs such as 3270:'s circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498. 2968:. Collectively these events have been called the 2770:. Their western conquests included almost all of 2739:. Notable figures of this movement would include 2685:, from a medieval miniature painting, during the 2569:led to maximum territorial expansion and that of 2341:and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, 2066:first invaded historically Roman territory under 855:of central Europe were part of the origin of the 167:from the Muslim states that occupied it made the 45:is traditionally divided into four time periods: 16125: 13127:Vistorica – Timelines of European modern history 12692: 12471:DeLong, J. Bradford; Eichengreen, Barry (1993). 12138:The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 12037: 12000:Katherine Ann Lerman, "Bismarck, Otto von." in 11872: 11756:VIII Jornada sobre l'Ús del Català a la Justícia 11406:Prussian Poland in the German Empire (1871–1900) 11354:The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 10213: 8555:begins to be dismantled; Withdraws from Vietnam. 8436:aid to Britain, Free France, the USSR and other 7951:spurs an intellectual renaissance across Europe. 7793:" and the first "elected Emperor of the Romans". 6907:begin a large-scale settlement of the continent. 5892:The world war was settled by the victors at the 3930: 3445:Unlike many European countries at the time, the 2655:and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of 2329:emerged around 800, as Charlemagne, King of the 1413:undermined Rome's economic and social strength. 510:in Central Europe, while in Northern Europe the 395:. Some locally developed transitional cultures ( 13107:Online access to primary sources for historians 12928: 12376:(1995) covers every country and major campaign. 11806:A history of western education: The modern west 11749:"L'espanyolisme lingüístic i la llengua comuna" 11475: 10673: 9550:The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity 8900:Smith, Felisa A.; et al. (20 April 2018). 8673:countries except the Soviet Union. Fall of the 8516:begins as Europe is polarized East versus West. 7451:, converting the non-Christian population from 7223:117: Roman Empire reaches its territorial peak. 7150:27 BC: Establishment of the Roman Empire under 6725:affected Europe, and government responded with 5896:. The major decisions were the creation of the 5515: 5103:in which Austria dissolved into nation states. 4324: 3949:commanded the English and Dutch victory at the 3243:, 1502, earliest chart showing explorations by 2153:The Muslim conquest of Hispania began when the 625:Around this time, in the 5th millennium BC the 586:who expanded into Europe in the context of the 15743:Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe 14450:Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) 12448:(1972) thorough diplomatic coverage 1939–1952. 11911: 11879:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–88. 11575: 11086:(2003) pp. 62–65, 78–79, 88–96, 115–17, 154–59 9954: 8662:occurs, the worst nuclear disaster in history. 8615:1973: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom 8480:1944: U.S., British and Canadian armed forces 8008:Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment? 7750:. A Spanish expeditionary group, commanded by 6234:was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941. 5954:(1919) the winners recognised the new states ( 3804: 3453:. A degree of tolerance was also displayed in 2580:In the 11th century, populations north of the 1867:, the division of Western Christianity in the 753:. Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in 15211: 15115: 14673:Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) 14125: 13720: 13147: 13032: 12512: 12348:Between Two Fires: Europe's Path in the 1930s 12211:Peace and Change: A journal of peace research 11833: 11578:La persecució política de la llengua catalana 10796: 10413:The General Crisis of the Seventeenth Century 9908: 9795: 9712: 9310:The Bronze Age: Iron Age Transition in Europe 9304: 9302: 8877:Major explorations after the Age of Discovery 8256:sends first transatlantic radio transmission. 8074:1830: The southern provinces secede from the 7894:brings massive devastation to central Europe. 7856:(On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) 7702:kills about one-third of Europe's population. 7511:, developed during the 9th century AD at the 7398:, and marks the beginning of the Reconquista. 7190:congregations in mainland Greece and in Rome. 7008:753 BC: Traditional year of founding of Rome. 5761:(Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the 4646:. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see 3648: 2884:between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the 2177:. During the eight-year campaign most of the 1452:is generally considered to be the center of " 811:The Mycenaean civilization perished with the 13058:An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840 12639:Spiegel Online, Hamburg (26 November 2009). 12539:Walter Laqueur, "The Slow Death of Europe", 12243:Themes in Modern European History, 1890–1945 11625: 11551:Sobrequés Callicó, Jaume (29 January 2021). 11209:Andrew Porter and William Roger Louis, eds. 11000:Modern France. A Companion to French Studies 10174: 10041:. Tspace.library.utoronto.ca. Archived from 9331:"Barbarian Europe and Early Iron Age Greece" 8953:; et al. (2002). "A new skull of early 8249:, a portable camera, printer, and projector. 8119:, which ends in 1855 in a defeat for Russia. 7883:uses his telescope to discover the moons of 7619:saw an increase in the number of texts. The 6052: 5768: 5411: 4856:religious denominations in the United States 4463:At the time the assembly wanted to create a 4458:storming the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789 4204:and revolutionary movements, especially the 4152:, which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a 3036:advent of the movable type of printing press 2840:in 1226 as a base for a Crusade against the 2360:was established in 681 and became the first 1855:The Middle Ages are commonly dated from the 399:in Italy and Greece, Altmühlian in Germany, 15733:History of European Jews in the Middle Ages 12044:. Princeton University Press. p. 307. 11435:(in Catalan). El Gall editor. p. 422. 11430: 11058:The Oxford History of the French Revolution 10175:Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1997). 9651:", Architectural Press; 20 edition (1996), 8587:opens and begins a period of reform in the 8035:, eventually consolidating his position as 8018:and end of the absolute monarchy in France. 7940:. The first would check the aspirations of 7545:Bulgaria defeats the Byzantine Empire, and 7277:, the Empire is permanently split into the 6666:, which had been part of the Soviet Union; 5912:. The Treaty of Versailles itself weakened 5835:of 1917 and Germany claimed victory on the 2267:, and, in 756, the Umayyads established an 2231:dynasty and reduced their prestige. In 722 2118:. In the mid 7th century AD, following the 1128:, almost all of Greece to the north of the 645:Neolithic expansion in Europe, 7000-4000 BC 521: 257:. Lingering political issues would lead to 15218: 15204: 15122: 15108: 14357:Sovereign states and dependent territories 14132: 14118: 13727: 13713: 13154: 13140: 12230:; wide-ranging survey of European history. 11840:. Transaction Publishers. pp. 71–77. 11746: 11457:Els orígens històrics de l'anticatalanisme 11157: 11047:(New York: McGraw Hill, 1995), pp. 428–29. 10131: 10108:Civilization in the West: Volume 1 to 1715 9878:, pp. 249–72. Cambridge University Press. 9815:(410), the deposition of the last western 9620: 9407: 9378: 9299: 9228:"Aegeobalkan Prehistory – Mycenaean Sites" 8862:List of largest European cities in history 8443:1941: Germany invades the Soviet Union in 6781:country's membership in the European Union 5581:There was mass European emigration to the 5204:In the 1790s, Germany, Russia and Austria 4981:. In the 1860s it was Prussian chancellor 4220:From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914) 4159:In France, Enlightenment was based in the 3989:, king of Prussia 1740–86, modernized the 3661:(1618), which marked the beginning of the 3220:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 2035:of Europe new dominant states formed: the 1863:in the 16th century marked by the rise of 1456:". Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted 72:record about 48,000 years ago, during the 14475:North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) 12883: 12838: 12078:Empire: The Russian Empire and Its Rivals 12041:The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire 11525: 11164:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 21–22. 11084:Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe 10972:The radicalism of the American Revolution 10023:Europe in the high Middle Ages, 1150–1309 9972: 9627:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 791–94. 8925: 6965:technology from present-day Bulgaria and 6255:invaded from the east by the Soviet Union 6186:, Britain and France adopted a policy of 5374:among the European empires, known as the 5342: 4706:of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate 4498:to act as the country's executive. Under 4175:United States Declaration of Independence 3868:, created new secular forces in thought. 3419:had influence in many countries and King 1781:For the duration of the 6th century, the 1110:first Persian invasion of mainland Greece 788:, or Tomb of Agamemnon in Mycenae 1250 BC 315:the Great Recession and its after-effects 15129: 14440:Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) 12555: 12311:The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s 12240:Nicholas Atkin; Michael Biddiss (2008). 11433:L'Espanyolització de Mallorca: 1808–1932 11291:Silvana Patriarca and Lucy Riall, eds., 10997:A. Aulard in Arthur Tilley, ed. (1922). 10856:Art DeHoyos and S. Brent Morris (2004). 10498:The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 10455:The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 10452: 10331: 9897:Reconquest and crusade in Medieval Spain 9141:. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes P. p. 139. 8305:1918: Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolves. 7876:; Russia refuses to adopt it until 1918. 6733:of the smaller EU nations (most notably 6527: 6511: 6406: 6345: 6157: 6145: 6062: 5873: 5783: 5666: 5569: 5461: 5421: 5386:for a base for socialist, communist and 5346: 5259: 5079:in 1817 marked the foundation of modern 5047: 5016: 4921: 4780: 4597: 4427: 4343:French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 4291: 4281: 4233: 4010: 3909: 3831: 3724: 3652: 3525: 3503: 3459: 3366: 3235: 3225: 3152: 3064: 3017: 2925: 2808: 2676: 2482: 2444:, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire. 2316: 2019: 1896: 1666: 1577: 1415: 1243: 1040: 905: 779: 681: 612: 539: 413: 343: 28: 15225: 14213:Crisis situations and unrest since 2000 12595:David Priestland, "Margaret Thatcher?" 12089: 11918:. Macmillan Education UK. p. 240. 11530:(in Catalan). Cossetània. p. 216. 11431:Sales Vives, Pere (22 September 2020). 11265:Alan Forrest and Peter H. Wilson, eds. 11148:(1958) pp. 321–23, 370, 458–59, 464–66. 10540:The Thirty Years' War: Europe's Tragedy 10220:. Transaction Publishers. p. 103. 10127: 10125: 9436: 9379:McLaughlin, Raoul (11 September 2014). 9134: 9076:Maugh, Thomas H. II (1 November 2012). 9071: 9069: 9037: 8644:becomes leader of the Soviet Union and 8597:lead France to the brink of revolution. 8447:; fails to capture Moscow or Leningrad. 8383:; Germany seized the remainder in 1939. 7643:sovereignty was reestablished with the 7330:Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England 7237:reorganizes the Empire by creating the 6286:identified through IBM-enabled censuses 6108:(1936–1939) was won by the rebels (the 5390:ideas. Widely influential was the 1848 5330:gave way to the national language, and 3034:A key 15th-century development was the 2588:to new frontiers in Europe, beyond the 1444:part with the capital in Byzantium, or 844:in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC. 328: 14: 16126: 14688:European Free Trade Association (EFTA) 13054: 12839:Magazine, Smithsonian; Curry, Andrew. 12112:Brian Bond, "The First World War" in 11619: 11478:Cròniques Negres del Català A L'Escola 11372:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 270. 11304: 10896:Leading Issues in Economic Development 10132:Robb, John; Harris, Oliver J. (2013). 9852: 9799: 9566: 9552:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 368. 9494:"The Diadochi and the Hellenistic Age" 9408:McLaughlin, Raoul (11 November 2016). 7630:, formation of Portuguese sovereignty. 6969:in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC. 6896:3500 BC: First European civilization, 6854:that began in 2014. It is the largest 5574:Scottish Highland family migrating to 5356:International Workingmen's Association 5120:Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes 4494:, the National Convention created the 3046: 2575:Second Golden Age of Bulgarian culture 2451:became an Islamic state in 921, after 1594:in 312, he soon afterwards issued the 922:(hill-top city) fell to Rome in 176 BC 895: 890:Late Bronze Age Europe, c. 1300-900 BC 657:Late Neolithic Europe, c. 5000-3500 BC 575:who migrated from Anatolia during the 559:in the 6th millennium BC and parts of 15199: 15103: 14113: 13736:History of current European countries 13708: 13161: 13135: 13055:Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). 12955: 12884:Magazine, Smithsonian; Daley, Jason. 12806:from the original on 27 February 2022 12762:from the original on 27 February 2022 12701:. Oren Liebermann and Michael Conte. 12697:; Kaufman, Ellie (24 February 2022). 12090:Cánovas, Marília D. Klaumann (2004). 11600: 11500: 10616: 10495: 10388:from the original on 26 February 2021 10168: 9974:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050718-032628 9853:Hunter, Shireen; et al. (2004). 9721:from the original on 13 December 2008 9547: 9522: 9504:from the original on 23 December 2015 9498:Historical Atlas of the Mediterranean 9343: 9234:from the original on 3 September 2015 9187: 9075: 8899: 8440:; Canada also provides financial aid. 8397:agree partition of Eastern Europe in 7492:, Gorazd, Angelariy – arrive back to 6596:from Serbia on 17 February 2008. The 5473: 3133:European colonisation of the Americas 3076:(green) maritime trade routes in the 2538:, major barbarian incursions ceased. 2274: 1622:official religion of the Roman Empire 1291:, then as a senatorial republic (the 360:species, coinciding in time with the 15882:Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) 13000: 12374:The Oxford Companion to World War II 12149:Overviews include David Stevenson, 11950:Napoleon III." in Anne Commire, ed. 11784:Ellwood Patterson Cubberley (1920). 11765:from the original on 5 November 2022 11728:from the original on 20 October 2021 11664:from the original on 20 October 2021 11222: 10862:. Lexington Books. pp. 100–01. 10785:The Age of the Democratic Revolution 10566:Russia in the Age of Peter the Great 10122: 9747:from the original on 25 January 2010 9576:History of Theology: The Middle Ages 9527:. Infobase Publishing. p. 139. 9525:Christianity: Religions of the World 9066: 9054:from the original on 12 January 2022 8774:in Ukraine and the beginning of the 8466:, with the murder of 6 million Jews. 8144:1866: First commercially successful 7833:begins conquest of Mexico for Spain. 7449:officially baptises the whole nation 7364:invades the Byzantine Empire in the 6392: 6253:in 1944. In 1945 Germany itself was 6241:(Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the 6230:was delayed until June 1941 and the 5496:(excluding Austria) into a powerful 5382:Radical intellectuals looked to the 5188:re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878 3777:, which ended in the triumph of the 3710: 3641:. During the period of French rule, 2463:Slavery in the early medieval period 2428:raided Bulgaria, Rus States and the 2082:. As the Byzantines and neighboring 2002: 1766:were marking out their territory, a 313:. In parallel, Europe suffered from 76:era. Settled agriculture marked the 16092:History of the Mediterranean region 15295:International relations (1648–1814) 14554:European Union Customs Union (EUCU) 14537:European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) 14139: 13669:History of the Mediterranean region 12372:I.C.B. Dear and M.R.D. Foot, eds., 11876:The European Revolutions, 1848—1851 11721:. Plataforma per la llengua. 2019. 11708: 11676: 11644: 11594: 11519: 11097:Reaction and Revolution: 1814–1832 11043:Robert R. Palmer and Joel Colton, 10373: 10010:A Historical Guide to World Slavery 9917:. Oxford University Press. p. 9670:"The History of the Bubonic Plague" 8842:History of the Mediterranean region 8569:defeated by Soviet military forces. 8261:Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria 7854:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 7339:uses the term "Europe" in a letter. 7108:(reaching far into Asia) fragments. 6678:, five former-communist countries; 6612:. These countries also entered the 6582:Communist Party of the Soviet Union 6552:movement in the 1980s weakened the 6478:and growing unrest led by militant 6049:, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden. 5993:, religious and ethnic toleration, 5946:International relations (1919–1939) 5186:in 1876 indirectly resulted in the 5116:State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs 3922:in 1683 marked the historic end of 3657:Contemporary woodcut depicting the 3516:Mercantilism and colonial expansion 3215:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 3003:and of the Byzantine Empire to the 2975:Beginning in the 14th century, the 2895: 2758:came to power, is often called the 2472: 1919:(reigned 306–337) to be the first " 1648:and other "barbarian" tribes (see: 1602:in 311), declaring the legality of 1564:Late Antiquity and Migration Period 1491:, surrendered to the Germanic King 1440:part with a capital in Rome and an 1112:. At some point during the ensuing 998:The most powerful city-states were 991:was a collection of city-states or 813:collapse of Bronze-Age civilization 24: 14683:Eurasian Economic Community (EAEC) 14460:European Political Community (EPC) 13076: 12620:from the original on 17 March 2011 12493:from the original on 15 April 2023 12324:A History of the League of Nations 12298:The World in Depression, 1929–1939 12166:For reference see Martin Gilbert, 12058:from the original on 27 April 2023 11976:Napoleon III and the Second Empire 11893:from the original on 27 April 2023 11854:from the original on 27 April 2023 11696:from the original on 27 March 2022 11386:from the original on 27 April 2023 11369:Christian History: An Introduction 11178:from the original on 27 April 2023 10876:from the original on 27 April 2023 10376:"The Case for Haitian Reparations" 10367: 10352:from the original on 27 April 2023 10195:from the original on 27 April 2023 10156:from the original on 27 April 2023 9961:Annual Review of Political Science 9208:from the original on 27 April 2023 9155:from the original on 27 April 2023 8882:Timeline of European Union history 8720:1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden 8704:Commonwealth of Independent States 7804:on indulgences to the door of the 7193:68: First Roman imperial dynasty, 7051:was founded as the most important 6631:The EU did not participate in the 6594:unilaterally declared independence 6508:International relations since 1989 6194:. After allying with Japan in the 6134:Diplomatic history of World War II 5740:had declined. This instigated the 4943:. Most European states had become 4668:Influence of the French Revolution 3721:International relations, 1648–1814 3061:International relations, 1648–1814 2778:, which became a vassal), and the 2712:, Poland, Hungary), the Christian 2647:. The rediscovery of the works of 2372:during the 9th century AD, at the 2148:Sicily and parts of southern Italy 1841:Post-classical and Medieval Europe 1825:in the 7th and 8th centuries (see 1299:and his authoritarian successors. 