Germanic peoples - Knowledge

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the corpus of what literary scholars define as Germanic heroic poetry does contain narratives that have as a historical core events that took place largely in the period c.300–c.600—insofar as any of these narratives can in fact be related to any sort of historical realities at all. But there is little evidence from before the eighth century, at least, for any sense even of an awareness of an inter-relatedness among these peoples, and certainly not of any perception among them of any significance of such inter-relatedness—any sort of knowledge of and meaning granted to a common 'Germanentum', or 'Germanic-ness', that has any relation to the burden of significance such a concept has borne in modern scholarship. Furthermore, the historical links between the extant heroic texts and any verifiable historical fact are both invariably slender and often quite tenuous, and therefore should not be overvalued."

2235: 4660:, pp. 996–997: West Germanic: "There seems to be a principal distinction between the northern and the southern part of this group; the demarcation between both parts, however, is a matter of controversy. The northern part, North Sea Gmc or Ingvaeonic, is the larger one, but it is a moot point whether Old Saxon and Old Low Franconian really belong to it, and if yes, to what extent they participate in all its characteristic developments. (...) As a whole, there are arguments for a close relationship between Anglo-Frisian on the one hand and Old Saxon and Old Low Franconian on the other; there are, however, counter-arguments as well. The question as to whether the common features are old and inherited or have emerged by connections over the North Sea is still controversial." 1160:, it is almost certain that it never was a uniform proto-language. The late Jastorf culture occupied so much territory that it is unlikely that Germanic populations spoke a single dialect, and traces of early linguistic varieties have been highlighted by scholars. Sister dialects of Proto-Germanic itself certainly existed, as evidenced by the absence of the First Germanic Sound Shift (Grimm's law) in some "Para-Germanic" recorded proper names, and the reconstructed Proto-Germanic language was only one among several dialects spoken at that time by peoples identified as "Germanic" by Roman sources or archeological data. Although Roman sources name various Germanic tribes such as Suevi, Alemanni, 1445: 1739: 592:(Greek) of Roman-era sources as non-Germanic if they seemingly spoke non-Germanic languages. For clarity, Germanic peoples, when defined as "speakers of a Germanic language", are sometimes referred to as "Germanic-speaking peoples". Today, the term "Germanic" is widely applied to "phenomena including identities, social, cultural or political groups, to material cultural artefacts, languages and texts, and even specific chemical sequences found in human DNA". Several scholars continue to use the term to refer to a culture existing between the 1st to 4th centuries CE, but most historians and archaeologists researching Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages no longer use it. 4196:) with long sleeves, large pieces of cloth, and capes with fur on the inside. All of these are thought to be male clothing, while finds of tubular garments are thought to be female clothing. These would have reached to the ankles and would likely have been held in place by brooches at the height of the shoulders, as shown on Roman monuments. On Roman depictions, the dress was gathered below the breast or at the waist, and there are frequently no sleeves. Sometimes a blouse or skirt is depicted below the dress, along with a neckerchief around the throat. By the middle of the 5th century CE, both men and women among the continental Germanic peoples came to wear a Roman-style 1043:

by him elsewhere in his work, contradict other parts of his work, and cannot be reconciled with Pliny, who is equally inconsistent. Additionally, there is no linguistic or archaeological evidence for these subgroups. New archaeological finds have tended to show that the boundaries between Germanic peoples were very permeable, and scholars now assume that migration and the collapse and formation of cultural units were constant occurrences within Germania. Nevertheless, various aspects such as the alliteration of many of the tribal names in Tacitus's account and the name of Mannus himself suggest that the descent from Mannus was an authentic Germanic tradition.

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outweigh its benefits. In the reign of Augustus's successor, Tiberius, it became state policy to expand the empire no further than the frontier based roughly upon the Rhine and Danube, recommendations that were specified in the will of Augustus and read aloud by Tiberius himself. Roman intervention in Germania led to a shifting and unstable political situation, in which pro- and anti-Roman parties vied for power. Arminius was murdered in 21 CE by his fellow Germanic tribesmen, due in part to these tensions and for his attempt to claim supreme kingly power for himself.

4688:, p. 85: "Early Jastorf, at the end of the 7th century BCE, is almost certainly too early for the last common ancestor of the attested languages; but later Jastorf culture and its successors occupy so much territory that their populations are most unlikely to have spoken a single dialect, even granting that the expansion of the culture was relatively rapid. It follows that our reconstructed PGmc was only one of the dialects spoken by peoples identified archeologically, or by the Romans, as 'Germans'; the remaining Germanic peoples spoke sister dialects of PGmc." 1294: 3329: 4233: 3582: 3947: 4746:, pp. 581–582: "Also: eine Gemeinsamkeit von Germ., Balt. und Slaw., wobei die Neuerungen vor allem in einer Gemeinsamkeit von Germ. und Balt. zum Ausdruck kommen; die Gemeinsamkeit von Germ. und Slaw. beruht mehr auf der Bewahrung urspr. Verhältnisse und weist damit nicht auf engere Gemeinsamkeiten im Verlauf der Entwicklung. (...) Die Kontakte zum Extrem auf der anderen Seite, dem Slaw., sind wohl nur als eine Begleiterscheinung der Kontakte zum Balt. aufzufassen. Diese Kontakte zum Balt. müssen allerdings teilweise recht alt sein."; 2615: 2737: 4004:). Cavalry was rare: in the Roman period, it mostly consisted of chiefs and their immediate retinues, who may have dismounted to fight. However, East Germanic peoples such as the Goths developed cavalry forces armed with lances due to contact with various nomadic peoples. Archaeological finds, mostly in the form of grave goods, indicate that most warriors were armed with spear, shield, and often with swords. Higher status individuals were often buried with spurs for riding. The only archaeological evidence for helmets and 2334: 2914: 2319:

peoples, with some functioning as senior commanders in the Roman army. In the 4th century, warfare along the Rhine frontier between the Romans and Franks and Alemanni seems to have mostly consisted of campaigns of plunder, during which major battles were avoided. The Romans generally followed a policy of trying to prevent strong leaders from emerging among the barbarians, using treachery, kidnapping, and assassination, paying off rival tribes to attack them, or by supporting internal rivals.

2151: 4076: 14702: 4819:"For unknown reasons the Latin, or Roman, alphabet was not adapted in the North, but instead an alphabet was created that reflected Roman influence, but deviated in crucial features. History of writing in the Mediterranean area shows that there were many indigenous scripts, all somehow descending from the Phoenician mother script, but they were all replaced in ultimately the first century BC by the Roman script, the writing system of the leading culture." 4167: 1823:, found in southern Germany and the modern Czech Republic. Early contacts probably occurred during the Pre-Germanic and Pre-Celtic periods, dated to the 2nd millennium BCE, and the Celts appear to have had a large amount of influence on Germanic culture from up until the first century CE, which led to a high degree of Celtic-Germanic shared material culture and social organization. Some evidence of linguistic convergence between Germanic and 152:

scholars have defended the term's continued use and argue that a common Germanic language allows one to speak of "Germanic peoples", regardless of whether these ancient and medieval peoples saw themselves as having a common identity. Scholars generally agree that it is possible to refer to Germanic languages from about 500 BCE. Archaeologists usually associate the earliest clearly identifiable Germanic speaking peoples with the

2958:, but it is more generally restricted to the time period after the Germanic languages had become distinct from other Indo-European languages. From the first reports in Roman sources to the final conversion to Christianity, Germanic paganism thus covers a period of around one thousand years. Scholars are divided as to the degree of continuity between the religious practices of the earlier Germanic peoples and those attested in later 2721: 1989: 3470: 948: 2223:), barbarian hosts consisting of Marcomanni, Quadi, and Sarmatian Iazyges, attacked and pushed their way to Italy. They advanced as far as Upper Italy, destroyed Opitergium/Oderzo and besieged Aquileia. The Romans had finished the war by 180, through a combination of Roman military victories, the resettling of some peoples on Roman territory, and by making alliances with others. Marcus Aurelius's successor 4692:, p. 51: "...if the Jastorf culture and, probably, the neighboring Harpstedt culture to the west constitute the Germanic homeland, a spread of Proto-Germanic northwards and eastwards would have to be assumed, which might explain both the archaisms and the innovative features of North Germanic and East Germanic, and would fit nicely with recent views locating the homeland of the Goths in Poland." 816:. The Upper Danube served as a southern border. Between there and the Vistula Tacitus sketched an unclear boundary, describing Germania as separated in the south and east from the Dacians and the Sarmatians by mutual fear or mountains. This undefined eastern border is related to a lack of stable frontiers in this area such as were maintained by Roman armies along the Rhine and Danube. The geographer 3938:, gesture, formulaic language, legal symbolism, and ritual. Some items in the "Leges", such as the use of vernacular words, may reveal aspects of originally Germanic, or at least non-Roman, law. Legal historian Ruth Schmidt-Wiegand writes that this vernacular, often in the form of Latinized words, belongs to "the oldest layers of a Germanic legal language" and shows some similarities to Gothic. 704: 4041:), while the most common vegetables were beans and peas. Flax was also grown. Agriculture in Germania relied heavily on animal husbandry, primarily the raising of cattle, which were smaller than their Roman counterparts Both cultivation and animal husbandry methods improved with time, with examples being the introduction of rye, which grew better in Germania, and the introduction of the 3608:), and the earliest known form of which consists of 24 characters. The runes are generally held to have been used exclusively by Germanic-speaking populations. All known early runic inscriptions are found in Germanic contexts with the potential exception of one inscription, which may indicate cultural transfer between the Germanic speakers to Slavic speakers (and may potentially be the 2439: 3663:('concept runes'). Runic inscriptions are found on organic materials such as wood, bone, horn, ivory, and animal hides, as well as on stone and metal. Inscriptions tend to be short, and are difficult to interpret as profane or magical. They include names, inscriptions by the maker of an object, memorials to the dead, as well as inscriptions that are religious or magical in nature. 3713:'beloved'). As summarized by Per Vikstrand, "The old Germanic personal names are, from a social and ideological point of view, characterized by three main features: religion, heroism, and family bonds. The religious aspect seems to be an inherited, Indo-European trace, which the Germanic languages share with Greek and other Indo-European languages." 4750:, pp. 166–167: "... as for the Balto-Slavic connection, other pieces of evidence show shared innovations with Baltic only, not with Slavic, which indicates a period of contact and joint development between Germanic and Balto-Slavic languages during a relatively late time period and, in any event, after the initial breakup of Balto-Slavic." 4511:

to justify the Nazis' rule as anchored in the Germanic past, emphasizing noble leaders and warlike retinues who dominated surrounding peoples. After 1945, these associations led to a scholarly backlash and re-examining of Germanic origins. Many medieval specialists have even argued that scholars should avoid the term

1692:, of the central Elbe in present day Germany, stretching north into Jutland and east into present day Poland. If the Jastorf Culture is the origin of the Germanic peoples, then the Scandinavian peninsula would have become Germanic either via migration or assimilation over the course of the same period. Alternatively, 4372:

to claim a glorious classical past for their nation that could compete with that of Greece and Rome, and to equate the "Germanic" with the "German". While the humanists' notion of the "Germanic" was initially vague, later it was narrowed and used to support a notion of German(ic) superiority to other

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Roman trade with Germania is poorly documented. Roman merchants crossing the Alps for Germania are recorded already by Caesar in the 1st century BCE. During the imperial period, most trade probably took place in trading posts in Germania or at major Roman bases. The most well-known Germanic export to

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The subdivisions found in Pliny and Tacitus have been very influential for scholarship on Germanic history and language up until recent times. However, outside of Tacitus and Pliny there are no other textual indications that these groups were important. The subgroups mentioned by Tacitus are not used

595:

Apart from the designation of a language family (i.e., "Germanic languages"), the application of the term "Germanic" has become controversial in scholarship since 1990, especially among archaeologists and historians. Scholars have increasingly questioned the notion of ethnically defined people groups

4714:, pp. 79–80: "New words shared between these languages at this period are not detectable as loanwords. The smaller number that do show Celtic innovations probably post-date the transition from Pre-Celtic to Proto-Celtic ~1200 BC. For example, the Celto-Germanic group name giving Proto-Germanic * 4200:

as their most important piece of clothing. This was secured at the waist and likely adopted due to intensive contact with the Roman world. The Romans typically depict Germanic men and women as bareheaded, although some head-coverings have been found. Although Tacitus mentions an undergarment made of

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Deposits of gold are not found naturally within Germania and had to either be imported or could be found having naturally washed down rivers. The earliest known gold objects made by Germanic craftsmen are mostly small ornaments dating from the later 1st century CE. Silver working likewise dates from

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It is unclear if there was a special class of craftsmen in Germania, however archaeological finds of tools are frequent. Many everyday items such as dishes were made out of wood, and archaeology has found the remains of wooden well construction. The 4th-century CE Nydam and Illerup ships show highly

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on the Rhine and upper Danube was brought under control again in 270s, and by 300 the Romans had reestablished control over areas they had abandoned during the crisis. From the later third century onward, the Roman army relied increasingly on troops of Barbarian origin, often recruited from Germanic

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The period after the Marconmannic Wars saw the emergence of peoples with new names along the Roman frontiers, which were probably formed by the merger of smaller groups. These new confederacies or peoples tended to border the Roman imperial frontier. Many ethnic names from earlier periods disappear.

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Archaeological finds suggest that Roman-era sources portrayed the Germanic way of life as more primitive than it actually was. Instead, archaeologists have unveiled evidence of a complex society and economy throughout Germania. Germanic-speaking peoples originally shared similar religious practices.

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made use of notions of Germanic "purity" reaching back into the earliest prehistoric times. Nazi ideologues also used the "Germanic" nature of peoples such as the Franks and Goths to justify territorial annexations in northern France, Ukraine, and the Crimea. Scholars reinterpreted Germanic culture

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chapter 23 that the Germani living along the Rhine bought wine, and Roman wine has been found in Denmark and northern Poland. Finds of Roman silver coinage and weapons might have been war booty or the result of trade, while high quality silver items may have been diplomatic gifts. Roman coinage may

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Warfare seems to have been a constant in Germanic society, including conflicts among and within Germanic peoples. There is no common Germanic word for "war", and it was not necessarily differentiated from other forms of violence. Historical information on Germanic warfare almost entirely depends on

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retinues, and loyalty, and the concept of outlawry can no longer be justified. Besides the assumption of a common Germanic legal tradition and the use of sources of different types from different places and time periods, there are no native sources for early Germanic law. The earliest written legal

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invaded northern Italy, eventually conquering most of it. This invasion has traditionally been regarded as the end of the migration period. The eastern part of Germania, formerly inhabited by the Goths, Gepids, Vandals, and Rugians, was gradually Slavicized, a process enabled by the invasion of the

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united the various Frankish groups in 490s, and conquered the Alamanni by 506. From the 490s onward, Clovis waged wars against the Visigoths, defeating them in 507 and taking control of most of Gaul. Clovis's heirs conquered the Thuringians by 530 and the Burgundians by 532. The continental Saxons,

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Toward the end of the migration period, in the early 500s, Roman sources portray a completely changed ethnic landscape outside of the empire: the Marcomanni and Quadi disappeared, as had the Vandals. Instead, the Thuringians, Rugians, Sciri, Herules, Goths, and Gepids are mentioned as occupying the

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in 455. In 456, the Romans persuaded the Visigoths to fight the Suevi, who had broken their treaty with Rome. The Visigoths and a force of Burgundians and Franks defeated the Suevi at the Battle of Campus Paramus, reducing Suevi control to northwestern Spain. The Visigoths went on to conquer all of

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writes that historians of the continental-European Germanic peoples of the 5th and 6th centuries are "in agreement" that there was no pan-Germanic identity or solidarity. Whether a scholar favors the existence of a common Germanic identity or not is often related to their position on the nature of

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Historian Shami Ghosh for instance, argues: "It is certainly the case that the Goths, Lombards, Franks, Angles, Saxons, and Burgundians...were all Germanic peoples, in that their vernacular tongue belonged to the Germanic sub-group of the Indo-European family of languages. It is also the case that

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and held a primary meaning of 'secret', but also other meanings such as 'whisper', 'mystery', 'closed deliberation', and 'council'. In most cases, runes appear not to have been used for everyday communication and knowledge of them may have generally been limited to a small group, for whom the term

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Mallory and Adams observe: "The Przeworsk Culture shows continuity with preceding cultures (Lusatian) and insures that the Slavic homeland was in its territory from whence the Venedi, one of the earliest historically attested Slavic tribes are specifically derived. On the other hand, Germanicists

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Archaeology shows that from at least the turn of the 3rd century CE larger regional settlements in Germania existed that were not exclusively involved in an agrarian economy, and that the main settlements were connected by paved roads. The entirety of Germania was within a system of long-distance

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who had learned Roman techniques while serving in the Roman army. The shape and decoration of Germanic ceramics vary by region and archaeologists have traditionally used these variations to determine larger cultural areas. Many ceramics were probably produced locally in hearths, but large pottery

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suggests this means that Germania was more agriculturally productive than is generally assumed. Villages were not distant from each other but often within sight, revealing a fairly high population density, and contrary to the assertions of Roman sources, only about 30% of Germania was covered in

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attacked the Chatti north of Mainz (Mogontiacum). This war would last until 85 CE. Following the end of the war with the Chatti, Domitian reduced the number of Roman soldiers on the upper Rhine and shifted the Roman military to guarding the Danube frontier, beginning the construction of the

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in 238. The Franks are first mentioned occupying territory between the Rhine and Weser. The Lombards seem to have moved their center of power to the central Elbe. Groups such as the Alamanni, Goths, and Franks were not unified polities; they formed multiple, loosely associated groups, who often

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Following the Roman defeat at the Teutoburg Forest, Rome gave up on the possibility of fully integrating this region into the empire. Rome launched successful campaigns across the Rhine between 14 and 16 CE under Tiberius and Germanicus, but the effort of integrating Germania now seemed to

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Different academic disciplines have their own definitions of what makes someone or something "Germanic". Some scholars call for the term's total abandonment as a modern construct, since lumping "Germanic peoples" together implies a common group identity for which there is little evidence. Other

2664:. Odoacer ruled Italy for himself, largely continuing the policies of Roman imperial rule. He destroyed the Kingdom of the Rugians, in modern Austria, in 487/488. Theodoric, meanwhile, successfully extorted the Eastern Empire through a series of campaigns in the Balkans. The eastern emperor 2574:

came to power around 440 and participated in various Hunnic campaigns. In 450, the Huns interfered in a Frankish succession dispute, leading in 451 to an invasion of Gaul. Aetius, by uniting a coalition of Visigoths, part of the Franks, and others, was able to defeat the Hunnic army at the

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in the Netherlands (both 4th century CE). Germanic smelting furnaces may have produced metal that was as high-quality as that produced by the Romans. In addition to large-scale production, nearly every individual settlement seems to have produced some iron for local use. Iron was used for

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to seek shelter within the Roman Empire in 376. The end of the migration period is usually set at 568 when the Lombards invaded Italy. During this time period, numerous barbarian groups invaded the Roman Empire and established new kingdoms within its boundaries. These Germanic migrations

3451:. The primordial being Ymir, attested solely in Old Norse sources, makes for a commonly cited example. In Old Norse texts, the death of this entity results in creation of the cosmos, a complex of motifs that finds strong correspondence elsewhere in the Indo-European sphere, notably in 4091:

had little iron and lacked expertise in working it, deposits of iron were commonly found in Germania and Germanic smiths were skillful metalworkers. Smithies are known from multiple settlements, and smiths were often buried with their tools. An iron mine discovered at Rudki, in the

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One point of debate surrounding Germanic name-giving practice is whether name elements were considered semantically meaningful when combined. Whatever the case, an element of a name could be inherited by a male or female's offspring, leading to an alliterative lineage (related, see

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Germanic paganism refers to the traditional, culturally significant religion of the Germanic-speaking peoples. It did not form a uniform religious system across Germanic-speaking Europe, but varied from place to place, people to people, and time to time. In many contact areas (e.g.

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Throughout the reign of Augustus—from 27 BCE until 14 CE—the Roman empire expanded into Gaul, with the Rhine as a border. Starting in 13 BCE, there were Roman campaigns across the Rhine for a 28-year period. First came the pacification of the Usipetes, Sicambri, and

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Until the middle of the 20th century, the majority of scholars assumed the existence of a distinct Germanic legal culture and law. Early ideas about Germanic law have come under intense scholarly scrutiny since the 1950s, and specific aspects of it such as the legal importance of

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An image of a museum reproduction of one of the two golden horns of Gallehus, found in Denmark and dating to the early fifth century. Composed in Proto-Norse, the Elder Futhark inscription on the horn features the earliest known generally accepted example of Germanic alliterative

3219:, dated to around 500 BCE. Numerous other beings common to various groups of ancient Germanic peoples receive mention throughout the ancient Germanic record. One such type of entity, a variety of supernatural women, is also mentioned in the first of the two Merseburg Charms: 2673:

Danube frontier. From the mid-5th century onward, the Alamanni had greatly expanded their territory in all directions and launched numerous raids into Gaul. The territory under the Frankish influence had grown to encompass northern Gaul and Germania to the Elbe. The Frankish king

602:) as stable basic actors of history. The connection of archaeological assemblages to ethnicity has also been increasingly questioned. This has resulted in different disciplines developing different definitions of "Germanic". Beginning with the work of the "Toronto School" around 626:

argue that the speakers of Germanic languages can be identified as Germanic people by language regardless of how they saw themselves. Linguists and philologists have generally reacted skeptically to claims that there was no Germanic identity or cultural unity, and they may view

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The reconstruction of such loanwords remains a difficult task, since no descendant language of substrate dialects is attested, and plausible etymological explanations have been found for many Germanic lexemes previously regarded as of non-Indo-European origin. The English term

2358:. The reasons for the migrations of the period are unclear, but scholars have proposed overpopulation, climate change, bad harvests, famines, and adventurousness as possible reasons. Migrations were probably carried out by relatively small groups rather than entire peoples. 3500:, a form of Christianity that believed that God the Father was superior to God the Son. The first Germanic people to convert to Arianism were the Visigoths, at the latest in 376 when they entered the Roman Empire. This followed a longer period of missionary work by both 2390:

against the Huns near the Dniester. However, these measures did not stop the Huns and the majority of the Tervingi abandoned Athanaric; they subsequently fled—accompanied by a contingent of Greuthungi—to the Danube in 376, seeking asylum in the Roman Empire. The emperor

606:, various scholars have denied that anything such as a common Germanic ethnic identity ever existed. Such scholars argue that most ideas about Germanic culture are taken from far later epochs and projected backwards to antiquity. Historians of the Vienna School, such as 2143:, a member of the Batavian royal family and Roman military officer, and attracted a large coalition of people both inside and outside of the Roman territory. The revolt ended following several defeats, with Civilis claiming to have only supported the imperial claims of 2497:

Other Goths, including those of Athanaric, continued to live outside the empire, with three groups crossing into the Roman territory after the Tervingi. The Huns gradually conquered Gothic groups north of the Danube, of which at least six are known, from 376 to 400.