411:technologies at very early dates. 25: 16145: 15849:Greek scholars in the Renaissance 15416:Journalism of Early Modern Europe 13087: 12861:. 15 October 2015. Archived from 12562:Hay, W.A.; Sicherman, H. (2007). 12410:from the original on 7 March 2011 12170:(1995) and Spencer Tucker, ed., 11630:(7th ed.). Manresa: Parcir. 11576:Ferrer Gironès, Francesc (1985). 11505:(in Catalan). Base. p. 300. 11114:A Decade of Revolution: 1789–1799 10829:Richard Weisberger et al., eds., 10750:Encyclopedia of the Enlightenment 10678:Grand Strategies in War and Peace 9347:Rethinking the Other in Antiquity 9038:Squires, Nick (31 October 2012). 8076:United Kingdom of the Netherlands 7840:begins the conquest of Peru (the 7421:native language of the population 7357:and in a union with the numerous 7328:597: Beginning of Roman Catholic 6939:, destructing the Minoan city of 6542:European Coal and Steel Community 6493: 6284:killed over 11 million civilians 6259:from the west by the other Allies 5809:), while on the other side stood 5690:were the product of the European 5494:unified most of the German states 5216:. Russia took it over in 1815 as 5170:modern nationalism emerged under 4885: 4296:London's chimney sky in 1870, by 4156:began to increase in prominence. 3773:series of conflicts known as the 3511:, the father of international law 3395:, and concludes in 1648 with the 2979:became one of the most important 2165:in 711, under the Berber general 2092:Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628 1468:, thus setting the stage for the 1428:In the 4th century, the emperors 1118:Second Persian invasion of Greece 1108:, which failed. This sparked the 972: 705:The Minoans were replaced by the 662: 14168:Bibliography of European history 13654:Bibliography of European history 13249:Fall of the Western Roman Empire 13105:European History Primary Sources 13083:Bibliography of European history 12994: 12984: 12949: 12922: 12896: 12877: 12851: 12832: 12821: 12777: 12725: 12686: 12663: 12651:from the original on 9 June 2015 12632: 12589: 12533: 12516:A Companion to Europe Since 1945 12505: 12464: 12451: 12438: 12422: 12392: 12379: 12366: 12353: 12340: 12316: 12303: 12290: 12285:A Companion to Europe: 1900–1945 12273: 12260: 12233: 12216: 12203: 12190: 12177: 12160: 12143: 12127: 12106: 12083: 12070: 12031: 12018: 11994: 11981: 11968: 11944: 11932: 11905: 11866: 11827: 11814: 11798: 11777: 11740: 11569: 11544: 11469: 11449: 11424: 11411: 11398: 11359: 11346: 11333: 11298: 11285: 11272: 11259: 11216: 11203: 11190: 11151: 11138: 11119: 11102: 10833:(East European Monographs, 2002) 10723:(4th ed. 1984), pp. 192–194, 284 10592:The age of absolutism, 1660–1815 9863:of the Iranian Sassanian Empire. 9690:. .niaid.nih.gov. Archived from 9579:. Liturgical Press. p. 26. 9116:from the original on 30 May 2020 9019:from the original on 25 May 2022 6917:2100 BC: First European script, 6777:referendum in the United Kingdom 6556:. At the time the Soviet leader 6484:premiership of Margaret Thatcher 6275:between 50 and 80 million deaths 6261:. As the Red Army conquered the 5453:Hostility to the Catholic Church 4971:dissolving the Holy Roman Empire 4845:Christianity in the 19th century 4716:made Jews equal to everyone else 4710:, legalised divorce, closed the 4436:in the French Revolution of 1789 4417:French historian François Aulard 4415:and had an even greater impact. 4398:King George III of Great Britain 4390:Frederick William III of Prussia 4078: 4069: 4038: 3797:is notable in this time for its 3341: 3332: 3222:) often cited as its beginning. 3162:, the founder of accounting, by 1857:fall of the Western Roman Empire 1620:, who had made Christianity the 1543: 1528: 1512: 1500: 1474:state church of the Roman Empire 1160:and the defeat of Sparta at the 949:. It is the period during which 883: 868: 650: 638: 629:evolved. In 4700 – 4200 BC, the 305:, all European communist states 175:, while the political system of 163:peoples. Attempts to retake the 159:saw a second great migration of 129:fall of the Western Roman Empire 100:began with the emergence of the 16082:History of Western civilization 15368:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 14835:Social (and financial) rankings 14637:Financial (and social) rankings 14547:Euronest Parliamentary Assembly 13679:History of Western civilization 13282:Christianity in the Middle Ages 13096:, edited in English from Berlin 12479:. MIT Press. pp. 189–230. 11089: 11076: 11063: 11050: 11037: 11024: 11011: 10990: 10977: 10964: 10951: 10942: 10918: 10888: 10849: 10836: 10823: 10790: 10777: 10768: 10755: 10726: 10713: 10708:The Wars of Frederick the Great 10700: 10667: 10654: 10641: 10610: 10597: 10584: 10571: 10558: 10545: 10532: 10489: 10446: 10325: 10302: 10282: 10269: 10252: 10234: 10217:History of the Idea of Progress 10207: 10113: 10100: 10091:Europe in transition, 1300–1520 10083: 10057: 10031: 10015: 9999: 9990: 9981: 9948: 9935: 9902: 9889: 9868: 9846: 9805: 9789: 9773:. 29 March 2009. Archived from 9759: 9733: 9706: 9680: 9662: 9641: 9613: 9600: 9541: 9516: 9486: 9430: 9401: 9372: 9337: 9323: 9286: 9274: 9255: 9246: 9220: 9090:from the original on 4 May 2019 8857:List of history journals#Europe 8852:History of Western civilization 8700:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 8230:1885: First permanent citywide 8227:, the world's first automobile. 8069:Stockton and Darlington Railway 7621:Renaissance of the 12th century 7549:is proclaimed as emperor, thus 6822:, which was meant to rival the 6534:dissolution of the Soviet Union 6516:Germans standing on top of the 6323: 6119: 5861:Germany's spring 1918 offensive 4662:Impact of the French Revolution 4396:barely clung to their thrones. 4372:was executed, as was his queen 4007:Territorial evolution of Russia 3659:Second Defenestration of Prague 2602:Iberian Peninsula was conquered 2565:on 14 April 1205. The reign of 2559:Latin Emperor of Constantinople 2212:, became part of the expanding 2090:, which included the climactic 1708:(modern Spain); and third, the 1279:, and its defeats in the three 1259:'s conspiracy to overthrow the 1225: 1084:had been incorporated into the 829:of traditional historiography. 800:) to write their early form of 547:settlement, Germany, c. 4700 BC 15711:Christianity in the modern era 15497:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 14455:Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) 13523:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 13466:Christianity in the modern era 13237:Christianity in late antiquity 12246:. Routledge. pp. 243–44. 12153:(2005) and Ian F. W. Beckett, 11501:Lluís, García Sevilla (2021). 11476:Mayans Balcells, Pere (2019). 10898:, Oxford University Press US. 10662:A shortened history of England 10008:and Stanley L. Engerman, eds. 9350:. Princeton University Press. 9181: 9167: 9128: 9102: 9031: 9001: 8942: 8893: 8432:1941: U.S. begins large-scale 8159:completes the first volume of 7958:is formed by the union of the 7914:, having a profound impact on 7872:1582: The introduction of the 7463:, and officially founding the 7208:occurs, burying the cities of 7001:end, marking the beginning of 6858:in Europe since World War II. 6789:political and economic changes 6743:European sovereign-debt crisis 6554:Communist government in Poland 6138:Home front during World War II 5773: 5624: 5336:Universal compulsory education 5163:National awakening of Bulgaria 5040:Dissolution of Austria-Hungary 4977:in 1806 promoted a feeling of 4502:, the committee initiated the 4192:Norman Davies has argued that 3795:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 3681:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 3498:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 3447:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth 3317: 3142: 2970:Crisis of the Late Middle Ages 2918:Crisis of the Late Middle Ages 2886:Crown of the Kingdom of Poland 2850:Livonian Brothers of the Sword 2424:pillaged mainland Europe, the 2221:second siege of Constantinople 686:Partly reconstructed ruins of 407:in the southwest) use clearly 339: 245:to parliamentary regimes. The 187:, as well as invasions by the 88:structures, as exemplified by 13: 1: 16056:History of the European Union 15894:Giovanni Pico della Mirandola 15684:Diplomatic Revolution of 1756 15648:War of the Spanish Succession 14678:Eurasian Customs Union (EACU) 13674:History of the European Union 12932:European Prehistory: A Survey 12752:American Broadcasting Company 11790:. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 11747:Moreno Cabrera, Juan Carlos. 11689:. Plataforma per la llengua. 11657:. Plataforma per la llengua. 11626:Llaudó Avila, Eduard (2021). 11225:The Journal of Modern History 11045:A History of the Modern World 10674:Paul M. Kennedy, ed. (1991). 9955:Grzymala-Busse, Anna (2020). 9318:The Coming of the Age of Iron 8887: 8653:join the European Communities 8617:join the European Communities 8146:transatlantic telegraph cable 8049:1806: Napoleon abolishes the 7934:War of the Spanish Succession 7038: 6861: 6708:in France and the Netherlands 6504:History of the European Union 6490:, but controversy persisted. 5736:By the mid-19th century, the 5559: 5271:War of the Spanish Succession 5182:were willing to join it. The 5010:into the single state of the 4918:Rise of nationalism in Europe 4454:National Constituent Assembly 4409:republican form of government 4268:decline of the Ottoman Empire 3943:War of the Spanish Succession 3937:War of the Spanish Succession 3931:War of the Spanish Succession 3924:Ottoman expansion into Europe 3781:. England settled down under 3717:Absolutism (European history) 3594:amid European turmoil of the 3411:began to emerge as well like 3376:Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 2815:Christianization of Lithuania 2790:upon the death of Great Khan 2516:rapidly increasing population 2247:and the establishment of the 1778:were securing their borders. 1454:Eastern Orthodox civilization 667: 606:. In the next 3000 years the 291:gradual political integration 15959:Early Netherlandish painting 14532:European Economic Area (EEA) 12970:10.1515/kadm.1999.38.1-2.114 12610:"A Europe without frontiers" 10332:McLellan, James May (2010). 9771:International Herald Tribune 9466:Warfare in the Ancient World 8847:History of the Romani people 7273:395: Following the death of 6856:conventional military attack 6840:U.S.-China strategic rivalry 6688:Bulgaria and Romania in 2007 6682:, and the divided island of 6411:Marshall Plan dollar amounts 6150:Starving Jewish children in 6080:Hitler took power in Germany 5894:Paris Peace Conference, 1919 5859:in 1917, and the failure of 5516:Austrian and Russian empires 5324:national educational systems 5313: 4730:was proclaimed for all men. 4325:Era of the French Revolution 4185:, and the Polish–Lithuanian 4179:United States Bill of Rights 4171:Britain's American colonies. 4163:and culminated in the great 3451:Principality of Transylvania 3381:With the development of the 3351:Martin Luther initiated the 2662: 2122:, Islam penetrated into the 1886: 1805:). By 650, the provinces of 1192:death of Alexander the Great 836:technology from present-day 698:that arose on the island of 433:culture, originating in the 393:Early European modern humans 112:came to dominate the entire 66:early European modern humans 7: 15600:Absolute monarchy in France 15544:Lands of the Bohemian Crown 14404:International organisations 14231:Russian invasion of Ukraine 13633:Russian invasion of Ukraine 13244:Crisis of the Third Century 13036:; Morisson, Cécile (2007). 12513:Klaus Larresm, ed. (2014). 11366:Alister E. McGrath (2012). 11307:Political Science Quarterly 11295:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2011). 11269:(Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). 9909:George Holmes, ed. (1988). 8825: 8804:Russian invasion of Ukraine 8797:COVID-19 pandemic in Europe 8749:2007: Bulgaria and Romania 8606:Warsaw Pact military forces 8578:European Economic Community 8482:invade Nazi-occupied France 7695:between England and France. 7147:enters its terminal crisis. 6772:to the Russian Federation. 6756:and unrest. On 16 March, a 6598:European Economic Community 6403:European Economic Community 6342:European Economic Community 6318:allegedly engineered famine 6162:American and Soviet troops 6041:, the Baltic countries and 5995:national self-determination 5931: 5857:American entry into the war 5354:speaking to members of the 5152: 4838: 4774:, and Switzerland into the 4529: 4440:French intervention in the 4270:. Finally, the rise of the 3805:Thirty Years' War 1618–1648 3040:prior introduction of paper 2817:in 1387", oil on canvas by 2780:Kipchak-Cuman Confederation 2754:The 14th century, when the 1523:and its neighbours in 58 BC 1064:and the Mediterranean Sea ( 323:Russian invasion of Ukraine 10: 16150: 16066:Military history of Europe 16061:Maritime history of Europe 15954:Dutch and Flemish painting 15865:Science in the Renaissance 14795:Electricity use per capita 14302:Largest metropolitan areas 13689:Military history of Europe 13684:Maritime history of Europe 13080: 13026: 12461:(1989) pp. 26–28, 430–43. 12080:(2000) pp. 226–30, 278–80. 12024:Theodore S. Hamerow, ed., 11526:Bea Seguí, Ignaci (2013). 11161:A Companion to World War I 11144:Kenneth Scott Latourette, 10959:Napoleon: A Political Life 10510:10.1162/jinh.2009.40.2.239 10467:10.1162/jinh.2009.40.2.151 10264:Melbourne University Press 10140:Cambridge University Press 9857:. M.E. Sharpe. p. 3. 9841:Norman conquest of England 9767:"The Great Arab Conquests" 9294:Mycenaeans in early Latium 8421:1940: Great Britain under 8201:1878: Re-establishment of 8046:end in defeat of Napoleon. 7617:12th century in literature 7435:Saints Cyril and Methodius 7390:in the Iberian Peninsula. 7281:(later Byzantium) and the 6719:2007–2008 financial crisis 6686:.) These were followed by 6497: 6396: 6327: 6228:attack on the Soviet Union 6123: 6056: 5935: 5793:On one side were Germany, 5777: 5628: 5563: 5519: 5488:From his base in Prussia, 5480:North German Confederation 5477: 5415: 5273:, the assimilation of the 5197: 5159:Bulgarian National Revival 5156: 5137: 5033: 4992: 4975:Confederation of the Rhine 4962: 4958: 4915: 4889: 4842: 4743:Confederation of the Rhine 4665: 4533: 4496:Committee of Public Safety 4452:and created, in July, the 4442:American Revolutionary War 4328: 4285: 4223: 4212:, crushed the Freemasons. 4187:Constitution of 3 May 1791 4042: 4004: 3979: 3975: 3934: 3808: 3749:(ruled Russia 1682–1725), 3745:(ruled France 1643–1715), 3714: 3668: 3649:Crisis of the 17th century 3519: 3321: 3229: 3146: 3050: 2899: 2666: 2604:from the Muslims, and the 2571:Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria 2476: 2278: 2271:in the Iberian Peninsula. 2006: 1890: 1844: 1652:), and in 476 finally the 1584:map of the world in 820 AD 1567: 1487:, the last emperor of the 1283:marked the start of Roman 1229: 1218:to regions as far away as 1120:, and precisely after the 976: 899: 749:, the Mycenaeans occupied 671: 525: 389:anatomically modern people 356:of numerous predominantly 332: 273:saw Europe divided by the 149:Islamic conquest of Iberia 16104: 16074: 16051:Genetic history of Europe 16038: 16031: 15973: 15923: 15916: 15873: 15857: 15821: 15812: 15800:European wars of religion 15703: 15696: 15661: 15643:Second Hundred Years' War 15620: 15564: 15440: 15433: 15403: 15396: 15355: 15348: 15303: 15240: 15233: 15135: 15056: 14995: 14877: 14820: 14811: 14780:Health expense per capita 14696: 14665: 14627: 14623: 14614: 14500: 14432: 14394: 14390: 14381: 14280: 14271: 14239: 14160: 14151: 14091: 14043: 14005: 13742: 13659:Genetic history of Europe 13641: 13446: 13262: 13202: 13169: 12935:. Springer. p. 236. 12680:27 September 2021 at the 12549:26 September 2011 at the 12224:A broken world, 1919–1939 12038:A. Wess Mitchell (2018). 11873:Jonathan Sperber (2005). 10214:Robert A. Nisbet (1980). 10181:. Verso. pp. 29–30. 10039:"The Destruction of Kiev" 9796:Laiou & Morisson 2007 9188:Borza, Eugene N. (1990). 8832:Genetic history of Europe 8790:leaves the European Union 8788:2020: The United Kingdom 8727:1997–99: End of European 8691:and the beginning of the 8651:1986: Portugal and Spain 8637:the European Communities. 8595:May 1968 events in France 8243:Auguste and Louis Lumière 8023:French Revolutionary Wars 7671:Great Famine of 1315–1317 6921:, is invented by Minoans. 6206:", and finally signing a 6073:Wall Street Crash of 1929 6053:Great Depression: 1929–39 5769:1914–1945: two world wars 5412:France under Napoleon III 5193: 5147:Greek War of Independence 5140:Greek War of Independence 5133: 5029: 5023:Greek War of Independence 4908:Greek War of Independence 4795:Spain's American colonies 4610:On 12 June 1812 Napoleon 4500:Maximilien de Robespierre 4486:On 20 September 1792 the 4386:Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden 4000: 3572:British American colonies 3567:and economics necessary. 3284:trading posts (factories) 2936:Great Famine of 1315–1317 2878:conversion to Catholicism 2120:Muslim conquest of Persia 1614:("City of Constantine"). 1507:Europe in the year 301 BC 1462:persecution of Christians 610:expanded through Europe. 506:, in southern France and 49:(prior to about 800 BC), 15010:Childhood population (%) 14745:GNI (nominal) per capita 14227:hybrid variant (2020-22) 12222:Raymond James Sontag, . 12155:The Great War: 1914–1918 12011:29 December 2022 at the 11961:29 December 2022 at the 11003:. Cambridge UP. p. 10894:Business and Economics. 10291:Conquest in the Americas 10277:The European Reformation 9621:Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). 9472:29 December 2022 at the 9135:Hammond, N.G.L. (1976). 8957:from Dmanisi, Georgia". 8729:colonial empires in Asia 8702:and the creation of the 8682:Reunification of Germany 8530:alliance is established. 8128:On the Origin of Species 7976:1721: Foundation of the 7956:Kingdom of Great Britain 7717:for books, starting the 7656:1303: The period of the 7543:Battle of Achelous (917) 7315:. Orders the editing of 7122:end with destruction of 6959:Late Bronze Age collapse 6935:occurs on the island of 6271:Hitler committed suicide 6102:Italy conquered Ethiopia 6094:, the Soviet Union, and 5938:Aftermath of World War I 5914:Germany's military power 5910:minority rights treaties 5839:. After eight months of 5673:Berlin Conference (1884) 5255: 4988: 4750:made himself the ruler. 