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Products imported from Rome are found archaeologically throughout the Germanic sphere and include vessels of bronze and silver, glassware, pottery, brooches; other products such as textiles and foodstuffs may have been just as important. Rather than mine and smelt

2693:(Bavarians), under the patronage of Theodoric's Ostrogothic kingdom and then of the Franks. The Lombards, moving out of Bohemia, destroyed the kingdom of the Heruli in Pannonia in 510. In 568, after destroying the Gepid kingdom, the last Germanic kingdom in the 1894:

and thus to be mentioned in historical records. They appear in historical sources going as far back as the 3rd century BCE through the 4th century CE. Another eastern people known from about 200 BCE, and sometimes believed to be Germanic-speaking, are the

983:, written about a half-century later, Tacitus lists only three subgroups: the Ingvaeones (near the sea), the Herminones (in the interior of Germania), and the Istvaeones (the remainder of the tribes); Tacitus says these groups each claimed descent from the god 3386:

Very few texts make up the corpus of Gothic and other East Germanic languages, and East Germanic paganism and its associated mythic body is especially poorly attested. Notable topics that provide insight into the matter of East Germanic paganism include the

4399:) from which all the historical northeastern European barbarians migrated in the distant past. While treated with suspicion by German scholars, who preferred the indigenous origin given by Tacitus, this motif became very popular in contemporary Swedish 2536:

moved his forces across the strait of Gibraltar into north Africa. Within two years, they had conquered most of north Africa. By 434, following a renewed political crisis in Rome, the Rhine frontier had collapsed, and in order to restore it, the Roman

4025:, Germanic agriculture was organized around villages. When Germanic peoples expanded into northern Gaul in the 4th and 5th centuries CE, they brought this village-based agriculture with them, which increased the agricultural productivity of the land; 2819:

in 590. The invading Lombards only ever made up a very small percentage of the Italian population, however Lombard ethnic identity expanded to include people of both Roman and barbarian descent. Lombard power reached its peak during the reign of King

2814:

Following their invasion in 568, the Lombards quickly conquered larger parts of the Italian peninsula. From 574 to 584, a period without a single Lombard ruler, the Lombards nearly collapsed, until a more centralized Lombard polity emerged under King

2779:. The Franks ruled a multilingual and multi-ethnic kingdom, divided between a mostly Romance-speaking West and a mostly Germanic-speaking east, that integrated former Roman elites but remained centered on a Frankish ethnic identity. In 687, the 862:

represented them as typically "barbarian", including the possession of stereotypical vices such as "wildness" and of virtues such as chastity. Tacitus was at times unsure whether a people were Germanic or not. He expressed uncertainty about the

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in southern Gaul. In the 430s, Aetius negotiated peace with the Suevi in Spain, leading to a practical loss of Roman control in the province. Despite the peace, the Suevi expanded their territory by conquering Mérida in 439 and Seville in 441.

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write that genetics studies are of great use for demographic history, but cannot give us any information about cultural history. In a 2013 book which reviewed studies made up until then, scholars noted that most Germanic speakers today have a

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mountains of modern central Poland, operated from the 1st to the 4th centuries CE and included a substantial smelting workshop; similar facilities have been found in Bohemia. The remains of large smelting operations have been discovered by

1412:. East Germanic speakers dwelled on the Baltic sea coasts and islands, while speakers of the Northwestern dialects occupied territories in present-day Denmark and bordering parts of Germany at the earliest date when they can be identified. 3414:

Practices associated with the religion of the ancient Germanic peoples see fewer attestations. However, elements of religious practices are discernable throughout the textual record associated with the ancient Germanic peoples, including

2466:, fighting the Franks but facing no Roman resistance. In 409, the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans crossing the Pyrenees into Spain, where they took possession of the northern part of the peninsula. The Burgundians seized the land around modern 887:

lived on the eastern shore of the Baltic and were like Suebi in their appearance and customs, although they spoke a different language. Ancient authors did not differentiate consistently between a territorial definition ("those living in

3435:, some having Germanic names, to whom devotional altars were set up in regions of Germania, Eastern Gaul, and Northern Italy (with a small distribution elsewhere) that were occupied by the Roman army from the first to the fifth century. 978:

lists five Germanic subgroups: the Vandili, the Inguaeones, the Istuaeones (living near the Rhine), the Herminones (in the Germanic interior), and the Peucini Basternae (living on the lower Danube near the Dacians). In chapter 2 of the

2831:, who conquered the Kingdom of the Suebi in 585. A Visigothic identity that was distinct from the Romance-speaking population they ruled had disappeared by 700, with the removal of all legal differences between the two groups. In 711, 1625:

Further internal classifications are still debated among scholars, as it is unclear whether the internal features shared by several branches are due to early common innovations or to the later diffusion of local dialectal innovations.

2587:, a Gothic ruler of the Amal dynasty, seems to have consolidated power over a large part of the Goths in the Hunnic domain. For the next 20 years, the former subject peoples of the Huns would fight among each other for preeminence. 2260:

fought each other and some of whom sought Roman friendship. The Romans also begin to mention seaborne attacks by the Saxons, a term used generically in Latin for Germanic-speaking pirates. A system of defenses on both sides of the

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There are a number of inconsistencies in the listing of Germanic subgroups by Tacitus and Pliny. While both Tacitus and Pliny mention some Scandinavian tribes, they are not integrated into the subdivisions. While Pliny lists the

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agreed to send Theodoric to Italy in 487/8. After a successful invasion, Theodoric killed and replaced Odoacer in 493, founding a new Ostrogothic kingdom. Theodoric died in 526, amid increasing tensions with the eastern empire.

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the Roman Empire was amber, with a trade centered on the Baltic coast. Economically, however, amber is likely to have been fairly unimportant. The use of Germanic loanwords in surviving Latin texts suggests that besides amber (

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The precise date that Germanic speakers developed the runic alphabet is unknown, with estimates varying from 100 BCE to 100 CE. Generally accepted inscriptions in the oldest attested form of the script, called the

2299:. In 267/268 there were large raids led by the Herules in 267/268, and a mixed group of Goths and Herules in 269/270. Gothic attacks were abruptly ended in the years after 270, after a Roman victory in which the Gothic king 3619:, but unlike similar scripts, the runes were not replaced by the Latin alphabet by the first century BCE. Runes remained in use among the Germanic peoples throughout their history despite the significant influence of Rome. 3837:

period, as shown by comparison with ancient Greek and Sanskrit poetry. Originally, the Germanic-speaking peoples shared a metrical and poetic form, alliterative verse, which is attested in very similar forms in Old Saxon,

2554:. The loss of Carthage forced Aetius to make peace with the Visigoths in 442, effectively recognizing their independence within the boundaries of the empire. During the resulting peace, Aetius resettled the Burgundians in 2234: 3512:. The Arian Germanic peoples all eventually converted to Nicene Christianity, which had become the dominant form of Christianity within the Roman Empire; the last to convert were the Visigoths in Spain under their king 2418:

in 378, destroying two-thirds of Valens' army. Following further fighting, peace was negotiated in 382, granting the Goths considerable autonomy within the Roman Empire. However, these Goths—who would be known as the

853:

as sharing elements of a common culture. A small number of passages by Tacitus and other Roman authors (Caesar, Suetonius) mention Germanic tribes or individuals speaking a language distinct from Gaulish. For Tacitus

4427:

formed the basis for the study of the Germanic past. Scholars did not clearly differentiate between the Germanic peoples, Celtic peoples, and the "Scythian peoples" until the late 18th century with the discovery of

2100:

In the wake of Arminius's death, Roman diplomats sought to keep the Germanic peoples divided and fractious. Rome established relationships with individual Germanic kings that are often discussed as being similar to

1419:

from the Baltic Sea coast southeastwards into the hinterland led to their separation from the dialect continuum. By the late 3rd century CE, linguistic divergences like the West Germanic loss of the final consonant

4291:

themselves, Germanic smiths seem to have often preferred to melt down finished metal objects from Rome, which were imported in large numbers, including coins, metal vessels, and metal statues. Tacitus mentions in

3927:, were all written under Roman and Christian influence and often with the help of Roman jurists, and contain large amounts of "Vulgar Latin Law", an unofficial legal system that functioned in the Roman provinces. 3438:

Germanic mythology and religious practice is of particular interest to Indo-Europeanists, scholars who seek to identify aspects of ancient Germanic culture—both in terms of linguistic correspondence and by way of

339:. During the second half of the 20th century, the controversial misuse of ancient Germanic history and archaeology was discredited and has since resulted in a backlash against many aspects of earlier scholarship. 4212:. Roman depictions show the Germani wearing materials that were only lightly worked. Surviving examples indicate that a variety of weaving techniques were used. Leather was used for shoes, belts, and other gear. 991:. Tacitus also mentions a second tradition that there were four sons of either Mannus or Tuisto from whom the groups of the Marsi, Gambrivi, Suebi, and Vandili claim descent. The Herminones are also mentioned by 3204:

Associated with the goddess Volla/Fulla in both the Old High German and Old Norse records, this goddess is also strongly associated with the god Odin (see above) in both the Old Norse and Langobardic records.

3650:, so named after its first six characters. The alphabet is supposed to have been extremely phonetic, and each letter could also represent a word or concept, so that, for instance, the f-rune also stood for 4142:

the first century CE, and silver often served as a decorative element with other metals. From the 2nd century onward, increasingly complex gold jewelry was made, often inlaid with precious stones and in a

3263:

A type of goddess-like supernatural entity. The West Germanic forms present some linguistic difficulties but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (compare Old English

1831:

is supposed to have been situated north of the Alps before the 1st millennium BCE, have also been highlighted by scholars. Shared changes in their grammars also suggest early contacts between Germanic and

2077:, which was defended by forests and mountains, and had formed alliances with other peoples. In 6 CE, Rome planned an attack against him but the campaign was cut short when forces were needed for the 1731:, who notes that it seems to be missing areas such as southern Scandinavia and the Rhine-Weser area, which linguists argue to have been Germanic, while also not according with the Roman era definition of 4146:. Inspired by Roman metalwork, Germanic craftsmen also began working with gold and silver-gilt foils on belt buckles, jewelry, and weapons. Pure gold objects produced in the late Roman period included 2870:

Scandinavia from 400 to 700, however this period saw profound societal changes and the formation of early states with connections to the Anglo-Saxon and Frankish kingdoms. In 793, the first recorded

1964:. In the following years Caesar pursued a controversial campaign to conquer all of Gaul on behalf of Rome, establishing the Rhine as a border. In 55 BCE he crossed the Rhine into Germania near 1836:; however, some of these innovations are shared with Baltic only, which may point to linguistic contacts during a relatively late period, at any rate after the initial breakup of Balto-Slavic into 3554:

While attempts to convert the Scandinavian peoples began in 831, they were mostly unsuccessful until the 10th and 11th centuries. The last Germanic people to convert were the Swedes, although the

2546:

engineered the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom in 435/436, possibly with Hunnic mercenaries, and launched several successful campaigns against the Visigoths. In 439, the Vandals conquered

2048:). These campaigns eventually reached and even crossed the Elbe, and in 5 CE Tiberius was able to show strength by having a Roman fleet enter the Elbe and meet the legions in the heart of 1932:

The first century BCE was a time of the expansion of Germanic-speaking peoples at the expense of Celtic-speaking polities in modern southern Germany and the Czech Republic. Before 60 BCE,

11747:; Allentoft, Morten E.; Frei, Karin M.; Iversen, Rune; Johannsen, Niels N.; Kroonen, Guus; Pospieszny, Łukasz; Price, T. Douglas; Rasmussen, Simon; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Sikora, Martin (2017). 2374:, were among the first peoples attacked by the Huns, apparently facing Hunnic pressure for some years. Following Ermanaric's death, the Greuthungi's resistance broke and they moved toward the 370:

and English Germanic are derived, is unknown, although several proposals have been put forward. Even the language from which it derives is a subject of dispute, with proposals of Germanic,

4467:). Grimm also argued that the Scandinavian sources were, while much later, more "pure" attestations of "Germanness" than those from the south, an opinion that remains common today. German 4447:

being the two most significant founding figures. Their oeuvre included various monumental works on linguistics, culture, and literature. Jacob Grimm offered many arguments identifying the

3428: 2962:

and elsewhere: while some scholars argue that Tacitus, early medieval sources, and the Norse sources indicate religious continuity, other scholars are highly skeptical of such arguments.

13160:

Vanderhoeven, Alain; Vanderhoeven, Michel (2004). "Confrontation in Archaeology. Aspects of Roman military presence in Tongeren". In Vermeulen, Frank; Sas, Kathy; Dhaeze, Wouter (eds.).

11463: 4785:, consisted of twenty-four characters named runes." "The discovery of a rune-inscribed bone from Lány (Břeclav, Moravia/Czech Republic) challenges the prevalent opinion that the older 3992:, that the Germanic peoples fought without discipline. Germanic warriors fought mostly on foot, in tight formations in close combat. Tacitus mentions a single formation as used by the 1659:(c. 2000/1750 – c. 500 BCE) shows definite cultural and population continuities with later Germanic peoples, and is often supposed to have been the culture in which the 10708:

Dusil, Stephan; Kannowski, Bernd; Schwedler, Gerald (2023). "Chapter 2 Early Middle Ages (500–1100)". In Masferrer, Aniceto; van Rhee, C.H.; Donlan, Seán; Heesters, Cornelis (eds.).

4702:

have argued that the Przeworsk culture was occupied by the Elbe-Germanic tribes and there are also those who argue that the Przeworsk reflects both a Germanic and Slavic component."

4058:. Products made from ceramics included cooking, drinking, and storage, vessels, as well as lamps. While originally formed by hand, the period around 1 CE saw the introduction of the 2824:(712–744). After Liutprand's death, the Frankish King Pippin the Short invaded in 755, greatly weakening the kingdom. The Lombard kingdom was finally annexed by Charlemagne in 773. 4283:). Germanic slaves were also a major commodity. Archaeological discoveries indicate that lead was exported from Germania as well, perhaps mined in Roman-Germanic "joint ventures". 3934:, in that whereas Roman law was "learned" and the same across regions, Germanic law was not learned and incorporated regional peculiarities. Common elements include an emphasis on 1643:. The leading theory for the origin of Germanic languages, suggested by archaeological, linguistic and genetic evidence, postulates a diffusion of Indo-European languages from the 1663:, the predecessor of the Proto-Germanic language, developed. However, it is unclear whether these earlier peoples possessed any ethnic continuity with the later Germanic peoples. 4479:

using Tacitus to prove the purity and virtue of the German people, which had allowed them to conquer the decadent Romans. German historians used the Germanic past to argue for a

3297:

The great majority of material describing Germanic mythology stems from the North Germanic record. The body of myths among the North Germanic-speaking peoples is known today as

895:

In the 3rd century, when Romans encountered Germanic-speaking peoples living north of the Lower Danube who fought on horseback, such as Goths and Gepids, they did not call them

331:. For those scholars, the "Germanic" and modern "German" were identical. Ideas about the early Germans were also highly influential among members of the nationalist and racist 239:" within the territory of the Western Roman empire itself. Over time, the Franks became the most powerful of them, conquering many of the others. Eventually, the Frankish king 4432:

and the establishment of language as the primary criterion for nationality. Before that time, German scholars considered the Celtic peoples to be part of the Germanic group.

2462:, who had crossed the Middle Danube in 405/6 and invaded Italy, only to be defeated outside Florence. That same year, a large force of Vandals, Suevi, Alans, and Burgundians 566:. Linguistics provided a new way of defining the Germanic peoples, which came to be used in historiography and archaeology. While Roman authors did not consistently exclude 6729: 4502:

developed several widely accepted theories tying archaeological finds of specific assemblages of objects. Kossina used his theories to extend Germanic identity back to the

3345:. While most extant references are simply to deity names, some narratives do survive into the present, such as the Lombard origin myth, which details a tradition among the 610:, have also called for the term to be avoided or used with careful explanation, and argued that there is little evidence for a common Germanic identity. The Anglo-Saxonist 1765:

A category of evidence used to locate the Proto-Germanic homeland is founded on traces of early linguistic contacts with neighbouring languages. Germanic loanwords in the

11605: 2514:. The situation outside the Roman empire in 410s and 420s is poorly attested, but it is clear that the Huns continued to spread their influence onto the middle Danube. 3531:

converted to Nicene Christianity. This began a period of missionizing within Frankish territory. The Anglo-Saxons gradually converted following a mission sent by Pope

3416: 1520:

attested in runic inscriptions from the 2nd century CE onward, it remained practically unchanged until a transitional period that started in the late 5th century; and

4546:

of southern Scandinavia also shows definite population and material continuities with the Jastorf Culture, but it is unclear whether these indicate ethnic continuity.

4062:. Some of the ceramics produced on potter's wheels seem to have been done in direct imitation of Roman wares, and may have been produced by Romans in Germania or by 2231:. The Romans renewed their right to choose the kings of the Marcomanni and Quadi, and Commodus forbid them to hold assemblies unless a Roman centurion was present. 3496:

was spreading there, and this connection was a major factor encouraging conversion. The East Germanic peoples, the Langobards, and the Suevi in Spain converted to

2590:

The arrival of the Saxons in Britain is traditionally dated to 449, however, archaeology indicates they had begun arriving in Britain earlier. Latin sources used

2506:

also formed an important Germanic people under Hunnic rule; the Huns had largely conquered them by 406. One Gothic group under Hunnic domination was ruled by the

4734:. It would be unlikely for the name to have its attested Germanic form if it had been borrowed from Celtic after ~1200 BC and probably impossible after ~900 BC." 793:

first arose, before it spread to further groups. Tacitus reported that in his time many of the peoples west of the Rhine within Roman Gaul were still considered

3977:(retinue), a group of warriors following a chief. As retinues grew larger, their names could become associated with entire peoples. Many retinues functioned as 418:, which simplifies into 'the neighbours' or 'the screamers'. Regardless of its language of origin, the name was transmitted to the Romans via Celtic speakers. 199:

in 9 CE. The Romans continued to manage the Germanic frontier carefully, meddling in cross-border politics, and constructing a long fortified border, the

10946:

Goering, Nelson (2020), "(Proto-)Germanic Alliterative Verse: Linguistic Limits on a Cultural Phenomenon", in Friedrich, Matthias; Harland, James M. (eds.),

3427:. The archaeological record has yielded a variety of depictions of deities, a number of them associated with depictions of the ancient Germanic peoples (see 4676:

communities within a relatively small area of present-day Denmark, processes of cultural and linguistic exchange were almost inevitable—if not widespread."

663:(small gold objects) and the confrontation with Rome as things that could cause a sense of shared "Germanic" culture. Despite being cautious of the use of 3178:(see below). The Old Norse record refers to Fulla as a servant of the goddess Frigg, while the second Merseburg Charm refers to Volla as Friia's sister. 4120:

across the Rhine from the Roman Empire, it is sometimes theorized that this was the work of Roman miners. Another mine within Germania was near modern

164:

is theorized to have occurred, leading to recognizably Germanic languages. Germanic languages expanded south, east, and west, coming into contact with

3884:). The close link between Germanic heroic legend and Germanic language and possibly poetic devices is shown by the fact that the Germanic speakers in 3697:

Germanic personal names are commonly dithematic, consisting of two components that may be combined freely (such as the Old Norse female personal name

1007:

as part of the Herminones, Tacitus treats them as a separate group. Additionally, Tacitus's description of a group of tribes as united by the cult of

12247: 11255:

Harland, James M.; Friedrich, Matthias (2020), "Introduction: The 'Germanic' and its Discontents", in Friedrich, Matthias; Harland, James M. (eds.),

1332:

in the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, possibly by a Germanic-speaking warrior involved in combat in northern Italy, has been interpreted by some scholars as

3760:). Deity names as first components of personal names are attested primarily in Old Norse names, where they commonly reference in particular the god 804:

Caesar and authors following him regarded Germania as stretching east of the Rhine for an indeterminate distance, bounded by the Baltic Sea and the

570:

or have a term corresponding to Germanic-speaking peoples, this new definition—which used the Germanic language as the main criterion—presented the

1666:

Generally, scholars agree that it is possible to speak of Germanic-speaking peoples after 500 BCE, although the first attestation of the name

2069:

However, within this period two Germanic kings formed larger alliances. Both of them had spent some of their youth in Rome; the first of them was

1956:. Ariovistus was initially considered an ally of Rome. In 58 BCE, with increasing numbers of settlers crossing the Rhine to join Ariovistus, 13108: 12726: 12352: 11992: 11493: 3337:

West Germanic mythology (that of speakers of, e.g., Old English and Old High German) is comparatively poorly attested. Notable texts include the

2431:. In the aftermath of the large-scale Gothic entries into the empire, the Franks and Alemanni became more secure in their positions in 395, when 1715:, and another in Jutland and southern Scandinavia. These groups would thus show a "polycentric origin" for the Germanic peoples. The neighboring 1693: 1617:

within the East Germanic group, while plausible, is still uncertain due to their scarce attestation. The latest attested East Germanic language,

1424:

had already occurred within the "residual" Northwest dialect continuum. The latter definitely ended after the 5th- and 6th-century migrations of

858:

43, 45, 46), language was a characteristic, but not defining feature of the Germanic peoples. Many of the ascribed ethnic characteristics of the

10745: 11711:

Krebs, Christopher B. (2011). "Borealism: Caesar, Seneca, Tacitus and the Roman Discourse about the Germanic North". In Gruen, Erich S. (ed.).

3800:

proposed the existence of various genres of literature in the "Old Germanic" period, which were largely based on genres found in high medieval

2458:

In 401, Alaric invaded Italy, coming to an understanding with Stilicho in 404/5. This agreement allowed Stilicho to fight against the force of

2227:

chose not to permanently occupy any territory conquered north of the Danube, and the following decades saw an increase in the defenses at the

11417: 4033:

Based on pollen samples and the finds of seeds and plant remains, the chief grains cultivated in Germania were barley, oats, and wheat (both

3967: 3120:

In Old Norse texts, where the only description of the deity occurs, Baldr is a son of the god Odin and is associated with beauty and light.

2093:. Marboduus and Arminius went to war with each other in 17 CE; Arminius was victorious and Marboduus was forced to flee to the Romans. 14738: 11696:. Aberystwyth Canolfan Uwchefrydiau Cymreig a Cheltaidd Prifysgol Cymru, University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies. 1468:

branches. The modern prevailing view is that North and West Germanic were also encompassed in a larger subgroup called Northwest Germanic.

1070:(PIE), which is generally thought to have been spoken between 4500 and 2500 BCE. The ancestor of Germanic languages is referred to as 13228: 11563: 11239: 4451:

as the "most Germanic" of the Germanic-speaking peoples, many of which were taken up later by others who sought to equate "Germanicness" (

2271:

From 250 onward, the Gothic peoples formed the "single most potent threat to the northern frontier of Rome". In 250 CE a Gothic king

2211:

Following sixty years of quiet on the frontier, 166 CE saw a major incursion of peoples from north of the Danube during the reign of

2085:

of the Cherusci—initially an ally of Rome—drew a large Roman force into an ambush in northern Germany, and destroyed the three legions of

1929:(113–101 BCE) against the Romans, in which the Teutons and Cimbri were victorious over several Roman armies but were ultimately defeated. 2594:

generically for seaborne raiders, meaning that not all of the invaders belonged to the continental Saxons. According to the British monk

2579:. In 453, Attila died unexpectedly, and an alliance led by Ardaric's Gepids rebelled against the rule of his sons, defeating them in the 1573:(attested from c. 400 BCE); early inscriptions from the West Germanic areas found on altars where votive offerings were made to the 10786: 10578: 10504: 10407: 10357: 3888:

who adopted a Romance language, do not preserve Germanic legends but rather developed their own heroic folklore—excepting the figure of

1811:

and Germanic languages, concentrated in certain semantic domains such as religion and warfare, indicates intensive contacts between the

13612: 12748: 12374: 12269: 12014: 11954: 11932: 11515: 10808: 10767: 10600: 10526: 10429: 10379: 2566:

and the Huns had come to rule a multi-ethnic empire north of the Danube; two of the most important peoples within this empire were the

14868: 12048:"Runes from Lány (Czech Republic) – The oldest inscription among Slavs. A new standard for multidisciplinary analysis of runic bones" 4768:

During the initial stage of the conflict between the Romans and the Tervingi, the Greuthungi had crossed the Danube into the Empire.

4506:

and to state with confidence when and where various Germanic and other peoples had migrated within Europe. In the 1930s and 40s, the

3609: 3313:. While these texts were composed in the 13th century, they frequently quote genres of traditional alliterative verse known today as 3211:

The structure of the magic formula in this charm has a long history prior to this attestation: it is first known to have occurred in

10468:(2021). "'Germanische Altertumskunde' im Rückblick. Einführung". In Brather, Sebastian; Heizmann, Wilhelm; Patzold, Steffen (eds.). 4515:

altogether since it is too emotionally charged, adding that it has been politically abused and creates more confusion than clarity.

14659: 4178:

Clothing does not generally preserve well archaeologically. Early Germanic clothing is shown on some Roman stone monuments such as

3464: 2482:

in 410; Alaric died shortly thereafter. The Visigoths withdrew into Gaul where they faced a power struggle until the succession of

1313:

were members of preliterate societies. The only pre-Roman inscriptions that could be interpreted as Proto-Germanic, written in the

4356:; however, the authors also note that these groups are older than Germanic languages and found among speakers of other languages. 14677: 11138:

Gruen, Erich S. (2006). "The Expansion of the Empire under Augustus". In Alan K. Bowman; Edward Champlin; Andrew Lintott (eds.).

1795:'ring'; etc.), with the older loan layers possibly dating back to an earlier period of intense contacts between pre-Germanic and 296:) but that they also had kings and war leaders. The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples probably shared a common poetic tradition, 3820:

suggests that, on the basis of Latin mentions in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the following genres can be adduced:

1384:

By the time Germanic speakers entered written history, their linguistic territory had stretched farther south, since a Germanic

12028:

The Past Societies. Polish lands from the first evidence of human presence to the early Middle Ages", vol. 4: "500 BC – 500 AD"

3865:(4th–6th centuries CE), placing them in highly ahistorical and mythologized settings; they originate and develop as part of an 735:, writing around 55 BCE during his governorship of Gaul. In Caesar's account, the clearest defining characteristic of the 11865: 13428: 13388: 13352: 13290: 13271: 13252: 13214: 13171: 13138: 13060: 13029: 12996: 12931: 12883: 12856: 12825: 12789: 12765: 12682: 12649: 12613: 12580: 12544: 12511: 12487: 12456: 12421: 12400: 12331: 12214: 12164: 12145: 12126: 12107: 11971: 11899: 11828:(2020), "The Marriage of Philology and Race: Constructing the 'Germanic'", in Friedrich, Matthias; Harland, James M. (eds.), 11803: 11722: 11701: 11679: 11586: 11394: 11358: 11339: 11296: 11187: 11166: 11147: 11116: 11092: 11073: 11042: 11012: 10981: 10936: 10869: 10830: 10661: 10621: 10545: 10336: 2685:

The Vandal and Ostrogothic kingdoms were destroyed in 534 and 555 respectively by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) empire under

13394: 13358: 13177: 13144: 13035: 13002: 12831: 12795: 12688: 12655: 12619: 12586: 12550: 12517: 12462: 12427: 12220: 11905: 11809: 11728: 11525:"Talking Neolithic: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on How Indo-European Was Implemented in Southern Scandinavia" 11400: 11193: 11122: 11048: 10987: 10836: 10627: 10551: 4190:, mostly from Scandinavia. Frequent finds include long trousers, sometimes including connected stockings, shirt-like gowns ( 2858:. In the 7th century, Northumbria established overlordship over the other Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, until Mercia revolted under 2678:

composed of many subgroups, were made tributary to the Franks, as were the Frisians, who faced an attack by the Danes under

12756:

Schjødt, Jens Peter (2020). "Continuity and Break: Germanic". In Schjødt, Jens Peter; Lindow, John; Andrén, Anders (eds.).

11744: 10470:

Germanische Altertumskunde im Wandel. Archäologische, philologische und geschichtswissenschaftliche Beiträge aus 150 Jahren

3440: 2014: 1388:(where neighbouring language varieties diverged only slightly between each other, but remote dialects were not necessarily 1350:'god, deity'), which could be an invocation to a war-god or a mark of ownership engraved by its possessor. The inscription 187:

near the Rhine in the 1st century BCE, while the Roman Empire was establishing its dominance in that region. Under Emperor

12024:"With gold and sword. Contacts of Celts and early Germanics in central Europe. The historical background: 3rd – 1st c. BC" 1909:

on the Black Sea. Late in the 2nd century BCE, Roman and Greek sources recount the migrations of the Cimbri, Teutones and

1078:. They share distinctive characteristics which set them apart from other Indo-European sub-families of languages, such as 4672:, p. 521: "In the more than 250 years (ca. 2850–2600 B.C.E.) when late Funnel Beaker farmers coexisted with the new 2523: 1844:, with the similarities to Slavic being seen as remnants of Indo-European archaisms or the result of secondary contacts. 12949: 160:

in southern Denmark and northern Germany from the 6th to 1st centuries BCE. This existed around the same time that the

11323:

Namenwelten: Orts- und Personennamen in historischer Sicht ; Gewidmet Thorsten Andersson zu seinem 75. Geburtstag

6726: 892:") and an ethnic definition ("having Germanic ethnic characteristics"), and the two definitions did not always align. 631:

simply as a long-established and convenient term. Some archaeologists have also argued in favor of retaining the term

57:

bronze statuette dated to the late 1st century – early 2nd century CE, representing a Germanic man with his hair in a

13758: 3090:

and particular forms of magic throughout the Old Norse record. This deity is strongly associated with extensions of *

2969:. These deities are attested throughout literature authored by or written about Germanic-speaking peoples, including 2170:

The century after the Batavian Revolt saw mostly peace between the Germanic peoples and Rome. In 83 CE, Emperor

1582: 215:. After this major disruption, new Germanic peoples appear for the first time in the historical record, such as the 14731: 13720: 11626: 4345: 2576: 871:, though they did not live in Germania, and they were beginning to look like Sarmatians through intermarriage. The 616: 2345:

is traditionally cited by historians as beginning in 375 CE, under the assumption that the appearance of the

14682: 13890: 12914:

Steinacher, Roland (2020), "Rome and Its Created Northerners", in Friedrich, Matthias; Harland, James M. (eds.),

2821: 290:" are now controversial. Roman sources state that the Germanic peoples made decisions in a popular assembly (the 17: 13018:

Stiles, Patrick V. (2017). "The phonology of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.).

2550:, which served as an excellent base for further raids throughout the Mediterranean and became the basis for the 925:

described these new "Getic" peoples as sharing similar appearance, laws, Arian religion, and a common language.

14873: 14672: 13940: 13745: 13605: 13550: 13494: 13478: 13470: 13322: 12306: 12031: 11655: 4524: 2454:

father and a Roman mother, who became the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire from 395 to 408 CE

2090: 393: 196: 10911: 2973:, contemporary written accounts, and in folklore after Christianization. As an example, the second of the two 14716: 3535:

in 595. In the 7th century, Frankish-supported missionary activity spread out of Gaul, led by figures of the

3448: 1738: 1562:(6th c.), which is only scarcely attested; they are mainly characterized by the loss of the final consonant - 1142: 707:

Several different regions called Germania in the Roman era, about 0-200 CE (names in red were peoples called

2133:

had long served as auxiliary troops in the Roman army as well as in the imperial bodyguard as the so-called

13821: 10328:

The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World

4353: 2832: 1067: 13501: 12985:"Warrior Bands, War Lords, and the Birth of Tribes and States in the First Millennium AD in Middle Europe" 12237: 11749:"Re-theorising mobility and the formation of culture and language among the Corded Ware Culture in Europe" 10439:

Ethnische Interpretationen in der frühgeschichtlichen Archäologie: Geschichte, Grundlagen und Alternativen

8452:

The Atharveda charm is specifically charm 12 of book four of the Atharveda. See discussion in for example

4628:

since the 8th c., which have found so far no competing Indo-European etymologies, however unlikely: e.g.,

3527:

were mostly Christian already, but it appears that Christianity declined there. In 496, the Frankish king

2427:. In 397, the disunited eastern Empire submitted to some of his demands, possibly giving him control over 1444: 14724: 14687: 13700: 13566: 13087: 4802:, used among Germanic tribes ... The find reported here renders six of the last eight runes of the older 4726:, which then independently underwent the Germanic and Celtic treatments of Proto-Indo-European syllabic * 4054:

developed knowledge of ship construction, while elite graves have revealed wooden furniture with complex

3817: 3444: 2787:

in Neustria. Under their direction, the subkingdoms of Frankia were reunited. Following the mayoralty of

2311: 2239: 2206: 2185:, the longest fortified border in the empire. The period afterwards was peaceful enough that the emperor 1647:

towards Northern Europe during the third millennium BCE, via linguistic contacts and migrations from the

11644:"Southeast European Influences in the Early Iron Age of Southern Scandinavia: Gundestrup and the Cimbri" 3973:

Greco-Roman sources, however their accuracy has been questioned. The core of the army was formed by the

2998: 50: 14772: 13853: 13848: 12742: 12368: 12263: 12008: 11948: 11509: 10802: 10761: 10594: 10520: 10423: 10373: 4384: 3590: 3424: 3363: 13100: 12716: 12342: 11982: 11483: 10776: 10494: 10347: 2193:, the Romans appear to have reserved the right to choose rulers among the barbarians on the frontier. 2052:. Once Tiberius subdued the Germanic people between the Rhine and the Elbe, the region at least up to 747:

on the west side. Caesar sought to explain both why his legions stopped at the Rhine and also why the

191:(27 BCE – 14 CE), the Romans attempted to conquer a large part of Germania between the Rhine and 14863: 14705: 13885: 13792: 13785: 13763: 13598: 12866:

Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen, Bjarne; Kroonen, Guus Jan (2022). "Germanic". In Olander, Thomas (ed.).

12705: 11142:. Vol. X, The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C–A.D. 69. Oxford and New York: Cambridge University Press. 10735: 10387:

Beck, Heinrich (2004). "The Concept of Germanic Antiquity". In Murdoch, Brian; Read, Malcolm (eds.).

4183: 4067:

kilns have also been discovered, and it seems clear that there were areas of specialized production.

3955: 3392: 2606:, but had revolted. They quickly established themselves as rulers on the eastern part of the island. 2126: 2086: 2018: 1644: 1598: 647:), rather than in ethnic terms. He nevertheless argues for some sense of shared identity between the 449:

subsequently ceased to be used as a name for any group of people and was revived as such only by the

327:, developed several theories about the nature of the Germanic peoples that were highly influenced by 4319:

The use of genetic studies to investigate the Germanic past is controversial, with scholars such as

3671: 3377:, the narrative strongly corresponds in numerous ways with the prose introduction to the eddic poem 2934:

and eastern and northern Scandinavia), it was similar to neighboring religions such as those of the

2251:

emerged along the upper Rhine and are mentioned in Roman sources from the third century onward. The

278:

Traditionally, the Germanic peoples have been seen as possessing a law dominated by the concepts of

13925: 13910: 13725: 13710: 12497: 11317:(2004). ""Heroische Zeiten?" Wanderungen von Heldennamen und Heldensagen zwischen den germanischen 11218: 2966: 2908: 2190: 1961: 1660: 1567: 1497: 1461: 1236:, described by Tacitus as a short spear carried by Germanic warriors, most likely derives from the 1134: 974:

Several ancient sources list subdivisions of the Germanic tribes. Writing in the first century CE,

679:

nevertheless refer to further commonalities such as the widely attested worship of deities such as

563: 42: 13509: 4310: 4112:

was needed in order to make molds and for the production of jewelry, however it is unclear if the

1180:

in the 1st century BCE, after which contacts with Proto-Germanic speakers began to intensify. The

14812: 14040: 13930: 13920: 13915: 13735: 13715: 13672: 13486: 12203:(2017). "The documentation of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). 11227: 4124:, where again it is theorized that lead was exported to Rome. The neighboring Roman provinces of 3689:

inscription describing three generations of men. Their names share the common element of 'wolf' (

3338: 3291: 2900: 2130: 1681: 1590: 1535: 1465: 1457: 255:, they varied throughout the territory occupied by Germanic-speaking peoples. Over the course of 14807: 13582: 13574: 13558: 13529: 12638:(2017). "The dialectology of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). 11281:

Ethnic Identity and the Archaeology of the aduentus Saxonum: A Modern Framework and its Problems

11214:"Two Worlds Become One: A 'Counter-Intuitive' View of the Roman Empire and 'Germanic' Migration" 4306: 2652:

The Ostrogoths, led by Valamer's brother Thiudimer, invaded the Balkans in 473. Thiudimer's son

2000:, the fortified border constructed following the final withdrawal of Roman forces from Germania. 840:(on the west bank of the Rhine). In modern scholarship, Germania magna is sometimes also called 751:

were more dangerous than the Gauls to the empire. Explaining this threat he also classified the

235:(375–568), such Germanic peoples entered the Roman Empire and eventually established their own " 14442: 13875: 13870: 13797: 13692: 13194: 11524: 11213: 10816: 4021:

Unlike agriculture in the Roman provinces, which was organized around the large farms known as

3963: 3858: 3783: 3744:). Sacral components to Germanic personal names are also attested, including elements such as * 3369: 2435:, the barbarian generalissimo who held power in the western Empire, made agreements with them. 2280: 2256: 1833: 1796: 1685: 1640: 1392:

due to accumulated differences over the distance) covered a region roughly located between the

1389: 1237: 1232: 773:

on the west bank of the Rhine, who he believed had moved from the east. It is unclear if these

692: 319:

in the 1400s greatly influenced the emerging idea of "Germanic peoples". Later scholars of the

301: 12954:

Germania: Anzeiger der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts

11694:

Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West

4314: 3725:

provides one such example, where three generations of men are connected by way of the element

2629: 1309:

In the absence of earlier evidence, it must be assumed that Proto-Germanic speakers living in

13740: 13630: 12903: 11887:

East and West in Late Antiquity: Invasion, Settlement, Ethnogenesis and Conflicts of Religion

10568: 10447: 10397: 4341: 2943: 2463: 1953: 1865: 1800: 11922: 4349: 3854:

corpus. The poetic forms diverge among the different languages from the 9th century onward.

3543:. The Saxons initially rejected Christianization, but were eventually forcibly converted by 2925:. The idols were found in context with animal bones and other evidence of sacrificial rites. 2494:, the Visigoths were settled as Roman allies in Gaul between modern Toulouse and Bourdeaux. 14832: 13831: 13802: 13705: 12814:(2017). "The lexicon of Germanic". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). 12059: 4673: 4484: 4204:

Surviving examples indicate that Germanic textiles were of high quality and mostly made of

2784: 2622: 2415: 2407: 2181: 2140: 2118: 1758: 1652: 1095: 1087: 917:) even if they did not speak a Germanic language, and they often referred to the Goths as " 450: 328: 316: 13383:. Translated by Dunlap, Thomas. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 3906: 2965:

Like their neighbors and other historically related peoples, the ancient Germanic peoples

2656:

succeeded him in 476. In that same year, a barbarian commander in the Roman Italian army,

2081:

in the Balkans. Just three years later (9 CE), the second of these Germanic figures,

8: 14817: 14797: 14667: 13880: 13517: 13079: 12575:. A Linguistic History of English. Vol. 1 (2017 ed.). Oxford University Press. 11614: 11102: 10884:"On the origins of Germanic heroic poetry: a case study of the legend of the Burgundians" 4237: 3930:

As of 2023, scholarly consensus is that Germanic law is best understood in contrast with

3889: 3616: 3536: 3432: 3328: 2796: 2772: 2653: 2634: 2387: 1913:

whom Caesar later classified as Germanic. The movements of these groups through parts of

1648: 1449: 951:

The approximate positions of the three groups and their sub-peoples reported by Tacitus:

104:, is considered problematic by many scholars since it suggests identity with present-day 73: 12063: 4596:, the sword hung to the shoulder with valuable rings, both descending from the PIE root 4232: 3581: 3492:

Germanic peoples began entering the Roman Empire in large numbers at the same time that

3036:

are then able to reconstruct and propose early Germanic forms of these names from early

2862:

in 658. Subsequently, Mercia would establish dominance until 825 with the death of King

2827:

After a period of weak central authority, the Visigothic kingdom came under the rule of

2776: 1581:

dated to c. 160–260 CE; West Germanic remained a "residual" dialect continuum until the

580:) with a stable group identity linked to language. As a result, some scholars treat the 148:

is generally only used to refer to historical peoples from the 1st to 4th centuries CE.

14842: 14747: 14050: 13902: 13841: 13730: 13662: 13638: 13220: 12937: 12889: 12298: 12077: 11841: 11825: 11618: 11596: 11555: 11547: 11455: 11321:

des frühen Mittelalters". In Nahl, Astrid von; Lennart, Elmevik; Brink, Stefan (eds.).

11314: 11302: 11268: 11022: 10959: 10903: 10697: 10481: 4592:, long regarded as "without etymology", was found to be cognate with the Ancient Greek 4436: 4213: 4179: 4055: 4042: 3901: 3779: 3718: 3420: 3388: 3037: 3029: 2982: 2970: 2904: 2729: 2661: 2645: 2618: 2527: 2479: 2475: 1804: 1606: 1559: 1505: 1472: 1246:('forward-going one'), as suggested by comparable semantical structures found in early 1157: 1063: 1052: 769: 558:

The modern definition of Germanic peoples developed in the 19th century, when the term

454: 297: 244: 236: 157: 38: 13458: 13090:(1999). "Held, Heldendichtung und Heldensage". In Beck, Heinrich; et al. (eds.). 12635: 12442: 11551: 11479: 6469: 6445: 4101:

in Jutland (4th to 6th century CE), as well as at Glienick in northern Germany and at

3946: 2803:, would go on to conquer the Lombards, Saxons, and Bavarians. Charlemagne was crowned 2649:

the Iberian Peninsula by 484 except a small part that remained under Suevian control.

1820: 1746: 1293: 14827: 13826: 13677: 13652: 13424: 13384: 13348: 13286: 13267: 13248: 13224: 13210: 13167: 13134: 13056: 13025: 12992: 12941: 12927: 12893: 12879: 12852: 12821: 12785: 12761: 12678: 12645: 12609: 12576: 12540: 12507: 12483: 12452: 12417: 12396: 12327: 12302: 12210: 12179: 12160: 12141: 12122: 12103: 12081: 11967: 11895: 11881: 11845: 11799: 11780: 11718: 11697: 11675: 11582: 11459: 11447: 11390: 11354: 11335: 11306: 11292: 11272: 11183: 11162: 11143: 11112: 11088: 11069: 11038: 11008: 10977: 10963: 10932: 10907: 10865: 10858: 10853: 10826: 10701: 10657: 10617: 10541: 10485: 10457: 10332: 4543: 4324: 4288: 4129: 4125: 4059: 3559: 3532: 3374: 2896: 2836: 2741: 2715: 2614: 2284: 2135: 2078: 1891: 1728: 1716: 1656: 1614: 1551: 1491: 1385: 1314: 1302: 668: 375: 252: 77: 12704:

Schäferdiek, Knut; Gschwantler, Otto (2010) . "Bekehrung und Bekehrungsgeschichte".

12191:

Murdoch, Adrian (2004). "Germania Romana". In Murdoch, Brian; Read, Malcolm (eds.).

3631:

is widely attested among Germanic languages, where it developed from Proto-Germanic

2410:, joined by the Greuthungi. The Goths and their allies defeated the Romans first at 1770: 1671: 1164:, etc., it is unlikely that the members of these tribes all spoke the same dialect. 14751: 14249: 13465: 13202: 13083: 12919: 12871: 12290: 12067: 11891: 11833: 11770: 11760: 11559: 11539: 11437: 11429: 11284: 11260: 11231: 10951: 10895: 10713: 10689: 10473: 10461: 10322: 4503: 4388: 4328: 4143: 3862: 3722: 3675: 3342: 3283: 3086: 2974: 2918: 2694: 2354:

traditionally mark the transition between antiquity and the beginning of the early

2342: 2328: 2216: 2202: 2105:; however, the situation on the border was always unstable, with rebellions by the 2062: 1997: 1993: 1841: 1837: 1824: 1808: 1766: 1698: 837: 805: 672: 371: 292: 232: 212: 200: 13524: 12138:

Ancestral Journeys: The Peopling of Europe from the First Venturers to the Vikings

4810:

in South-Germanic inscriptions, and the only one found in a non-Germanic context."

3792:. Written literature in Germanic languages is not recorded until the 6th century ( 2478:. When Stilicho fell from power in 408, Alaric invaded Italy again and eventually 2333: 1172:

Definite and comprehensive evidence of Germanic lexical units only occurred after

921:", equating them to a non-Germanic people residing in the same region. The writer 14782: 13858: 13836: 13780: 13750: 13634: 13542: 13537: 13450: 13410:

Wolters, Reinhard (2001). "Mannusstämme". In Beck, Heinrich; et al. (eds.).

13378: 13342: 13163:

Archaeology in Confrontation: Aspects of Roman Military Presence in the Northwest

13161: 13128: 13019: 12984: 12815: 12779: 12775: 12672: 12639: 12605:

Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power : The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire

12603: 12570: 12534: 12503:

Who We Are and How We Got Here: Ancient DNA and the new science of the human past

12501: 12446: 12411: 12204: 11885: 11793: 11712: 11384: 11177: 11106: 11026: 10971: 10820: 10609: 10535: 10465: 10326: 6733: 4625: 4499: 4460: 4452: 4408: 4332: 4245: 3861:. These heroic legends mostly involve historical personages who lived during the 3851: 3839: 3797: 3615:

Like other indigenous scripts of Europe, the runes ultimately developed from the

3476: 3452: 3379: 3298: 3287: 3278:

Other widely attested entities from the North and West Germanic folklore include

3150:

A theonym identical to the proper noun 'Sun'. A goddess and the personified Sun.

2978: 2913: 2792: 2703: 2641: 2640:

In 455, in the aftermath of the death of Aetius in 453 and the murder of emperor

2580: 2491: 2261: 2220: 2212: 2175: 1754: 1689: 1594: 1555: 1525: 1476: 1267: 1083: 975: 809: 676: 611: 320: 203:. From 166 to 180 CE, Rome was embroiled in a conflict against the Germanic 169: 153: 69: 11332:

Heroic legends of the North: an introduction to the Nibelung and Dietrich cycles

10710:

A Companion to Western Legal Traditions: From Antiquity to the Twentieth Century

1684:, the ancestral idiom of all attested Germanic dialects, existed in or near the 271:—from around the first century or before, which was gradually replaced with the 267:

converted only much later. The Germanic peoples shared a native script—known as

14837: 14802: 14532: 14316: 13980: 13667: 13374: 13338: 13206: 11035:

Julius Caesar as Artful Reporter: The War Commentaries as Political Instruments

10680:

Donecker, Stefan (2020), "Re-inventing the 'Germanic' in the Early Modern Era:

4621: 4392: 4323:

suggesting it could represent a hearkening back to 19th-century ideas of race.

4171: 4121: 3997: 3989: 3866: 3540: 2959: 2846:

were divided into several competing kingdoms, the most important of which were

2788: 2745: 2736: 2665: 2599: 2598:(c. 500 – c. 570), this group had been recruited to protect the 2551: 2543: 2010: 1906: 1816: 1618: 1425: 1138: 1079: 1071: 992: 833: 825: 821: 603: 567: 426: 379: 324: 256: 161: 14746: 13201:, Pre-Christian Religions of the North, Brepols Publishers, pp. 115–134, 12923: 12072: 12047: 11837: 11264: 10955: 10717: 10693: 10477: 6481: 3833:

Some stylistic aspects of later Germanic poetry appear to have origins in the

3753: 2791:, the Pippinids replaced the Merovingians as kings in 751, when Charles's son 2406:

Due to mistreatment by the Romans, the Tervingi revolted in 377, starting the

2255:

begin to be mentioned along the lower Danube, where they attacked the city of

2073:

of the Marcomanni, who had led his people away from the Roman activities into

899:. Instead, they connected them with non-Germanic-speaking peoples such as the 14857: 14291: 14254: 14214: 14080: 13809: 13768: 12811: 12236:

Nedoma, Robert; Scardigli, Piergiuseppe; et al. (2010) . "Langobarden".