4689:modern secular education 4581:Battle of Jena-Auerstedt 3877:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 3534:from 1492 to the present 3195:'s political writing in 3159:Portrait of Luca Pacioli 2846:Grand Duchy of Lithuania 2828:In the Northern Europe, 2567:Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria 1598:in 313 (preceded by the 1214:. These kingdoms spread 592:Indo-European migrations 528:Old Europe (archaeology) 522:Neolithic and Copper Age 480:. Around 12,500 BC, the 311:gradually joining the EU 179:came to its height. The 94:Indo-European migrations 53:(800 BC to AD 500), the 16087:History of Christianity 15669:French–Habsburg rivalry 15628:French Wars of Religion 14445:Council of Europe (CoE) 14424:Transatlantic relations 13664:History of Christianity 13112:New York Public Library 12444:John Wheeler-Bennett, 11952:Historic World Leaders, 11912:Pamela Pilbeam (1990). 10926:Economic History Review 10763:The enlightened despots 10106:Mark Kishlansky et al. 10077:Encyclopædia Britannica 9895:Joseph F. O´Callaghan, 9450:Encyclopædia Britannica 9437:Jackson, Henry (1911). 8979:10.1126/science.1072953 8927:10.1126/science.aao5987 8783:European migrant crisis 8751:join the European Union 8744:join the European Union 8722:join the European Union 8399:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 8183:under the direction of 8109:The Communist Manifesto 8014:1789: Beginning of the 7581:Russian Orthodox Church 7534:start to settle in the 7519:, becomes the official 7513:Preslav Literary School 7381:siege of Constantinople 7197:, ends with suicide of 6739:anti-austerity movement 6639:. NATO was part of the 6296:of Europe, millions of 6214:on 1 September 1939 by 5759:Triple Alliance of 1882 5659:Italian colonial empire 5469:, Chancellor of Germany 5212:, igniting a spirit of 5106:In 1918, the region of 5097:Austro-Hungarian Empire 5021:Beginning in 1821, the 4677:equality before the law 4465:constitutional monarchy 4368:was assassinated; King 4276:Austro-Hungarian Empire 4029:large and powerful army 3775:French Wars of Religion 3701:North American colonies 3401:European religious wars 2880:and establishment of a 2621:Romanesque architecture 2487:Europe in 1097, as the 2384:(893–927). Two states, 2374:Preslav Literary School 2126:region, of which parts 2088:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 1770:was growing, while the 1714:Kingdom of the Lombards 608:Indo-European languages 588:Indo-European expansion 319:European migrant crisis 237:accumulation and rapid 57:(AD 500–1500), and the 33:Europe by cartographer 15832:Renaissance philosophy 15748:Protestant Reformation 15556:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 15363:Fall of Constantinople 13785:Bosnia and Herzegovina 13488:Grand Duchy of Tuscany 12361:The Spanish Revolution 12296:Charles Kindleberger, 12283:in Gordon Martel, ed. 12213:(1996) 21#3 pp. 273–88 11834:Peter Viereck (1978). 10805:. Oxford UP. pp. 10797:Norman Davies (1996). 10719:Nicholas Riasanovsky, 10258:MacKnight, CC (1976). 9743:. Justiniansflea.com. 9715:"An Empire's Epidemic" 8837:History of the Balkans 8585:Second Vatican Council 8544:begins the process of 8493:Hitler commits suicide 8355:take power in Germany. 8225:Benz Patent-Motorwagen 8181:Unification of Germany 7932:1700: Outbreak of the 7726:Fall of Constantinople 7517:First Bulgarian Empire 7459:and other paganism to 7065:with Greeks defeating 6981:Mycenaean civilization 6926:Mycenaean civilization 6844: 6610:European Economic Area 6537: 6525: 6468:global economic crisis 6412: 6351: 6171: 6155: 6126:Causes of World War II 6068: 6007:responsible government 5918:full blame for the war 5889: 5789: 5684: 5663:German colonial empire 5647:French colonial empire 5635:History of colonialism 5605:in 1815 to the end of 5599:demographic transition 5578: 5470: 5430: 5363: 5343:Ideological coalitions 5283:Decrees of Nova planta 5266: 5246:Second Polish Republic 5208:. Napoleon set up the 5081:Principality of Serbia 5053: 5044:Creation of Yugoslavia 5026: 4965:Unification of Germany 4931: 4870:(culture war) against 4860:Christian missionaries 4802: 4799:independence of Brazil 4728:equality under the law 4607: 4508:Revolutionary Tribunal 4473:abolition of feudalism 4437: 4382:Ferdinand VII of Spain 4300: 4239: 4141:enlightened absolutism 4016: 3927: 3841: 3799:religious indifference 3738: 3731:St. Martin's Cathedral 3666: 3535: 3512: 3475: 3392:The Ninety-Five Theses 3378: 3264:fall of Constantinople 3255: 3171: 3125:Protestant Reformation 3101:technological progress 3084: 3031: 3013:Ottoman wars in Europe 2931: 2914:Fall of Constantinople 2825: 2823:Royal Castle in Warsaw 2689: 2600:, the majority of the 2496: 2376:, and experienced the 2322: 2297:First Bulgarian Empire 2235:formed an army of 300 2157:invaded the Christian 2100:Sasanid Persian Empire 2070:, first Caliph of the 2028: 2013:Early Muslim conquests 1969:fall of Constantinople 1915:Many consider Emperor 1912: 1672: 1587: 1425: 1407:centralised government 1267: 1179:, invaded neighboring 1057: 941:known together as the 923: 789: 707:Mycenaean civilization 691: 622: 621:, Bulgaria, c. 4500 BC 573:Early European Farmers 567:, a derivative of the 548: 545:Linear Pottery culture 426: 425:, France, c. 30,000 BC 403:in Central Europe and 376:Homo erectus georgicus 365: 362:early human migrations 38: 16111:History of philosophy 15986:Industrial Revolution 15384:Scientific Revolution 14785:Military spending (%) 14775:Unemployment rate (%) 14520:free trade agreements 14285:Areas and populations 13568:Industrial Revolution 13038:The Byzantine Economy 12544:16 August 2011 online 12541:The National Interest 12519:. Wiley. p. 79. 12281:The Fascist Challenge 12266:Gregory M. Luebbert, 12228:online free to borrow 11601:Benet, Josep (1995). 11282:(Cambridge UP, 1991). 11126:James Harvey Robinson 11110:Histoire de la Suisse 10935:5 August 2021 at the 10928:64.2 (2011): 357–384 10912:31 March 2023 at the 10732:Margaret C.C. Jacob, 10706:Dennis E. Showalter, 10110:(5th ed. 2003) p. 316 10089:Wallace K. Ferguson, 9647:Fletcher, Banister, " 9356:10.1515/9781400836550 9267:27 April 2023 at the 9083:The Los Angeles Times 8772:Revolution of Dignity 8731:with the handover of 8689:Breakup of Yugoslavia 8234:system in Europe (in 8153:emancipates its serfs 8037:Emperor of the French 7996:The Wealth of Nations 7911:Principia Mathematica 7863:Grand Duchy of Moscow 7824:Juan Sebastián Elcano 7684:", becomes the first 7599:William the Conqueror 7471:Unification of Norway 6992:Etruscan civilization 6812: 6808:Chancellor of Germany 6704:European Constitution 6652:gained 10 new members 6584:in Moscow collapsed, 6578:Berlin Wall came down 6531: 6515: 6498:Further information: 6410: 6349: 6208:non-aggression treaty 6161: 6149: 6066: 5999:free-market economics 5926:cause of World War II 5877: 5787: 5670: 5573: 5520:Further information: 5465: 5457:French Third Republic 5425: 5350: 5263: 5071:. The success of the 5052:Breakup of Yugoslavia 5051: 5020: 4925: 4916:Further information: 4852:established religions 4784: 4601: 4571:) and dissolving the 4431: 4394:Francis II of Austria 4376:. Furthermore, kings 4314:textile manufacturing 4295: 4288:Industrial Revolution 4282:Industrial Revolution 4248:Industrial Revolution 4237: 4154:Counter-Enlightenment 4145:Scientific Revolution 4093:Jean-Jacques Rousseau 4014: 3913: 3856:and particularly the 3835: 3767:Commercial Revolution 3728: 3715:Further information: 3669:Further information: 3656: 3529: 3507: 3463: 3421:Henry VIII of England 3374:realms (green) under 3370: 3280:Treaty of Tordesillas 3262:, culminating in the 3239: 3226:Exploration and trade 3206:Scientific Revolution 3156: 3121:Scientific Revolution 3093:Industrial Revolution 3068: 3057:Scientific revolution 3021: 2929: 2812: 2766:under the command of 2680: 2619:, which evolved from 2486: 2320: 2023: 1900: 1670: 1581: 1419: 1401:, a period of peace, 1247: 1122:Battle of Thermopylae 1044: 989:Hellenic civilisation 909: 783: 685: 616: 543: 417: 347: 231:Industrial Revolution 32: 15837:Renaissance humanism 15721:Bohemian Reformation 15679:Treaties of Nijmegen 15290:Age of Enlightenment 15130:History by continent 14790:Urban population (%) 14750:GNI (PPP) per capita 14295:European microstates 13623:European debt crisis 13618:European integration 13558:Age of Enlightenment 13398:Republic of Florence 12910:on 28 September 2019 12890:Smithsonian Magazine 12845:Smithsonian Magazine 12597:BBC History Magazine 12168:Atlas of World War I 11032:BBC History Magazine 11019:BBC History Magazine 10627:10.1093/past/39.1.44 10416:. Psychology Press. 10319:14 June 2021 at the 9798:, pp. 130–131; 9676:on 18 December 2006. 8667:Communism overthrown 8546:European integration 8445:Operation Barbarossa 8333:take power in Italy. 8174:Second French Empire 8172:and the fall of the 8135:Unification of Italy 7949:Age of Enlightenment 7752:Christopher Columbus 7651:emperor Frederick II 7628:Battle of São Mamede 7547:Simeon I of Bulgaria 7318:Corpus Juris Civilis 7298:Western Roman Empire 7283:Western Roman Empire 7279:Eastern Roman Empire 7259:into his capital, a 7206:Eruption of Vesuvius 6500:Cold War (1979–1985) 6304:Slavs, homosexuals, 6290:majority of the Jews 5970:(1917–1921) and the 5968:Ukrainian–Soviet War 5962:, Hungary, Austria, 5952:Treaty of Versailles 5902:Treaty of Versailles 5418:Second French Empire 5379:and social changes. 5370:produced a peaceful 5332:compulsory education 5075:(1804–1817) against 4995:Unification of Italy 4741:and set up a puppet 4685:religious toleration 4432:The storming of the 4331:Atlantic Revolutions 4198:Age of Enlightenment 4045:Age of Enlightenment 3885:Khmelnytsky uprising 3399:that ended years of 3397:Treaty of Westphalia 3290:conquered two major 3168:Museo di Capodimonte 3137:European witch-hunts 3105:Capitalist economies 2922:Consulate of the Sea 2698:Western Christianity 2563:Battle of Adrianople 2293:Caliphate of Córdoba 1783:Eastern Roman Empire 1626:Western Roman Empire 1556:Western Roman Empire 1489:Western Roman Empire 1411:series of civil wars 1287:. First governed by 1200:Wars of the Diadochi 1173:Philip II of Macedon 1146:Peloponnesian League 1126:Battle of Artemisium 1116:, namely during the 761:, on islands in the 577:Neolithic Revolution 329:Prehistory of Europe 133:Eastern Roman Empire 16023:Revolutions of 1848 15944:Florentine painting 15795:Counter-Reformation 15716:Proto-Protestantism 15674:Peace of Westphalia 15517:Seventeen Provinces 15376:Printing Revolution 15270:Early modern Europe 15265:Early modern period 15227:Early modern Europe 14770:Press Freedom Index 14697:Sovereign states by 14542:Eastern Partnership 14178:Classical antiquity 14006:States with limited 13588:Revolutions of 1848 13518:Early modern France 13299:Anglo-Saxon England 13204:Classical antiquity 13116:"History of Europe" 12800:Thomson Corporation 12709:on 27 February 2022 12673:Wall Street Journal 12614:Europa (web portal) 12406:. Users.erols.com. 12333:21 May 2020 at the 12326:(Oxford UP, 1965). 11462:5 June 2022 at the 11352:Christopher Clark, 11200:40.1 (2006): 45–58. 11198:The History Teacher 11158:John Horne (2012). 11095:Frederick B. Artz, 10842:Margaret C. Jacob, 10748:Alan Charles Kors, 10721:A History of Russia 10682:. Yale UP. p. 10374:Alcenat, Westenly. 10298:on 28 October 2009. 10070:29 May 2008 at the 9941:Michael Frassetto, 9713:Ralph R. Frerichs. 9548:Parry, Ken (2010). 9523:Parry, Ken (2009). 9312:(Oxford) 1989, and 9174:ancient sources as 9047:The Daily Telegraph 9013:Scientific American 8971:2002Sci...297...85V 8918:2018Sci...360..310S 8816:2024: Sweden joins 8776:Russo-Ukrainian War 8767:the European Union. 8542:Schuman Declaration 8361:1936: Start of the 8281:seize power in the 8170:Franco-Prussian War 8137:after victories by 8115:1852: Start of the 8106:and publication of 8104:Revolutions of 1848 7964:Kingdom of Scotland 7923:Treaty of Karlowitz 7899:Peace of Westphalia 7849:Nicolaus Copernicus 7719:Printing Revolution 7633:1131: Birth of the 7586:1054: Start of the 7482:Cyril and Methodius 7446:Boris I of Bulgaria 7408:800: Coronation of 7396:Kingdom of Asturias 7388:Battle of Covadonga 7270:first enter Europe. 7102:Alexander the Great 7003:classical antiquity 6974:Minoan civilization 6898:Minoan civilization 6884:Old European script 6852:Russo-Ukrainian War 6848:invasion of Ukraine 6800:Wall Street Journal 6775:In June 2016, in a 6758:disputed referendum 6754:state of revolution 6748:Beginning in 2014, 6710:, and then (as the 6670:, Hungary, Poland, 6570:Pan-European Picnic 6476:government deficits 6472:computer technology 6306:Jehovah's Witnesses 6198:and then also with 6196:Anti-Comintern Pact 6110:Nationalist faction 5833:February Revolution 5746:Kingdom of Sardinia 5566:European emigration 5446:Franco-Prussian War 5438:French Armed Forces 5393:Communist Manifesto 5308:Spanish nationalism 5288:national minorities 5180:Orthodox Christians 5176:Bulgarian Exarchate 5004:Italian unification 5000:Italian nationalism 4936:popular sovereignty 4928:Revolutions of 1848 4904:Revolutions of 1848 4900:Italian unification 4764:Neapolitan Republic 4569:Treaty of Pressburg 4561:Battle of Trafalgar 4524:coup of 9 Thermidor 4488:National Convention 4405:American Revolution 4378:Charles IV of Spain 4370:Louis XVI of France 4335:American Revolution 4102:Enlightened despots 3987:Frederick the Great 3947:Duke of Marlborough 3858:Glorious Revolution 3846:Peace of Westphalia 3838:Peace of Westphalia 3759:Frederick the Great 3705:Northern Hemisphere 3432:Counter-Reformation 3241:Cantino planisphere 3210:Nicolaus Copernicus 3193:Niccolò Machiavelli 3184:Italian Renaissance 3053:Early modern Europe 3047:Early modern Europe 3028:state-like entities 2643:, who occupied the 2617:Gothic architecture 2551:Kaloyan of Bulgaria 2511:(modern Istanbul). 2447:In eastern Europe, 2335:Carolingian dynasty 2269:independent emirate 2249:Kingdom of Asturias 2241:battle of Covadonga 1989:Europe's population 1977:Plague of Justinian 1877:Italian Renaissance 1861:early modern period 1851:Medieval demography 1811:Palestine and Syria 1722:Theodoric the Great 1710:Ostrogothic kingdom 1694:Merovingian dynasty 1177:Alexander the Great 1051:Alexander the Great 947:Mediterranean Basin 927:Classical antiquity 902:Classical antiquity 896:Classical Antiquity 696:Minoan civilization 690:, Crete, c. 1700 BC 678:Aegean civilization 617:Artefacts from the 536:Chalcolithic Europe 423:Aurignacian culture 303:Revolutions of 1989 293:, which led to the 203:Early Modern Europe 114:Mediterranean Basin 98:classical antiquity 51:classical antiquity 15753:Ninety-five Theses 15539:Kingdom of Bohemia 15453:Free imperial city 15421:The General Crisis 14909:Capital of Culture 14760:Internet users (%) 14652:Telecommunications 14419:Post-Soviet Europe 14257:predecessor states 13694:Crusading movement 13598:Russian Revolution 13433:Hundred Years' War 13329:Maritime republics 13232:Early Christianity 13222:Hellenistic period 13179:Paleolithic Europe 13034:Laiou, Angeliki E. 12457:Michael J. Hogan, 12359:Stanley G. Payne, 12346:David Clay Large, 12279:Martin Blinkhorn, 12270:(Oxford UP, 1991). 11339:Charles Jelavich, 10846:(Oxford UP, 1991). 10783:Robert R. Palmer, 10647:Russell Weigley, 10619:Past & Present 10439:Trevor Aston, ed. 10308:Herbert S, Klein, 10012:(1998) pp. 197–200 9777:on 2 February 2009 9741:"Justinian's Flea" 9606:Susan Wise Bauer, 9344:Gruen, E. (2010). 8660:Chernobyl disaster 8567:Hungarian Uprising 8342:stock market crash 8283:Russian Revolution 8205:, independence of 8139:Giuseppe Garibaldi 8080:Belgian Revolution 8058:Congress of Vienna 7960:Kingdom of England 7938:Great Northern War 7927:Austro-Ottoman War 7874:Gregorian calendar 7820:Ferdinand Magellan 7791:King of the Romans 7707:Johannes Gutenberg 7693:Hundred Years' War 7673:in Northern Europe 7615:12th century: The 7521:Bulgarian alphabet 7414:Holy Roman Emperor 7377:Tervel of Bulgaria 7323:Digest (Roman law) 7186:45–55 (ca): First 7063:Greco-Persian Wars 7033:Greco-Persian Wars 6919:Cretan hieroglyphs 6900:, begins on Crete. 6886:(Danubian script). 6641:war in Afghanistan 6614:Schengen Agreement 6538: 6526: 6413: 6352: 6172: 6164:meet in April 1945 6156: 6069: 6019:communist movement 5991:cultural pluralism 5922:costly reparations 5890: 5845:October Revolution 5801:and Bulgaria (the 5790: 5750:Kingdom of Prussia 5685: 5579: 5500:. By 1871 he used 5474:Bismarck's Germany 5471: 5431: 5368:Congress of Vienna 5364: 5267: 5214:Polish nationalism 5206:partitioned Poland 5149:(1821-1829/1830). 5073:Serbian revolution 5063:were ruled by the 5058:Orthodox Christian 5056:For centuries the 5054: 5027: 4979:German nationalism 4932: 4896:Serbian Revolution 4803: 4762:around Genoa. The 4756:Cisalpine Republic 4652:Battle of Waterloo 4640:Six Days' Campaign 4608: 4589:Treaties of Tilsit 4541:Napoleon Bonaparte 4477:fundamental change 4438: 4301: 4260:Congress of Vienna 4240: 4017: 3982:Kingdom of Prussia 3951:Battle of Blenheim 3928: 3914:The defeat of the 3842: 3739: 3671:The General Crisis 3667: 3635:plantation economy 3536: 3513: 3476: 3379: 3358:Ninety-five Theses 3256: 3172: 3164:Jacopo de' Barbari 3085: 3032: 2932: 2910:Hundred Years' War 2890:Battle of Grunwald 2866:Battle of the Neva 2862:Novgorod Republics 2826: 2760:Age of the Mongols 2745:Christine de Pizan 2690: 2497: 2438:Kingdom of Croatia 2434:Kingdom of Hungary 2382:Simeon I the Great 2323: 2275:Feudal Christendom 2261:Battle of Poitiers 2225:Tervel of Bulgaria 2116:Roman North Africa 2072:Rashidun Caliphate 2041:Old Great Bulgaria 2029: 1953:Romulus Augustulus 1913: 1881:Columbian Exchange 1791:Roman–Persian Wars 1704:418–711 AD in the 1702:Visigothic kingdom 1673: 1588: 1426: 1314:rivers. Under the 1268: 1185:Hellenistic period 1150:Peloponnesian Wars 1130:Isthmus of Corinth 1114:Greco-Persian Wars 1058: 983:Hellenistic period 945:, centered on the 924: 851:and the following 790: 765:, on the coast of 692: 623: 549: 427: 409:Upper Palaeolithic 383:, is the earliest 366: 364:across continents. 335:Prehistoric Europe 295:European Community 223:Age of Exploration 47:prehistoric Europe 39: 16134:History of Europe 16121: 16120: 16115:History of Europe 16100: 16099: 15996:French Revolution 15991:Age of Revolution 15969: 15968: 15949:Venetian painting 15912: 15911: 15904:Leonardo da Vinci 15808: 15807: 15692: 15691: 15633:Thirty Years' War 15572:Habsburg monarchy 15529:Habsburg monarchy 15502:Cossack Hetmanate 15487:Portuguese Empire 15448:Holy Roman Empire 15429: 15428: 15411:Absolute monarchy 15392: 15391: 15344: 15343: 15193: 15192: 15097: 15096: 15052: 15051: 14807: 14806: 14803: 14802: 14666:Intergovernmental 14610: 14609: 14606: 14605: 14564:Foreign relations 14465:GUAM Organization 14433:Intergovernmental 14377: 14376: 14290:Countries by area 14267: 14266: 14218:COVID-19 pandemic 14107: 14106: 13702: 13701: 13628:COVID-19 pandemic 13573:French Revolution 13548:Habsburg monarchy 13528:Cossack Hetmanate 13508:Portuguese Empire 13498:Absolute monarchy 13493:Thirty Years' War 13388:Holy Roman Empire 13313:Bulgarian Empire 13272:Early Middle Ages 13189:Bronze Age Europe 13163:History of Europe 13068:978-0-521-22379-9 13047:978-0-521-84978-4 12942:978-0-306-46793-6 12744:Evgeniy Maloletka 12575:978-0-8262-6549-4 12526:978-1-118-89024-0 12486:978-0-262-04136-2 12363:(1970) pp. 262–76 12253:978-1-134-22257-5 12134:Christopher Clark 12098:(in Portuguese). 