12200: 11784: 11451: 11380: 11368: 11030: 9862: 9821: 4444: 4429: 4093: 4022: 3834: 3686: 3659: 3624: 2867: 2804: 2499: 2395:

chose only to admit the Tervingi, who were settled in the Roman provinces of

2166:, a hairstyle which, according to Tacitus, was common among Germanic warriors 1957: 1494:

following the migration of East Germanic speakers in the 2nd–3rd century CE;

1173: 1091: 995:, but otherwise, these divisions do not appear in other ancient works on the 732: 442: 264: 14393: 11235: 4475:

movement placed a great emphasis on the connection of modern Germans to the

3321: 2689:. Around 500, a new ethnic identity appears in modern southern Germany, the 2490:

in 417/18. Following successful campaigns against them by the Roman emperor

1996:, in existence from 7 BCE to 9 CE. The dotted line represents the 1703:

has stressed that two other archaeological groups must have belonged to the

13985: 13975: 13958: 13775: 13124: 12989:

Warfare and Society: Archaeological and Social Anthropological Perspectives

12566: 12279:"Beowulf as Pre-National Epic: Ethnocentrism in the Poem and its Criticism" 11689: 11574: 11543: 10864:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 10493:

Bulitta, Brigitte; Springer, Matthias; et al. (2010) . "Kriegswesen".

10346:

Banck-Burgess, Johanna; Müller, Mechthild; Hägg, Inga (2010) . "Kleidung".

4492: 4026: 3821: 3793: 3509: 3501: 3493: 3482: 2843: 2507: 2471: 2292: 2163: 2150: 2102: 1926: 1869: 1602: 1329: 1298: 1182: 1016: 911:, who shared a similar culture. Romans also called them "Gothic peoples", ( 652: 636: 466: 287: 286:. The precise details, nature and origin of what is still normally called " 275:, although runes continued to be used for specialized purposes thereafter. 272: 260: 58: 54: 12875: 12294: 11288: 10929:

Writing the Barbarian Past: Studies in Early Medieval Historical Narrative

10899: 9072: 8738: 8726: 8690: 8666: 8654: 8630: 4240:, likely a Roman diplomatic gift. The treasure may date from the reign of 4155: 1651:

towards modern-day Denmark, resulting in cultural mixing with the earlier

14467: 14425: 14348: 14261: 14129: 14119: 14030: 13814: 12382:

Penzl, Herbert (1972). "Old Germanic Languages". In Haugen, Einar (ed.).

11765: 11748: 11433: 11209: 10879: 4483:, democratic form of government and a unified German state. Contemporary 4468: 4440: 4320: 4079:

A 5th-century CE gold collar from Ålleberg, Sweden. It displays Germanic

3843: 3683: 3586: 3544: 3315: 3303: 3216: 3212: 3021: 2875: 2847: 2800: 2487: 2411: 2355: 2300: 2265: 2159: 1873: 1720: 1708: 1670:

is not until much later. Between around 500 BCE and the beginning of the

1610: 1547: 1543: 1501: 1405: 1369: 1187: 1020: 872: 607: 240: 177: 121: 11622: 11600: 11442: 10287: 10083: 9874: 9833: 9809: 6589: 4472: 4075: 3508:, who was made missionary bishop of the Goths in 341 and translated the 1941: 412:('neighbours') or could be tied to the Celtic word for their war cries, 332: 14644: 14432: 14415: 14363: 14353: 14338: 14306: 14296: 14174: 14124: 14000: 13995: 13963: 13682: 12183: 10725:

Düwel, Klaus (2004). "Runic". In Murdoch, Brian; Read, Malcolm (eds.).

8320:

For general discussion regarding the Merseburg Charms, see for example

5243: 5241: 4507: 4488: 4480: 4117: 4005: 3951: 3548: 3309: 3301:

and is attested in numerous works, the most expansive of which are the

2951: 2879: 2511: 2459: 2367: 2314:(235–284), and Germanic raids penetrated as far as northern Italy. The 2070: 2045: 1933: 1529: 1409: 1373: 967: 942: 938: 934: 904: 660: 656: 336: 204: 80:. In modern scholarship, they typically include not only the Roman-era 12176:

The Crisis of German Ideology: Intellectual Origins of the Third Reich

11775: 10191: 9195: 8606: 4116:

were able to produce lead. While lead mining is known from within the

2283:. He followed his victory there with another on the marshy terrain at 2028:

near the Rhine, then attacks increased further from the Rhine, on the

947: 14767: 14762: 14639: 14634: 14624: 14557: 14462: 14358: 14321: 14311: 14271: 14224: 14219: 14169: 14109: 14035: 14025: 14005: 13968: 13953: 10239: 4620:'stinging agent, pricker'. However, there is still a set of words of 4403:, as it supported Sweden's imperial ambitions. Peutinger printed the 4400: 4166: 3974: 3931: 3847: 3801: 3679: 3646:

The letters of the Elder Futhark are arranged in an order called the

3524: 3033: 3025: 2994: 2947: 2931: 2922: 2828: 2780: 2752: 2690: 2686: 2474:, and Strasbourg, territory that was recognized by the Roman Emperor 2420: 2383: 2371: 2350: 2144: 1879: 1857: 1578: 1539: 1521: 1263: 1259: 1161: 1146: 922: 864: 728: 403: 133: 13310: 12976:

Germanen aus Sicht der Archäologie: Neue Thesen zu einem alten Thema

12278: 12023: 11853: 11643: 6517: 5238: 5142: 3796:) or the 8th century in modern England and Germany. The philologist 3429:

Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe

2985:

from a manuscript dated to the ninth century) mentions six deities:

1285: 14822: 14612: 14597: 14577: 14562: 14542: 14517: 14502: 14497: 14477: 14447: 14437: 14388: 14378: 14373: 14204: 14189: 14164: 14144: 14114: 14104: 14099: 14070: 14065: 14055: 13990: 13948: 13657: 13590: 10883: 10654:

A History of Scandinavia: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Iceland

9381: 9267: 6790: 6693: 6691: 6640: 4896: 4894: 4374: 4369: 4187: 4151: 4080: 3870: 3528: 3520: 3513: 3497: 3408: 3346: 3084:

A deity similarly associated with healing magic in the Old English

2955: 2859: 2764: 2725: 2720: 2674: 2555: 2547: 2533: 2447: 2432: 2424: 2379: 2375: 2248: 2224: 2171: 2155: 2106: 2082: 2033: 2025: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1922: 1910: 1742: 1676: 1376:(mid-1st c. BCE) may indicate the Germanic name of a Celtic ruler. 1305:

during the 3rd–2nd c. BCE, is generally regarded as Proto-Germanic.

1035:

39) all suggest different subdivisions than the three mentioned in

1028: 421:

It is unclear that any people group ever referred to themselves as

348: 228: 188: 88: 12865: 11964:

Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs

10251: 9183: 9147: 8988: 8964: 8242: 6946: 6475: 6457: 6451: 6415: 6068: 6005: 5414: 4806:, making it the first find containing the final part of the older 4747: 2117:

in the 60s CE. The most serious threat to the Roman order was the

1988: 1156:

Although Proto-Germanic is reconstructed without dialects via the

777:

were actually Germanic speakers. According to the Roman historian

96:

from this era, irrespective of where they lived, most notably the

14777: 14629: 14617: 14607: 14582: 14572: 14567: 14547: 14537: 14512: 14452: 14410: 14383: 14301: 14234: 14229: 14209: 14199: 14154: 14149: 14139: 14134: 14075: 14060: 14010: 9125: 9123: 8376: 8374: 8372: 6190: 5450: 5154: 5106: 5094: 4448: 4221: 4034: 3980: 3935: 3885: 3789: 3757: 3505: 3486: 3017: 2871: 2863: 2816: 2679: 2657: 2584: 2571: 2443: 2396: 2276: 2074: 1965: 1945: 1883: 1853: 1735:, which included Celtic-speaking peoples further south and west. 1397: 1255: 1150: 1075: 1008: 817: 813: 778: 756: 480:, which is generally used when referring to modern Germans only. 389: 308: 283: 141: 137: 125: 105: 31: 13199:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North: History and Structures

13021:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

12817:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

12758:

The Pre-Christian Religions of the North: History and Structures

12641:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

12206:

Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics

11386:

Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe

8786: 8538:

Regarding the Ring of Pietroassa, see for example discussion in

6688: 4891: 3469: 3403: 2004: 14787: 14649: 14602: 14587: 14552: 14527: 14492: 14487: 14420: 14405: 14343: 14281: 14266: 14244: 14194: 14184: 14179: 14092: 14087: 14045: 14015: 11743: 9219: 9000: 8478: 8140: 6751: 6339: 6337: 6268: 6244: 5118: 4938: 4936: 4379: 4132:

produced a great deal of lead, which has been found stamped as

4106:

agricultural tools, tools for various crafts, and for weapons.

4102: 3604:

Germanic speakers developed a native script, the runes (or the

2855: 2851: 2808: 2698: 2595: 2567: 2563: 2503: 2483: 2467: 2451: 2428: 2400: 2392: 2296: 2288: 2186: 2139:, often called the Germanic bodyguard. The uprising was led by 2114: 2110: 2037: 2029: 1719:

in modern Poland is thought to possibly reflect a Germanic and

1433: 1401: 988: 984: 876: 786: 752: 430: 224: 216: 129: 12022:

Maciałowicz, Andrzej; Rudnicki, Marcin; Strobin, Anna (2016),

10567:

Capelle, Torsten; Brather, Sebastian (2010) . "Wikingerzeit".

9231: 9120: 8976: 8952: 8369: 7192: 6310: 5226: 3824:(the origin of a people or their rulers), the fall of heroes ( 3752:- (both usually translated as 'holy, sacred', see for example 1940:, led a force including Suevi across the Rhine into Gaul near 1723:

component. The identification of the Jastorf culture with the

14522: 14507: 14482: 14472: 14457: 14400: 14368: 14333: 14328: 14286: 14276: 14159: 14020: 13863: 13074:. Translated by Mattingly, H.; Handford, S. A. Penguin Books. 12868:

The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective

12384:

Linguistics in Western Europe, Part 2: The Study of Languages

10973:

Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire

10396:

Beck, Heinrich; Quak, Arend; et al. (2010) . "Franken".

8940: 8774: 8496:

For a concise overview of sources on Germanic mythology, see

8398: 8220: 8218: 7231: 6505: 5857: 5733: 5462: 5426: 5166: 5130: 4337: 4258: 4254: 4197: 4087:

Despite the claims of Roman writers such as Tacitus that the

4038: 3917: 3576: 3555: 3006: 3002: 2990: 2939: 2935: 2768: 2760: 2756: 2603: 2272: 2252: 2189:

reduced the number of soldiers on the frontier. According to

2053: 2041: 1949: 1918: 1900: 1896: 1861: 1750: 1712: 1429: 1415:

In the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, migrations of East Germanic

1393: 1247: 1004: 957: 918: 908: 884: 846:("free Germania"), a name coined by Jacob Grimm around 1835. 740: 724: 688: 587: 488:

or the broader Germanic group. In modern German, the ancient

396:

more or less concurs with Wolfram and surmises that the name

268: 220: 208: 173: 165: 117: 97: 13347:. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 9927: 8930: 8928: 8926: 8290: 8278: 8080: 8068: 8056: 7332: 7209: 7207: 6334: 4933: 4271:), the Romans also imported the feathers of Germanic geese ( 4158:

work, techniques that dominated throughout Germanic Europe.

3020:

to these deities occur in other Germanic languages, such as

2423:—revolted several more times, finally coming to be ruled by 2121:

in 69 CE, during the civil wars following the death of

1605:; c. 350–380). It became extinct after the fall of the 763:. Although Caesar described the Rhine as the border between 703: 14792: 14592: 14239: 11027:"'Instinctive Genius': The depiction of Caesar the general" 10888:

Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur

9207: 9108: 8899: 8714: 8678: 8203: 8191: 8116: 7897: 7885: 7856: 7832: 7748: 7724: 7661: 7637: 7601: 7572: 7560: 7548: 7524: 7512: 7404: 7380: 7368: 7344: 7320: 6739: 6616: 6349: 5549: 5325: 5313: 5289: 5277: 5031: 4241: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4147: 4109: 4098: 3761: 2986: 2751:

Merovingian Frankia became divided into three subkingdoms:

2438: 2346: 2122: 2057: 1914: 1524:, a language attested by runic inscriptions written in the 1216: 1198: 1177: 900: 832:) to this area, contrasting it with the Roman provinces of 744: 684: 680: 279: 192: 12781:

Language Contact and the Origins of the Germanic Languages

12021: 10179: 10131: 10035: 9886: 9797: 9732: 9705: 9693: 9681: 9645: 9492: 9315: 8254: 8215: 7267: 7083: 7081: 6529: 6487: 6154: 5793: 5781: 5653: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5486: 3804:

poetry. These include ritual poetry, epigrammatic poetry (

2835:; the entire Visigothic kingdom would be conquered by the 2361: 1516:(attested from c. 400 BCE); a uniform northern dialect or 1074:, and likely represented a group of mutually intelligible 801:

from the Celts was not taken up by most writers in Greek.

12987:. In Otto, Ton; Thrane, Henrik; Vandkilde, Helle (eds.). 11606:

Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literatur

10656:. Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press. 10167: 9905: 9903: 9901: 9787: 9785: 9783: 9635: 9633: 9398: 9396: 9371: 9369: 9084: 8923: 8911: 8875: 8798: 8762: 8553: 8521:

On the correspondences between the prose introduction to

8503: 8230: 8179: 7984: 7356: 7204: 6850: 6664: 6553: 6433: 6074: 6011: 5677: 5643: 5641: 5639: 5607: 5605: 5474: 4921: 4216:, sometimes made of glass or amber, and the weights from 3850:. Alliterative verse is not attested in the small extant 3279: 1674:, archeological and linguistic evidence suggest that the 1456:

The Germanic languages are traditionally divided between

263:

of Britain converted to Christianity, but the Saxons and

13159: 13099:

Timpe, Dieter; Scardigli, Barbara; et al. (2010) .

10263: 9768: 9756: 9744: 9618: 9171: 9060: 9024: 8817: 8815: 8813: 8642: 8266: 8104: 8044: 7649: 7452: 7243: 7219: 7117: 6595: 6166: 6028: 6026: 5537: 5503: 5501: 5178: 5082: 4846: 4439:

proper starts around the turn of the 19th century, with

4170:

A pair of trousers with attached stockings found in the

3869:. Some early Gothic heroic legends are already found in 3600:, bears the oldest generally accepted runic inscription. 2660:, mutinied and removed the final western Roman emperor, 413: 407: 10707: 10345: 10227: 10155: 10143: 10107: 10071: 9880: 9868: 9852: 9850: 9848: 9839: 9827: 9815: 9722: 9720: 9584: 9582: 9545: 9543: 9444: 9327: 9201: 9159: 9135: 9012: 8702: 8436: 8434: 8432: 8430: 8417: 8415: 8413: 8340: 8338: 8336: 8334: 8302: 8167: 8157: 8155: 8008: 7996: 7962: 7960: 7921: 7875: 7873: 7871: 7844: 7796: 7784: 7736: 7712: 7702: 7700: 7685: 7673: 7613: 7591: 7589: 7587: 7536: 7476: 7464: 7416: 7308: 7296: 7286: 7284: 7282: 7255: 7180: 7146: 7144: 7105: 7078: 7066: 7041: 7039: 7012: 7000: 6963: 6961: 6862: 6826: 6768: 6766: 6322: 6214: 6102: 5885: 5561: 5070: 4789:

was used exclusively by Germanic-speaking populations."

4391:, which depicted Scandinavia as the "womb of nations" ( 4253:

trade. Migration-period seaborne trade is suggested by

3562:

seems to have continued to exist into the early 1100s.

3519:

The areas of the Roman Empire conquered by the Franks,

3349:

that features the deities Frea (cognate with Old Norse

1601:(from the 3rd c. CE) and textual evidence (principally 1207:('hair dye') is certainly borrowed from Proto-Germanic 553: 13078: 12703: 11921:

Kuhn, Hans; Wilson, David M. (2010) . "Angelsachsen".

11182:. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. 10856:. In G.W. Bowersock; Peter Brown; Oleg Grabar (eds.). 10456: 10299: 10293: 10275: 10245: 10203: 10197: 10119: 10089: 10047: 10011: 9999: 9975: 9898: 9780: 9669: 9630: 9606: 9567: 9555: 9528: 9516: 9504: 9480: 9468: 9432: 9420: 9393: 9366: 9356: 9354: 9339: 9303: 9291: 9279: 9255: 9243: 9078: 9036: 8744: 8732: 8696: 8672: 8660: 8636: 8618: 8612: 8594: 8468: 8466: 8464: 8462: 8359: 8357: 8355: 8353: 8032: 7440: 7156: 7056: 7054: 6978: 6976: 6898: 6874: 6778: 6703: 6628: 6606: 6604: 6421: 6202: 6178: 5689: 5636: 5626: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5602: 5590: 5578: 5373: 5361: 5349: 5247: 5202: 5190: 5148: 4992: 4911: 4909: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4600:, denoting the 'suspended sword'. Similarly, the word 2609: 785:(c. 98 CE), it was among this group, specifically the 37:"Germani" redirects here. For the Iberian people, see 13243:

Ward, Allen; Heichelheim, Fritz; Yeo, Cedric (2016).

11085:

In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire

10684:", in Friedrich, Matthias; Harland, James M. (eds.), 10095: 9096: 8887: 8863: 8851: 8839: 8827: 8810: 8750: 8582: 7093: 7024: 6676: 6652: 6126: 6114: 6023: 5944: 5721: 5498: 5404: 5402: 5400: 5301: 5214: 5060: 5058: 5021: 5019: 4387:

in the mid-15th century and first printed in 1515 by

4016: 3788:

The ancient Germanic-speaking peoples were a largely

3174:

A goddess associated with extensions of the goddess *

2370:, a Gothic group in modern Ukraine under the rule of 655:, various common objects of material culture such as 453:

in the 16th century. Previously, scholars during the

112:

involved tribes west of the Rhine, their homeland of

10446:

Brather, Sebastian (2010) . "Völkerwanderungszeit".

10059: 9845: 9717: 9657: 9594: 9579: 9540: 8427: 8410: 8386: 8331: 8152: 8128: 8092: 8020: 7972: 7957: 7945: 7933: 7909: 7868: 7820: 7808: 7772: 7760: 7697: 7625: 7584: 7500: 7488: 7392: 7279: 7168: 7141: 7036: 6988: 6958: 6922: 6910: 6886: 6838: 6814: 6802: 6763: 6577: 6541: 5665: 5513: 5438: 5253: 4980: 4970: 4968: 4966: 4953: 4951: 3726: 3651: 3632: 1789: 1778: 1362: 1355: 1344: 1337: 1240: 1208: 1191: 1027:

43) and Tacitus's account of the origin myth of the

883:, because they had other languages and customs. The 402:

is likely of Celtic etymology and is related to the

12416:, Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte, vol. 57, 10822:

Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction

10775:Düwel, Klaus (2010b) . "Runen und Runendenkmäler". 10612:. In Kremmydas, Christos; Tempest, Kathryn (eds.). 10215: 10023: 9987: 9963: 9951: 9939: 9915: 9456: 9408: 9351: 9048: 8459: 8350: 7428: 7129: 7051: 6973: 6934: 6601: 6565: 6493: 6278: 5845: 5617: 5525: 5385: 5337: 5265: 5004: 4906: 4879: 4858: 520:). The direct equivalents in English are, however, 132:in the south. Other Germanic speakers, such as the 13242: 12902: 11351:War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C 10976:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 10860:Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World 10857: 6952: 5397: 5055: 5043: 5016: 4186:, and is occasionally discovered in finds from in 2005:Early Roman Imperial period (27 BCE – 166 CE) 1621:, has been partially recorded in the 16th century. 1448:Replica of an altar for the Matrons of Vacallina ( 1321:but rather in the Venetic region. The inscription 195:, but withdrew after their shocking defeat at the 11156: 10540:. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 8525:and the Langobardic origin myth, see for example 6796: 6697: 4963: 4948: 3657:('cattle, property'). Such examples are known as 2517: 2414:, then defeated and killed emperor Valens in the 1566:(attested from the late 3rd century), and by the 849:Caesar and, following him, Tacitus, depicted the 723:as a large category of peoples distinct from the 14855: 13101:"Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde" 12341:Padberg, Lutz E. V. (2010) . "Zwangsbekehrung". 11389:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 11353:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 11254: 11179:Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 11157:Haller, Johannes; Dannenbauer, Henirich (1970). 11108:Language and History in the Early Germanic World 10616:. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 5232: 5172: 5124: 4759:Tacitus referred to him as king of the Suevians. 4561:Cotinos Gallica, Osos Pannonica lingua coarguit 2946:. The term is sometimes applied as early as the 2337:2nd century to 6th century simplified migrations 2322: 2291:. In 253/254, further attacks occurred reaching 2287:, a battle which cost the life of Roman emperor 1221:, as evidenced by the parallel Finnish loanword 651:, noting the use of a common language, a common 635:due to its broad recognizability. Archaeologist 180:peoples before they were noted by the Romans. 13302:Arminius the Liberator : myth and ideology 12901:Springer, Matthias (2010) . "Völkerwanderung". 12714: 12235: 12045: 11087:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 11068:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 11007:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 10675:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). pp. 241–252. 10671:Dilcher, Gerhard (2011). "Germanisches Recht". 10492: 9387: 9273: 9225: 8792: 8780: 8146: 4011: 3816:), lyric, narrative poetry, and praise poetry. 3765: 3708: 3702: 3356: 3350: 1983: 1609:in the early 8th century. The inclusion of the 1279: 1271: 739:people was that their homeland was east of the 13315:Old Norse Mythology in Comparative Perspective 13098: 12950:"Germania and the Germani – Where are We Now?" 11714:Cultural Identity in the Ancient Mediterranean 11522: 10566: 9237: 9189: 9153: 9129: 8994: 8982: 8970: 8958: 8248: 6476:Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen & Kroonen 2022 6463: 6452:Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen & Kroonen 2022 6416:Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen & Kroonen 2022 6403: 6316: 6272: 6069:Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen & Kroonen 2022 6006:Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen & Kroonen 2022 5863: 5775: 5739: 5715: 5468: 5456: 5432: 5420: 5160: 5112: 5100: 4942: 4900: 4748:Simmelkjær Sandgaard Hansen & Kroonen 2022 4743: 4669: 4224:are frequently found in Germanic settlements. 3391:, which appears to be a cult object (see also 3290:. (For more discussion on these entities, see 2709: 2275:led Goths with Bastarnae, Carpi, Vandals, and 1190:, are given by Tacitus as a Latinized form of 429:, only peoples near the Rhine, especially the 14732: 13606: 13414:. Vol. 19. de Gruyter. pp. 467–478. 13094:. Vol. 14. de Gruyter. pp. 260–280. 11330:Haymes, Edward R.; Samples, Susan T. (1996). 11329: 11111:(2001 ed.). Cambridge University Press. 10734:Düwel, Klaus (2010a) . "Arianische Kirchen". 10673:Handwörterbuch zur deutschen Rechtsgeschichte 9006: 4201:linen, no examples of these have been found. 3988:Roman sources stress, perhaps partially as a 3968:Military organization of the Germanic peoples 3458: 2724:Frankish expansion from the early kingdom of 2196: 1972:he also massacred a large migrating group of 1960:went to war with them, defeating them at the 1819:, usually identified with the archaeological 1222: 812:and Tacitus placed the eastern border at the 457:(8th–11th centuries) had already begun using 136:and Goths, lived further east in what is now 13195:"5- Language: Placenames and Personal Names" 12116: 11880: 11063: 10682:Omnes Germani sunt, contra fabulas quorundam 7338: 6343: 5492: 4612:'having a pike'), possibly related to Greek 4191: 4030:forest, about the same percentage as today. 3830:), praise poetry, and laments for the dead. 3811: 3805: 3610:earliest known writing among Slavic speakers 3396: 2268:, was established to deal with their raids. 1905:), who are recorded threatening the city of 1847: 1379: 597: 575: 515: 509: 503: 493: 259:, most continental Germanic peoples and the 92:and parts of the Roman empire, but also all 13637:origin primarily identified as speakers of 13412:Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 13285:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 13092:Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde 12448:Recent Developments in Germanic Linguistics 12088: 11641: 11159:Der Eintritt der Germanen in die Geschichte 11082: 11021: 11002: 8539: 6757: 6745: 6646: 6622: 6523: 4278: 4272: 4266: 4133: 3978: 3825: 3643:is attested from the sixth century onward. 3474: 2538: 1202: 1186:, a pair of brother gods worshipped by the 912: 841: 581: 546:may instead be called "ancient Germans" or 537: 397: 383: 365: 359: 108:. Although the first Roman descriptions of 14739: 14725: 13613: 13599: 12947: 12913: 12760:. Vol. 1. Brepols. pp. 247–268. 12572:From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic 11920: 11824: 10614:Hellenistic Oratory: Continuity and Change 10537:Rome and the Barbarians, 100 B.C.–A.D. 400 10173: 8224: 5555: 5543: 5480: 5331: 5319: 5295: 5136: 5088: 5037: 4852: 4297:have acted as a form of currency as well. 2783:came to control the Merovingian rulers as 2238:Depiction of Romans fighting Goths on the 1773:have preserved archaic forms (e.g. Finnic 211:with their allies, which was known as the 13380:The Roman Empire and its Germanic Peoples 13192: 12870:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 12774: 12539:. University of Texas Press. p. 51. 12395:. München: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. 12157:Germanische Heldendichtung im Mittelalter 12117:Mallory, J.P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). 12097: 12071: 11851: 11795:Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic 11774: 11764: 11601:"Rezensionen. Rudolf Simek, Die Germanen" 11441: 11313: 10607: 9090: 8946: 8934: 8804: 8768: 8404: 6511: 6387: 6092: 5767: 4566:. However they were Germanic by country ( 4487:in Scandinavia placed more weight on the 3627:, date from 200 to 700 CE. The word 3504:Christians and Arians, such as the Arian 3431:). Notable from the Roman period are the 2583:. Either before or after Attila's death, 2310:largely collapsed in 259/260, during the 2066:and provided soldiers to the Roman army. 1980:who had crossed the Rhine from the east. 13538:Pomponius Mela, Description of the World 13133:(2009 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 12900: 12715:Schmidt-Wiegand, Ruth (2010) . "Leges". 12634: 12386:. de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1232–1281. 11478: 10825:(2011 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 10679: 10395: 10185: 10161: 10149: 10137: 10113: 8296: 8284: 8272: 8086: 8074: 8062: 8050: 7213: 7198: 6488:Maciałowicz, Rudnicki & Strobin 2016 6196: 6172: 6144: 6108: 6096: 6048: 6001: 5902: 5900: 5891: 5879: 5839: 5823: 5755: 5572: 4798:"Runes are an alphabetic script, called 4657: 4231: 4165: 4161: 4074: 3945: 3905: 3670: 3580: 3468: 3465:Christianisation of the Germanic peoples 3327: 2912: 2735: 2719: 2628: 2613: 2437: 2332: 2233: 2149: 1987: 1757:(Germanic), Dark Green – 1737: 1443: 1292: 946: 702: 698: 433:and sometimes the Alemanni, were called 116:was portrayed as stretching east of the 49: 14678:Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England 13409: 13373: 13337: 13299: 13069: 12964: 12810: 12755: 12670: 12601: 12532: 12393:Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen 12390: 12340: 12276: 12190: 11791: 11379: 11367: 11278: 11208: 11175: 10969: 10945: 10815: 10670: 10445: 10436: 10321: 10281: 10077: 10005: 9981: 9909: 9345: 9285: 9213: 9165: 9141: 9114: 9018: 8720: 8708: 8684: 8484: 8308: 8209: 8197: 8173: 8122: 8014: 7927: 7903: 7891: 7862: 7850: 7838: 7802: 7790: 7754: 7742: 7730: 7718: 7691: 7679: 7667: 7643: 7619: 7607: 7578: 7566: 7554: 7542: 7530: 7518: 7482: 7470: 7446: 7422: 7410: 7386: 7374: 7362: 7350: 7326: 7314: 7302: 7273: 7261: 7249: 7237: 7225: 7186: 7111: 7087: 7006: 6856: 6371: 6367: 6355: 6300: 6264: 6260: 6236: 6232: 6220: 6064: 6060: 6044: 5993: 5991: 5962: 5918: 5875: 5819: 5799: 5787: 5771: 5711: 5695: 5659: 5647: 5611: 5596: 5584: 5307: 5220: 5208: 5076: 4998: 4986: 4138:("Germanic lead") in Roman shipwrecks. 4008:shows them to be of Roman manufacture. 3857:Later Germanic peoples shared a common 2362:Early Migration Period (before 375–420) 2147:, who was victorious in the civil war. 1639:The Germanic-speaking peoples speak an 867:, who he says spoke and lived like the 759:, who had previously invaded Italy, as 622:Defenders of continued use of the term 14: 14856: 13308: 13050: 13017: 12982: 12973: 12969:(3 ed.). Oxford University Press. 12747:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 12482:. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 12477: 12441: 12373:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 12268:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 12199: 12154: 12089:MacLeod, Mindy; Mees, Bernard (2006). 12013:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 11961: 11953:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 11868:from the original on 13 September 2022 11669: 11595: 11514:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 11348: 11161:. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. 10807:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 10774: 10766:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 10733: 10642: 10599:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 10525:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 10428:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 10378:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 10305: 10041: 10017: 9933: 9892: 9803: 9791: 9738: 9711: 9699: 9687: 9675: 9651: 9639: 9612: 9573: 9561: 9534: 9522: 9510: 9498: 9486: 9450: 9438: 9426: 9402: 9375: 9321: 9309: 9297: 9261: 9249: 9066: 9042: 9030: 8905: 8648: 8624: 8600: 8588: 8576: 8572: 8526: 8453: 8321: 8260: 6880: 6784: 6709: 6634: 6535: 6407: 6391: 6375: 6296: 6208: 6184: 6160: 6148: 6132: 6120: 6080: 6032: 6017: 5997: 5982: 5966: 5950: 5938: 5922: 5815: 5751: 5683: 5671: 5283: 5271: 5259: 5184: 4927: 4915: 4885: 4873: 4689: 3910:Germanic bracteate from Funen, Denmark 3565: 2644:in 455, the Vandals invaded Italy and 1408:during the first two centuries of the 1137:linguistic period (2500–500 BCE), the 542:is also used. To avoid ambiguity, the 14720: 13594: 13423:. New York: Oxford University Press. 13418: 13321:. Harvard University Press: 363–380. 13280: 13261: 13231:from the original on 10 February 2022 12846: 12565: 12536:Caesar in Gaul and Rome: War in Words 12496: 12409: 12381: 12193:Early Germanic Literature and Culture 12173: 12135: 12119:Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture 12026:, in Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz (ed.), 11710: 11642:Kaul, Flemming; Martens, Jes (1995), 11573: 11523:Iversen, Rune; Kroonen, Guus (2017). 11466:from the original on 13 November 2019 11137: 11101: 10926: 10878: 10851: 10727:Early Germanic Literature and Culture 10724: 10651: 10645:Conversion among the Germanic Peoples 10533: 10389:Early Germanic Literature and Culture 10257: 10233: 10101: 9881:Banck-Burgess, Müller & Hägg 2010 9869:Banck-Burgess, Müller & Hägg 2010 9840:Banck-Burgess, Müller & Hägg 2010 9828:Banck-Burgess, Müller & Hägg 2010 9816:Banck-Burgess, Müller & Hägg 2010 9333: 9202:Dusil, Kannowski & Schwedler 2023 9102: 9054: 8917: 8893: 8881: 8869: 8857: 8845: 8833: 8821: 8756: 8559: 8509: 8497: 8325: 8038: 8002: 7978: 7951: 7939: 7879: 7778: 7766: 7174: 7150: 7099: 7072: 7030: 7018: 6994: 6967: 6928: 6916: 6892: 6868: 6844: 6832: 6820: 6808: 6772: 6682: 6670: 6658: 6583: 6559: 6547: 6439: 6328: 6304: 6248: 5978: 5934: 5914: 5910: 5897: 5851: 5835: 5811: 5727: 5707: 5630: 5531: 5519: 5507: 5444: 5408: 5391: 5379: 5367: 5355: 5343: 5196: 5064: 5049: 5025: 5010: 4685: 4491:, resulting in the movement known as 3985:(mercenary units in the Roman army). 3547:as a result of their conquest in the 2967:venerated numerous indigenous deities 2807:in 800 and regarded his residence of 1936:, described by Caesar as king of the 1490:in accented syllables; it remained a 1167: 1143:an unknown non-Indo-European language 304:originating in the Migration Period. 13620: 13325:from the original on 9 February 2022 13311:"Ymir in India, China – and Beyonds" 13123: 12622:from the original on 13 January 2023 12321: 12250:from the original on 6 February 2022 12046:Macháček, Jiří; et al. (2021). 11980: 11935:from the original on 5 February 2022 11688: 11415: 11242:from the original on 19 January 2020 10581:from the original on 5 February 2022 10386: 10294:Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021 10269: 10246:Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021 10221: 10209: 10198:Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021 10125: 10090:Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021 10065: 10053: 10029: 9993: 9969: 9957: 9945: 9921: 9856: 9774: 9762: 9750: 9726: 9663: 9624: 9600: 9588: 9549: 9474: 9462: 9414: 9360: 9177: 9079:Tiefenbach, Reichert & Beck 1999 8547: 8472: 8440: 8421: 8392: 8380: 8363: 8344: 8236: 8185: 8161: 8134: 8110: 8098: 8026: 7990: 7966: 7915: 7826: 7814: 7706: 7655: 7631: 7595: 7506: 7494: 7458: 7434: 7398: 7290: 7162: 7135: 7123: 7060: 7045: 6982: 6940: 6904: 6610: 6596:Vanderhoeven & Vanderhoeven 2004 6571: 6499: 6427: 6411: 6284: 6240: 5988: 5906: 5248:Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021 5149:Brather, Heizmann & Patzold 2021 4974: 4957: 4777:"The indigenous ancient alphabet of 4711: 3773: 3383:, recorded in 13th-century Iceland. 3355:) and Godan (cognate with Old Norse 3325:dating to the pre-Christian period. 2890: 2015:Early Imperial campaigns in Germania 554:Modern definitions and controversies 550:by using the Latin term in English. 13111:from the original on 17 August 2021 12729:from the original on 15 August 2021 12445:(1992). Lippi-Green, Rosina (ed.). 12355:from the original on 18 August 2021 12034:from the original on 16 August 2021 11995:from the original on 14 August 2021 11496:from the original on 18 August 2021 10748:from the original on 17 August 2021 4359: 4311:Bell Beaker culture § Genetics 3732:, meaning 'wolf' (the alliterative 2610:After the death of Attila (453–568) 2524:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 2502:may never have been conquered. The 1436:tribes towards modern-day England. 1145:, still noticeable in the Germanic 1141:was almost certainly influenced by 562:was linked to the newly identified 508:, as distinct from modern Germans ( 465:in a territorial sense to refer to 335:movement and later co-opted by the 27:Historical group of European people 24: 13397:from the original on 23 April 2023 13361:from the original on 23 April 2023 13247:. London and New York: Routledge. 13180:from the original on 23 April 2023 13147:from the original on 23 April 2023 13038:from the original on 23 April 2023 13024:. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. 13005:from the original on 23 April 2023 12834:from the original on 23 April 2023 12820:. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. 12798:from the original on 23 April 2023 12691:from the original on 23 April 2023 12658:from the original on 23 April 2023 12644:. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. 12589:from the original on 23 April 2023 12553:from the original on 23 April 2023 12520:from the original on 23 April 2023 12465:from the original on 23 April 2023 12430:from the original on 23 April 2023 12309:from the original on 26 March 2023 12223:from the original on 23 April 2023 12209:. Vol. 2. Walter de Gruyter. 12178:. New York: Grosset & Dunlap. 12121:. London and New York: Routledge. 12098:Magnússon, Ásgeir Blöndal (1989). 11908:from the original on 23 April 2023 11812:from the original on 20 April 2023 11731:from the original on 23 April 2023 11629:from the original on 23 April 2022 11581:. London and New York: Routledge. 11569:from the original on 19 July 2018. 11403:from the original on 23 April 2023 11196:from the original on 23 April 2023 11125:from the original on 23 April 2023 11051:from the original on 23 April 2023 10990:from the original on 23 April 2023 10839:from the original on 23 April 2023 10789:from the original on 23 April 2023 10630:from the original on 23 April 2023 10554:from the original on 23 April 2023 10507:from the original on 23 April 2023 10410:from the original on 9 August 2022 10360:from the original on 23 April 2023 10356:. de Gruyter. pp. 1064–1067. 8745:Schäferdiek & Gschwantler 2010 8733:Schäferdiek & Gschwantler 2010 8697:Schäferdiek & Gschwantler 2010 8673:Schäferdiek & Gschwantler 2010 8661:Schäferdiek & Gschwantler 2010 8637:Schäferdiek & Gschwantler 2010 8613:Schäferdiek & Gschwantler 2010 6138: 4307:Battle Axe culture § Genetics 4150:with snakeheads, often displaying 4017:Agriculture and population density 3417:a focus on sacred groves and trees 2842:In what would become England, the 2378:river. A second Gothic group, the 2109:in 28 CE, and attacks by the 1482:, and the shift of the long vowel 820:(2nd century CE) applied the name 300:, and later Germanic peoples also 183:Roman authors first described the 25: 14885: 13461:Ecclesiastical history of England 13439: 13193:Vikstrand, Per (1 January 2020), 13105:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 13055:(reprint). Springer Netherlands. 12905:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 12723:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 12707:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 12349:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 12244:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 12140:. New York: Thames & Hudson. 12052:Journal of Archaeological Science 11989:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 11929:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 11658:from the original on 9 April 2022 11490:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 11283:. University of Amsterdam Press. 10914:from the original on 28 July 2021 10783:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 10742:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 10729:. Camden House. pp. 121–148. 10575:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 10501:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 10449:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 10404:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 10354:Germanische Altertumskunde Online 4315:Nordic Bronze Age § Genetics 4261:and other harbors on the Baltic. 