12051:978-1-4008-8996-9 11925:978-1-349-20606-3 11886:978-0-521-83907-5 11847:978-1-4128-2026-4 11820:Henry Kissinger, 11562:978-84-18601-20-0 11487:978-84-947201-4-7 11379:978-1-118-33783-7 11171:978-1-119-96870-2 11099:(1934) pp. 142–43 11060:(1989) pp. 341–68 11034:(1 November 2014) 11021:(1 November 2014) 10869:978-0-7391-0781-2 10816:978-0-19-820171-7 10801:Europe: A History 10752:(Oxford UP, 2003) 10693:978-0-300-05666-2 10603:Peter H. Wilson, 10538:Peter H. Wilson, 10423:978-0-203-99260-9 10345:978-0-226-51467-3 10227:978-1-4128-2548-1 9928:978-0-19-820073-4 9829:Holy Roman Empire 9821:Battle of Tolbiac 9694:on 7 October 2007 9657:978-0-7506-2267-7 9634:978-1-884964-33-6 9586:978-0-8146-5916-8 9320:(New Haven) 1980. 9201:978-0-691-00880-6 9148:978-0-8155-5047-1 8912:(6386): 310–313. 8711:Maastricht Treaty 8642:Mikhail Gorbachev 8427:Battle of Britain 8423:Winston Churchill 8363:Spanish Civil War 8344:in New York City. 8317:League of Nations 8310:Versailles Treaty 8289:lasts until 1922. 8287:Russian Civil War 8254:Guglielmo Marconi 8185:Otto von Bismarck 8065:George Stephenson 8051:Holy Roman Empire 8016:French Revolution 7916:The Enlightenment 7892:Thirty Years' War 7867:Tsardom of Russia 7838:Francisco Pizarro 7789:the last ruling " 7770:Leonardo da Vinci 7748:Iberian Peninsula 7737:Wars of the Roses 7680:, the "Father of 7635:Kingdom of Sicily 7593:1066: Successful 7570:Holy Roman Empire 7509:Cyrillic alphabet 7504:Literary Schools. 7106:Macedonian Empire 7095:Peloponnesian War 7078:political freedom 7076:defends Athenian 6872:in Europe begins. 6798:According to the 6793:COVID-19 pandemic 6648:post–Cold War era 6602:Maastricht Treaty 6558:Mikhail Gorbachev 6546:Council of Europe 6422:Barry Eichengreen 6393:Economic recovery 6380:nuclear umbrellas 6364:Western countries 6251:recaptured France 6224:Battle of Britain 6202:'s Italy in the " 6106:Spanish Civil War 6084:League of Nations 5972:Polish–Soviet War 5898:League of Nations 5754:Otto von Bismarck 5696:Portuguese Empire 5677:Otto von Bismarck 5639:Habsburg Monarchy 5490:Otto von Bismarck 5467:Otto von Bismarck 5459:emerged in 1871. 5320:national language 5200:History of Poland 5122:. It was renamed 5036:History of Serbia 5008:Italian Peninsula 4983:Otto von Bismarck 4824:Swiss citizenship 4797:(yellow) and the 4787:invasion of Spain 4776:Helvetic Republic 4772:Batavian Republic 4760:Ligurian Republic 4724:Holy Roman Empire 4722:ended as did the 4636:Battle of Leipzig 4632:seven nation army 4573:Holy Roman Empire 4450:National Assembly 4339:French Revolution 4252:French Revolution 4244:long 19th century 4226:Age of Revolution 4129:Francis Hutcheson 4060:scientific method 3956:Treaty of Utrecht 3901:Habsburg monarchy 3873:Kingdom of Poland 3862:the Enlightenment 3854:English Civil War 3836:Europe after the 3817:Thirty Years' War 3811:Thirty Years' War 3791:Holy Roman Empire 3711:Age of absolutism 3677:Thirty Years' War 3530:The evolution of 3469:Sebastian Münster 3440:Saint Philip Neri 3300:Astrakhan Khanate 3288:Ivan the Terrible 3129:Thirty Years' War 3127:, the disastrous 3097:French Revolution 3024:Holy Roman Empire 2870:Battle on the Ice 2830:Konrad of Masovia 2764:expanded westward 2749:Holy Roman Empire 2594:European colonies 2532:Apostolic Kingdom 2408:influence on the 2327:Holy Roman Empire 2281:Holy Roman Empire 2227:and weakened the 2179:Iberian Peninsula 2169:. They landed at 2136:Iberian Peninsula 2132:Umayyad Caliphate 2080:Roman Mesopotamia 2047:(c. 650–969) and 2039:(567–after 822), 2026:Early Middle Ages 2009:Early Middle Ages 2003:Early Middle Ages 1921:Byzantine emperor 1813:were lost to the 1760:Holy Roman Empire 1738:King Chindasuinth 1706:Iberian Peninsula 1405:and an efficient 1162:Battle of Leuctra 1134:Battle of Plataea 943:Greco-Roman world 877:Kurgan hypothesis 674:Bronze Age Europe 443:Iberian Peninsula 269:. The subsequent 247:Age of Revolution 191:peoples from the 61:(since AD 1500). 43:history of Europe 16:(Redirected from 16141: 16036: 16035: 15981:Great Divergence 15939:Italian painting 15921: 15920: 15819: 15818: 15701: 15700: 15653:Seven Years' War 15595:House of Bourbon 15551:Protestant Union 15522:Economic history 15438: 15437: 15401: 15400: 15353: 15352: 15280:Age of Discovery 15260:High Renaissance 15238: 15237: 15220: 15213: 15206: 15197: 15196: 15124: 15117: 15110: 15101: 15100: 15072: 15065: 14818: 14817: 14642:Free trade areas 14625: 14624: 14621: 14620: 14392: 14391: 14388: 14387: 14278: 14277: 14158: 14157: 14134: 14127: 14120: 14111: 14110: 14044:Dependencies and 13743:Sovereign states 13729: 13722: 13715: 13706: 13705: 13563:Great Divergence 13478:Age of Discovery 13423:Late Middle Ages 13393:High Middle Ages 13304:Byzantine Empire 13287:Christianization 13277:Migration Period 13212:Classical Greece 13184:Neolithic Europe 13156: 13149: 13142: 13133: 13132: 13123: 13072: 13051: 13021: 13020: 12998: 12992: 12988: 12982: 12981: 12964:(1–2): 114–120. 12953: 12947: 12946: 12926: 12920: 12919: 12917: 12915: 12906:. Archived from 12900: 12894: 12893: 12881: 12875: 12874: 12872: 12870: 12865:on 24 March 2023 12855: 12849: 12848: 12836: 12830: 12825: 12819: 12818: 12813: 12811: 12781: 12775: 12774: 12769: 12767: 12756:Associated Press 12742:. Photograph by 12729: 12723: 12722: 12716: 12714: 12705:. Archived from 12690: 12684: 12667: 12661: 12660: 12658: 12656: 12636: 12630: 12629: 12627: 12625: 12606: 12600: 12593: 12587: 12586: 12584: 12582: 12559: 12553: 12537: 12531: 12530: 12509: 12503: 12502: 12500: 12498: 12468: 12462: 12455: 12449: 12442: 12436: 12426: 12420: 12419: 12417: 12415: 12396: 12390: 12383: 12377: 12370: 12364: 12357: 12351: 12344: 12338: 12320: 12314: 12307: 12301: 12294: 12288: 12277: 12271: 12264: 12258: 12257: 12237: 12231: 12220: 12214: 12207: 12201: 12194: 12188: 12181: 12175: 12164: 12158: 12147: 12141: 12131: 12125: 12110: 12104: 12103: 12087: 12081: 12076:Dominic Lieven, 12074: 12068: 12067: 12065: 12063: 12035: 12029: 12022: 12016: 11998: 11992: 11985: 11979: 11972: 11966: 11948: 11942: 11936: 11930: 11929: 11909: 11903: 11902: 11900: 11898: 11870: 11864: 11863: 11861: 11859: 11831: 11825: 11818: 11812: 11802: 11796: 11795: 11781: 11775: 11774: 11772: 11770: 11764: 11753: 11744: 11738: 11737: 11735: 11733: 11727: 11720: 11712: 11706: 11705: 11703: 11701: 11695: 11688: 11680: 11674: 11673: 11671: 11669: 11663: 11656: 11648: 11642: 11641: 11623: 11617: 11616: 11598: 11592: 11591: 11573: 11567: 11566: 11548: 11542: 11541: 11523: 11517: 11516: 11498: 11492: 11491: 11473: 11467: 11453: 11447: 11446: 11428: 11422: 11415: 11409: 11404:Richard Blanke, 11402: 11396: 11395: 11393: 11391: 11363: 11357: 11350: 11344: 11337: 11331: 11330: 11302: 11296: 11289: 11283: 11276: 11270: 11263: 11257: 11256: 11220: 11214: 11207: 11201: 11194: 11188: 11187: 11185: 11183: 11155: 11149: 11142: 11136: 11130:Charles A. Beard 11123: 11117: 11108:William Martin, 11106: 11100: 11093: 11087: 11082:Alexander Grab, 11080: 11074: 11069:Steven T. Ross, 11067: 11061: 11054: 11048: 11041: 11035: 11028: 11022: 11015: 11009: 11008: 10994: 10988: 10981: 10975: 10970:Gordon S. Wood, 10968: 10962: 10957:Steven Englund, 10955: 10949: 10946: 10940: 10922: 10916: 10892: 10886: 10885: 10883: 10881: 10853: 10847: 10840: 10834: 10827: 10821: 10820: 10804: 10794: 10788: 10781: 10775: 10772: 10766: 10761:Geoffrey Bruun, 10759: 10753: 10746: 10737: 10730: 10724: 10717: 10711: 10704: 10698: 10697: 10681: 10671: 10665: 10660:G.M. Trevelyan, 10658: 10652: 10645: 10639: 10638: 10614: 10608: 10601: 10595: 10588: 10582: 10575: 10569: 10564:Lindsey Hughes, 10562: 10556: 10549: 10543: 10536: 10530: 10529: 10493: 10487: 10486: 10450: 10444: 10437: 10428: 10427: 10407: 10398: 10397: 10395: 10393: 10371: 10365: 10364: 10359: 10357: 10329: 10323: 10306: 10300: 10299: 10294:. Archived from 10286: 10280: 10273: 10267: 10256: 10250: 10249: 10248:on 3 March 2016. 10244:. Archived from 10238: 10232: 10231: 10211: 10205: 10204: 10202: 10200: 10172: 10166: 10165: 10163: 10161: 10129: 10120: 10117: 10111: 10104: 10098: 10087: 10081: 10061: 10055: 10054: 10052: 10050: 10045:on 27 April 2011 10035: 10029: 10019: 10013: 10006:Seymour Drescher 10003: 9997: 9994: 9988: 9985: 9979: 9978: 9976: 9952: 9946: 9939: 9933: 9932: 9916: 9906: 9900: 9893: 9887: 9872: 9866: 9865: 9850: 9844: 9833:Otto I the Great 9809: 9803: 9793: 9787: 9786: 9784: 9782: 9763: 9757: 9756: 9754: 9752: 9737: 9731: 9730: 9728: 9726: 9710: 9704: 9703: 9701: 9699: 9684: 9678: 9677: 9672:. Archived from 9666: 9660: 9645: 9639: 9638: 9617: 9611: 9604: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9593: 9570: 9564: 9563: 9545: 9539: 9538: 9520: 9514: 9513: 9511: 9509: 9490: 9484: 9461: 9455: 9454: 9442: 9440:"Socrates" 9434: 9428: 9427: 9405: 9399: 9398: 9376: 9370: 9369: 9341: 9335: 9334: 9327: 9321: 9316:and J.D. Muhly, 9306: 9297: 9292:Emilio Peruzzi, 9290: 9284: 9278: 9272: 9259: 9253: 9250: 9244: 9243: 9241: 9239: 9224: 9218: 9217: 9215: 9213: 9185: 9179: 9171: 9165: 9164: 9162: 9160: 9132: 9126: 9125: 9123: 9121: 9106: 9100: 9099: 9097: 9095: 9073: 9064: 9063: 9061: 9059: 9043: 9035: 9029: 9028: 9026: 9024: 9005: 8999: 8998: 8946: 8940: 8939: 8929: 8897: 8713:establishes the 8574:Treaties of Rome 8416:Second World War 8377:Munich agreement 8338:Great Depression 8336:1929: Worldwide 8327:Benito Mussolini 7778:in Milan as the 7688:since antiquity. 7588:East–West Schism 7536:Carpathian Basin 7528:Hungarian people 7465:Bulgarian Church 7428:Treaty of Verdun 7337:Saint Columbanus 7220:under the ashes. 7049:Odrysian kingdom 7043: 7040: 6950:is conquered by 6889:3850 - 3600 BC: 6846:Russia began an 6806:stepped down as 6712:Treaty of Lisbon 6700:war with Georgia 6604:established the 6522:Brandenburg Gate 6386:Communist states 6382:protected NATO. 6356:Yalta Conference 6288:, including the 6267:Battle of Berlin 6216:attacking Poland 6212:Second World War 6200:Benito Mussolini 6184:Munich Agreement 6114:Francisco Franco 6059:Great Depression 5976:Roaring Twenties 5692:Age of Discovery 5688:Colonial empires 5631:Colonial Empires 5502:balance of power 5402:Friedrich Engels 5372:balance of power 5300:Balearic Islands 5012:Kingdom of Italy 4768:Kingdom of Italy 4747:Second Coalition 4708:entrepreneurship 4702:, abolished the 4700:seigneurial dues 4577:Fourth Coalition 4374:Marie Antoinette 4366:Paul I of Russia 4082: 4073: 3920:Battle of Vienna 3895:, etc.) and the 3889:Russo-Polish War 3826:Crown of Bohemia 3532:Colonial empires 3509:Alberico Gentili 3467:, 1570 print by 3345: 3336: 3308:Siberian Khanate 3296:Khanate of Kazan 3232:Age of Discovery 2985:Hanseatic League 2962:Peasants' Revolt 2902:Late Middle Ages 2896:Late Middle Ages 2838:Teutonic Knights 2762:. Mongol armies 2694:East–West Schism 2683:Siege of Antioch 2536:Mongol invasions 2501:East–West Schism 2479:High Middle Ages 2473:High Middle Ages 2457:Ahmad ibn Fadlan 2333:and part of the 2305:Medieval Hungary 2301:Medieval England 2045:Khazar Khaganate 2031:In the East and 1993:Muslim conquests 1965:Christianisation 1935:"). The city of 1893:Byzantine Empire 1831:Bulgarian Empire 1827:Muslim conquests 1650:Migration Period 1634:Byzantine Empire 1600:Edict of Serdica 1574:Migration Period 1547: 1532: 1516: 1504: 1485:Romulus Augustus 1464:in 313 with the 1448:(now Istanbul). 1389:, North Africa, 1166:Odrysian Kingdom 1154:Spartan hegemony 1036:Platonic Academy 1020:direct democracy 916:ancient Athenian 887: 872: 853:Urnfield culture 784:The Treasury of 745:in Thessaly. In 741:in Boeotia, and 654: 642: 619:Varna necropolis 604:Balkan peninsula 596:Southeast Europe 565:hunter-gatherers 532:Neolithic Europe 498:), in Spain and 350:Late Pleistocene 181:Late Middle Ages 169:High Middle Ages 118:Migration Period 35:Abraham Ortelius 21: 16149: 16148: 16144: 16143: 16142: 16140: 16139: 16138: 16124: 16123: 16122: 16117: 16096: 16070: 16027: 15965: 15931:Renaissance art 15908: 15899:Matteo Palmieri 15869: 15853: 15842:Northern Europe 15814: 15804: 15688: 15657: 15616: 15580:House of Stuart 15560: 15425: 15388: 15340: 15311:Northern Europe 15299: 15275:Elizabethan era 15229: 15224: 15194: 15189: 15131: 15128: 15098: 15093: 15075: 15068: 15061: 15048: 15032:Life expectancy 15020:genetic history 14991: 14926:Classical music 14873: 14862:Bologna Process 14825:Ages of consent 14799: 14709:Budget revenues 14692: 14661: 14602: 14496: 14428: 14373: 14263: 14235: 14193:Early modernity 14147: 14138: 14108: 14103: 14087: 14045: 14039: 14025:Northern Cyprus 14007: 14001: 13917:North Macedonia 13738: 13733: 13703: 13698: 13637: 13603:Interwar period 13578:Napoleonic Wars 13442: 13413:Mongol invasion 13366:Crown of Aragon 13258: 13198: 13194:Iron Age Europe 13165: 13160: 13120:Research Guides 13090: 13085: 13079: 13077:Further reading 13069: 13048: 13029: 13024: 13013: 12999: 12995: 12989: 12985: 12954: 12950: 12943: 12927: 12923: 12913: 12911: 12902: 12901: 12897: 12882: 12878: 12868: 12866: 12857: 12856: 12852: 12837: 12833: 12826: 12822: 12809: 12807: 12782: 12778: 12765: 12763: 12730: 12726: 12712: 12710: 12691: 12687: 12682:Wayback Machine 12668: 12664: 12654: 12652: 12637: 12633: 12623: 12621: 12608: 12607: 12603: 12594: 12590: 12580: 12578: 12576: 12560: 12556: 12551:Wayback Machine 12538: 12534: 12527: 12510: 12506: 12496: 12494: 12487: 12469: 12465: 12456: 12452: 12443: 12439: 12427: 12423: 12413: 12411: 12398: 12397: 12393: 12385:Norman Davies, 12384: 12380: 12371: 12367: 12358: 12354: 12345: 12341: 12335:Wayback Machine 12321: 12317: 12309:Piers Brendon, 12308: 12304: 12295: 12291: 12278: 12274: 12265: 12261: 12254: 12238: 12234: 12221: 12217: 12208: 12204: 12195: 12191: 12182: 12178: 12165: 12161: 12148: 12144: 12132: 12128: 12120:(2nd ed. 1968) 12111: 12107: 12088: 12084: 12075: 12071: 12061: 12059: 12052: 12036: 12032: 12023: 12019: 12013:Wayback Machine 11999: 11995: 11986: 11982: 11973: 11969: 11963:Wayback Machine 11949: 11945: 11937: 11933: 11926: 11910: 11906: 11896: 11894: 11887: 11871: 11867: 11857: 11855: 11848: 11832: 11828: 11819: 11815: 11803: 11799: 11782: 11778: 11768: 11766: 11762: 11751: 11745: 11741: 11731: 11729: 11725: 11718: 11714: 11713: 11709: 11699: 11697: 11693: 11686: 11682: 11681: 11677: 11667: 11665: 11661: 11654: 11650: 11649: 11645: 11638: 11624: 11620: 11613: 11599: 11595: 11588: 11574: 11570: 11563: 11549: 11545: 11538: 11524: 11520: 11513: 11499: 11495: 11488: 11474: 11470: 11464:Wayback Machine 11454: 11450: 11443: 11429: 11425: 11417:Norman Davies, 11416: 11412: 11403: 11399: 11389: 11387: 11380: 11364: 11360: 11351: 11347: 11338: 11334: 11319:10.2307/2142012 11303: 11299: 11290: 11286: 11278:Hagen Schulze, 11277: 11273: 11264: 11260: 11221: 11217: 11208: 11204: 11195: 11191: 11181: 11179: 11172: 11156: 11152: 11143: 11139: 11124: 11120: 11107: 11103: 11094: 11090: 11081: 11077: 11068: 11064: 11056:William Doyle, 11055: 11051: 11042: 11038: 11029: 11025: 11016: 11012: 10995: 10991: 10982: 10978: 10969: 10965: 10956: 10952: 10947: 10943: 10937:Wayback Machine 10923: 10919: 10914:Wayback Machine 10893: 10889: 10879: 10877: 10870: 10854: 10850: 10841: 10837: 10828: 10824: 10817: 10795: 10791: 10782: 10778: 10773: 10769: 10760: 10756: 10747: 10740: 10731: 10727: 10718: 10714: 10705: 10701: 10694: 10672: 10668: 10659: 10655: 10646: 10642: 10615: 10611: 10602: 10598: 10589: 10585: 10576: 10572: 10563: 10559: 10550: 10546: 10537: 10533: 10494: 10490: 10451: 10447: 10438: 10431: 10424: 10408: 10401: 10391: 10389: 10372: 10368: 10355: 10353: 10346: 10330: 10326: 10321:Wayback Machine 10307: 10303: 10288: 10287: 10283: 10274: 10270: 10257: 10253: 10240: 10239: 10235: 10228: 10212: 10208: 10198: 10196: 10189: 10173: 10169: 10159: 10157: 10150: 10142:. p. 165. 10130: 10123: 10119:Cantor, p. 480. 10118: 10114: 10105: 10101: 10088: 10084: 10072:Wayback Machine 10062: 10058: 10048: 10046: 10037: 10036: 10032: 10021:John H. Mundy, 10020: 10016: 10004: 10000: 9995: 9991: 9986: 9982: 9953: 9949: 9940: 9936: 9929: 9907: 9903: 9894: 9890: 9873: 9869: 9851: 9847: 9839:(1054) and the 9810: 9806: 9794: 9790: 9780: 9778: 9765: 9764: 9760: 9750: 9748: 9739: 9738: 9734: 9724: 9722: 9717:. Ph.ucla.edu. 9711: 9707: 9697: 9695: 9686: 9685: 9681: 9668: 9667: 9663: 9646: 9642: 9635: 9618: 9614: 9605: 9601: 9591: 9589: 9587: 9571: 9567: 9560: 9546: 9542: 9535: 9521: 9517: 9507: 9505: 9492: 9491: 9487: 9476:Pen and Sword, 9474:Wayback Machine 9462: 9458: 9435: 9431: 9424: 9414:Pen & Sword 9406: 9402: 9395: 9385:Pen & Sword 9377: 9373: 9366: 9342: 9338: 9329: 9328: 9324: 9307: 9300: 9291: 9287: 9279: 9275: 9269:Wayback Machine 9260: 9256: 9251: 9247: 9237: 9235: 9226: 9225: 9221: 9211: 9209: 9202: 9186: 9182: 9172: 9168: 9158: 9156: 9149: 9133: 9129: 9119: 9117: 9110:"Ancient Crete" 9108: 9107: 9103: 9093: 9091: 9074: 9067: 9057: 9055: 9036: 9032: 9022: 9020: 9015:. 1 July 2020. 9007: 9006: 9002: 8965:(5578): 85–89. 8947: 8943: 8898: 8894: 8890: 8828: 8823: 8758:Great Recession 8626:movement under 8604:is defeated by 8589:Catholic Church 8414:, starting the 8297:Weimar Republic 8264:is assassinated 8232:electrical tram 8196:Long Depression 8044:Napoleonic Wars 7971:Thomas Newcomen 7881:Galileo Galilei 7775:The Last Supper 7754:, lands in the 7691:1337–1453: The 7669:1315–1317: The 7663:1309–1378: The 7649:1250: Death of 7595:Norman Invasion 7496:, creating the 7403:Battle of Tours 7366:Battle of Ongal 7228:Antonine Plague 7067:Achaemid Empire 7061:449 BC: End of 7041: 6999:Greek Dark Ages 6985:Greek Dark Ages 6914:is constructed. 6864: 6828:global currency 6810:after 16 years: 6764:leading to the 6723:Great Recession 6586:ending the USSR 6510: 6496: 6488:British economy 6439:war reparations 6431:mixed economies 6405: 6397:Main articles: 6395: 6344: 6328:Main articles: 6326: 6144: 6124:Main articles: 6122: 6061: 6055: 6043:Francoist Spain 5948: 5942:Interwar period 5934: 5865:Austria-Hungary 5807:Triple Alliance 5795:Austria-Hungary 5782: 5776: 5771: 5681:New Imperialism 5665: 5629:Main articles: 5627: 5603:Napoleonic Wars 5568: 5562: 5545:Hapsburg empire 5536:Austria-Hungary 5532: 5526:Austria-Hungary 5522:Austrian Empire 5518: 5486: 5478:Main articles: 5476: 5420: 5414: 5384:working classes 5352:Mikhail Bakunin 5345: 5316: 5279:Castilian Crown 5275:Crown of Aragon 5258: 5234:Polish language 5218:Congress Poland 5210:Duchy of Warsaw 5202: 5196: 5165: 5157:Main articles: 5155: 5142: 5136: 5110:proclaimed its 5101:First World War 5089:Berlin Congress 5046: 5034:Main articles: 5032: 4997: 4991: 4967: 4961: 4920: 4914: 4890:Main articles: 4888: 4847: 4841: 4833:Catholic Church 4681:property rights 4670: 4664: 4593:Duchy of Warsaw 4557:Third Coalition 4538: 4532: 4504:Reign of Terror 4446:Estates-General 4345: 4329:Main articles: 4327: 4290: 4284: 4256:Napoleonic Wars 4232: 4222: 4098: 4097: 4096: 4095: 4085: 4084: 4083: 4075: 4074: 4047: 4041: 4009: 4003: 3984: 3978: 3964:G. M. Trevelyan 3960:Russell Weigley 3954:ended with the 3939: 3933: 3813: 3807: 3779:Bourbon Dynasty 3757:1740–1780) and 3747:Peter the Great 3723: 3713: 3685:Stuart monarchy 3673: 3663:Bohemian Revolt 3651: 3596:Napoleonic Wars 3574:and then later 3524: 3518: 3455:Ottoman Hungary 3425:Anglican Church 3365: 3364: 3363: 3362: 3348: 3347: 3346: 3338: 3337: 3326: 3320: 3234: 3228: 3151: 3145: 3063: 3051:Main articles: 3049: 2924: 2900:Main articles: 2898: 2741:Dante Alighieri 2675: 2667:Main articles: 2665: 2586:Frankish Empire 2481: 2475: 2416:as well as the 2370:Cyrillic script 2315: 2309:Medieval Poland 2279:Main articles: 2277: 2189:regions in the 2175:Musa ibn Nusair 2167:Tariq ibn Ziyad 2110:, and parts of 2104:Roman Palestine 2049:Danube Bulgaria 2043:(632–668), the 2015: 2007:Main articles: 2005: 1895: 1889: 1853: 1845:Main articles: 1843: 1787:Sassanid Empire 1742:Visigothic Code 1576: 1568:Main articles: 1566: 1559: 1548: 1539: 1533: 1524: 1517: 1508: 1505: 1242: 1230:Main articles: 1228: 1208:Seleucid Empire 1204:Ptolemaic Egypt 985: 977:Main articles: 975: 904: 898: 891: 888: 879: 873: 849:Tumulus culture 826:Greek Dark Ages 817:Dorian invasion 715:mainland Greece 680: 672:Main articles: 670: 665: 658: 655: 646: 643: 561:Northern Europe 538: 524: 518:group as well. 500:southern France 482:Würm glaciation 470:Hamburg culture 405:Châtelperronian 342: 337: 331: 287:were dismantled 261:, during which 243:absolutist rule 193:Eurasian Steppe 171:the age of the 141:Frankish Empire 122:Germanic people 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16147: 16137: 16136: 16119: 16118: 16105: 16102: 16101: 16098: 16097: 16095: 16094: 16089: 16084: 16078: 16076: 16072: 16071: 16069: 16068: 16063: 16058: 16053: 16048: 16042: 16040: 16033: 16029: 16028: 16026: 16025: 16020: 16015: 16014: 16013: 16008: 16001:Coalition Wars 15998: 15993: 15988: 15983: 15977: 15975: 15971: 15970: 15967: 15966: 15964: 15963: 15962: 15961: 15956: 15951: 15946: 15941: 15933: 15927: 15925: 15918: 15914: 15913: 15910: 15909: 15907: 15906: 15901: 15896: 15891: 15885: 15877: 15875: 15871: 15870: 15868: 15867: 15861: 15859: 15855: 15854: 15852: 15851: 15846: 15845: 15844: 15834: 15829: 15825: 15823: 15816: 15810: 15809: 15806: 15805: 15803: 15802: 15797: 15792: 15791: 15790: 15785: 15780: 15775: 15770: 15765: 15760: 15755: 15745: 15740: 15735: 15730: 15729: 15728: 15718: 15713: 15707: 15705: 15698: 15694: 15693: 15690: 15689: 15687: 15686: 15681: 15676: 15671: 15665: 15663: 15659: 15658: 15656: 15655: 15650: 15645: 15640: 15635: 15630: 15624: 15622: 15618: 15617: 15615: 15614: 15613: 15612: 15607: 15602: 15597: 15589: 15588: 15587: 15585:House of Tudor 15582: 15574: 15568: 15566: 15562: 15561: 15559: 15558: 15553: 15548: 15547: 15546: 15536: 15534:Russian Empire 15531: 15526: 15525: 15524: 15519: 15512:Dutch Republic 15509: 15507:Swedish Empire 15504: 15499: 15494: 15492:Spanish Empire 15489: 15484: 15482:Ottoman Empire 15479: 15478: 15477: 15475:British Empire 15467: 15462: 15457: 15456: 15455: 15444: 15442: 15435: 15431: 15430: 15427: 15426: 15424: 15423: 15418: 15413: 15407: 15405: 15398: 15397:Social history 15394: 15393: 15390: 15389: 15387: 15386: 15381: 15378: 15373: 15372:Technological: 15370: 15365: 15359: 15357: 15350: 15346: 15345: 15342: 15341: 15339: 15338: 15333: 15328: 15323: 15318: 15313: 15307: 15305: 15301: 15300: 15298: 15297: 15292: 15287: 15282: 15277: 15272: 15267: 15262: 15257: 15256: 15255: 15244: 15242: 15235: 15231: 15230: 15223: 15222: 15215: 15208: 15200: 15191: 15190: 15188: 15187: 15177: 15171: 15162: 15157: 15151: 15142: 15136: 15133: 15132: 15127: 15126: 15119: 15112: 15104: 15095: 15094: 15092: 15091: 15086: 15081: 15074: 15073: 15066: 15058: 15057: 15054: 15053: 15050: 15049: 15047: 15046: 15041: 15040: 15039: 15029: 15024: 15023: 15022: 15012: 15007: 15001: 14999: 14993: 14992: 14990: 14989: 14975: 14970: 14969: 14968: 14963: 14958: 14948: 14943: 14938: 14933: 14928: 14923: 14922: 14921: 14919:film festivals 14911: 14906: 14901: 14900: 14899: 14894: 14883: 14881: 14875: 14874: 14872: 14871: 14870: 14869: 14864: 14854: 14849: 14848: 14847: 14837: 14832: 14827: 14821: 14815: 14809: 14808: 14805: 14804: 14801: 14800: 14798: 14797: 14792: 14787: 14782: 14777: 14772: 14767: 14762: 14757: 14752: 14747: 14742: 14741: 14740: 14730: 14729: 14728: 14718: 14717: 14716: 14706: 14700: 14698: 14694: 14693: 14691: 14690: 14685: 14680: 14675: 14669: 14667: 14663: 14662: 14660: 14659: 14654: 14649: 14644: 14639: 14634: 14628: 14618: 14612: 14611: 14608: 14607: 14604: 14603: 14601: 14600: 14595: 14594: 14593: 14583: 14578: 14577: 14576: 14566: 14561: 14556: 14551: 14550: 14549: 14544: 14534: 14529: 14524: 14523: 14522: 14517: 14506: 14504: 14502:European Union 14498: 14497: 14495: 14494: 14489: 14488: 14487: 14477: 14472: 14467: 14462: 14457: 14452: 14447: 14442: 14436: 14434: 14430: 14429: 14427: 14426: 14421: 14416: 14411: 14406: 14401: 14395: 14385: 14379: 14378: 14375: 14374: 14372: 14371: 14366: 14365: 14364: 14354: 14349: 14344: 14339: 14334: 14329: 14324: 14322:Extreme points 14319: 14317:Climate change 14314: 14309: 14304: 14299: 14298: 14297: 14287: 14281: 14275: 14269: 14268: 14265: 14264: 14262: 14261: 14260: 14259: 14249: 14243: 14241: 14237: 14236: 14234: 14233: 14228: 14215: 14210: 14205: 14200: 14195: 14190: 14185: 14183:Late antiquity 14180: 14175: 14170: 14164: 14162: 14155: 14149: 14148: 14137: 14136: 14129: 14122: 14114: 14105: 14104: 14102: 14101: 14099:European Union 14095: 14093: 14092:Other entities 14089: 14088: 14086: 14085: 14080: 14075: 14070: 14065: 14060: 14055: 14049: 14047: 14046:other entities 14041: 14040: 14038: 14037: 14032: 14027: 14022: 14017: 14011: 14009: 14003: 14002: 14000: 13999: 13994: 13992:United Kingdom 13989: 13984: 13979: 13974: 13969: 13964: 13959: 13954: 13949: 13944: 13939: 13934: 13929: 13924: 13919: 13914: 13909: 13904: 13899: 13894: 13889: 13884: 13879: 13874: 13869: 13864: 13859: 13857: 13852: 13847: 13842: 13837: 13832: 13827: 13822: 13817: 13812: 13807: 13805:Czech Republic 13802: 13797: 13792: 13787: 13782: 13777: 13772: 13767: 13762: 13757: 13752: 13746: 13744: 13740: 13739: 13732: 13731: 13724: 13717: 13709: 13700: 13699: 13697: 13696: 13691: 13686: 13681: 13676: 13671: 13666: 13661: 13656: 13651: 13645: 13643: 13639: 13638: 13636: 13635: 13630: 13625: 13620: 13615: 13610: 13605: 13600: 13595: 13590: 13585: 13580: 13575: 13570: 13565: 13560: 13555: 13553:Russian Empire 13550: 13545: 13543:British Empire 13540: 13538:Dutch Republic 13535: 13533:Swedish Empire 13530: 13525: 13520: 13515: 13513:Spanish Empire 13510: 13505: 13503:Ottoman Empire 13500: 13495: 13490: 13485: 13480: 13475: 13474: 13473: 13463: 13458: 13452: 13450: 13444: 13443: 13441: 13440: 13435: 13430: 13425: 13420: 13418:Serbian Empire 13415: 13410: 13405: 13400: 13395: 13390: 13385: 13363: 13358: 13353: 13352: 13351: 13346: 13341: 13336: 13326: 13325: 13324: 13319: 13311: 13306: 13301: 13296: 13291: 13290: 13289: 13279: 13274: 13268: 13266: 13260: 13259: 13257: 13256: 13254:Late antiquity 13251: 13246: 13241: 13240: 13239: 13229: 13224: 13219: 13217:Roman Republic 13214: 13208: 13206: 13200: 13199: 13197: 13196: 13191: 13186: 13181: 13175: 13173: 13167: 13166: 13159: 13158: 13151: 13144: 13136: 13130: 13129: 13124: 13108: 13102: 13097: 13089: 13088:External links 13086: 13081:Main article: 13078: 13075: 13074: 13073: 13067: 13052: 13046: 13028: 13025: 13023: 13022: 13012:978-8779344310 13011: 12993: 12983: 12948: 12941: 12921: 12895: 12876: 12850: 12831: 12820: 12776: 12724: 12695:Starr, Barbara 12693:Herb, Jeremy; 12685: 12662: 12631: 12601: 12588: 12574: 12554: 12532: 12525: 12504: 12485: 12463: 12450: 12437: 12421: 12391: 12378: 12365: 12352: 12339: 12322:F.P. Walters, 12315: 12302: 12289: 12272: 12259: 12252: 12232: 12215: 12202: 12196:Zara Steiner, 12189: 12187:(2nd ed. 2003) 12176: 12159: 12157:(2nd ed. 2007) 12142: 12140:(2013) p xxiii 12126: 12105: 12082: 12069: 12050: 12030: 12017: 11993: 11987:Denis Brogan, 11980: 11967: 11943: 11931: 11924: 11904: 11885: 11865: 11846: 11826: 11813: 11797: 11776: 11739: 11707: 11675: 11643: 11636: 11618: 11611: 11593: 11587:978-8429723632 11586: 11568: 11561: 11543: 11536: 11518: 11511: 11493: 11486: 11468: 11455:Antoni Simon, 11448: 11441: 11423: 11410: 11397: 11378: 11358: 11345: 11332: 11313:(4): 664–686. 11297: 11284: 11271: 11258: 11237:10.1086/237315 11215: 11202: 11189: 11170: 11150: 11137: 11118: 11101: 11088: 11075: 11062: 11049: 11036: 11023: 11010: 10989: 10987:(1959) pp. 4–5 10976: 10963: 10950: 10941: 10917: 10887: 10868: 10848: 10835: 10822: 10815: 10789: 10776: 10767: 10754: 10738: 10725: 10712: 10699: 10692: 10666: 10664:(1942) p. 363. 10653: 10640: 10609: 10596: 10583: 10570: 10557: 10551:John B. Wolf, 10544: 10531: 10504:(2): 239–261. 10488: 10461:(2): 151–194. 10445: 10429: 10422: 10399: 10366: 10344: 10324: 10301: 10281: 10275:Euan Cameron, 10268: 10251: 10233: 10226: 10206: 10187: 10167: 10148: 10121: 10112: 10099: 10082: 10056: 10030: 10014: 9998: 9989: 9980: 9947: 9934: 9927: 9901: 9888: 9867: 9845: 9823:(496) and the 9804: 9802:, p. 124. 9788: 9758: 9732: 9705: 9679: 9661: 9640: 9633: 9612: 9599: 9585: 9565: 9558: 9540: 9533: 9515: 9485: 9456: 9445:Chisholm, Hugh 9429: 9422: 9400: 9393: 9371: 9364: 9336: 9322: 9298: 9285: 9273: 9254: 9245: 9219: 9200: 9180: 9178:(Figure 2-A)." 9166: 9147: 9127: 9101: 9065: 9030: 9000: 8941: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8885: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8821: 8814: 8809:2023: Finland 8807: 8800: 8793: 8786: 8779: 8768: 8763:2013: Croatia 8761: 8754: 8747: 8740: 8725: 8718: 8715:European Union 8707: 8696: 8685: 8678: 8663: 8656: 8649: 8646:begins reforms 8638: 8631: 8620: 8613: 8598: 8591: 8581: 8576:establish the 8570: 8563: 8556: 8549: 8538: 8531: 8524: 8517: 8510: 8507:British Empire 8503: 8500:United Nations 8496: 8489: 8478: 8467: 8464:Final Solution 8448: 8441: 8430: 8419: 8402: 8387: 8384: 8381:Czechoslovakia 8373: 8366: 8359: 8356: 8345: 8334: 8323: 8320: 8313: 8306: 8303: 8300: 8293: 8290: 8285:. The ensuing 8275:Vladimir Lenin 8271: 8257: 8250: 8239: 8228: 8217: 8199: 8188: 8177: 8166: 8151:1860s: Russia 8149: 8142: 8131: 8124:Charles Darwin 8120: 8113: 8100: 8090: 8087:Louis Daguerre 8083: 8072: 8061: 8054: 8047: 8040: 8033:comes to power 8026: 8019: 8012: 7999: 7988: 7981: 7978:Russian Empire 7974: 7967: 7952: 7947:18th century: 7945: 7930: 7925:concludes the 7919: 7902: 7895: 7888: 7877: 7870: 7859: 7845: 7834: 7827: 7816: 7794: 7783: 7766: 7759: 7740: 7733: 7722: 7715:printing press 7713:and the first 7709:invents first 7703: 7696: 7689: 7674: 7667: 7665:Avignon Papacy 7661: 7654: 7647: 7637: 7631: 7624: 7613: 7608:calls for the 7602: 7597:of England by 7591: 7584: 7573: 7558: 7539: 7524: 7505: 7474: 7467: 7442: 7431: 7424: 7417: 7406: 7399: 7384: 7373: 7347: 7344:Jus patronatus 7340: 7333: 7326: 7301: 7286: 7271: 7264: 7257:Constantinople 7249: 7242: 7231: 7224: 7221: 7202: 7195:Julio-Claudian 7191: 7184: 7169: 7156: 7155: 7148: 7145:Roman Republic 7134: 7127: 7116: 7109: 7098: 7087: 7070: 7059: 7036: 7029: 7026:Roman Republic 7022: 7009: 7006: 6995: 6988: 6977: 6970: 6955: 6944: 6933:Thera eruption 6929: 6922: 6915: 6908: 6905:Indo-Europeans 6901: 6894: 6893:period begins. 6891:Malta's Temple 6887: 6880: 6873: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6752:has been in a 6668:Czech Republic 6606:European Union 6592:'s government 6495: 6494:Recent history 6492: 6461: 6460: 6453:Walter Lacquer 6449: 6448: 6435: 6434: 6394: 6391: 6368:Communist bloc 6325: 6322: 6166:, east of the 6121: 6118: 6092:Imperial Japan 6057:Main article: 6054: 6051: 6003:representative 5960:Czechoslovakia 5933: 5930: 5869:Ottoman Empire 5849:Vladimir Lenin 5816:Triple Entente 5803:Central Powers 5799:Ottoman Empire 5778:Main article: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5763:Triple Entente 5738:Ottoman Empire 5731:Russian Empire 5700:Spanish Empire 5651:British Empire 5643:Russian Empire 5626: 5623: 5564:Main article: 5561: 5558: 5553:Russian Empire 5530:Russian Empire 5517: 5514: 5475: 5472: 5416:Main article: 5413: 5410: 5360:Basel Congress 5344: 5341: 5315: 5312: 5257: 5254: 5198:Main article: 5195: 5192: 5184:April Uprising 5154: 5151: 5138:Main article: 5135: 5132: 5130:in the 1990s. 5083:. It achieved 5069:Ottoman Empire 5031: 5028: 4993:Main article: 4990: 4987: 4963:Main article: 4960: 4957: 4950:British Empire 4945:constitutional 4887: 4886:Nations rising 4884: 4843:Main article: 4840: 4837: 4828: 4827: 4812: 4811: 4712:Jewish ghettos 4666:Main article: 4663: 4660: 4612:invaded Russia 4534:Main article: 4531: 4528: 4516:Georges Danton 4426: 4425: 4413:Atlantic World 4362: 4361: 4326: 4323: 4286:Main article: 4283: 4280: 4264:Russian Empire 4221: 4218: 4135:and physicist 4113:Baruch Spinoza 4087: 4086: 4077: 4076: 4068: 4067: 4066: 4065: 4064: 4043:Main article: 4040: 4037: 4005:Main article: 4002: 3999: 3980:Main article: 3977: 3974: 3973: 3972: 3935:Main article: 3932: 3929: 3905:divided Poland 3897:Ottoman Empire 3866:printing press 3809:Main article: 3806: 3803: 3785:to a moderate 3755:Habsburg lands 3712: 3709: 3650: 3647: 3631:Saint-Domingue 3520:Main article: 3517: 3514: 3383:printing press 3350: 3349: 3340: 3339: 3331: 3330: 3329: 3328: 3327: 3322:Main article: 3319: 3316: 3294:khanates, the 3260:Ottoman Empire 3230:Main article: 3227: 3224: 3147:Main article: 3144: 3141: 3048: 3045: 3009:Ottoman Empire 3001:Constantinople 2953: 2952: 2906:Lex mercatoria 2897: 2894: 2882:dynastic union 2874:Union of Krewo 2854:Livonian Order 2704:, Hungary and 2664: 2661: 2653:Thomas Aquinas 2613:artistic works 2509:Constantinople 2477:Main article: 2474: 2471: 2449:Volga Bulgaria 2276: 2273: 2257:Charles Martel 2185:) and largely 2074:, who entered 2037:Avar Khaganate 2024:Europe in the 2004: 2001: 1997:Constantinople 1985:Constantinople 1949:Roman religion 1891:Main article: 1888: 1885: 1871:, the rise of 1842: 1839: 1823:southern Italy 1817:, followed by 1717:remote areas. 1612:Constantinople 1596:Edict of Milan 1570:Late Antiquity 1565: 1562: 1561: 1560: 1549: 1542: 1540: 1534: 1527: 1525: 1521:Roman republic 1518: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1499: 1476:in about 380. 1472:to become the 1466:Edict of Milan 1450:Constantinople 1446:Constantinople 1424:in Rome, Italy 1293:Roman Republic 1265:Cesare Maccari 1251:addresses the 1236:Roman Republic 1227: 1224: 1158:Corinthian War 1086:Persian Empire 1074:Southern Italy 979:Ancient Greece 974: 973:Ancient Greece 971: 951:ancient Greece 935:ancient Greece 918:Temple on the 900:Main article: 897: 894: 893: 892: 889: 882: 880: 874: 867: 669: 666: 664: 663:Ancient Europe 661: 660: 659: 656: 649: 647: 644: 637: 557:Central Europe 523: 520: 512:Lyngby complex 341: 338: 333:Main article: 330: 327: 299:European Union 219:religious wars 211:printing press 185:bubonic plague 106:ancient Greece 68:appear in the 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 16146: 16135: 16132: 16131: 16129: 16116: 16112: 16108: 16107:Human history 16103: 16093: 16090: 16088: 16085: 16083: 16080: 16079: 16077: 16073: 16067: 16064: 16062: 16059: 16057: 16054: 16052: 16049: 16047: 16046:Art of Europe 16044: 16043: 16041: 16037: 16034: 16030: 16024: 16021: 16019: 16016: 16012: 16009: 16007: 16006:Revolutionary 16004: 16003: 16002: 15999: 15997: 15994: 15992: 15989: 15987: 15984: 15982: 15979: 15978: 15976: 15974:End of period 15972: 15960: 15957: 15955: 15952: 15950: 15947: 15945: 15942: 15940: 15937: 15936: 15934: 15932: 15929: 15928: 15926: 15922: 15919: 15915: 15905: 15902: 15900: 15897: 15895: 15892: 15889: 15886: 15884: 15883: 15879: 15878: 15876: 15872: 15866: 15863: 15862: 15860: 15856: 15850: 15847: 15843: 15840: 15839: 15838: 15835: 15833: 15830: 15827: 15826: 15824: 15820: 15817: 15811: 15801: 15798: 15796: 15793: 15789: 15786: 15784: 15781: 15779: 15776: 15774: 15771: 15769: 15766: 15764: 15761: 15759: 15756: 15754: 15751: 15750: 15749: 15746: 15744: 15741: 15739: 15736: 15734: 15731: 15727: 15724: 15723: 15722: 15719: 15717: 15714: 15712: 15709: 15708: 15706: 15702: 15699: 15695: 15685: 15682: 15680: 15677: 15675: 15672: 15670: 15667: 15666: 15664: 15660: 15654: 15651: 15649: 15646: 15644: 15641: 15639: 15636: 15634: 15631: 15629: 15626: 15625: 15623: 15619: 15611: 15608: 15606: 15605:Ancien Régime 15603: 15601: 15598: 15596: 15593: 15592: 15590: 15586: 15583: 15581: 15578: 15577: 15575: 15573: 15570: 15569: 15567: 15563: 15557: 15554: 15552: 15549: 15545: 15542: 15541: 15540: 15537: 15535: 15532: 15530: 15527: 15523: 15520: 15518: 15515: 15514: 15513: 15510: 15508: 15505: 15503: 15500: 15498: 15495: 15493: 15490: 15488: 15485: 15483: 15480: 15476: 15473: 15472: 15471: 15468: 15466: 15463: 15461: 15458: 15454: 15451: 15450: 15449: 15446: 15445: 15443: 15439: 15436: 15432: 15422: 15419: 15417: 15414: 15412: 15409: 15408: 15406: 15402: 15399: 15395: 15385: 15382: 15380:Intellectual: 15379: 15377: 15374: 15371: 15369: 15366: 15364: 15361: 15360: 15358: 15354: 15351: 15347: 15337: 15336:Low Countries 15334: 15332: 15329: 15327: 15324: 15322: 15319: 15317: 15314: 15312: 15309: 15308: 15306: 15302: 15296: 15293: 15291: 15288: 15286: 15283: 15281: 15278: 15276: 15273: 15271: 15268: 15266: 15263: 15261: 15258: 15254: 15251: 15250: 15249: 15246: 15245: 15243: 15239: 15236: 15232: 15228: 15221: 15216: 15214: 15209: 15207: 15202: 15201: 15198: 15185: 15181: 15178: 15175: 15172: 15170: 15166: 15163: 15161: 15158: 15155: 15154:South America 15152: 15150: 15149:North America 15146: 15143: 15141: 15138: 15137: 15134: 15125: 15120: 15118: 15113: 15111: 15106: 15105: 15102: 15090: 15087: 15085: 15082: 15080: 15077: 15076: 15071: 15067: 15064: 15060: 15059: 15055: 15045: 15042: 15038: 15035: 15034: 15033: 15030: 15028: 15025: 15021: 15018: 15017: 15016: 15015:Ethnic groups 15013: 15011: 15008: 15006: 15003: 15002: 15000: 14998: 14994: 14987: 14983: 14979: 14976: 14974: 14971: 14967: 14964: 14962: 14959: 14957: 14954: 14953: 14952: 14949: 14947: 14944: 14942: 14939: 14937: 14934: 14932: 14929: 14927: 14924: 14920: 14917: 14916: 14915: 14912: 14910: 14907: 14905: 14902: 14898: 14895: 14893: 14890: 14889: 14888: 14885: 14884: 14882: 14880: 14876: 14868: 14865: 14863: 14860: 14859: 14858: 14855: 14853: 14850: 14846: 14843: 14842: 14841: 14838: 14836: 14833: 14831: 14828: 14826: 14823: 14822: 14819: 14816: 14814: 14810: 14796: 14793: 14791: 14788: 14786: 14783: 14781: 14778: 14776: 14773: 14771: 14768: 14766: 14763: 14761: 14758: 14756: 14753: 14751: 14748: 14746: 14743: 14739: 14736: 14735: 14734: 14731: 14727: 14724: 14723: 14722: 14721:GDP (nominal) 14719: 14715: 14712: 14711: 14710: 14707: 14705: 14702: 14701: 14699: 14695: 14689: 14686: 14684: 14681: 14679: 14676: 14674: 14671: 14670: 14668: 14664: 14658: 14655: 14653: 14650: 14648: 14645: 14643: 14640: 14638: 14635: 14633: 14630: 14629: 14626: 14622: 14619: 14617: 14613: 14599: 14596: 14592: 14589: 14588: 14587: 14586:Schengen Area 14584: 14582: 14579: 14575: 14572: 14571: 14570: 14567: 14565: 14562: 14560: 14557: 14555: 14552: 14548: 14545: 14543: 14540: 14539: 14538: 14535: 14533: 14530: 14528: 14525: 14521: 14518: 14516: 14513: 14512: 14511: 14508: 14507: 14505: 14503: 14499: 14493: 14490: 14486: 14483: 14482: 14481: 14478: 14476: 14473: 14471: 14468: 14466: 14463: 14461: 14458: 14456: 14453: 14451: 14448: 14446: 14443: 14441: 14438: 14437: 14435: 14431: 14425: 14422: 14420: 14417: 14415: 14412: 14410: 14407: 14405: 14402: 14400: 14397: 14396: 14393: 14389: 14386: 14384: 14380: 