3666: 3558:had converted earlier. The pagan 3395:), and the mention of the Gothic 2621:and peoples after the end of the 2510:, who would form the core of the 2279:into the empire, laying siege to 1504:: initially characterized by the 1439: 1057: 767:and Celts, he also describes the 719:The first author to describe the 472:In modern English, the adjective 14869:2nd-millennium BC establishments 14701: 14700: 12849:Dictionary of Northern Mythology 12324:A Handbook of Germanic Etymology 12159:. Berlin, New York: de Gruyter. 11674:, vol. I, London: Penguin, 10950:, De Gruyter, pp. 241–250, 10503:. de Gruyter. pp. 667–746. 8565: 8532: 8515: 8490: 8446: 8314: 6953:Ward, Heichelheim & Yeo 2016 6715: 6397: 6381: 6361: 6290: 6254: 6226: 4822: 4813: 4792: 4771: 4762: 4753: 4737: 4705: 4695: 4679: 4663: 4651: 4604:could descend from a PGer. form 4368:in the 1450s was used by German 3723:runestone D359 in Istaby, Sweden 3570: 2866:. Few written sources report on 2577:Battle of the Catalaunian Plains 1745:: Orange Field – 1655:. The subsequent culture of the 1452:) from Mechernich-Weyer, Germany 879:lived in Germania, but were not 643:in geographical terms (covering 358:The etymology of the Latin word 68:were tribal groups who lived in 14683:Christianization of Scandinavia 12674:German: Biography of a Language 12195:. Camden House. pp. 55–71. 12091:Runic Amulets and Magic Objects 11981:Lück, Heiner (2010) . "Recht". 11579:Europe's Barbarians, AD 200–600 11532:American Journal of Archaeology 11325:. de Gruyter. pp. 513–534. 10391:. Camden House. pp. 25–28. 10314: 6086: 6054: 6038: 5972: 5956: 5928: 5869: 5829: 5805: 5761: 5745: 5701: 4581: 4549: 4373:nations. Equally important was 4070: 3895: 3361:). Attested in the 7th-century 3040:. Compare the following table: 2833:a Muslim army landed at Grenada 1542:(attested from the 5th c. CE), 1098:), or the merger of the vowels 1015:40) as well as the cult of the 928: 14673:Christianization of the Franks 13746:Continental Germanic mythology 13445:Classical and medieval sources 12918:, De Gruyter, pp. 31–66, 12608:. Amsterdam University Press. 11832:, De Gruyter, pp. 19–30, 11672:Penguin Atlas of World History 10688:, De Gruyter, pp. 67–84, 10610:"Paradoxon, Enargeia, Empathy" 10331:. Princeton University Press. 8571:See discussion in for example 8542:, pp. 173–174. On Gothic 4536: 4525:List of early Germanic peoples 4236:The Minerva Bowl, part of the 3234:Proto-Germanic reconstruction 3055:Proto-Germanic reconstruction 2570:and the Goths. The Gepid king 2518:The Hunnic Empire (c. 420–453) 2091:Battle of the Teutoburg Forest 1878:According to some authors the 1577:(Matrons of Vacallina) in the 1475:: mainly characterized by the 1254:'tester', on a lancehead) and 1086:, the conservation of the PIE 342: 197:Battle of the Teutoburg Forest 162:First Germanic Consonant Shift 128:in the east, and to the upper 13: 1: 13281:Wells, Colin Michael (1995). 13245:A History of the Roman People 13072:The Agricola and The Germania 12451:. John Benjamins Publishing. 11259:, De Gruyter, pp. 1–18, 11140:The Cambridge Ancient History 11064:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2009b). 10472:. de Gruyter. pp. 1–36. 6797:Haller & Dannenbauer 1970 6698:Haller & Dannenbauer 1970 4835: 4364:The rediscovery of Tacitus's 3950:Image of Romans fighting the 3878: 3594: 3449:Proto-Indo-European mythology 2450:(on the right), the son of a 2323:Migration Period (c. 375–568) 2060:—was made the Roman province 1753:), Dark Red – 1680:('original homeland') of the 1634: 13264:The Battle That Stopped Rome 12916:Interrogating the 'Germanic' 11830:Interrogating the 'Germanic' 11257:Interrogating the 'Germanic' 11083:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2016). 11037:. Classical Press of Wales. 11003:Goldsworthy, Adrian (2006). 10948:Interrogating the 'Germanic' 10686:Interrogating the 'Germanic' 10260:, pp. 27, 220, 238–248. 5233:Harland & Friedrich 2020 5173:Harland & Friedrich 2020 5125:Harland & Friedrich 2020 4840: 4340:that is a mixture including 4012:Economy and material culture 3846:, and in a modified form in 2795:became king and founded the 1984:Roman Imperial Period to 375 1901: 1707:, one on either side of the 1585:in the 5th–6th centuries CE; 1068:Proto-Indo-European language 1046: 711:, despite not living within 639:defines his own work on the 588: 353: 7: 14688:Christianization of Iceland 13300:Winkler, Martin M. (2016). 12991:. Aarhus University Press. 12948:Steinacher, Roland (2022). 12677:. Oxford University Press. 12533:Riggsby, Andrew M. (2010). 12506:. Oxford University Press. 11966:. Oxford University Press. 11349:Harris, William V. (1979). 10608:Chaniotis, Angelos (2013). 10437:Brather, Sebastian (2004). 9388:Bulitta & Springer 2010 9274:Bulitta & Springer 2010 8147:Nedoma & Scardigli 2010 4518: 4300: 3445:Proto-Indo-European culture 2885: 2710:Early Middle Ages to c. 800 2312:Crisis of the Third Century 2240:Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus 2207:Crisis of the Third Century 797:. Caesar's division of the 10: 14890: 13304:. Oxford University Press. 13207:10.1484/m.pcrn-eb.5.116932 12391:Pfeifer, Wolfgang (2000). 11852:Looijenga, Tineke (2020). 11279:Harland, James M. (2021). 11005:Caesar: Life of a Colossus 10854:"Barbarians and Ethnicity" 10852:Geary, Patrick J. (1999). 10712:. Brill. pp. 77–160. 10643:Cusack, Carole M. (1998). 9238:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 9190:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 9154:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 9130:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 8995:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 8983:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 8971:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 8959:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 8249:Capelle & Brather 2010 6464:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 6404:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 6317:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 6273:Iversen & Kroonen 2017 6147:, pp. 987, 991, 997; 5864:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5776:Iversen & Kroonen 2017 5740:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5716:Iversen & Kroonen 2017 5469:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5457:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5433:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5421:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5161:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5113:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 5101:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 4943:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 4901:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 4744:Timpe & Scardigli 2010 4670:Iversen & Kroonen 2017 4498:In the late 19th century, 4385:Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini 4304: 3961: 3941: 3899: 3777: 3593:and dating to around from 3591:National Museum of Denmark 3574: 3462: 3459:Conversion to Christianity 3364:Origo Gentis Langobardorum 2894: 2728:(481) to the divisions of 2713: 2532:In 428, the Vandal leader 2521: 2326: 2200: 2197:Marcomannic Wars to 375 CE 2008: 1948:against their enemies the 1944:, successfully aiding the 1851: 1629: 1528:from the beginning of the 1050: 932: 693:shared legendary tradition 346: 36: 29: 14758: 14696: 14658: 13939: 13901: 13691: 13645: 13628: 13520:History of the Langobards 13266:. New York: W.W. Norton. 13051:Storms, Godfrid (2013) . 12924:10.1515/9783110701623-003 12671:Sanders, Ruth H. (2010). 12277:Neidorf, Leonard (2018). 12073:10.1016/j.jas.2021.105333 11838:10.1515/9783110701623-003 11265:10.1515/9783110701623-003 10956:10.1515/9783110701623-003 10718:10.1163/9789004687257_004 10694:10.1515/9783110701623-003 10478:10.1515/9783110563061-001 9007:Haymes & Samples 1996 8383:, pp. 361, 385, 387. 6263:, pp. 360, 367–368; 4184:Column of Marcus Aurelius 4048: 3956:Column of Marcus Aurelius 3425:numerous vocabulary items 3393:Gothic runic inscriptions 3215:, where it occurs in the 2127:Year of the Four Emperors 2087:Publius Quinctilius Varus 2019:Year of the Four Emperors 1890:to be encountered by the 1848:Earliest recorded history 1380:Linguistic disintegration 1317:, have not been found in 1290:all mean 'to carry out'. 1072:Proto- or Common Germanic 829: 94:Germanic speaking peoples 13926:North Germanic languages 13911:Germanic parent language 13309:Witzel, Michael (2017). 13262:Wells, Peter S. (2004). 11670:Kinder, Hermann (1988), 10970:Goffart, Walter (2006). 6526:, pp. 133, 153–154. 6344:Mallory & Adams 1997 6199:, pp. 987, 997–998. 4632:'aristocratic lineage'; 4576:Osis, Germanorum natione 4530: 4257:on the Danish island of 4244:(37–68 CE) or the early 4227: 3676:The Istaby Stone (DR359) 3401:(cognate with Old Norse 2909:List of Germanic deities 2775:in the southeast around 2744:from c. 625 in the 2056:—and possibly up to the 1661:Germanic Parent Language 960:(part of the Herminones) 564:Germanic language family 43:Germani (disambiguation) 30:Not to be confused with 14750:established around the 13931:West Germanic languages 13921:East Germanic languages 13916:Proto-Germanic language 13736:Proto-Germanic folklore 13673:Romano-Germanic culture 13421:Rome: An Empire's Story 12965:Stenton, Frank (1971). 12322:Orel, Vladimir (2003). 12155:Millet, Victor (2008). 11228:Oxford University Press 11033:; Anton Powell (eds.). 8575:, pp. 189–221 and 8540:MacLeod & Mees 2006 8487:, pp. 96, 114–115. 8328:, pp. 84, 278–279. 6524:Kaul & Martens 1995 6269:Kristiansen et al. 2017 6245:Kristiansen et al. 2017 4425:History of the Lombards 4413:History of the Lombards 3766: 3728: 3709: 3703: 3653: 3634: 3397: 3357: 3351: 3339:Old Saxon Baptismal Vow 3292:Proto-Germanic folklore 2901:Proto-Germanic folklore 2755:in the east around the 1791: 1780: 1727:has been criticized by 1682:Proto-Germanic language 1558:(6th c.), and possibly 1532:(8th–9th centuries CE); 1364: 1357: 1346: 1339: 1297:The inscription on the 1286: 1280: 1272: 1242: 1210: 1193: 617:end of the Roman Empire 574:as a people or nation ( 484:relates to the ancient 414: 408: 325:Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm 12983:Steuer, Heiko (2006). 12974:Steuer, Heiko (2021). 12847:Simek, Rudolf (1993). 12602:Roymans, Nico (2004). 12478:Puhvel, Jaan (1989) . 12410:Pohl, Walter (2004a), 12351:. pp. 1171–1177. 12174:Mosse, George (1964). 11792:Kroonen, Guus (2013). 11717:. Getty Publications. 11552:10.3764/aja.121.4.0511 11544:10.3764/aja.121.4.0511 10534:Burns, Thomas (2003). 8324:, pp. 227–28 and 8225:Kuhn & Wilson 2010 6649:, p. 212, note 2. 6004:, p. 995; ; 4464: 4456: 4396: 4279: 4273: 4267: 4249: 4192: 4175: 4134: 4084: 4001: 3979: 3964:Early Germanic warfare 3959: 3911: 3826: 3812: 3806: 3784:Germanic heroic legend 3694: 3601: 3489: 3475: 3370:Historia Langobardorum 3334: 3012:With the exception of 2926: 2748: 2733: 2637: 2626: 2539: 2455: 2442:A replica of an ivory 2338: 2243: 2167: 2001: 1992:The Roman province of 1834:Balto-Slavic languages 1777:, from Proto-Germanic 1762: 1686:archaeological culture 1641:Indo-European language 1583:Anglo-Saxon migrations 1453: 1306: 1258:attested in the later 1223: 1203: 971: 913: 842: 716: 598: 582: 576: 568:Celtic-speaking people 538: 516: 514:) and modern Germany ( 510: 504: 494: 445:writers respectively. 398: 384: 382:, for example, thinks 366: 360: 61: 41:. For other uses, see 14874:Indo-European peoples 13741:Anglo-Saxon mythology 13631:Ethnolinguistic group 12876:10.1017/9781108758666 12480:Comparative Mythology 12295:10.1353/elh.2018.0031 12102:. Orðabók Háskólans. 11962:Lindow, John (2001). 11745:Kristiansen, Kristian 11482:(2010) . "Religion". 11416:Heyd, Volker (2017). 11334:. New York: Garland. 11289:10.1515/9789048544967 11236:10.1093/gerhis/ghu107 11176:Halsall, Guy (2007). 10927:Ghosh, Shami (2016). 10900:10.1515/BGSL.2007.220 10785:. pp. 997–1024. 9936:, pp. 1274–1275. 9871:, pp. 1221–1222. 9830:, pp. 1214–1215. 7201:, pp. 1020–1021. 6732:23 April 2023 at the 6374:, pp. 247, 311; 6000:, pp. 879, 881; 5286:, pp. 1275–1277. 4459:) with "Germanness" ( 4235: 4169: 4162:Clothing and textiles 4078: 3949: 3909: 3674: 3584: 3472: 3331: 2916: 2739: 2723: 2714:Further information: 2697:, the Lombards under 2632: 2617: 2522:Further information: 2441: 2336: 2237: 2219:. By 168 (during the 2201:Further information: 2153: 2009:Further information: 1991: 1954:Battle of Magetobriga 1866:Germanisation of Gaul 1852:Further information: 1741: 1645:Pontic–Caspian steppe 1575:Matronae Vacallinehae 1571:-consonant gemination 1450:Matronae Vacallinehae 1447: 1390:mutually intelligible 1296: 950: 933:Further information: 824:("Greater Germania", 706: 699:Classical terminology 667:to refer to peoples, 243:claimed the title of 53: 14808:Kingdom of the Aurès 14768:Anglo-Saxon kingdoms 13419:Woolf, Greg (2012). 13344:History of the Goths 13107:. pp. 363–876. 13080:Tiefenbach, Heinrich 12725:. pp. 419–447. 12136:Manco, Jean (2013). 12030:, pp. 133–161, 11991:. pp. 418–447. 11766:10.15184/aqy.2017.17 11492:. pp. 859–914. 11434:10.15184/aqy.2017.21 10817:Fortson, Benjamin W. 10744:. pp. 801–807. 10652:Derry, T.K. (2012). 9226:Schmidt-Wiegand 2010 8908:, pp. 999–1006. 8793:Macháček et al. 2021 8781:Macháček et al. 2021 8239:, pp. 210, 219. 8188:, pp. 158, 174. 8087:Beck & Quak 2010 8075:Beck & Quak 2010 8063:Beck & Quak 2010 8051:Beck & Quak 2010 7240:, p. 1035-1036. 6406:, pp. 579–589; 6243:, pp. 348–349; 6163:, pp. 877, 881. 5965:, pp. 338–339; 5423:, pp. 376, 511. 4674:Single Grave culture 4624:origin, attested in 4616:'to stab, poke' and 4485:Romantic nationalism 3810:), memorial verses ( 3756:), and deity names ( 3367:and the 8th-century 3341:and the Old English 2785:mayors of the palace 2730:Charlemagne's Empire 2623:Western Roman Empire 2416:Battle of Adrianople 2242:(c. 250–260 CE) 2141:Gaius Julius Civilis 2119:Revolt of the Batavi 1759:Iron Age Scandinavia 1711:and reaching to the 1653:Funnelbeaker culture 1597:is attested by both 1092:Germanic verb system 329:romantic nationalism 251:Denoted by the term 247:for himself in 800. 14818:Ostrogothic kingdom 14668:Gothic Christianity 12967:Anglo-Saxon England 12710:. pp. 350–409. 12100:Íslensk orðsifjabók 12064:2021JArSc.127j5333M 11854:""Germanic: Runes"" 11826:Kulikowski, Michael 11315:Haubrichs, Wolfgang 11023:Goldsworthy, Adrian 10272:, pp. 251–252. 10044:, pp. 463–469. 9895:, pp. 433–434. 9806:, pp. 430–431. 9777:, pp. 123–124. 9765:, pp. 122–123. 9753:, pp. 126–127. 9741:, pp. 510–511. 9714:, pp. 455–457. 9702:, pp. 459–460. 9690:, pp. 455–456. 9654:, pp. 448–449. 9627:, pp. 128–129. 9501:, pp. 427–428. 9390:, pp. 678–679. 9324:, pp. 793–794. 9276:, pp. 665–667. 9216:, pp. 246–247. 9192:, pp. 800–801. 9180:, pp. 423–424. 9156:, pp. 798–799. 9117:, pp. 241–242. 9081:, pp. 267–268. 8997:, pp. 609–611. 8973:, pp. 614–615. 8920:, pp. 131–132. 8884:, pp. 121–122. 8747:, pp. 401–404. 8735:, pp. 389–391. 8723:, pp. 588–589. 8699:, pp. 364–371. 8687:, pp. 104–128. 8675:, pp. 362–364. 8663:, pp. 360–362. 8639:, pp. 350–353. 8579:, pp. 365–369. 8562:, pp. 204–205. 8512:, pp. 298–300. 8500:, pp. 298–300. 8456:, pp. 107–112. 8407:, pp. 463–464. 8299:, pp. 866–867. 8287:, pp. 865–866. 8263:, pp. 641–642. 8251:, pp. 157–158. 8212:, pp. 277–278. 8200:, pp. 297–298. 8125:, pp. 293–294. 8113:, pp. 226–227. 8065:, pp. 857–858. 7993:, p. 200, 240. 7906:, pp. 219–220. 7894:, pp. 216–217. 7865:, pp. 284–285. 7841:, pp. 154–155. 7757:, pp. 151–152. 7733:, pp. 251–253. 7658:, pp. 176–177. 7646:, pp. 243–244. 7610:, pp. 113–114. 7581:, pp. 111–112. 7569:, pp. 102–103. 7557:, pp. 228–230. 7533:, pp. 147–149. 7521:, pp. 147–148. 7461:, pp. 145–146. 7413:, pp. 143–144. 7389:, pp. 138–139. 7377:, pp. 135–137. 7353:, pp. 176–178. 7329:, pp. 131–132. 7126:, pp. 141–142. 6760:, pp. 276–277. 6673:, pp. 180–182. 6562:, pp. 105–107. 6538:, pp. 245–247. 6514:, pp. 209–211. 6490:, pp. 136–138. 6478:, pp. 166–167. 6466:, pp. 581–582. 6454:, pp. 161–163. 6442:, pp. 145–159. 6418:, pp. 161–163. 6358:, pp. 181–183. 6083:, pp. 903–905. 6071:, pp. 158–160. 6020:, pp. 876–877. 6008:, pp. 158–160. 5802:, pp. 979–980. 5790:, pp. 978–979. 5686:, pp. 125–126. 5662:, pp. 470–471. 5459:, pp. 510–511. 5163:, pp. 381–382. 5139:, pp. 292–293. 5115:, pp. 379–380. 5103:, pp. 380–381. 4930:, p. 89, 1310. 4903:, pp. 383–385. 4238:Hildesheim Treasure 3890:Walter of Aquitaine 3859:legendary tradition 3617:Phoenician alphabet 3566:Society and culture 3537:Anglo-Saxon mission 3433:Matres and Matronae 3407:'(pagan) gods') by 2797:Carolingian dynasty 2767:in the west around 2635:Theodoric the Great 2492:Flavius Constantius 2486:in 415 and his son 2446:probably depicting 2388:defensive earthwork 1805:lexical innovations 1803:) speakers. Shared 1649:Corded Ware culture 1368:'ruler') carved on 1256:linguistic cognates 536:although the Latin 492:are referred to as 364:, from which Latin 74:Classical Antiquity 14843:Visigothic kingdom 14803:Kingdom of Odoacer 14773:Burgundian kingdom 14763:Alamannian kingdom 14748:Barbarian kingdoms 14051:Germani cisrhenani 13759:Funerary practices 13663:Pre-Roman Iron Age 13639:Germanic languages 13166:. Academia Press. 11882:Liebeschuetz, Wolf 11648:Acta Archaeologica 11418:"Kossinna's smile" 10458:Brather, Sebastian 8949:, p. 129-132. 8546:, see for example 8089:, p. 864-865. 8077:, p. 863-864. 7670:, p. 245-247. 7276:, pp. 98–100. 6414:, pp. 79–80; 6275:, pp. 512–513 6251:, pp. 110–111 6151:, pp. 881–883 5714:, pp. 57–58; 5187:, pp. 29, 35. 4437:Germanic philology 4383:, rediscovered by 4289:non-ferrous metals 4250: 4176: 4135:plumbum Germanicum 4085: 4043:three-field system 3960: 3912: 3902:Early Germanic law 3780:Alliterative verse 3719:alliterative verse 3695: 3602: 3498:Arian Christianity 3490: 3419:, the presence of 3389:Ring of Pietroassa 3335: 3038:Germanic mythology 3030:comparative method 2983:alliterative verse 2971:runic inscriptions 2927: 2917:Wooden idols from 2905:Germanic mythology 2878:, ushering in the 2749: 2734: 2662:Romulus Augustulus 2638: 2627: 2619:Barbarian kingdoms 2528:Barbarian kingdoms 2456: 2339: 2244: 2168: 2002: 1763: 1688:known as the late 1615:Vandalic languages 1607:Visigothic Kingdom 1599:runic inscriptions 1506:monophthongization 1473:Northwest Germanic 1454: 1328:, engraved on the 1307: 1168:Early attestations 1158:comparative method 1064:Germanic languages 1053:Germanic languages 1019:controlled by the 972: 770:Germani cisrhenani 717: 455:Carolingian period 307:The publishing of 298:alliterative verse 284:blood compensation 245:Holy Roman Emperor 237:barbarian kingdoms 158:Pre-Roman Iron Age 86:who lived in both 62: 39:Germani (Oretania) 14851: 14850: 14828:Sub-Roman Britain 14798:Kingdom of Altava 14714: 14713: 13886:Gothic and Vandal 13678:Germanic Iron Age 13653:Nordic Bronze Age 13635:Northern European 13532:Natural Histories 13530:Pliny the Elder, 13518:Paul the Deacon, 13430:978-0-19-932518-4 13390:978-0-520-08511-4 13354:978-0-520-05259-8 13292:978-0-67477-770-5 13273:978-0-39335-203-0 13254:978-0-205-84679-5 13216:978-2-503-57489-9 13173:978-90-382-0578-6 13140:978-1-4051-3756-0 13130:The Early Germans 13084:Reichert, Hermann 13062:978-94-017-6312-7 13053:Anglo-Saxon Magic 13031:978-3-11-054243-1 12998:978-87-7934-935-3 12933:978-3-11-070162-3 12885:978-1-108-49979-8 12858:978-0-85991-513-7 12827:978-3-11-054243-1 12791:978-1-134-25449-1 12767:978-2-503-57489-9 12743:cite encyclopedia 12684:978-0-19-538845-9 12651:978-3-11-054243-1 12615:978-90-5356-705-0 12582:978-0-19-153633-5 12546:978-0-292-77451-3 12513:978-0-19-255438-3 12489:978-0-8018-3938-2 12458:978-90-272-3593-0 12423:978-3-486-70162-3 12402:978-3-05000-626-0 12369:cite encyclopedia 12333:978-90-04-12875-0 12264:cite encyclopedia 12216:978-3-11-054243-1 12166:978-3-11-020102-4 12147:978-0-500-05178-8 12128:978-1-884964-98-5 12109:978-9979-654-01-8 12009:cite encyclopedia 11973:978-0-19-515382-8 11949:cite encyclopedia 11901:978-90-04-28952-9 11805:978-90-04-18340-7 11724:978-0-89236-969-0 11703:978-1-907029-32-5 11681:978-0-14-051054-6 11588:978-0-58277-296-0 11510:cite encyclopedia 11396:978-0-19-989226-6 11360:978-0-19-814866-1 11341:978-0-8153-0033-5 11298:978-90-485-4496-7 11189:978-0-52143-543-7 11168:978-3-11101-001-4 11149:978-0-521-26430-3 11118:978-0-521-79423-7 11094:978-0-30021-852-7 11075:978-0-30013-719-4 11044:978-1-910589-36-6 11014:978-0-300-12048-6 10983:978-0-81222-105-3 10938:978-9-00430-522-9 10871:978-0-674-51173-6 10832:978-1-4443-5968-8 10803:cite encyclopedia 10762:cite encyclopedia 10663:978-0-8166-3799-7 10623:978-0-19-965431-4 10595:cite encyclopedia 10547:978-0-8018-7306-5 10521:cite encyclopedia 10462:Heizmann, Wilhelm 10424:cite encyclopedia 10374:cite encyclopedia 10338:978-1-4008-3110-4 10323:Anthony, David W. 10296:, pp. 11–12. 