14370: 14367: 14363: 14362:by population 14360: 14359: 14358: 14355: 14353: 14350: 14348: 14345: 14343: 14340: 14338: 14335: 14333: 14330: 14328: 14325: 14323: 14320: 14318: 14315: 14313: 14310: 14308: 14305: 14303: 14300: 14296: 14293: 14292: 14291: 14288: 14286: 14283: 14282: 14279: 14276: 14274: 14270: 14258: 14255: 14254: 14253: 14250: 14248: 14245: 14244: 14242: 14238: 14232: 14229: 14226: 14223: 14219: 14216: 14214: 14211: 14209: 14206: 14204: 14201: 14199: 14196: 14194: 14191: 14189: 14186: 14184: 14181: 14179: 14176: 14174: 14171: 14169: 14166: 14165: 14163: 14159: 14156: 14154: 14150: 14146: 14142: 14135: 14130: 14128: 14123: 14121: 14116: 14115: 14112: 14100: 14097: 14096: 14094: 14090: 14084: 14081: 14079: 14076: 14074: 14071: 14069: 14066: 14064: 14061: 14059: 14058:Faroe Islands 14056: 14054: 14051: 14050: 14048: 14042: 14036: 14033: 14031: 14030:South Ossetia 14028: 14026: 14023: 14021: 14018: 14016: 14013: 14012: 14010: 14004: 13998: 13995: 13993: 13990: 13988: 13985: 13983: 13980: 13978: 13975: 13973: 13970: 13968: 13965: 13963: 13960: 13958: 13955: 13953: 13950: 13948: 13945: 13943: 13940: 13938: 13935: 13933: 13930: 13928: 13925: 13923: 13920: 13918: 13915: 13913: 13910: 13908: 13905: 13903: 13900: 13898: 13895: 13893: 13890: 13888: 13885: 13883: 13880: 13878: 13877:Liechtenstein 13875: 13873: 13870: 13868: 13865: 13863: 13860: 13858: 13856: 13853: 13851: 13848: 13846: 13843: 13841: 13838: 13836: 13833: 13831: 13828: 13826: 13823: 13821: 13818: 13816: 13813: 13811: 13808: 13806: 13803: 13801: 13798: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13786: 13783: 13781: 13778: 13776: 13773: 13771: 13768: 13766: 13763: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13753: 13751: 13748: 13747: 13745: 13741: 13737: 13730: 13725: 13723: 13718: 13716: 13711: 13710: 13707: 13695: 13692: 13690: 13687: 13685: 13682: 13680: 13677: 13675: 13672: 13670: 13667: 13665: 13662: 13660: 13657: 13655: 13652: 13650: 13649:Art of Europe 13647: 13646: 13644: 13640: 13634: 13631: 13629: 13626: 13624: 13621: 13619: 13616: 13614: 13611: 13609: 13606: 13604: 13601: 13599: 13596: 13594: 13591: 13589: 13586: 13584: 13581: 13579: 13576: 13574: 13571: 13569: 13566: 13564: 13561: 13559: 13556: 13554: 13551: 13549: 13546: 13544: 13541: 13539: 13536: 13534: 13531: 13529: 13526: 13524: 13521: 13519: 13516: 13514: 13511: 13509: 13506: 13504: 13501: 13499: 13496: 13494: 13491: 13489: 13486: 13484: 13481: 13479: 13476: 13472: 13469: 13468: 13467: 13464: 13462: 13459: 13457: 13454: 13453: 13451: 13449: 13448:Modern period 13445: 13439: 13436: 13434: 13431: 13429: 13426: 13424: 13421: 13419: 13416: 13414: 13411: 13409: 13406: 13404: 13401: 13399: 13396: 13394: 13391: 13389: 13386: 13383: 13379: 13375: 13371: 13367: 13364: 13362: 13359: 13357: 13354: 13350: 13347: 13345: 13342: 13340: 13337: 13335: 13332: 13331: 13330: 13327: 13323: 13320: 13318: 13315: 13314: 13312: 13310: 13307: 13305: 13302: 13300: 13297: 13295: 13292: 13288: 13285: 13284: 13283: 13280: 13278: 13275: 13273: 13270: 13269: 13267: 13265: 13261: 13255: 13252: 13250: 13247: 13245: 13242: 13238: 13235: 13234: 13233: 13230: 13228: 13225: 13223: 13220: 13218: 13215: 13213: 13210: 13209: 13207: 13205: 13201: 13195: 13192: 13190: 13187: 13185: 13182: 13180: 13177: 13176: 13174: 13172: 13168: 13164: 13157: 13152: 13150: 13145: 13143: 13138: 13137: 13134: 13128: 13125: 13121: 13117: 13113: 13109: 13106: 13103: 13101: 13098: 13095: 13092: 13091: 13084: 13070: 13064: 13060: 13059: 13053: 13049: 13043: 13039: 13035: 13031: 13030: 13019: 13014: 13008: 13004: 12997: 12987: 12979: 12975: 12971: 12967: 12963: 12959: 12952: 12944: 12938: 12934: 12933: 12925: 12909: 12905: 12899: 12891: 12887: 12880: 12864: 12860: 12854: 12846: 12842: 12835: 12829: 12824: 12817: 12805: 12801: 12797: 12793: 12792: 12787: 12780: 12773: 12761: 12757: 12753: 12749: 12745: 12741: 12740: 12735: 12728: 12721: 12708: 12704: 12700: 12696: 12689: 12683: 12679: 12676: 12675:Sept 24. 2021 12674: 12666: 12650: 12646: 12642: 12635: 12619: 12615: 12611: 12605: 12598: 12592: 12577: 12571: 12567: 12566: 12558: 12552: 12548: 12545: 12542: 12536: 12528: 12522: 12518: 12517: 12508: 12492: 12488: 12482: 12478: 12474: 12467: 12460: 12454: 12447: 12441: 12435:(3 vol. 2004) 12434: 12430: 12429:Dinah Shelton 12425: 12409: 12405: 12403: 12395: 12388: 12382: 12375: 12369: 12362: 12356: 12349: 12343: 12336: 12332: 12329: 12325: 12319: 12312: 12306: 12299: 12293: 12287:(2011) p. 313 12286: 12282: 12276: 12269: 12263: 12255: 12249: 12245: 12244: 12236: 12229: 12225: 12219: 12212: 12206: 12199: 12193: 12186: 12183:Sally Marks, 12180: 12173: 12169: 12163: 12156: 12152: 12146: 12139: 12135: 12130: 12123: 12119: 12115: 12109: 12101: 12097: 12093: 12086: 12079: 12073: 12057: 12053: 12047: 12043: 12042: 12034: 12027: 12021: 12014: 12010: 12007: 12003: 11997: 11990: 11984: 11977: 11974:J.P.T. Bury, 11971: 11964: 11960: 11957: 11954:(Gale, 1994) 11953: 11947: 11940: 11935: 11927: 11921: 11917: 11916: 11908: 11892: 11888: 11882: 11878: 11877: 11869: 11853: 11849: 11843: 11839: 11838: 11830: 11823: 11817: 11811: 11807: 11804:James Bowen, 11801: 11793: 11789: 11788: 11780: 11761: 11757: 11750: 11743: 11724: 11717: 11711: 11692: 11685: 11679: 11660: 11653: 11647: 11639: 11637:9788418849107 11633: 11629: 11622: 11614: 11612:84-7826-620-8 11608: 11604: 11597: 11589: 11583: 11579: 11572: 11564: 11558: 11554: 11547: 11539: 11537:9788490341339 11533: 11529: 11522: 11514: 11512:9788418434983 11508: 11504: 11497: 11489: 11483: 11479: 11472: 11465: 11461: 11458: 11452: 11444: 11442:9788416416707 11438: 11434: 11427: 11420: 11414: 11407: 11401: 11385: 11381: 11375: 11371: 11370: 11362: 11355: 11349: 11342: 11336: 11328: 11324: 11320: 11316: 11312: 11308: 11301: 11294: 11288: 11281: 11275: 11268: 11262: 11254: 11250: 11246: 11242: 11238: 11234: 11230: 11226: 11219: 11212: 11206: 11199: 11193: 11177: 11173: 11167: 11163: 11162: 11154: 11147: 11141: 11135: 11131: 11127: 11122: 11116:(1934) p. 235 11115: 11111: 11105: 11098: 11092: 11085: 11079: 11072: 11066: 11059: 11053: 11046: 11040: 11033: 11027: 11020: 11014: 11006: 11002: 11001: 10993: 10986: 10983:R.R. Palmer, 10980: 10973: 10967: 10961:(2004) p. 388 10960: 10954: 10945: 10938: 10934: 10931: 10927: 10921: 10915: 10911: 10908: 10905: 10904:0-19-511589-9 10901: 10897: 10891: 10875: 10871: 10865: 10861: 10860: 10852: 10845: 10839: 10832: 10826: 10818: 10812: 10808: 10803: 10802: 10793: 10786: 10780: 10771: 10764: 10758: 10751: 10745: 10743: 10735: 10729: 10722: 10716: 10709: 10703: 10695: 10689: 10685: 10680: 10679: 10670: 10663: 10657: 10650: 10644: 10636: 10632: 10628: 10624: 10621:(39): 44–61. 10620: 10613: 10606: 10600: 10593: 10587: 10580: 10574: 10567: 10561: 10554: 10548: 10541: 10535: 10527: 10523: 10519: 10515: 10511: 10507: 10503: 10499: 10492: 10484: 10480: 10476: 10472: 10468: 10464: 10460: 10456: 10449: 10442: 10436: 10434: 10425: 10419: 10415: 10414: 10406: 10404: 10387: 10383: 10382: 10377: 10370: 10363: 10351: 10347: 10341: 10337: 10336: 10328: 10322: 10318: 10315: 10312:(1998) p. 92 10311: 10305: 10297: 10293: 10292: 10285: 10278: 10272: 10265: 10261: 10255: 10247: 10243: 10237: 10229: 10223: 10219: 10218: 10210: 10194: 10190: 10184: 10180: 10179: 10171: 10155: 10151: 10149:9780521195287 10145: 10141: 10137: 10136: 10128: 10126: 10116: 10109: 10103: 10096: 10092: 10086: 10079: 10078: 10073: 10069: 10066: 10060: 10044: 10040: 10034: 10028: 10024: 10018: 10011: 10007: 10002: 9993: 9984: 9975: 9970: 9966: 9962: 9958: 9951: 9944: 9938: 9930: 9924: 9920: 9915: 9914: 9905: 9898: 9892: 9885: 9884:0-521-36292-X 9881: 9877: 9871: 9864: 9862: 9856: 9849: 9842: 9838: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9822: 9818: 9817:Roman emperor 9814: 9808: 9801: 9797: 9792: 9776: 9772: 9768: 9762: 9746: 9742: 9736: 9720: 9716: 9709: 9693: 9689: 9683: 9675: 9671: 9665: 9658: 9654: 9650: 9644: 9636: 9630: 9626: 9625: 9616: 9609: 9603: 9588: 9582: 9578: 9577: 9569: 9561: 9559:9781444333619 9555: 9551: 9544: 9536: 9534:9781438106397 9530: 9526: 9519: 9503: 9499: 9495: 9489: 9483: 9482:1-84884-630-4 9479: 9475: 9471: 9468: 9467: 9460: 9452: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9433: 9425: 9423:9781473889811 9419: 9415: 9411: 9404: 9396: 9394:9781473840959 9390: 9386: 9382: 9375: 9367: 9365:9781400836550 9361: 9357: 9353: 9349: 9348: 9340: 9332: 9326: 9319: 9315: 9311: 9305: 9303: 9295: 9289: 9282: 9277: 9270: 9266: 9263: 9258: 9249: 9233: 9229: 9223: 9207: 9203: 9197: 9193: 9192: 9184: 9177: 9170: 9154: 9150: 9144: 9140: 9139: 9131: 9115: 9111: 9105: 9089: 9085: 9084: 9079: 9072: 9070: 9053: 9049: 9048: 9042: 9034: 9018: 9014: 9010: 9004: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8984: 8980: 8976: 8972: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8945: 8937: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8919: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8896: 8892: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8829: 8819: 8815: 8812: 8808: 8805: 8801: 8798: 8794: 8791: 8787: 8784: 8780: 8777: 8773: 8769: 8766: 8762: 8759: 8755: 8752: 8748: 8745: 8741: 8738: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8723: 8719: 8716: 8712: 8708: 8705: 8701: 8697: 8694: 8693:Yugoslav Wars 8690: 8686: 8683: 8679: 8676: 8672: 8668: 8664: 8661: 8657: 8654: 8650: 8647: 8643: 8639: 8636: 8633:1981: Greece 8632: 8629: 8625: 8621: 8618: 8614: 8611: 8607: 8603: 8602:Prague Spring 8599: 8596: 8592: 8590: 8586: 8582: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8568: 8564: 8561: 8557: 8554: 8553:French Empire 8550: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8536: 8532: 8529: 8525: 8522: 8521:Marshall Plan 8518: 8515: 8511: 8508: 8504: 8501: 8497: 8494: 8490: 8487: 8483: 8479: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8465: 8461: 8458:commence the 8457: 8453: 8449: 8446: 8442: 8439: 8435: 8431: 8428: 8424: 8420: 8417: 8413: 8410: 8407: 8403: 8400: 8396: 8395:Joseph Stalin 8392: 8388: 8385: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8371: 8370:Kristallnacht 8367: 8364: 8360: 8357: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8343: 8339: 8335: 8332: 8328: 8324: 8321: 8318: 8314: 8311: 8307: 8304: 8301: 8298: 8294: 8291: 8288: 8284: 8280: 8276: 8272: 8269: 8265: 8262: 8258: 8255: 8251: 8248: 8247:cinematograph 8244: 8240: 8237: 8233: 8229: 8226: 8222: 8218: 8216: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8197: 8193: 8192:Panic of 1873 8189: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8175: 8171: 8167: 8164: 8163: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8148:is completed. 8147: 8143: 8140: 8136: 8132: 8129: 8125: 8121: 8118: 8114: 8111: 8110: 8105: 8101: 8098: 8097: 8096:Great Western 8091: 8088: 8084: 8081: 8077: 8073: 8070: 8066: 8062: 8059: 8055: 8052: 8048: 8045: 8041: 8038: 8034: 8031: 8027: 8024: 8020: 8017: 8013: 8010: 8009: 8004: 8003:Immanuel Kant 8000: 7997: 7993: 7989: 7986: 7982: 7979: 7975: 7972: 7968: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7953: 7950: 7946: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7917: 7913: 7912: 7907: 7903: 7900: 7896: 7893: 7889: 7886: 7882: 7878: 7875: 7871: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7850: 7846: 7843: 7839: 7835: 7832: 7831:Hernán Cortés 7828: 7825: 7821: 7817: 7815: 7811: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7798:Martin Luther 7795: 7792: 7788: 7784: 7781: 7777: 7776: 7771: 7767: 7764: 7763:Vasco da Gama 7760: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7738: 7734: 7731: 7730:Ottoman Turks 7727: 7723: 7720: 7716: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7701: 7697: 7694: 7690: 7687: 7686:poet laureate 7683: 7679: 7675: 7672: 7668: 7666: 7662: 7659: 7655: 7652: 7648: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7636: 7632: 7629: 7625: 7622: 7618: 7614: 7611: 7610:First Crusade 7607: 7606:Pope Urban II 7603: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7589: 7585: 7582: 7578: 7574: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7559: 7556: 7552: 7548: 7544: 7540: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7522: 7518: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7487: 7483: 7479: 7475: 7472: 7468: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7443: 7440: 7439:Great Moravia 7436: 7432: 7429: 7425: 7422: 7418: 7415: 7411: 7407: 7404: 7400: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7382: 7378: 7374: 7371: 7367: 7363: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7351:Khan Asparukh 7348: 7345: 7341: 7338: 7334: 7331: 7327: 7324: 7320: 7319: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7302: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7269: 7265: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7247: 7243: 7240: 7236: 7232: 7229: 7225: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7203: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7189: 7185: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7171:30 or 33 AD: 7170: 7167: 7163: 7162: 7161: 7160: 7153: 7149: 7146: 7142: 7139: 7138:Julius Caesar 7135: 7132: 7131:Julius Caesar 7128: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7114: 7110: 7107: 7104:dies and his 7103: 7099: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7085: 7084: 7079: 7075: 7071: 7068: 7064: 7060: 7057: 7054: 7053:Daco-Thracian 7050: 7047: 7037: 7034: 7030: 7027: 7023: 7020: 7019: 7014: 7010: 7007: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6993: 6989: 6986: 6982: 6978: 6975: 6971: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6927: 6923: 6920: 6916: 6913: 6909: 6906: 6902: 6899: 6895: 6892: 6888: 6885: 6881: 6878: 6877:Varna culture 6874: 6871: 6867: 6866: 6859: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6843: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6811: 6809: 6805: 6804:Angela Merkel 6801: 6796: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6782: 6778: 6773: 6771: 6767: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6746: 6744: 6740: 6736: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6715: 6713: 6709: 6706:was rejected 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6644: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6633:Yugoslav Wars 6629: 6627: 6626: 6621: 6620: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6599: 6595: 6591: 6587: 6583: 6579: 6575: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6535: 6530: 6523: 6519: 6514: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6491: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6480:labour unions 6477: 6473: 6469: 6464: 6458: 6457: 6456: 6454: 6445: 6444: 6443: 6440: 6432: 6427: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6418: 6417:Marshall Plan 6409: 6404: 6400: 6399:Marshall Plan 6390: 6387: 6383: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6348: 6343: 6339: 6338:Marshall Plan 6335: 6331: 6321: 6319: 6315: 6311: 6310:forced labour 6307: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6278: 6276: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6249:in 1943, and 6248: 6247:invaded Italy 6244: 6243:Allied Forces 6240: 6235: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6204:Pact of Steel 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6169: 6165: 6160: 6153: 6152:Warsaw Ghetto 6148: 6143: 6142:The Holocaust 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6117: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6104:in 1931. The 6103: 6099: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6076: 6074: 6065: 6060: 6050: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6024: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5992: 5988: 5983: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5929: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5895: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5880:William Orpen 5876: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5837:Eastern Front 5834: 5830: 5826: 5822: 5821:Western Front 5818: 5817: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5786: 5781: 5766: 5764: 5760: 5755: 5751: 5747: 5743: 5739: 5734: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5720: 5716: 5712: 5708: 5703: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5682: 5678: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5622: 5620: 5619:South America 5616: 5612: 5611:North America 5608: 5604: 5600: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5557: 5554: 5549: 5546: 5542: 5537: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5513: 5511: 5507: 5506:German Empire 5503: 5499: 5498:German Empire 5495: 5491: 5485: 5484:German Empire 5481: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5449: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5428: 5427:Paris Commune 5424: 5419: 5409: 5405: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5394: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5340: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5311: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5284: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5262: 5253: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5223: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5201: 5191: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5164: 5160: 5150: 5148: 5141: 5131: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5104: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5078: 5074: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5059: 5050: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5024: 5019: 5015: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4996: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4966: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4946: 4942: 4937: 4929: 4926:Cheering the 4924: 4919: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4883: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4864:anti-clerical 4861: 4857: 4853: 4846: 4836: 4834: 4825: 4821: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4808: 4807: 4806: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4757: 4751: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4697: 4696:property laws 4692: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4673: 4669: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4575:. In 1806, a 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4537: 4527: 4525: 4521: 4520:insurrections 4517: 4513: 4512:Madame Roland 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4484: 4482: 4481:anti-royalism 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4461: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4443: 4435: 4430: 4422: 4421: 4420: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4358: 4357: 4356: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4322: 4319: 4318:machine tools 4315: 4311: 4307: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4279: 4277: 4273: 4272:German Empire 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4236: 4231: 4227: 4217: 4215: 4213: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4188: 4184: 4181:, the French 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4155: 4151: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4109:Francis Bacon 4105: 4103: 4094: 4090: 4081: 4072: 4063: 4061: 4056: 4052: 4051:Enlightenment 4046: 4039:Enlightenment 4036: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4013: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3995:Silesian Wars 3992: 3991:Prussian army 3988: 3983: 3969: 3968: 3967: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3938: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3916:Ottoman Turks 3912: 3908: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3851: 3847: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3827: 3823: 3822:Low Countries 3818: 3812: 3802: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3770: 3768: 3762: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3751:Maria Theresa 3748: 3744: 3736: 3733:, Pressburg ( 3732: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3708: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3672: 3664: 3660: 3655: 3646: 3644: 3640: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3627:French colony 3624: 3619: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3605: 3601: 3597: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3533: 3528: 3523: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3489:Francis Bacon 3485: 3481: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3465:Europa regina 3462: 3458: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3428: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3409:Martin Luther 3404: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3393: 3388: 3387:Martin Luther 3384: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3360: 3359: 3354: 3344: 3335: 3325: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3276: 3271: 3269: 3268:Vasco da Gama 3265: 3261: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3245:Vasco da Gama 3242: 3238: 3233: 3223: 3221: 3217: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3200: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3188:middle Europe 3185: 3181: 3177: 3169: 3165: 3161: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3083: 3079: 3078:Mediterranean 3075: 3071: 3067: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3044: 3041: 3037: 3029: 3025: 3020: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3005:Ottoman Turks 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2949: 2948: 2947: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2928: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2842:Old Prussians 2839: 2835: 2831: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2811: 2807: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2756:Mongol Empire 2752: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2721: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2688: 2687:First Crusade 2684: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2660: 2658: 2657:Scholasticism 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2539: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2517: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2499:In 1054, the 2494: 2490: 2489:First Crusade 2485: 2480: 2470: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2445: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2386:Great Moravia 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2356:To the east, 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2339:Low Countries 2336: 2332: 2328: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2272: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2234: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2151: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2056: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2027: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2000: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1975:in 1453. The 1974: 1973:Ottoman Turks 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1917:Constantine I 1911: 1907: 1903: 1902:Constantine I 1899: 1894: 1884: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1865:nation states 1862: 1858: 1852: 1848: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1815:Muslim forces 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1779: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1768:Great Moravia 1765: 1761: 1757: 1753: 1748: 1745: 1743: 1739: 1736:. In Iberia, 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1686: 1683: 1679: 1669: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1585: 1580: 1575: 1571: 1557: 1553: 1546: 1541: 1538: 1531: 1526: 1522: 1515: 1510: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1477: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1423: 1418: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1393:and parts of 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1300: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1216:Greek culture 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1169: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1142:Delian League 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1106:Ionian Revolt 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1078:Magna Graecia 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1039: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 996: 994: 990: 984: 980: 970: 968: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 921: 917: 913: 908: 903: 886: 881: 878: 871: 866: 865: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 845: 843: 839: 835: 830: 828: 827: 822: 818: 814: 809: 807: 803: 799: 795: 787: 782: 778: 776: 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 729:in Messenia, 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 703: 701: 697: 689: 684: 679: 675: 653: 648: 641: 636: 635: 634: 632: 628: 627:Varna culture 620: 615: 611: 609: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 546: 542: 537: 533: 529: 519: 517: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 488: 483: 479: 478:British Isles 475: 471: 467: 463: 458: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 424: 420: 416: 412: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 378: 377: 372: 371: 363: 359: 355: 351: 346: 336: 326: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 267:The Holocaust 264: 260: 256: 255:nation-states 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 178: 174: 170: 166: 162: 158: 154: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 125: 123: 119: 115: 111: 108:. Later, the 107: 103: 99: 95: 92:. During the 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 62: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 36: 31: 27: 19: 18:Modern Europe 16114: 15887: 15880: 15638:Cabinet wars 15168: 14997:Demographics 14956:Christianity 14904:Architecture 14857:Universities 14765:Minimum wage 14704:Average wage 14208:Pax Europaea 14203:World War II 14152: 14035:Transnistria 13997:Vatican City 13735: 13608:World War II 13461:Early modern 13438:Kalmar Union 13309:Papal States 13227:Roman Empire 13162: 13119: 13057: 13037: 13016: 13002: 12996: 12986: 12961: 12957: 12951: 12931: 12924: 12912:. Retrieved 12908:the original 12898: 12889: 12879: 12867:. Retrieved 12863:the original 12853: 12844: 12834: 12823: 12815: 12808:. Retrieved 12789: 12779: 12771: 12764:. Retrieved 12746:(AP Photo). 12737: 12727: 12718: 12711:. Retrieved 12707:the original 12688: 12672: 12665: 12653:. Retrieved 12644: 12634: 12622:. Retrieved 12604: 12596: 12591: 12579:. Retrieved 12564: 12557: 12540: 12535: 12515: 12507: 12495:. Retrieved 12476: 12466: 12458: 12453: 12445: 12440: 12432: 12424: 12412:. Retrieved 12401: 12394: 12386: 12381: 12373: 12368: 12360: 12355: 12347: 12342: 12323: 12318: 12310: 12305: 12297: 12292: 12284: 12280: 12275: 12267: 12262: 12242: 12235: 12223: 12218: 12210: 12205: 12197: 12192: 12184: 12179: 12171: 12167: 12162: 12154: 12150: 12145: 12137: 12129: 12124:pp. 171–208. 12117: 12108: 12099: 12095: 12085: 12077: 12072: 12060:. Retrieved 12040: 12033: 12025: 12020: 12001: 11996: 11988: 11983: 11975: 11970: 11951: 11946: 11934: 11914: 11907: 11897:28 September 11895:. Retrieved 11875: 11868: 11858:28 September 11856:. Retrieved 11836: 11829: 11821: 11816: 11805: 11800: 11786: 11779: 11767:. Retrieved 11755: 11742: 11730:. Retrieved 11710: 11698:. Retrieved 11678: 11666:. Retrieved 11646: 11627: 11621: 11602: 11596: 11577: 11571: 11552: 11546: 11527: 11521: 11502: 11496: 11477: 11471: 11451: 11432: 11426: 11418: 11413: 11405: 11400: 11388:. Retrieved 11368: 11361: 11353: 11348: 11340: 11335: 11310: 11306: 11300: 11292: 11287: 11279: 11274: 11266: 11261: 11231:(1): 21–37. 11228: 11224: 11218: 11210: 11205: 11197: 11192: 11180:. Retrieved 11160: 11153: 11145: 11140: 11121: 11113: 11109: 11104: 11096: 11091: 11083: 11078: 11070: 11065: 11057: 11052: 11044: 11039: 11031: 11026: 11018: 11013: 10999: 10992: 10984: 10979: 10971: 10966: 10958: 10953: 10944: 10925: 10920: 10907:Google Books 10895: 10890: 10878:. Retrieved 10858: 10851: 10843: 10838: 10830: 10825: 10800: 10792: 10784: 10779: 10770: 10762: 10757: 10749: 10733: 10728: 10720: 10715: 10707: 10702: 10677: 10669: 10661: 10656: 10648: 10643: 10618: 10612: 10604: 10599: 10591: 10590:Max Beloff, 10586: 10578: 10577:G.P. Gooch, 10573: 10565: 10560: 10552: 10547: 10539: 10534: 10501: 10497: 10491: 10458: 10454: 10448: 10440: 10412: 10390:. Retrieved 10379: 10369: 10361: 10354:. Retrieved 10334: 10327: 10309: 10304: 10296:the original 10290: 10284: 10276: 10271: 10259: 10254: 10246:the original 10236: 10216: 10209: 10197:. Retrieved 10177: 10170: 10158:. Retrieved 10134: 10115: 10107: 10102: 10090: 10085: 10075: 10065:Golden Horde 10059: 10047:. Retrieved 10043:the original 10033: 10022: 10017: 10009: 10001: 9992: 9983: 9964: 9960: 9950: 9942: 9937: 9912: 9904: 9896: 9891: 9875: 9870: 9858: 9854: 9848: 9837:Great Schism 9807: 9791: 9779:. Retrieved 9775:the original 9770: 9761: 9749:. Retrieved 9735: 9723:. Retrieved 9708: 9696:. Retrieved 9692:the original 9682: 9674:the original 9664: 9643: 9623: 9615: 9607: 9602: 9590:. Retrieved 9575: 9568: 9549: 9543: 9524: 9518: 9506:. Retrieved 9497: 9488: 9465: 9459: 9448: 9432: 9409: 9403: 9380: 9374: 9346: 9339: 9325: 9317: 9314:T.A. Wertime 9309: 9293: 9288: 9276: 9257: 9248: 9236:. Retrieved 9222: 9210:. Retrieved 9190: 9183: 9176:Glykys Limin 9175: 9169: 9157:. Retrieved 9137: 9130: 9118:. Retrieved 9104: 9092:. Retrieved 9081: 9056:. Retrieved 9045: 9033: 9023:17 September 9021:. Retrieved 9012: 9003: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8944: 8909: 8905: 8895: 8610:Club of Rome 8469:1943: After 8456:Nazi Germany 8452:Adolf Hitler 8406:Nazi Germany 8391:Adolf Hitler 8349:Adolf Hitler 8340:begins with 8194:occurs. The 8160: 8127: 8107: 8095: 8006: 7909: 7906:Isaac Newton 7865:becomes the 7852: 7844:) for Spain. 7787:Maximilian I 7773: 7746:ends in the 7711:movable type 7566:East Francia 7541:917: In the 7480:students of 7461:Christianity 7401:732: At the 7316: 7275:Theodosius I 7175:, a popular 7158: 7157: 7081: 7016: 6845: 6813: 6799: 6797: 6774: 6765: 6760:was held in 6747: 6716: 6645: 6630: 6623: 6617: 6574:Iron Curtain 6539: 6465: 6462: 6450: 6436: 6414: 6384: 6362:between the 6353: 6324:Cold War era 6279: 6236: 6178:annexed the 6176:Adolf Hitler 6173: 6130:World War II 6120:World War II 6100: 6088:Nazi Germany 6077: 6070: 6027:Nazi Germany 5984: 5949: 5891: 5883: 5882:'s painting 5878:Detail from 5841:liberal rule 5814: 5791: 5735: 5704: 5686: 5655:Dutch Empire 5587:South Africa 5580: 5550: 5533: 5487: 5450: 5434:Napoleon III 5432: 5406: 5391: 5381: 5365: 5317: 5281:through the 5268: 5250:Centre Party 5203: 5172:Ottoman rule 5166: 5143: 5105: 5084: 5077:Ottoman rule 5067:-controlled 5055: 4998: 4968: 4954: 4933: 4912:Nation state 4848: 4829: 4814:Likewise in 4813: 4804: 4791:independence 4752: 4735:client state 4732: 4693: 4674: 4671: 4656:Saint Helena 4648:Hundred Days 4616:Grande Armée 4609: 4539: 4485: 4462: 4439: 4402: 4392:and Emperor 4363: 4346: 4302: 4298:Gustave Doré 4241: 4216: 4214: 4202:totalitarian 4191: 4166:Encyclopédie 4164: 4158: 4137:Isaac Newton 4121:Pierre Bayle 4106: 4099: 4089:Isaac Newton 4058:through the 4050: 4048: 4018: 3985: 3940: 3870: 3843: 3814: 3771: 3763: 3740: 3674: 3620: 3569: 3537: 3522:Mercantilism 3494:New Monarchs 3477: 3444: 3429: 3405: 3390: 3380: 3356: 3272: 3257: 3219: 3213: 3212:publication 3203: 3196: 3173: 3157: 3109:mercantilism 3086: 3033: 2981:trade routes 2974: 2966:Great Schism 2954: 2933: 2827: 2796:Golden Horde 2759: 2753: 2722: 2691: 2641:Seljuq Turks 2639:against the 2610: 2579: 2547:Latin Empire 2540: 2521: 2513: 2498: 2461: 2446: 2410:Anglo-Saxons 2368:created the 2355: 2324: 2218: 2152: 2057: 2051:(founded by 2030: 2016: 1945:Theodosius I 1914: 1910:Hagia Sophia 1854: 1780: 1756:Pope Leo III 1749: 1746: 1740:created the 1730:Romano-Greek 1728:a centre of 1719: 1687: 1674: 1656:fell to the 1654:Western part 1618:Theodosius I 1616: 1604:Christianity 1589: 1552:Theodosius I 1478: 1458:Christianity 1427: 1403:civilisation 1304:Roman Empire 1301: 1269: 1255:to denounce 1253:Roman Senate 1240:Roman Empire 1232:Ancient Rome 1226:Ancient Rome 1189: 1170: 1059: 1022:invented by 997: 986: 963:North Africa 955:ancient Rome 939:ancient Rome 925: 846: 831: 824: 810: 791: 725:in Argolis, 704: 693: 624: 584:pastoralists 571:population, 550: 508:Tardenoisian 504:Sauveterrian 487:microlithist 485: 459: 439:Neanderthals 428: 419:Chauvet Cave 374: 370:Homo erectus 368: 367: 307:transitioned 301:. After the 297:, later the 275:Iron Curtain 265:perpetrated 263:Nazi Germany 259:World War II 239:urbanization 227:colonization 201: 151:established 147:, while the 126: 110:Roman Empire 63: 42: 40: 26: 16018:Nationalism 15828:Philosophy: 15783:Switzerland 15773:Lutheranism 15248:Renaissance 15027:Immigration 14591:Visa policy 14574:enlargement 14470:Open Balkan 14409:Integration 14252:Sovereignty 14198:World War I 14188:Middle Ages 14073:Isle of Man 14008:recognition 13977:Switzerland 13912:Netherlands 13593:World War I 13583:Nationalism 13471:Reformation 13456:Renaissance 13428:Black Death 13361:Kievan Rus' 13264:Middle Ages 13122:. New York. 12810:27 February 12766:26 February 12713:27 February 12645:Der Spiegel 12328:online free 11939:Napoleon II 11390:23 November 11182:23 November 10392:20 February 10356:22 November 10242:"kwabs.com" 10199:21 December 10160:21 December 9835:(962), the 9819:(476), the 9800:Pounds 1979 8795:2020-2023: 8675:Berlin Wall 8671:Warsaw Pact 8669:in all the 8628:Lech Wałęsa 8624:Solidarność 8612:is founded. 8560:Suez Crisis 8535:Warsaw Pact 8268:World War I 8162:Das Kapital 8117:Crimean War 8056:1814–1815: 8042:1803–1815: 8021:1792–1802: 7842:Inca Empire 7814:Reformation 7782:flourishes. 7780:Renaissance 7744:Reconquista 7700:Black Death 7698:1348–1351: 7553:becomes an 7410:Charlemagne 7368:, creating 7311:emperor of 7305:Justinian I 7253:Constantine 7246:Constantine 7214:Herculaneum 7179:leader, is 7141:is murdered 7028:is created. 6963:ironworking 6802:in 2021 as 6562:perestroika 6550:Solidarność 6518:Berlin Wall 6455:concluded: 6376:Warsaw Pact 6239:Axis Powers 6188:appeasement 6180:Sudetenland 6154:(1940–1943) 6096:Mussolini's 5916:and placed 5780:World War I 5774:World War I 5742:Crimean War 5625:Imperialism 5607:World War I 5595:New Zealand 5576:New Zealand 5442:Crimean War 5388:anarchistic 5093:Pan-Slavism 4941:World War I 4868:Kulturkampf 4816:Switzerland 4793:of most of 4789:led to the 4739:Rhine River 4720:Inquisition 4545:18 Brumaire 4353:Joel Colton 4349:R.R. Palmer 4347:Historians 4310:steam power 4194:Freemasonry 4150:Romanticism 3787:Anglicanism 3783:Elizabeth I 3639:slave labor 3612:East Indies 3600:Philippines 3413:John Calvin 3353:Reformation 3324:Reformation 3318:Reformation 3182:led to the 3149:Renaissance 3143:Renaissance 3117:Renaissance 3089:Middle Ages 2997:Middle Ages 2940:Black Death 2819:Jan Matejko 2772:Kievan Rus' 2725:city-states 2714:Reconquista 2673:Reconquista 2625:city-states 2404:had left a 2390:Kievan Rus' 2353:in Europe. 2313:Kievan Rus' 2289:Christendom 2285:Charlemagne 2245:Reconquista 2161:kingdom of 2128:would later 2108:Roman Egypt 2076:Roman Syria 1906:Justinian I 1869:Reformation 1847:Middle Ages 1764:Kievan Rus' 1752:Charlemagne 1682:manorialism 1628:centred in 1434:Constantine 1395:Mesopotamia 1156:led to the 1138:city states 1024:Cleisthenes 834:ironworking 794:aristocracy 733:in Attica, 713:culture in 594:started in 516:Federmesser 502:, and then 496:Federmesser 474:Creswellian 462:Magdalenian 431:Aurignacian 354:extinctions 340:Paleolithic 283:Warsaw Pact 251:World War I 215:Reformation 197:Renaissance 145:Charlemagne 137:early Slavs 102:city-states 74:Paleolithic 55:Middle Ages 16011:Napoleonic 15935:Painting: 15822:Philosophy 15304:By country 15160:Antarctica 15044:Retirement 14946:Philosophy 14941:Literature 14845:endangered 14738:per capita 14726:per capita 14714:per capita 14598:Statistics 14485:statistics 14399:Eurosphere 14173:Prehistory 14161:Chronology 13947:San Marino 13907:Montenegro 13887:Luxembourg 13867:Kazakhstan 13770:Azerbaijan 13356:Viking Age 13171:Prehistory 12599:1 May 2013 12114:C.L. Mowat 12102:: 115–136. 10188:1859841082 9825:Gothic War 9781:31 January 9751:31 January 9725:31 January 9698:31 January 9212:6 November 9159:6 November 9094:1 November 9058:1 November 8951:Maisuradze 8888:References 8811:joins NATO 8756:2008: The 8622:1980: The 8600:1968: The 8593:1968: The 8583:1962: The 8580:from 1958. 8551:1954: The 8540:1950: The 8526:1949: The 8505:1947: The 8471:Stalingrad 8434:lend-lease 8279:Bolsheviks 8211:Montenegro 8126:publishes 8067:opens the 8005:publishes 7994:publishes 7992:Adam Smith 7985:James Watt 7954:1707: The 7908:publishes 7897:1648: The 7890:1618: The 7861:1547: The 7851:publishes 7810:Wittenberg 7800:nails his 7742:1492: The 7735:1487: The 7577:Kievan Rus 7437:arrive in 7353:leads the 7235:Diocletian 7120:Punic Wars 7113:Punic Wars 7042: 480 6952:Mycenaeans 6912:Stonehenge 6862:Chronology 6816:superpower 6770:annexation 6729:. Limited 6560:initiated 6424:conclude: 6314:expulsions 6220:Phoney War 6168:Elbe River 6112:), led by 6071:After the 6037:, Poland, 6011:free trade 5987:liberalism 5964:Yugoslavia 5936:See also: 5906:"mandates" 5853:Bolsheviks 5675:headed by 5560:Emigration 5541:Metternich 5510:Wilhelm II 5376:Metternich 5302:, part of 5269:After the 5124:Yugoslavia 4876:secularism 4565:Austerlitz 4224:See also: 4210:Communists 4133:David Hume 4117:John Locke 3850:absolutism 3844:After the 3735:Bratislava 3699:, and its 3643:cash crops 3637:fueled by 3561:government 3484:humanistic 3198:The Prince 3072:(red) and 2977:Baltic Sea 2944:Kishlansky 2800:Uzbeg Khan 2718:Al-Andalus 2692:After the 2627:, such as 2422:Hungarians 2378:Golden Age 2233:Don Pelayo 2210:Al-Andalus 2206:Visigothic 2195:Visigothic 2193:. In 711, 2159:Visigothic 2112:Asia Minor 2060:Caliphates 1957:Greek East 1941:Diocletian 1835:Han Tervel 1720:In Italy, 1660:chieftain 1430:Diocletian 1399:Pax Romana 1379:Cappadocia 1375:Asia Minor 1281:Punic Wars 1275:colony of 1273:Phoenician 1190:After the 1082:Asia Minor 1066:Asia Minor 1055:Darius III 1034:, and the 863:cultures. 