10236:, pp. 67–71. 10212:, pp. 26–27. 10188:, pp. 80–84. 10140:, pp. 67–71. 10128:, pp. 25–26. 10092:, pp. 32–33. 10056:, pp. 87–88. 9477:, pp. 76–77. 9336:, pp. 68–69. 9069:, pp. 11–13. 9033:, pp. 27–28. 9009:, pp. 39–40. 8651:, pp. 50–51. 8005:, pp. 39–40. 7365:, pp. 79–87. 7339:Goldsworthy 2009b 7165:, pp. 59–61. 7075:, pp. 40–45. 7021:, pp. 26–27. 6907:, pp. 52–53. 6871:, pp. 17–18. 6859:, pp. 57–58. 6835:, pp. 16–17. 6799:, pp. 30–31. 6430:, pp. 79–80. 6331:, pp. 49–50. 5558:, pp. 47–48. 5493:Liebeschuetz 2015 5382:, pp. 54–55. 5370:, pp. 53–54. 5358:, pp. 52–53. 5334:, pp. 37–38. 5322:, pp. 36–37. 5298:, pp. 35–39. 5199:, pp. 50–51. 5040:, pp. 48–57. 4563:non esse Germanos 4544:Nordic Bronze Age 4435:The beginning of 4325:Sebastian Brather 4130:Germania inferior 4126:Germania superior 3774:Poetry and legend 3693:) and alliterate. 3560:Temple at Uppsala 3533:Gregory the Great 3510:Bible into Gothic 3375:Italian Peninsula 3276: 3275: 3209: 3208: 2954:, or the earlier 2897:Germanic paganism 2891:Germanic paganism 2874:raid occurred at 2837:Umayyad Caliphate 2811:as the new Rome. 2742:Sutton Hoo helmet 2716:Early Middle Ages 2464:crossed the Rhine 2162:, displaying the 2136:Numerus Batavorum 1892:Greco-Roman world 1729:Sebastian Brather 1717:Przeworsk culture 1657:Nordic Bronze Age 1492:dialect continuum 1386:dialect continuum 1326: 1315:Etruscan alphabet 1303:Etruscan alphabet 1201:'), and the word 669:Sebastian Brather 476:is distinct from 374:, and Latin, and 317:humanist scholars 253:Germanic paganism 78:Early Middle Ages 16:(Redirected from 14881: 14864:Germanic peoples 14778:Frankish kingdom 14752:Migration Period 14741: 14734: 14727: 14718: 14717: 14704: 14703: 14660:Christianization 14250:Ripuarian Franks 13622:Germanic peoples 13615: 13608: 13601: 13592: 13591: 13496:Historia Augusta 13473:De Bello Gallico 13434: 13415: 13406: 13404: 13402: 13370: 13368: 13366: 13334: 13332: 13330: 13305: 13296: 13283:The Roman Empire 13277: 13258: 13239: 13238: 13236: 13189: 13187: 13185: 13156: 13154: 13152: 13120: 13118: 13116: 13095: 13075: 13070:Tacitus (1948). 13066: 13047: 13045: 13043: 13014: 13012: 13010: 12979: 12970: 12961: 12944: 12910: 12908: 12897: 12862: 12843: 12841: 12839: 12807: 12805: 12803: 12776:Schrijver, Peter 12771: 12752: 12746: 12738: 12736: 12734: 12711: 12700: 12698: 12696: 12667: 12665: 12663: 12636:Rübekeil, Ludwig 12631: 12629: 12627: 12598: 12596: 12594: 12562: 12560: 12558: 12529: 12527: 12525: 12493: 12474: 12472: 12470: 12443:Polomé, Edgar C. 12438: 12437: 12435: 12406: 12387: 12378: 12372: 12364: 12362: 12360: 12337: 12318: 12316: 12314: 12273: 12267: 12259: 12257: 12255: 12232: 12230: 12228: 12196: 12187: 12170: 12151: 12132: 12113: 12094: 12093:. Boydell Press. 12085: 12075: 12042: 12041: 12039: 12018: 12012: 12004: 12002: 12000: 11977: 11958: 11952: 11944: 11942: 11940: 11917: 11915: 11913: 11877: 11875: 11873: 11848: 11821: 11819: 11817: 11788: 11778: 11768: 11759:(356): 334–347. 11740: 11738: 11736: 11707: 11684: 11666: 11665: 11663: 11638: 11636: 11634: 11615:S. Hirzel Verlag 11597:Kaiser, Reinhold 11592: 11570: 11568: 11529: 11519: 11513: 11505: 11503: 11501: 11480:Hultgård, Anders 11475: 11473: 11471: 11445: 11428:(356): 348–359. 11412: 11410: 11408: 11376: 11364: 11345: 11326: 11310: 11275: 11251: 11249: 11247: 11205: 11203: 11201: 11172: 11153: 11134: 11132: 11130: 11103:Green, Dennis H. 11098: 11079: 11060: 11058: 11056: 11018: 10999: 10997: 10995: 10966: 10942: 10923: 10921: 10919: 10875: 10863: 10848: 10846: 10844: 10812: 10806: 10798: 10796: 10794: 10771: 10765: 10757: 10755: 10753: 10730: 10721: 10704: 10676: 10667: 10648: 10639: 10637: 10635: 10604: 10598: 10590: 10588: 10586: 10563: 10561: 10559: 10530: 10524: 10516: 10514: 10512: 10489: 10466:Patzold, Steffen 10453: 10442: 10433: 10427: 10419: 10417: 10415: 10392: 10383: 10377: 10369: 10367: 10365: 10342: 10309: 10303: 10297: 10291: 10285: 10279: 10273: 10267: 10261: 10255: 10249: 10243: 10237: 10231: 10225: 10219: 10213: 10207: 10201: 10195: 10189: 10183: 10177: 10171: 10165: 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7043: 7034: 7028: 7022: 7016: 7010: 7004: 6998: 6992: 6986: 6980: 6971: 6965: 6956: 6950: 6944: 6938: 6932: 6926: 6920: 6914: 6908: 6902: 6896: 6890: 6884: 6878: 6872: 6866: 6860: 6854: 6848: 6842: 6836: 6830: 6824: 6818: 6812: 6806: 6800: 6794: 6788: 6782: 6776: 6770: 6761: 6758:Goldsworthy 2016 6755: 6749: 6746:Goldsworthy 2016 6743: 6737: 6719: 6713: 6707: 6701: 6695: 6686: 6680: 6674: 6668: 6662: 6656: 6650: 6647:Goldsworthy 2009 6644: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6623:Goldsworthy 2006 6620: 6614: 6608: 6599: 6593: 6587: 6581: 6575: 6569: 6563: 6557: 6551: 6545: 6539: 6533: 6527: 6521: 6515: 6509: 6503: 6497: 6491: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6467: 6461: 6455: 6449: 6443: 6437: 6431: 6425: 6419: 6401: 6395: 6385: 6379: 6365: 6359: 6353: 6347: 6341: 6332: 6326: 6320: 6314: 6308: 6294: 6288: 6282: 6276: 6258: 6252: 6230: 6224: 6218: 6212: 6206: 6200: 6194: 6188: 6182: 6176: 6170: 6164: 6158: 6152: 6142: 6136: 6130: 6124: 6118: 6112: 6106: 6100: 6090: 6084: 6078: 6072: 6058: 6052: 6042: 6036: 6030: 6021: 6015: 6009: 5995: 5986: 5976: 5970: 5960: 5954: 5948: 5942: 5932: 5926: 5904: 5895: 5889: 5883: 5873: 5867: 5861: 5855: 5849: 5843: 5833: 5827: 5809: 5803: 5797: 5791: 5785: 5779: 5765: 5759: 5749: 5743: 5737: 5731: 5725: 5719: 5705: 5699: 5693: 5687: 5681: 5675: 5669: 5663: 5657: 5651: 5645: 5634: 5628: 5615: 5609: 5600: 5594: 5588: 5582: 5576: 5570: 5559: 5553: 5547: 5541: 5535: 5529: 5523: 5517: 5511: 5510:, pp. 9–10. 5505: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5472: 5466: 5460: 5454: 5448: 5442: 5436: 5430: 5424: 5418: 5412: 5406: 5395: 5389: 5383: 5377: 5371: 5365: 5359: 5353: 5347: 5341: 5335: 5329: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5299: 5293: 5287: 5281: 5275: 5269: 5263: 5257: 5251: 5245: 5236: 5230: 5224: 5218: 5212: 5206: 5200: 5194: 5188: 5182: 5176: 5170: 5164: 5158: 5152: 5146: 5140: 5134: 5128: 5122: 5116: 5110: 5104: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5062: 5053: 5047: 5041: 5035: 5029: 5023: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4978: 4972: 4961: 4955: 4946: 4940: 4931: 4925: 4919: 4913: 4904: 4898: 4889: 4883: 4877: 4871: 4856: 4850: 4830: 4826: 4820: 4817: 4811: 4796: 4790: 4775: 4769: 4766: 4760: 4757: 4751: 4741: 4735: 4718:and Pro-Celtic * 4709: 4703: 4699: 4693: 4683: 4677: 4667: 4661: 4655: 4649: 4585: 4579: 4553: 4547: 4540: 4504:Neolithic period 4471:thinkers of the 4389:Konrad Peutinger 4360:Modern reception 4329:Wilhelm Heizmann 4282: 4277:) and hair dye ( 4276: 4270: 4195: 4174:(3rd century CE) 4144:polychrome style 4137: 3984: 3925:Leges Barbarorum 3883: 3880: 3863:migration period 3829: 3815: 3809: 3769: 3731: 3712: 3706: 3701:, consisting of 3682:that features a 3656: 3637: 3599: 3596: 3589:, housed at the 3480: 3400: 3360: 3354: 3343:Nine Herbs Charm 3225:Old High German 3222: 3221: 3087:Nine Herbs Charm 3046:Old High German 3043: 3042: 3028:. By way of the 2975:Merseburg charms 2777:Chalon-sur-Saône 2695:Carpathian basin 2542: 2540:magister militum 2386:, constructed a 2343:Migration Period 2329:Migration Period 2217:Marcomannic Wars 2215:, beginning the 2203:Marcomannic Wars 1998:Limes Germanicus 1962:Battle of Vosges 1925:resulted in the 1904: 1842:Slavic languages 1825:Italic languages 1794: 1783: 1702: 1593:, of which only 1432:and part of the 1367: 1360: 1349: 1342: 1324: 1301:, carved in the 1289: 1283: 1275: 1245: 1230:The name of the 1226: 1213: 1206: 1196: 1066:derive from the 965: 955: 916: 845: 838:Germania Secunda 831: 806:Hercynian Forest 789:, that the name 673:Wilhelm Heizmann 601: 591: 585: 579: 541: 519: 513: 507: 497: 417: 411: 401: 394:Wolfgang Pfeifer 392:. The historian 387: 369: 363: 233:Migration Period 213:Marcomannic Wars 201:Limes Germanicus 100:. Another term, 66:Germanic peoples 21: 14889: 14888: 14884: 14883: 14882: 14880: 14879: 14878: 14854: 14853: 14852: 14847: 14833:Suebian kingdom 14813:Lombard kingdom 14783:Frisian kingdom 14754: 14745: 14715: 14710: 14692: 14654: 13935: 13897: 13859:Gothic alphabet 13751:Norse mythology 13687: 13641: 13624: 13619: 13512:History of Rome 13442: 13437: 13431: 13400: 13398: 13391: 13375:Wolfram, Herwig 13364: 13362: 13355: 13339:Wolfram, Herwig 13328: 13326: 13293: 13274: 13255: 13234: 13232: 13217: 13183: 13181: 13174: 13150: 13148: 13141: 13114: 13112: 13063: 13041: 13039: 13032: 13008: 13006: 12999: 12934: 12886: 12859: 12851:. D.S. Brewer. 12837: 12835: 12828: 12801: 12799: 12792: 12768: 12740: 12739: 12732: 12730: 12694: 12692: 12685: 12661: 12659: 12652: 12625: 12623: 12616: 12592: 12590: 12583: 12556: 12554: 12547: 12523: 12521: 12514: 12490: 12468: 12466: 12459: 12433: 12431: 12424: 12403: 12366: 12365: 12358: 12356: 12334: 12312: 12310: 12261: 12260: 12253: 12251: 12226: 12224: 12217: 12167: 12148: 12129: 12110: 12037: 12035: 12006: 12005: 11998: 11996: 11974: 11946: 11945: 11938: 11936: 11911: 11909: 11902: 11871: 11869: 11858:Palaeohispánica 11815: 11813: 11806: 11734: 11732: 11725: 11704: 11682: 11661: 11659: 11632: 11630: 11589: 11566: 11527: 11507: 11506: 11499: 11497: 11469: 11467: 11406: 11404: 11397: 11361: 11342: 11299: 11245: 11243: 11199: 11197: 11190: 11169: 11150: 11128: 11126: 11119: 11095: 11076: 11054: 11052: 11045: 11015: 10993: 10991: 10984: 10939: 10917: 10915: 10872: 10842: 10840: 10833: 10800: 10799: 10792: 10790: 10759: 10758: 10751: 10749: 10664: 10633: 10631: 10624: 10592: 10591: 10584: 10582: 10557: 10555: 10548: 10518: 10517: 10510: 10508: 10421: 10420: 10413: 10411: 10371: 10370: 10363: 10361: 10339: 10317: 10312: 10304: 10300: 10292: 10288: 10280: 10276: 10268: 10264: 10256: 10252: 10244: 10240: 10232: 10228: 10220: 10216: 10208: 10204: 10200:, pp. 5–6. 10196: 10192: 10184: 10180: 10174:Steinacher 2020 10172: 10168: 10160: 10156: 10148: 10144: 10136: 10132: 10124: 10120: 10112: 10108: 10100: 10096: 10088: 10084: 10076: 10072: 10064: 10060: 10052: 10048: 10040: 10036: 10028: 10024: 10016: 10012: 10004: 10000: 9992: 9988: 9980: 9976: 9968: 9964: 9956: 9952: 9944: 9940: 9932: 9928: 9920: 9916: 9908: 9899: 9891: 9887: 9883:, p. 1216. 9879: 9875: 9867: 9863: 9855: 9846: 9842:, p. 1215. 9838: 9834: 9826: 9822: 9818:, p. 1214. 9814: 9810: 9802: 9798: 9790: 9781: 9773: 9769: 9761: 9757: 9749: 9745: 9737: 9733: 9725: 9718: 9710: 9706: 9698: 9694: 9686: 9682: 9674: 9670: 9662: 9658: 9650: 9646: 9638: 9631: 9623: 9619: 9611: 9607: 9599: 9595: 9587: 9580: 9572: 9568: 9560: 9556: 9548: 9541: 9533: 9529: 9521: 9517: 9509: 9505: 9497: 9493: 9485: 9481: 9473: 9469: 9461: 9457: 9453:, p. 1273. 9449: 9445: 9437: 9433: 9425: 9421: 9413: 9409: 9401: 9394: 9386: 9382: 9374: 9367: 9359: 9352: 9344: 9340: 9332: 9328: 9320: 9316: 9308: 9304: 9296: 9292: 9284: 9280: 9272: 9268: 9260: 9256: 9248: 9244: 9236: 9232: 9224: 9220: 9212: 9208: 9200: 9196: 9188: 9184: 9176: 9172: 9164: 9160: 9152: 9148: 9140: 9136: 9128: 9121: 9113: 9109: 9101: 9097: 9089: 9085: 9077: 9073: 9065: 9061: 9053: 9049: 9045:, pp. 4–7. 9041: 9037: 9029: 9025: 9017: 9013: 9005: 9001: 8993: 8989: 8981: 8977: 8969: 8965: 8957: 8953: 8945: 8941: 8933: 8924: 8916: 8912: 8904: 8900: 8892: 8888: 8880: 8876: 8868: 8864: 8856: 8852: 8844: 8840: 8832: 8828: 8820: 8811: 8803: 8799: 8795:, p. 1, 2. 8791: 8787: 8779: 8775: 8767: 8763: 8755: 8751: 8743: 8739: 8731: 8727: 8719: 8715: 8707: 8703: 8695: 8691: 8683: 8679: 8671: 8667: 8659: 8655: 8647: 8643: 8635: 8631: 8623: 8619: 8611: 8607: 8599: 8595: 8587: 8583: 8570: 8566: 8558: 8554: 8537: 8533: 8520: 8516: 8508: 8504: 8495: 8491: 8483: 8479: 8471: 8460: 8451: 8447: 8439: 8428: 8420: 8411: 8403: 8399: 8391: 8387: 8379: 8370: 8362: 8351: 8343: 8332: 8319: 8315: 8307: 8303: 8295: 8291: 8283: 8279: 8271: 8267: 8259: 8255: 8247: 8243: 8235: 8231: 8223: 8216: 8208: 8204: 8196: 8192: 8184: 8180: 8172: 8168: 8160: 8153: 8145: 8141: 8133: 8129: 8121: 8117: 8109: 8105: 8097: 8093: 8085: 8081: 8073: 8069: 8061: 8057: 8049: 8045: 8041:, p. 41-2. 8037: 8033: 8025: 8021: 8013: 8009: 8001: 7997: 7989: 7985: 7977: 7973: 7965: 7958: 7950: 7946: 7938: 7934: 7926: 7922: 7914: 7910: 7902: 7898: 7890: 7886: 7878: 7869: 7861: 7857: 7849: 7845: 7837: 7833: 7825: 7821: 7813: 7809: 7801: 7797: 7789: 7785: 7777: 7773: 7765: 7761: 7753: 7749: 7741: 7737: 7729: 7725: 7717: 7713: 7705: 7698: 7690: 7686: 7678: 7674: 7666: 7662: 7654: 7650: 7642: 7638: 7630: 7626: 7618: 7614: 7606: 7602: 7594: 7585: 7577: 7573: 7565: 7561: 7553: 7549: 7541: 7537: 7529: 7525: 7517: 7513: 7505: 7501: 7493: 7489: 7481: 7477: 7469: 7465: 7457: 7453: 7445: 7441: 7433: 7429: 7421: 7417: 7409: 7405: 7397: 7393: 7385: 7381: 7373: 7369: 7361: 7357: 7349: 7345: 7337: 7333: 7325: 7321: 7313: 7309: 7301: 7297: 7289: 7280: 7272: 7268: 7260: 7256: 7252:, p. 1036. 7248: 7244: 7236: 7232: 7228:, p. 1034. 7224: 7220: 7216:, p. 1021. 7212: 7205: 7197: 7193: 7185: 7181: 7173: 7169: 7161: 7157: 7149: 7142: 7134: 7130: 7122: 7118: 7110: 7106: 7098: 7094: 7086: 7079: 7071: 7067: 7059: 7052: 7044: 7037: 7029: 7025: 7017: 7013: 7005: 7001: 6993: 6989: 6981: 6974: 6966: 6959: 6951: 6947: 6939: 6935: 6927: 6923: 6915: 6911: 6903: 6899: 6891: 6887: 6879: 6875: 6867: 6863: 6855: 6851: 6843: 6839: 6831: 6827: 6819: 6815: 6807: 6803: 6795: 6791: 6783: 6779: 6771: 6764: 6756: 6752: 6744: 6740: 6734:Wayback Machine 6720: 6716: 6708: 6704: 6696: 6689: 6681: 6677: 6669: 6665: 6657: 6653: 6645: 6641: 6633: 6629: 6621: 6617: 6609: 6602: 6594: 6590: 6582: 6578: 6570: 6566: 6558: 6554: 6546: 6542: 6534: 6530: 6522: 6518: 6510: 6506: 6498: 6494: 6486: 6482: 6474: 6470: 6462: 6458: 6450: 6446: 6438: 6434: 6426: 6422: 6410:, p. 113; 6402: 6398: 6390:, p. 197; 6386: 6382: 6370:, p. 338; 6366: 6362: 6354: 6350: 6342: 6335: 6327: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6303:, p. 338; 6295: 6291: 6283: 6279: 6271:, p. 340; 6267:, p. 978; 6259: 6255: 6247:, p. 340; 6239:, p. 978; 6235:, p. 360; 6231: 6227: 6219: 6215: 6207: 6203: 6195: 6191: 6183: 6179: 6171: 6167: 6159: 6155: 6143: 6139: 6131: 6127: 6119: 6115: 6107: 6103: 6095:, p. 185; 6091: 6087: 6079: 6075: 6067:, p. 976; 6063:, p. 339; 6059: 6055: 6047:, p. 339; 6043: 6039: 6031: 6024: 6016: 6012: 5996: 5989: 5977: 5973: 5961: 5957: 5949: 5945: 5933: 5929: 5917:, p. 152; 5913:, p. 108; 5905: 5898: 5890: 5886: 5878:, p. 422; 5874: 5870: 5862: 5858: 5850: 5846: 5834: 5830: 5822:, p. 975; 5818:, p. 875; 5810: 5806: 5798: 5794: 5786: 5782: 5774:, p. 978; 5770:, p. 197; 5766: 5762: 5754:, p. 889; 5750: 5746: 5738: 5734: 5730:, p. 1232. 5726: 5722: 5706: 5702: 5694: 5690: 5682: 5678: 5670: 5666: 5658: 5654: 5646: 5637: 5629: 5618: 5610: 5603: 5595: 5591: 5583: 5579: 5571: 5562: 5556:Steinacher 2020 5554: 5550: 5544:Steinacher 2020 5542: 5538: 5530: 5526: 5522:, pp. 4–5. 5518: 5514: 5506: 5499: 5491: 5487: 5481:Steinacher 2022 5479: 5475: 5467: 5463: 5455: 5451: 5443: 5439: 5431: 5427: 5419: 5415: 5407: 5398: 5390: 5386: 5378: 5374: 5366: 5362: 5354: 5350: 5342: 5338: 5332:Steinacher 2020 5330: 5326: 5320:Steinacher 2020 5318: 5314: 5306: 5302: 5296:Steinacher 2020 5294: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5270: 5266: 5258: 5254: 5246: 5239: 5231: 5227: 5219: 5215: 5207: 5203: 5195: 5191: 5183: 5179: 5171: 5167: 5159: 5155: 5147: 5143: 5137:Steinacher 2022 5135: 5131: 5127:, pp. 2–3. 5123: 5119: 5111: 5107: 5099: 5095: 5089:Kulikowski 2020 5087: 5083: 5079:, p. xxii. 5075: 5071: 5063: 5056: 5048: 5044: 5038:Steinacher 2020 5036: 5032: 5024: 5017: 5009: 5005: 4997: 4993: 4985: 4981: 4973: 4964: 4956: 4949: 4941: 4934: 4926: 4922: 4914: 4907: 4899: 4892: 4884: 4880: 4872: 4859: 4853:Steinacher 2022 4851: 4847: 4843: 4838: 4833: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4814: 4797: 4793: 4776: 4772: 4767: 4763: 4758: 4754: 4742: 4738: 4710: 4706: 4700: 4696: 4684: 4680: 4668: 4664: 4656: 4652: 4626:Old High German 4586: 4582: 4554: 4550: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4521: 4500:Gustaf Kossinna 4409:Paul the Deacon 4397:vagina nationum 4362: 4333:Steffen Patzold 4317: 4303: 4246:Flavian dynasty 4230: 4180:Trajan's Column 4164: 4073: 4051: 4023:villae rusticae 4019: 4014: 3970: 3962:Main articles: 3944: 3904: 3898: 3881: 3840:Old High German 3798:Andreas Heusler 3786: 3778:Main articles: 3776: 3669: 3597: 3579: 3573: 3568: 3481:containing the 3477:Codex Argenteus 3467: 3461: 3453:Vedic mythology 3443:—stemming from 3299:Norse mythology 2979:Old High German 2911: 2895:Main articles: 2893: 2888: 2793:Pepin the Short 2718: 2712: 2642:Valentinian III 2612: 2581:Battle of Nedao 2530: 2520: 2500:Those in Crimea 2364: 2331: 2325: 2262:English Channel 2221:Antonine plague 2213:Marcus Aurelius 2209: 2199: 2176:Flavian dynasty 2079:Illyrian revolt 2044:(including the 2021: 2007: 1986: 1886:were the first 1876: 1850: 1821:La Tène culture 1755:Jastorf culture 1747:La Tène culture 1696: 1690:Jastorf culture 1637: 1632: 1603:Wulfila's Bible 1556:Old High German 1546:(late 5th c.), 1502:Primitive Norse 1486:towards a long 1442: 1404:, and southern 1382: 1343:'army-guest' + 1334:Harigasti Teiwǣ 1268:Old High German 1176:'s conquest of 1170: 1060: 1055: 1049: 976:Pliny the Elder 970: 963: 961: 953: 945: 931: 914:gentes Gothicae 843:Germania libera 830:Γερμανία Μεγάλη 810:Pliny the Elder 701: 677:Steffen Patzold 612:Leonard Neidorf 556: 356: 351: 345: 321:Romantic period 154:Jastorf culture 102:ancient Germans 70:Northern Europe 46: 35: 28: 23: 22: 18:Germanic people 15: 12: 11: 5: 14887: 14877: 14876: 14871: 14866: 14849: 14848: 14846: 14845: 14840: 14838:Vandal kingdom 14835: 14830: 14825: 14823:Rugian kingdom 14820: 14815: 14810: 14805: 14800: 14795: 14790: 14785: 14780: 14775: 14770: 14765: 14759: 14756: 14755: 14744: 14743: 14736: 14729: 14721: 14712: 14711: 14709: 14708: 14697: 14694: 14693: 14691: 14690: 14685: 14680: 14675: 14670: 14664: 14662: 14656: 14655: 14653: 14652: 14647: 14642: 14637: 14632: 14627: 14622: 14621: 14620: 14615: 14605: 14600: 14595: 14590: 14585: 14580: 14575: 14570: 14565: 14560: 14555: 14550: 14545: 14540: 14535: 14530: 14525: 14520: 14515: 14510: 14505: 14500: 14495: 14490: 14485: 14480: 14475: 14470: 14465: 14460: 14455: 14450: 14445: 14440: 14435: 14430: 14429: 14428: 14423: 14418: 14413: 14408: 14398: 14397: 14396: 14386: 14381: 14376: 14371: 14366: 14361: 14356: 14351: 14346: 14341: 14336: 14331: 14326: 14325: 14324: 14319: 14317:Thracian Goths 14314: 14309: 14304: 14299: 14294: 14284: 14279: 14274: 14269: 14264: 14259: 14258: 14257: 14252: 14242: 14237: 14232: 14227: 14222: 14217: 14212: 14207: 14202: 14197: 14192: 14187: 14182: 14177: 14172: 14167: 14162: 14157: 14152: 14147: 14142: 14137: 14132: 14127: 14122: 14117: 14112: 14107: 14102: 14097: 14096: 14095: 14090: 14085: 14084: 14083: 14078: 14073: 14068: 14063: 14058: 14043: 14038: 14033: 14028: 14023: 14018: 14013: 14008: 14003: 13998: 13993: 13988: 13983: 13978: 13973: 13972: 13971: 13966: 13961: 13956: 13945: 13943: 13937: 13936: 13934: 13933: 13928: 13923: 13918: 13913: 13907: 13905: 13899: 13898: 13896: 13895: 13894: 13893: 13888: 13883: 13873: 13868: 13867: 13866: 13861: 13851: 13846: 13845: 13844: 13839: 13834: 13824: 13819: 13818: 13817: 13807: 13806: 13805: 13800: 13790: 13789: 13788: 13783: 13773: 13772: 13771: 13766: 13756: 13755: 13754: 13748: 13743: 13738: 13728: 13723: 13718: 13713: 13708: 13703: 13697: 13695: 13689: 13688: 13686: 13685: 13680: 13675: 13670: 13668:Roman Iron Age 13665: 13660: 13655: 13649: 13647: 13643: 13642: 13629: 13626: 13625: 13618: 13617: 13610: 13603: 13595: 13589: 13588: 13580: 13572: 13564: 13556: 13548: 13540: 13535: 13527: 13515: 13507: 13499: 13492: 13484: 13476: 13468: 13456: 13441: 13440:External links 13438: 13436: 13435: 13429: 13416: 13407: 13389: 13371: 13353: 13335: 13306: 13297: 13291: 13278: 13272: 13259: 13253: 13240: 13215: 13190: 13172: 13157: 13139: 13121: 13096: 13088:Beck, Heinrich 13076: 13067: 13061: 13048: 13030: 13015: 12997: 12980: 12971: 12962: 12945: 12932: 12911: 12898: 12884: 12863: 12857: 12844: 12826: 12812:Seebold, Elmar 12808: 12790: 12772: 12766: 12753: 12712: 12701: 12683: 12668: 12650: 12632: 12614: 12599: 12581: 12563: 12545: 12530: 12512: 12494: 12488: 12475: 12457: 12439: 12422: 12407: 12401: 12388: 12379: 12338: 12332: 12319: 12289:(4): 847–875. 