767:Asia Minor 763:Aegean Sea 739:Orchomenus 668:Bronze Age 631:Solnitsata 569:Cro-Magnon 526:See also: 490:cultures: 447:Gravettian 421:painting, 358:megafaunal 321:, and the 157:Viking Age 153:Al-Andalus 90:Stonehenge 86:megalithic 82:metallurgy 64:The first 59:modern era 15813:Academic 15763:Huguenots 15758:Calvinism 15704:Overviews 15662:Diplomacy 15610:Louis XIV 15441:Countries 15356:Political 15234:Overviews 15184:Australia 15037:by region 14897:sculpture 14852:Tattooing 14840:Languages 14830:Etiquette 14733:GDP (PPP) 14657:Transport 14527:Education 14515:relations 14342:Mountains 14273:Geography 14063:Gibraltar 13882:Lithuania 13403:Feudalism 13374:Catalonia 12978:162088927 11769:8 October 11732:8 October 11700:8 October 11668:8 October 10553:Louis XIV 10526:143713154 10483:195826470 9967:: 19–36. 9508:23 August 8739:to China. 8733:Hong Kong 8460:Holocaust 8221:Karl Benz 8157:Karl Marx 7942:Louis XIV 7802:95 theses 7756:New World 7641:Bulgarian 7507:893: The 7478:Bulgarian 7313:Byzantium 7292:captures 7239:Tetrarchy 7188:Christian 7181:crucified 7177:religious 7093:wins the 7083:Histories 7074:Herodotus 7018:The Iliad 7015:composes 6979:1050 BC: 6972:1100 BC: 6957:1200 BC: 6946:1450 BC: 6937:Santorini 6931:1600 BC: 6924:1750 BC: 6910:2500 BC: 6903:3000 BC: 6870:Neolithic 6868:7000 BC: 6727:austerity 6664:Lithuania 6263:Reichstag 6232:Wehrmacht 6182:. In the 5613:, 21% to 5591:Australia 5398:Karl Marx 5314:Education 5292:Catalonia 5168:Bulgarian 5128:civil war 5112:secession 5108:Vojvodina 4930:in Berlin 4880:socialism 4872:Catholics 4585:Friedland 4549:Consulate 3743:Louis XIV 3616:Indonesia 3608:Indochina 3584:Argentina 3480:Montaigne 3417:Calvinism 3355:with his 3113:feudalism 3082:Black Sea 2989:Lithuania 2958:Jacquerie 2946:reports: 2892:in 1410. 2768:Batu Khan 2710:Lithuania 2663:Holy wars 2649:Aristotle 2645:Holy Land 2561:, in the 2555:Baldwin I 2553:defeated 2495:commences 2493:Holy Land 2442:feudalism 2426:Pechenegs 2398:longships 2171:Gibraltar 2142:, Malta, 2062:. Muslim 2033:Southeast 1961:Heraclius 1929:Byzantium 1925:Nicomedia 1887:Byzantium 1795:Caliphate 1678:feudalism 1608:Byzantium 1422:Colosseum 1373:, Egypt, 1355:Macedonia 1339:Britannia 1335:Aquitania 1212:Macedonia 1092:(such as 1062:Black Sea 1053:battling 967:West Asia 920:Acropolis 912:Parthenon 759:Macedonia 600:Black sea 553:Neolithic 466:Solutrean 455:Kozarnika 401:Szeletian 207:gunpowder 177:feudalism 78:Neolithic 16128:Category 16032:See also 15778:Scottish 15738:Haskalah 15726:Hussites 15697:Religion 15576:England 15465:Germany 15434:Politics 15404:Concepts 15145:Americas 15079:Category 14982:Armorial 14951:Religion 14892:painting 14581:Politics 14559:Eurozone 14383:Politics 14369:Villages 14247:Military 14240:By topic 14145:articles 14083:Svalbard 14068:Guernsey 14015:Abkhazia 13962:Slovenia 13957:Slovakia 13932:Portugal 13790:Bulgaria 13642:See also 13613:Cold War 13408:Crusades 13378:Valencia 12804:Archived 12760:Archived 12739:ABC News 12720:conflict 12678:Archived 12649:Archived 12618:Archived 12547:Archived 12497:21 March 12491:Archived 12408:Archived 12331:Archived 12056:Archived 12009:Archived 11959:Archived 11891:Archived 11852:Archived 11760:Archived 11723:Archived 11691:Archived 11659:Archived 11460:Archived 11384:Archived 11176:Archived 10933:Archived 10910:Archived 10874:Archived 10518:40263655 10475:40263652 10386:Archived 10350:Archived 10317:Archived 10193:Archived 10154:Archived 10068:Archived 9861:conquest 9745:Archived 9719:Archived 9659:, p. 172 9502:Archived 9470:Archived 9265:Archived 9232:Archived 9206:Archived 9153:Archived 9114:Archived 9088:Archived 9052:Archived 9017:Archived 8995:32726786 8987:12098694 8936:29674591 8826:See also 8514:Cold War 8486:Normandy 8351:and the 8331:Fascists 8329:and the 8277:and the 8236:Sarajevo 8223:invents 8203:Bulgaria 8094:SS 8030:Napoleon 7962:and the 7936:and the 7682:Humanism 7678:Petrarch 7660:is over. 7658:Crusades 7551:Bulgaria 7494:Bulgaria 7484:– Sava, 7453:Tengrism 7370:Bulgaria 7261:new Rome 7166:Octavian 7152:Octavian 7124:Carthage 7118:146 BC: 7111:264 BC: 7100:323 BC: 7089:404 BC: 7072:440 BC: 7046:Thracian 7044:BC: The 7031:499 BC: 7024:509 BC: 7011:700 BC: 6997:800 BC: 6990:900 BC: 6766:de facto 6721:and the 6676:Slovenia 6672:Slovakia 6637:Iraq War 6625:eurozone 6576:and the 6566:glasnost 6544:and the 6366:and the 6360:Cold War 6330:Cold War 6174:In 1938 6031:Portugal 6015:unionism 5980:Jazz Age 5932:Interwar 5867:and the 5851:and the 5847:brought 5827:and the 5813:and the 5748:and the 5583:Americas 5296:Valencia 5242:religion 5153:Bulgaria 5085:de facto 4839:Religion 4801:(green). 4698:, ended 4628:Cossacks 4624:Borodino 4620:Smolensk 4604:Berezina 4536:Napoleon 4530:Napoleon 4475:, and a 4434:Bastille 4274:and the 4254:and the 4206:Fascists 4125:Voltaire 4025:Far East 3971:Britain. 3966:argues: 3693:Scotland 3372:Habsburg 3298:and the 3275:Portugal 3249:Columbus 3135:and the 3091:and the 3074:Venetian 2960:and the 2938:and the 2821:, 1889, 2798:. Under 2788:Mongolia 2784:Bulgaria 2776:Novgorod 2733:Florence 2727:such as 2669:Crusades 2637:Crusades 2629:Florence 2406:cultural 2358:Bulgaria 2347:Lombards 2265:Abbāsids 2253:Frankish 2216:empire. 2198:Hispania 2191:Pyrenees 2183:Asturias 2163:Hispania 2124:Caucasus 2094:, under 2084:Sasanids 2068:Abū Bakr 1981:pandemic 1933:New Rome 1873:humanism 1819:Hispania 1799:Rashidun 1774:and the 1642:Germanic 1387:Caucasus 1371:Pannonia 1347:Hispania 1331:Dalmatia 1297:Augustus 1285:hegemony 1277:Carthage 1261:Republic 1257:Catiline 1196:Diadochi 1124:and the 1049:showing 1028:Socrates 1016:Syracuse 838:Bulgaria 821:LH III C 806:Linear B 798:Linear A 711:Helladic 602:and the 555:reached 397:Uluzzian 281:and the 271:Cold War 233:brought 209:and the 173:Crusades 15924:General 15888:Authors 15858:Science 15788:Radical 15768:English 15591:France 15565:Leaders 15470:Britain 15331:Germany 15316:England 15285:Baroque 15253:Outline 15180:Oceania 15165:Eurasia 15063:Outline 14978:Symbols 14966:Judaism 14931:Cuisine 14879:Culture 14867:Erasmus 14813:Society 14632:History 14616:Economy 14569:Members 14510:Economy 14347:Regions 14332:Islands 14327:Geology 14312:Climate 14153:History 13987:Ukraine 13937:Romania 13897:Moldova 13855:Ireland 13850:Iceland 13845:Hungary 13835:Germany 13830:Georgia 13820:Finland 13815:Estonia 13810:Denmark 13795:Croatia 13780:Belgium 13775:Belarus 13765:Austria 13760:Armenia 13755:Andorra 13750:Albania 13483:Baroque 13382:Majorca 13294:Francia 13027:Sources 12791:Reuters 12655:17 June 12624:25 June 12431:, ed., 12400:"Second 12226:(1972) 12096:Sæculum 12062:22 July 11991:(1957). 11978:(1968). 11808:(1981) 11421:(2005). 11343:(1958). 11327:2142012 11253:3270766 11245:1875877 11213:(1999). 10974:(2011). 10765:(1967). 10651:(1991). 10594:(1966). 10568:(1998). 10381:Jacobin 10093:(1962) 10080:, 2007. 10025:(1973) 9843:(1066). 9447:(ed.). 8967:Bibcode 8959:Science 8914:Bibcode 8906:Science 8785:starts. 8502:formed. 8409:invades 8379:splits 8270:begins. 8215:Romania 8198:begins. 8078:in the 7885:Jupiter 7772:paints 7728:to the 7623:occurs. 7530:led by 7515:in the 7498:Preslav 7486:Kliment 7355:Bulgars 7309:crowned 7294:Ravenna 7290:Odoacer 7230:begins. 7218:Stabiae 7210:Pompeii 7164:14 AD: 7136:44 BC: 7129:48 BC: 7080:in the 6994:begins. 6967:Romania 6928:begins. 6779:on the 6750:Ukraine 6731:ability 6696:Ukraine 6692:Belarus 6656:Estonia 6646:In the 6536:in 1991 6520:at the 6474:, high 6294:Gypsies 6265:in the 6035:Austria 6023:Fascism 5950:In the 5723:Germany 5719:Belgium 5715:British 5615:Central 5362:in 1869 5358:at the 5277:by the 5238:culture 5230:Russify 5226:1863–64 5222:in 1830 4959:Germany 4634:at the 4614:with a 4553:Emperor 4355:argue: 4021:Siberia 3976:Prussia 3918:at the 3840:in 1648 3753:(ruled 3697:Ireland 3689:England 3604:in 1763 3557:Swedish 3545:British 3540:Iberian 3436:Jesuits 3361:in 1517 3312:Siberia 3070:Genoese 2993:Livonia 2836:to the 2834:Chełmno 2706:Bohemia 2606:Normans 2596:in the 2528:Magyars 2524:Vikings 2491:to the 2467:serfdom 2453:Almış I 2402:Vikings 2394:Vikings 2343:Bohemia 2259:at the 2255:leader 2229:Umayyad 2214:Umayyad 2202:Hispano 2053:Asparuh 1971:to the 1875:in the 1803:Umayyad 1726:Ravenna 1698:Francia 1662:Odoacer 1630:Ravenna 1493:Odoacer 1442:Eastern 1438:Western 1383:Armenia 1343:Baetica 1316:emperor 1220:Bactria 1102:Paeonia 1094:Macedon 1090:Balkans 1012:Corinth 931:history 842:Romania 751:Knossos 719:Mycenae 688:Knossos 581:Yamnaya 492:Azilian 451:Balkans 385:hominid 381:Georgia 235:capital 225:led to 120:of the 37:in 1595 16039:Europe 15815:fields 15460:France 15349:Events 15326:France 15321:Papacy 15169:Europe 15140:Africa 15084:Portal 15005:Ageing 14914:Cinema 14647:Energy 14352:Rivers 14307:Cities 14143: 14141:Europe 14078:Jersey 14020:Kosovo 13982:Turkey 13972:Sweden 13952:Serbia 13942:Russia 13927:Poland 13922:Norway 13902:Monaco 13872:Latvia 13840:Greece 13825:France 13800:Cyprus 13370:Aragon 13349:Amalfi 13334:Venice 13322:Second 13065: 13044: 13009: 12976: 12958:Kadmos 12939: 12914:14 May 12869:14 May 12581:18 May 12572: 12523: 12483: 12389:(2008) 12350:(1991) 12250: 12200:(2007) 12174:(1996) 12122:online 12116:, ed. 12048: 12028:(1994) 12006:online 11956:online 11922: 11883: 11844: 11824:(1957) 11810:online 11634: 11609: 11584: 11559: 11534: 11509: 11484: 11439: 11408:(1981) 11376: 11356:(2012) 11325: 11251: 11243: 11168: 11134:online 11073:(1969) 10930:online 10902: 10880:31 May 10866: 10813: 10787:(1964) 10736:(2000) 10710:(1996) 10690: 10635:649855 10633: 10607:(2009) 10581:(1947) 10555:(1968) 10542:(2011) 10524: 10516: 10481: 10473: 10443:(1965) 10420: 10342: 10314:online 10279:(1991) 10224: 10185: 10146: 10095:online 10074:", in 10049:17 May 10027:online 9945:(2013) 9925: 9899:(2002) 9882: 9655: 9631: 9610:(2010) 9592:18 May 9583: 9556: 9531: 9480: 9420: 9391: 9362: 9238:17 May 9198: 9145: 9120:17 May 8993: 8985: 8934: 8802:2022: 8781:2015: 8770:2014: 8709:1993: 8698:1991: 8687:1991: 8680:1990: 8665:1989: 8658:1986: 8640:1985: 8608:. The 8572:1957: 8565:1956: 8558:1956: 8512:1947: 8498:1945: 8491:1945: 8450:1942: 8438:Allies 8412:Poland 8404:1939: 8389:1939: 8347:1933: 8325:1922: 8315:1920: 8308:1919: 8273:1917: 8259:1914: 8252:1902: 8241:1895: 8219:1885: 8207:Serbia 8190:1873: 8179:1871: 8168:1870: 8133:1861: 8122:1859: 8102:1848: 8092:1838: 8085:1836: 8063:1825: 8028:1799: 8001:1784: 7990:1776: 7983:1775: 7969:1712: 7921:1699: 7904:1687: 7879:1610: 7847:1543: 7836:1532: 7829:1519: 7818:1519: 7806:church 7796:1517: 7785:1508: 7768:1498: 7761:1497: 7724:1453: 7705:1439: 7676:1341: 7639:1185: 7626:1128: 7604:1095: 7562:Otto I 7555:empire 7457:Slavic 7392:Pelayo 7255:makes 7143:. The 7115:begin. 7091:Sparta 7058:union. 7035:begin. 6976:falls. 6836:Brexit 6830:, and 6824:dollar 6785:Brexit 6762:Crimea 6735:Greece 6684:Cyprus 6674:, and 6662:, and 6660:Latvia 6590:Kosovo 6548:. The 6506:, and 6340:, and 6302:Soviet 6298:Polish 6190:, but 6140:, and 6047:France 6039:Greece 5978:" or " 5956:Poland 5944:, and 5843:, the 5825:Verdun 5811:Serbia 5797:, the 5725:, and 5713:, and 5707:French 5683:period 5661:, and 5528:, and 5429:, 1871 5304:Aragon 5298:, the 5194:Poland 5134:Greece 5065:Muslim 5042:, and 5030:Serbia 4910:, and 4718:. The 4587:. The 4471:, the 4419:says: 4341:, and 4306:canals 4250:, the 4177:, the 4161:salons 4143:. The 4055:reason 4033:Church 4001:Russia 3893:Deluge 3891:, the 3881:Sweden 3824:, the 3592:others 3590:, and 3588:Brazil 3580:Mexico 3549:French 3415:whose 3304:Yermak 3302:. The 3253:Cabral 3131:, the 3123:, the 3119:, the 3059:; and 2991:, and 2983:. The 2920:, and 2872:. The 2848:. The 2804:Tatars 2792:Ögedei 2774:(save 2747:. The 2729:Venice 2702:Poland 2633:Venice 2598:Levant 2436:. The 2420:. The 2414:Franks 2400:. The 2366:Empire 2362:Slavic 2351:states 2331:Franks 2311:, and 2187:Basque 2146:, and 2140:Cyprus 1979:was a 1776:Saxons 1772:Angles 1690:Franks 1658:Heruli 1646:Slavic 1638:Hunnic 1554:: the 1537:Trajan 1470:Church 1391:Levant 1363:Moesia 1359:Greece 1351:Thrace 1327:Gallia 1323:Italia 1319:Trajan 1312:Danube 1249:Cicero 1238:, and 1206:, the 1181:Persia 1148:. The 1098:Thrace 1072:, and 1070:Sicily 1047:mosaic 1014:, and 1008:Thebes 1004:Sparta 1000:Athens 993:poleis 965:, and 959:Europe 786:Atreus 775:Cyprus 771:Levant 769:, the 755:Epirus 743:Iolkos 735:Thebes 731:Athens 723:Tiryns 590:. The 579:, and 534:, and 435:Levant 317:, the 221:. The 189:Mongol 165:Levant 155:. The 116:. The 70:fossil 16075:World 15874:Works 15070:Index 14986:Flags 14973:Sport 14961:Islam 14936:Dance 14337:Lakes 14222:Delta 14053:Åland 13967:Spain 13892:Malta 13862:Italy 13339:Genoa 13317:First 12974:S2CID 12414:2 May 11763:(PDF) 11752:(PDF) 11726:(PDF) 11719:(PDF) 11694:(PDF) 11687:(PDF) 11662:(PDF) 11655:(PDF) 11323:JSTOR 11249:S2CID 11241:JSTOR 10809:–34. 10631:JSTOR 10522:S2CID 10514:JSTOR 10479:S2CID 10471:JSTOR 9813:Goths 9443:. In 8991:S2CID 8765:joins 8737:Macau 8635:joins 8475:Kursk 8353:Nazis 7560:962: 7532:Árpád 7526:895: 7502:Ohrid 7476:886: 7469:872: 7444:864: 7433:863: 7426:843: 7386:722: 7375:718: 7362:Slavs 7359:local 7349:681: 7342:655: 7335:600: 7303:527: 7288:476: 7266:370: 7251:330: 7244:313: 7233:293: 7226:166: 7173:Jesus 7168:dies. 7056:state 7013:Homer 6948:Crete 6941:Thera 6826:as a 6680:Malta 6447:Plan. 6282:Nazis 5829:Somme 5727:Italy 5711:Dutch 5328:Latin 5256:Spain 5061:Serbs 4989:Italy 4704:guild 4606:river 4242:The " 3623:Trade 3614:(now 3576:Haiti 3553:Dutch 3473:Basel 3292:Tatar 3180:Roman 3176:Greek 2858:Pskov 2832:gave 2737:Latin 2573:to a 2418:Scots 2237:Astur 2155:Moors 2144:Crete 2064:Arabs 1833:(see 1807:Egypt 1789:(see 1734:Latin 1696:) in 1592:cross 1367:Dacia 1308:Rhine 1289:kings 1263:, by 1032:Plato 914:, an 861:Greek 857:Roman 802:Greek 747:Crete 727:Pylos 700:Crete 453:(see 161:Norse 15917:Arts 15621:Wars 15241:Eras 15174:Asia 15089:Maps 14225:cron 14220:and 13344:Pisa 13063:ISBN 13042:ISBN 13007:ISBN 12991:2016 12937:ISBN 12916:2023 12871:2023 12812:2022 12796:Kyiv 12768:2022 12748:Kyiv 12715:2022 12657:2015 12626:2007 12583:2015 12570:ISBN 12521:ISBN 12499:2018 12481:ISBN 12416:2012 12248:ISBN 12064:2018 12046:ISBN 11920:ISBN 11899:2018 11881:ISBN 11860:2018 11842:ISBN 11794:–23. 11771:2022 11734:2022 11702:2022 11670:2022 11632:ISBN 11607:ISBN 11582:ISBN 11557:ISBN 11532:ISBN 11507:ISBN 11482:ISBN 11437:ISBN 11392:2016 11374:ISBN 11184:2016 11166:ISBN 11128:and 10900:ISBN 10882:2018 10864:ISBN 10811:ISBN 10688:ISBN 10418:ISBN 10394:2021 10358:2010 10340:ISBN 10222:ISBN 10201:2020 10183:ISBN 10162:2020 10144:ISBN 10051:2012 9923:ISBN 9880:ISBN 9783:2010 9753:2010 9727:2010 9700:2010 9653:ISBN 9629:ISBN 9594:2015 9581:ISBN 9554:ISBN 9529:ISBN 9510:2018 9478:ISBN 9418:ISBN 9389:ISBN 9360:ISBN 9240:2012 9214:2020 9196:ISBN 9161:2020 9143:ISBN 9122:2012 9096:2012 9060:2012 9025:2022 8983:PMID 8955:Homo 8932:PMID 8818:NATO 8735:and 8528:NATO 8473:and 8462:– a 8454:and 8393:and 8213:and 8155:and 7822:and 7739:end. 7575:988 7500:and 7490:Naum 7268:Huns 7216:and 7204:79: 7199:Nero 6820:euro 6717:The 6694:and 6619:euro 6572:the 6564:and 6401:and 6372:NATO 6334:NATO 6316:and 6300:and 6292:and 6257:and 6005:and 5920:and 5698:and 5671:The 5617:and 5593:and 5551:The 5482:and 5400:and 5240:and 5232:the 5224:and 5161:and 4878:and 4714:and 4644:Elba 4622:and 4514:and 4403:The 4384:and 4351:and 4228:and 4208:and 4091:and 4049:The 3941:The 3875:and 3815:The 3719:and 3555:and 3538:The 3251:and 3204:The 3178:and 3080:and 3022:The 2860:and 2844:and 2743:and 2731:and 2681:The 2671:and 2651:led 2631:and 2590:Elbe 2582:Alps 2507:and 2505:Rome 2430:Arab 2412:and 2388:and 2325:The 2219:The 2114:and 2096:Umar 2078:and 2011:and 1937:Rome 1904:and 1849:and 1821:and 1801:and 1680:and 1572:and 1519:The 1481:fell 1432:and 1420:The 1310:and 1302:The 1210:and 987:The 981:and 953:and 937:and 910:The 859:and 847:The 840:and 737:and 721:and 676:and 352:saw 348:The 279:NATO 127:The 41:The 14887:Art 14755:HDI 14414:Law 12966:doi 12703:CNN 11792:711 11315:doi 11233:doi 11005:115 10807:633 10684:106 10623:doi 10506:doi 10463:doi 9969:doi 9919:371 9831:by 9352:doi 8975:doi 8963:297 8922:doi 8910:360 8484:at 7808:in 7564:of 7412:as 7307:is 6654:. ( 5982:". 5396:by 4492:war 3629:of 3606:), 3565:law 3471:of 2716:of 1927:to 1837:). 1076:in 804:in 457:). 143:of 104:of 16130:: 16113:• 16109:• 14984:, 13380:, 13376:, 13372:, 13118:. 13114:. 13015:. 12972:. 12962:38 12960:. 12888:. 12843:. 12814:. 12802:. 12798:: 12788:. 12770:. 12758:. 12754:. 12750:: 12736:. 12717:. 12647:. 12643:. 12616:. 12612:. 12489:. 12136:, 12100:11 12054:. 11889:. 11850:. 11754:. 11382:. 11321:. 11311:29 11309:. 11247:. 11239:. 11229:22 11227:. 11174:. 10872:. 10741:^ 10686:. 10629:. 10520:. 10512:. 10502:40 10500:. 10477:. 10469:. 10459:40 10457:. 10432:^ 10402:^ 10384:. 10378:. 10360:. 10348:. 10262:. 10191:. 10152:. 10138:. 10124:^ 9965:23 9963:. 9959:. 9921:. 9769:. 9619:* 9500:. 9496:. 9416:. 9412:. 9387:. 9383:. 9358:. 9301:^ 9230:. 9204:. 9151:. 9086:. 9080:. 9068:^ 9050:. 9044:. 9011:. 8989:. 8981:. 8973:. 8961:. 8930:. 8920:. 8908:. 8904:. 8266:; 8238:). 8209:, 7488:, 7455:, 7321:, 7212:, 7159:AD 7039:c. 6795:. 6745:. 6658:, 6628:. 6502:, 6336:, 6332:, 6312:, 6269:, 6136:, 6132:, 6128:, 6090:, 6033:, 6029:, 6013:, 6009:, 6001:, 5997:, 5958:, 5940:, 5928:. 5721:, 5709:, 5657:, 5653:, 5649:, 5645:, 5641:, 5637:, 5633:, 5589:, 5585:, 5524:, 5448:. 5404:. 5326:. 5294:, 5236:, 5190:. 5038:, 4906:, 4902:, 4898:, 4894:, 4687:, 4683:, 4679:, 4658:. 4595:. 4460:. 4380:, 4337:, 4333:, 4189:. 4131:, 4127:, 4123:, 4119:, 4115:, 4111:, 4023:, 3887:, 3695:, 3691:, 3586:, 3582:, 3578:, 3563:, 3551:, 3547:, 3403:. 3247:, 3139:. 3055:; 2972:. 2916:, 2912:, 2908:, 2904:, 2782:. 2696:, 2659:. 2557:, 2549:. 2459:. 2307:, 2303:, 2299:, 2295:, 2291:, 2287:, 2283:, 2150:. 2106:, 1883:. 1809:, 1744:. 1664:. 1644:, 1640:, 1495:. 1483:. 1397:. 1385:, 1381:, 1377:, 1369:, 1365:, 1361:, 1357:, 1353:, 1349:, 1345:, 1341:, 1337:, 1333:, 1329:, 1325:, 1234:, 1222:. 1187:. 1100:, 1096:, 1068:, 1045:A 1038:. 1030:, 1010:, 1006:, 1002:, 969:. 961:, 808:. 773:, 757:, 530:, 325:. 199:. 15890:: 15219:e 15212:t 15205:v 15186:) 15182:( 15176:) 15167:( 15156:) 15147:( 15123:e 15116:t 15109:v 14988:) 14980:( 14133:e 14126:t 14119:v 13728:e 13721:t 13714:v 13384:) 13368:( 13155:e 13148:t 13141:v 13071:. 13050:. 12980:. 12968:: 12945:. 12918:. 12892:. 12873:. 12847:. 12659:. 12628:. 12585:. 12529:. 12501:. 12418:. 12404:" 12337:. 12256:. 12066:. 12015:. 11965:. 11928:. 11901:. 11862:. 11773:. 11736:. 11704:. 11672:. 11640:. 11615:. 11590:. 11565:. 11540:. 11515:. 11490:. 11445:. 11394:. 11329:. 11317:: 11255:. 11235:: 11186:. 11007:. 10939:. 10884:. 10819:. 10696:. 10637:. 10625:: 10528:. 10508:: 10485:. 10465:: 10426:. 10396:. 10266:. 10230:. 10203:. 10164:. 10097:. 10063:" 10053:. 9977:. 9971:: 9931:. 9886:. 9785:. 9755:. 9729:. 9702:. 9637:. 9596:. 9562:. 9537:. 9512:. 9426:. 9397:. 9368:. 9354:: 9333:. 9242:. 9216:. 9163:. 9124:. 9098:. 9062:. 9027:. 8997:. 8977:: 8969:: 8938:. 8924:: 8916:: 8820:. 8813:. 8792:. 8778:. 8753:. 8746:. 8724:. 8717:. 8706:. 8695:. 8684:. 8655:. 8619:. 8548:. 8537:. 8488:. 8429:. 8418:. 8401:. 8372:. 8299:. 8187:. 8176:. 8165:. 8141:. 8130:. 8112:. 8082:. 8053:. 8039:. 8025:. 8011:. 7998:. 7980:. 7966:. 7918:. 7887:. 7869:. 7858:. 7758:. 7732:. 7721:. 7612:. 7601:. 7583:. 7572:. 7557:. 7538:. 7523:. 7473:. 7430:. 7423:. 7416:. 7383:. 7372:. 7346:. 7325:. 7300:. 7285:. 7263:. 7241:. 7201:. 7183:. 7154:. 7126:. 7097:. 7086:. 7069:. 7005:. 6987:. 6954:. 6943:. 6879:. 6170:. 5805:/ 3926:. 3737:) 3687:( 3218:( 3170:) 3166:( 3030:. 2813:" 2204:- 1797:( 1692:( 1586:. 494:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.