12274: 12233: 12215: 12201:Nedoma, Robert 12197: 12188: 12171: 12165: 12152: 12146: 12133: 12127: 12114: 12108: 12095: 12086: 12043: 12019: 11978: 11972: 11959: 11918: 11900: 11878: 11849: 11822: 11804: 11789: 11741: 11723: 11708: 11702: 11686: 11680: 11667: 11639: 11593: 11587: 11571: 11520: 11476: 11413: 11395: 11381:Heather, Peter 11377: 11369:Heather, Peter 11365: 11359: 11346: 11340: 11327: 11311: 11297: 11276: 11252: 11219:German History 11206: 11188: 11173: 11167: 11154: 11148: 11135: 11117: 11099: 11093: 11080: 11074: 11061: 11043: 11019: 11013: 11000: 10982: 10967: 10943: 10937: 10924: 10894:(2): 220–252. 10876: 10870: 10849: 10831: 10813: 10772: 10731: 10722: 10705: 10677: 10668: 10662: 10649: 10640: 10622: 10605: 10564: 10546: 10531: 10490: 10454: 10443: 10434: 10393: 10384: 10343: 10337: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10310: 10308:, p. 379. 10298: 10286: 10274: 10262: 10250: 10238: 10226: 10214: 10202: 10190: 10178: 10166: 10154: 10142: 10130: 10118: 10106: 10104:, p. 208. 10094: 10082: 10080:, p. 518. 10070: 10068:, p. 101. 10058: 10046: 10034: 10022: 10020:, p. 461. 10010: 9998: 9986: 9974: 9962: 9950: 9938: 9926: 9914: 9897: 9885: 9873: 9861: 9859:, p. 131. 9844: 9832: 9820: 9808: 9796: 9794:, p. 431. 9779: 9767: 9755: 9743: 9731: 9729:, p. 120. 9716: 9704: 9692: 9680: 9678:, p. 452. 9668: 9666:, p. 129. 9656: 9644: 9642:, p. 444. 9629: 9617: 9615:, p. 469. 9605: 9603:, p. 127. 9593: 9591:, p. 123. 9578: 9576:, p. 434. 9566: 9564:, p. 507. 9554: 9552:, p. 130. 9539: 9537:, p. 435. 9527: 9525:, p. 429. 9515: 9513:, p. 248. 9503: 9491: 9489:, p. 410. 9479: 9467: 9455: 9443: 9441:, p. 409. 9431: 9429:, p. 661. 9419: 9407: 9405:, p. 672. 9392: 9380: 9378:, p. 663. 9365: 9350: 9338: 9326: 9314: 9312:, p. 785. 9302: 9300:, p. 674. 9290: 9278: 9266: 9264:, p. 794. 9254: 9252:, p. 673. 9242: 9240:, p. 801. 9230: 9228:, p. 396. 9218: 9206: 9194: 9182: 9170: 9168:, p. 243. 9158: 9146: 9144:, p. 245. 9134: 9132:, p. 811. 9119: 9107: 9105:, p. 249. 9095: 9093:, p. 519. 9091:Haubrichs 2004 9083: 9071: 9059: 9047: 9035: 9023: 9021:, p. 242. 9011: 8999: 8987: 8985:, p. 616. 8975: 8963: 8961:, p. 609. 8951: 8947:Vikstrand 2020 8939: 8937:, p. 127. 8935:Vikstrand 2020 8922: 8910: 8898: 8896:, p. 123. 8886: 8874: 8872:, p. 132. 8862: 8860:, p. 255. 8850: 8848:, p. 121. 8838: 8836:, p. 125. 8826: 8824:, p. 254. 8809: 8807:, p. 819. 8805:Looijenga 2020 8797: 8785: 8773: 8771:, p. 820. 8769:Looijenga 2020 8761: 8759:, p. 139. 8749: 8737: 8725: 8713: 8711:, p. 588. 8701: 8689: 8677: 8665: 8653: 8641: 8629: 8627:, p. 802. 8617: 8615:, p. 350. 8605: 8603:, p. 356. 8593: 8581: 8564: 8552: 8531: 8529:, p. 129. 8514: 8502: 8489: 8477: 8458: 8445: 8443:, p. 114. 8426: 8424:, p. 118. 8409: 8405:Magnússon 1989 8397: 8395:, p. 385. 8385: 8368: 8349: 8347:, p. 469. 8330: 8313: 8311:, p. 265. 8301: 8289: 8277: 8275:, p. 863. 8265: 8253: 8241: 8229: 8227:, p. 614. 8214: 8202: 8190: 8178: 8176:, p. 300. 8166: 8164:, p. 234. 8151: 8149:, p. 129. 8139: 8137:, p. 228. 8127: 8115: 8103: 8101:, p. 193. 8091: 8079: 8067: 8055: 8053:, p. 853. 8043: 8031: 8029:, p. 226. 8019: 8017:, p. 284. 8007: 7995: 7983: 7971: 7969:, p. 184. 7956: 7944: 7932: 7930:, p. 111. 7920: 7918:, p. 170. 7908: 7896: 7884: 7867: 7855: 7853:, p. 280. 7843: 7831: 7829:, p. 153. 7819: 7817:, p. 177. 7807: 7805:, p. 255. 7795: 7793:, p. 242. 7783: 7771: 7759: 7747: 7745:, p. 116. 7735: 7723: 7721:, p. 109. 7711: 7709:, p. 174. 7696: 7694:, p. 240. 7684: 7682:, p. 248. 7672: 7660: 7648: 7636: 7634:, p. 176. 7624: 7622:, p. 109. 7612: 7600: 7598:, p. 223. 7583: 7571: 7559: 7547: 7545:, p. 150. 7535: 7523: 7511: 7509:, p. 197. 7499: 7497:, p. 172. 7487: 7485:, p. 211. 7475: 7473:, p. 182. 7463: 7451: 7439: 7427: 7425:, p. 199. 7415: 7403: 7401:, p. 145. 7391: 7379: 7367: 7355: 7343: 7341:, p. 252. 7331: 7319: 7317:, p. 131. 7307: 7305:, p. 100. 7295: 7293:, p. 143. 7278: 7266: 7264:, p. 101. 7254: 7242: 7230: 7218: 7203: 7191: 7189:, p. 125. 7179: 7167: 7155: 7140: 7128: 7116: 7114:, p. 112. 7104: 7102:, p. 122. 7092: 7090:, p. 244. 7077: 7065: 7050: 7048:, p. 140. 7035: 7033:, p. 109. 7023: 7011: 7009:, p. 120. 6999: 6987: 6972: 6957: 6955:, p. 340. 6945: 6933: 6921: 6909: 6897: 6885: 6883:, p. 683. 6873: 6861: 6849: 6837: 6825: 6813: 6801: 6789: 6787:, p. 994. 6777: 6762: 6750: 6748:, p. 275. 6738: 6714: 6712:, p. 995. 6702: 6687: 6685:, p. 183. 6675: 6663: 6661:, p. 155. 6651: 6639: 6637:, p. 230. 6627: 6625:, p. 204. 6615: 6600: 6598:, p. 144. 6588: 6576: 6564: 6552: 6550:, pp. 72. 6540: 6528: 6516: 6512:Chaniotis 2013 6504: 6492: 6480: 6468: 6456: 6444: 6432: 6420: 6396: 6388:Schrijver 2014 6380: 6360: 6348: 6346:, p. 470. 6333: 6321: 6319:, p. 635. 6309: 6299:, p. 51; 6289: 6277: 6253: 6225: 6223:, p. 339. 6213: 6211:, p. 880. 6201: 6189: 6187:, p. 879. 6177: 6175:, p. 992. 6165: 6153: 6137: 6135:, p. 878. 6125: 6123:, p. 877. 6113: 6111:, p. 991. 6101: 6093:Schrijver 2014 6085: 6073: 6053: 6037: 6035:, p. 881. 6022: 6010: 5987: 5981:, p. 85; 5971: 5955: 5953:, p. 875. 5943: 5937:, p. 13; 5927: 5925:, p. 875. 5921:, p. 27; 5909:, p. 13; 5896: 5894:, p. 990. 5884: 5868: 5866:, p. 595. 5856: 5844: 5838:, p. 85; 5828: 5814:, p. 85; 5804: 5792: 5780: 5768:Schrijver 2014 5760: 5744: 5742:, p. 593. 5732: 5720: 5710:, p. 84; 5700: 5698:, p. 471. 5688: 5676: 5664: 5652: 5650:, p. 470. 5635: 5616: 5614:, p. 568. 5601: 5599:, p. 567. 5589: 5587:, p. 102. 5577: 5575:, p. 986. 5560: 5548: 5536: 5524: 5512: 5497: 5485: 5483:, p. 293. 5473: 5471:, p. 513. 5461: 5449: 5447:, p. 204. 5437: 5435:, p. 377. 5425: 5413: 5396: 5384: 5372: 5360: 5348: 5336: 5324: 5312: 5300: 5288: 5276: 5264: 5252: 5237: 5225: 5213: 5211:, p. 865. 5201: 5189: 5177: 5165: 5153: 5141: 5129: 5117: 5105: 5093: 5081: 5069: 5054: 5042: 5030: 5015: 5003: 5001:, p. 434. 4991: 4979: 4962: 4947: 4945:, p. 636. 4932: 4920: 4905: 4890: 4878: 4857: 4855:, p. 292. 4844: 4842: 4839: 4837: 4834: 4832: 4831: 4821: 4812: 4791: 4770: 4761: 4752: 4736: 4704: 4694: 4678: 4662: 4650: 4648:'pillar'; etc. 4622:Proto-Germanic 4580: 4548: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4528: 4527: 4520: 4517: 4415:, so that the 4407:together with 4361: 4358: 4302: 4299: 4229: 4226: 4172:Thorsberg moor 4163: 4160: 4072: 4069: 4060:potter's wheel 4050: 4047: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4010: 3990:literary topos 3943: 3940: 3900:Main article: 3897: 3894: 3867:oral tradition 3807:Spruchdichtung 3775: 3772: 3668: 3667:Personal names 3665: 3575:Main article: 3572: 3569: 3567: 3564: 3541:Saint Boniface 3485:translated by 3473:Page from the 3463:Main article: 3460: 3457: 3322:skaldic poetry 3274: 3273: 3270:dís Skjǫldunga 3268:and Old Norse 3266:ides Scildinga 3261: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3239: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3207: 3206: 3202: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3180: 3179: 3172: 3166: 3163: 3158: 3152: 3151: 3148: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3122: 3121: 3118: 3112: 3107: 3102: 3096: 3095: 3082: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3060: 3059: 3056: 3053: 3050: 3047: 2960:Norse paganism 2944:Finnic peoples 2919:Oberdorla moor 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2789:Charles Martel 2746:British Museum 2711: 2708: 2625:in 476 CE 2611: 2608: 2600:Romano-British 2552:Vandal Kingdom 2544:Flavius Aetius 2519: 2516: 2363: 2360: 2327:Main article: 2324: 2321: 2198: 2195: 2011:Roman Iron Age 2006: 2003: 1985: 1982: 1968:. Near modern 1849: 1846: 1817:Celtic peoples 1771:Sámi languages 1636: 1633: 1631: 1628: 1623: 1622: 1619:Crimean Gothic 1588: 1587: 1586: 1533: 1526:Younger Fuþark 1498:North Germanic 1441: 1440:Classification 1438: 1381: 1378: 1323:harikastiteiva 1299:Negau helmet B 1169: 1166: 1139:proto-language 1133:). During the 1090:system in the 1059: 1058:Proto-Germanic 1056: 1048: 1045: 993:Pomponius Mela 962: 952: 930: 927: 834:Germania Prima 822:Germania magna 700: 697: 604:Walter Goffart 555: 552: 427:late antiquity 380:Herwig Wolfram 355: 352: 344: 341: 302:shared legends 257:Late Antiquity 120:, to southern 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14886: 14875: 14872: 14870: 14867: 14865: 14862: 14861: 14859: 14844: 14841: 14839: 14836: 14834: 14831: 14829: 14826: 14824: 14821: 14819: 14816: 14814: 14811: 14809: 14806: 14804: 14801: 14799: 14796: 14794: 14793:Hunnic empire 14791: 14789: 14788:Gepid kingdom 14786: 14784: 14781: 14779: 14776: 14774: 14771: 14769: 14766: 14764: 14761: 14760: 14757: 14753: 14749: 14742: 14737: 14735: 14730: 14728: 14723: 14722: 14719: 14707: 14699: 14698: 14695: 14689: 14686: 14684: 14681: 14679: 14676: 14674: 14671: 14669: 14666: 14665: 14663: 14661: 14657: 14651: 14648: 14646: 14643: 14641: 14638: 14636: 14633: 14631: 14628: 14626: 14623: 14619: 14616: 14614: 14611: 14610: 14609: 14606: 14604: 14601: 14599: 14596: 14594: 14591: 14589: 14586: 14584: 14581: 14579: 14576: 14574: 14571: 14569: 14566: 14564: 14561: 14559: 14556: 14554: 14551: 14549: 14546: 14544: 14541: 14539: 14536: 14534: 14531: 14529: 14526: 14524: 14521: 14519: 14516: 14514: 14511: 14509: 14506: 14504: 14501: 14499: 14496: 14494: 14491: 14489: 14486: 14484: 14481: 14479: 14476: 14474: 14471: 14469: 14466: 14464: 14461: 14459: 14456: 14454: 14451: 14449: 14446: 14444: 14441: 14439: 14436: 14434: 14431: 14427: 14424: 14422: 14419: 14417: 14414: 14412: 14409: 14407: 14404: 14403: 14402: 14399: 14395: 14392: 14391: 14390: 14387: 14385: 14382: 14380: 14377: 14375: 14372: 14370: 14367: 14365: 14362: 14360: 14357: 14355: 14352: 14350: 14347: 14345: 14342: 14340: 14337: 14335: 14332: 14330: 14327: 14323: 14320: 14318: 14315: 14313: 14310: 14308: 14305: 14303: 14300: 14298: 14295: 14293: 14292:Crimean Goths 14290: 14289: 14288: 14285: 14283: 14280: 14278: 14275: 14273: 14270: 14268: 14265: 14263: 14260: 14256: 14255:Salian Franks 14253: 14251: 14248: 14247: 14246: 14243: 14241: 14238: 14236: 14233: 14231: 14228: 14226: 14223: 14221: 14218: 14216: 14213: 14211: 14208: 14206: 14203: 14201: 14198: 14196: 14193: 14191: 14188: 14186: 14183: 14181: 14178: 14176: 14173: 14171: 14168: 14166: 14163: 14161: 14158: 14156: 14153: 14151: 14148: 14146: 14143: 14141: 14138: 14136: 14133: 14131: 14128: 14126: 14123: 14121: 14118: 14116: 14113: 14111: 14108: 14106: 14103: 14101: 14098: 14094: 14091: 14089: 14086: 14082: 14079: 14077: 14074: 14072: 14069: 14067: 14064: 14062: 14059: 14057: 14054: 14053: 14052: 14049: 14048: 14047: 14044: 14042: 14039: 14037: 14034: 14032: 14029: 14027: 14024: 14022: 14019: 14017: 14014: 14012: 14009: 14007: 14004: 14002: 13999: 13997: 13994: 13992: 13989: 13987: 13984: 13982: 13979: 13977: 13974: 13970: 13967: 13965: 13962: 13960: 13957: 13955: 13952: 13951: 13950: 13947: 13946: 13944: 13942: 13938: 13932: 13929: 13927: 13924: 13922: 13919: 13917: 13914: 13912: 13909: 13908: 13906: 13904: 13900: 13892: 13889: 13887: 13884: 13882: 13879: 13878: 13877: 13874: 13872: 13869: 13865: 13862: 13860: 13857: 13856: 13855: 13852: 13850: 13847: 13843: 13840: 13838: 13835: 13833: 13830: 13829: 13828: 13825: 13823: 13820: 13816: 13813: 13812: 13811: 13808: 13804: 13801: 13799: 13796: 13795: 13794: 13791: 13787: 13784: 13782: 13779: 13778: 13777: 13774: 13770: 13767: 13765: 13762: 13761: 13760: 13757: 13752: 13749: 13747: 13744: 13742: 13739: 13737: 13734: 13733: 13732: 13729: 13727: 13724: 13722: 13719: 13717: 13714: 13712: 13709: 13707: 13704: 13702: 13699: 13698: 13696: 13694: 13693:Early culture 13690: 13684: 13681: 13679: 13676: 13674: 13671: 13669: 13666: 13664: 13661: 13659: 13656: 13654: 13651: 13650: 13648: 13644: 13640: 13636: 13632: 13627: 13623: 13616: 13611: 13609: 13604: 13602: 13597: 13596: 13593: 13587: 13586: 13581: 13579: 13578: 13573: 13571: 13570: 13565: 13563: 13562: 13557: 13555: 13554: 13549: 13547: 13546: 13541: 13539: 13536: 13534: 13533: 13528: 13526: 13522: 13521: 13516: 13514: 13513: 13508: 13506: 13505: 13500: 13498: 13497: 13493: 13491: 13490: 13489:Roman History 13487:Dio Cassius, 13485: 13483: 13482: 13477: 13475: 13474: 13469: 13467: 13463: 13462: 13457: 13455: 13454: 13449: 13448: 13447: 13446: 13432: 13426: 13422: 13417: 13413: 13408: 13396: 13392: 13386: 13382: 13381: 13376: 13372: 13360: 13356: 13350: 13346: 13345: 13340: 13336: 13324: 13320: 13316: 13312: 13307: 13303: 13298: 13294: 13288: 13284: 13279: 13275: 13269: 13265: 13260: 13256: 13250: 13246: 13241: 13230: 13226: 13222: 13218: 13212: 13208: 13204: 13200: 13196: 13191: 13179: 13175: 13169: 13165: 13164: 13158: 13146: 13142: 13136: 13132: 13131: 13126: 13125:Todd, Malcolm 13122: 13110: 13106: 13102: 13097: 13093: 13089: 13085: 13081: 13077: 13073: 13068: 13064: 13058: 13054: 13049: 13037: 13033: 13027: 13023: 13022: 13016: 13004: 13000: 12994: 12990: 12986: 12981: 12978:. de Gruyter. 12977: 12972: 12968: 12963: 12959: 12955: 12951: 12946: 12943: 12939: 12935: 12929: 12925: 12921: 12917: 12912: 12909:. de Gruyter. 12907: 12906: 12899: 12895: 12891: 12887: 12881: 12877: 12873: 12869: 12864: 12860: 12854: 12850: 12845: 12833: 12829: 12823: 12819: 12818: 12813: 12809: 12797: 12793: 12787: 12784:. Routledge. 12783: 12782: 12777: 12773: 12769: 12763: 12759: 12754: 12750: 12744: 12728: 12724: 12720: 12719: 12718:Archived copy 12713: 12709: 12708: 12702: 12690: 12686: 12680: 12676: 12675: 12669: 12657: 12653: 12647: 12643: 12642: 12637: 12633: 12621: 12617: 12611: 12607: 12606: 12600: 12588: 12584: 12578: 12574: 12573: 12568: 12567:Ringe, Donald 12564: 12552: 12548: 12542: 12538: 12537: 12531: 12519: 12515: 12509: 12505: 12504: 12499: 12495: 12491: 12485: 12481: 12476: 12464: 12460: 12454: 12450: 12449: 12444: 12440: 12429: 12425: 12419: 12415: 12414: 12408: 12404: 12398: 12394: 12389: 12385: 12380: 12376: 12370: 12354: 12350: 12346: 12345: 12344:Archived copy 12339: 12335: 12329: 12325: 12320: 12308: 12304: 12300: 12296: 12292: 12288: 12284: 12280: 12275: 12271: 12265: 12249: 12245: 12241: 12240: 12239:Archived copy 12234: 12222: 12218: 12212: 12208: 12207: 12202: 12198: 12194: 12189: 12185: 12181: 12177: 12172: 12168: 12162: 12158: 12153: 12149: 12143: 12139: 12134: 12130: 12124: 12120: 12115: 12111: 12105: 12101: 12096: 12092: 12087: 12083: 12079: 12074: 12069: 12065: 12061: 12057: 12053: 12049: 12044: 12033: 12029: 12025: 12020: 12016: 12010: 11994: 11990: 11986: 11985: 11984:Archived copy 11979: 11975: 11969: 11965: 11960: 11956: 11950: 11934: 11930: 11926: 11925: 11924:Archived copy 11919: 11907: 11903: 11897: 11893: 11889: 11888: 11883: 11879: 11867: 11863: 11859: 11855: 11850: 11847: 11843: 11839: 11835: 11831: 11827: 11823: 11811: 11807: 11801: 11797: 11796: 11790: 11786: 11782: 11777: 11772: 11767: 11762: 11758: 11754: 11750: 11746: 11742: 11730: 11726: 11720: 11716: 11715: 11709: 11705: 11699: 11695: 11691: 11690:Koch, John T. 11687: 11683: 11677: 11673: 11668: 11657: 11653: 11649: 11645: 11640: 11628: 11624: 11620: 11616: 11612: 11609:(in German). 11608: 11607: 11602: 11598: 11594: 11590: 11584: 11580: 11576: 11575:James, Edward 11572: 11565: 11561: 11557: 11553: 11549: 11545: 11541: 11537: 11533: 11526: 11521: 11517: 11511: 11495: 11491: 11487: 11486: 11485:Archived copy 11481: 11477: 11465: 11461: 11457: 11453: 11449: 11444: 11439: 11435: 11431: 11427: 11423: 11419: 11414: 11402: 11398: 11392: 11388: 11387: 11382: 11378: 11374: 11370: 11366: 11362: 11356: 11352: 11347: 11343: 11337: 11333: 11328: 11324: 11320: 11316: 11312: 11308: 11304: 11300: 11294: 11290: 11286: 11282: 11277: 11274: 11270: 11266: 11262: 11258: 11253: 11241: 11237: 11233: 11229: 11225: 11221: 11220: 11215: 11211: 11207: 11195: 11191: 11185: 11181: 11180: 11174: 11170: 11164: 11160: 11155: 11151: 11145: 11141: 11136: 11124: 11120: 11114: 11110: 11109: 11104: 11100: 11096: 11090: 11086: 11081: 11077: 11071: 11067: 11066:How Rome Fell 11062: 11050: 11046: 11040: 11036: 11032: 11031:Kathryn Welch 11028: 11024: 11020: 11016: 11010: 11006: 11001: 10989: 10985: 10979: 10975: 10974: 10968: 10965: 10961: 10957: 10953: 10949: 10944: 10940: 10934: 10930: 10925: 10913: 10909: 10905: 10901: 10897: 10893: 10889: 10885: 10881: 10877: 10873: 10867: 10862: 10861: 10855: 10850: 10838: 10834: 10828: 10824: 10823: 10818: 10814: 10810: 10804: 10788: 10784: 10780: 10779: 10778:Archived copy 10773: 10769: 10763: 10747: 10743: 10739: 10738: 10737:Archived copy 10732: 10728: 10723: 10719: 10715: 10711: 10706: 10703: 10699: 10695: 10691: 10687: 10683: 10678: 10674: 10669: 10665: 10659: 10655: 10650: 10646: 10641: 10629: 10625: 10619: 10615: 10611: 10606: 10602: 10596: 10580: 10576: 10572: 10571: 10570:Archived copy 10565: 10553: 10549: 10543: 10539: 10538: 10532: 10528: 10522: 10506: 10502: 10498: 10497: 10496:Archived copy 10491: 10487: 10483: 10479: 10475: 10471: 10467: 10463: 10459: 10455: 10452:. de Gruyter. 10451: 10450: 10444: 10441:. de Gruyter. 10440: 10435: 10431: 10425: 10409: 10405: 10401: 10400: 10399:Archived copy 10394: 10390: 10385: 10381: 10375: 10359: 10355: 10351: 10350: 10349:Archived copy 10344: 10340: 10334: 10330: 10329: 10324: 10320: 10319: 10307: 10302: 10295: 10290: 10284:, p. 14. 10283: 10278: 10271: 10266: 10259: 10254: 10248:, p. 11. 10247: 10242: 10235: 10230: 10224:, p. 27. 10223: 10218: 10211: 10206: 10199: 10194: 10187: 10186:Donecker 2020 10182: 10176:, p. 40. 10175: 10170: 10164:, p. 76. 10163: 10162:Donecker 2020 10158: 10152:, p. 75. 10151: 10150:Donecker 2020 10146: 10139: 10138:Donecker 2020 10134: 10127: 10122: 10116:, p. 68. 10115: 10114:Donecker 2020 10110: 10103: 10098: 10091: 10086: 10079: 10074: 10067: 10062: 10055: 10050: 10043: 10038: 10032:, p. 87. 10031: 10026: 10019: 10014: 10008:, p. 66. 10007: 10002: 9996:, p. 95. 9995: 9990: 9984:, p. 65. 9983: 9978: 9972:, p. 89. 9971: 9966: 9960:, p. 88. 9959: 9954: 9948:, p. 98. 9947: 9942: 9935: 9930: 9924:, p. 92. 9923: 9918: 9912:, p. 64. 9911: 9906: 9904: 9902: 9894: 9889: 9882: 9877: 9870: 9865: 9858: 9853: 9851: 9849: 9841: 9836: 9829: 9824: 9817: 9812: 9805: 9800: 9793: 9788: 9786: 9784: 9776: 9771: 9764: 9759: 9752: 9747: 9740: 9735: 9728: 9723: 9721: 9713: 9708: 9701: 9696: 9689: 9684: 9677: 9672: 9665: 9660: 9653: 9648: 9641: 9636: 9634: 9626: 9621: 9614: 9609: 9602: 9597: 9590: 9585: 9583: 9575: 9570: 9563: 9558: 9551: 9546: 9544: 9536: 9531: 9524: 9519: 9512: 9507: 9500: 9495: 9488: 9483: 9476: 9471: 9465:, p. 79. 9464: 9459: 9452: 9447: 9440: 9435: 9428: 9423: 9417:, p. 42. 9416: 9411: 9404: 9399: 9397: 9389: 9384: 9377: 9372: 9370: 9363:, p. 35. 9362: 9357: 9355: 9348:, p. 63. 9347: 9342: 9335: 9330: 9323: 9318: 9311: 9306: 9299: 9294: 9288:, p. 62. 9287: 9282: 9275: 9270: 9263: 9258: 9251: 9246: 9239: 9234: 9227: 9222: 9215: 9210: 9204:, p. 78. 9203: 9198: 9191: 9186: 9179: 9174: 9167: 9162: 9155: 9150: 9143: 9138: 9131: 9126: 9124: 9116: 9111: 9104: 9099: 9092: 9087: 9080: 9075: 9068: 9063: 9056: 9051: 9044: 9039: 9032: 9027: 9020: 9015: 9008: 9003: 8996: 8991: 8984: 8979: 8972: 8967: 8960: 8955: 8948: 8943: 8936: 8931: 8929: 8927: 8919: 8914: 8907: 8902: 8895: 8890: 8883: 8878: 8871: 8866: 8859: 8854: 8847: 8842: 8835: 8830: 8823: 8818: 8816: 8814: 8806: 8801: 8794: 8789: 8782: 8777: 8770: 8765: 8758: 8753: 8746: 8741: 8734: 8729: 8722: 8717: 8710: 8705: 8698: 8693: 8686: 8681: 8674: 8669: 8662: 8657: 8650: 8645: 8638: 8633: 8626: 8621: 8614: 8609: 8602: 8597: 8591:, p. 35. 8590: 8585: 8578: 8574: 8568: 8561: 8556: 8550:, p. 21. 8549: 8545: 8541: 8535: 8528: 8524: 8518: 8511: 8506: 8499: 8493: 8486: 8481: 8475:, p. 72. 8474: 8469: 8467: 8465: 8463: 8455: 8449: 8442: 8437: 8435: 8433: 8431: 8423: 8418: 8416: 8414: 8406: 8401: 8394: 8389: 8382: 8377: 8375: 8373: 8366:, p. 33. 8365: 8360: 8358: 8356: 8354: 8346: 8341: 8339: 8337: 8335: 8327: 8323: 8317: 8310: 8305: 8298: 8297:Hultgård 2010 8293: 8286: 8285:Hultgård 2010 8281: 8274: 8273:Hultgård 2010 8269: 8262: 8257: 8250: 8245: 8238: 8233: 8226: 8221: 8219: 8211: 8206: 8199: 8194: 8187: 8182: 8175: 8170: 8163: 8158: 8156: 8148: 8143: 8136: 8131: 8124: 8119: 8112: 8107: 8100: 8095: 8088: 8083: 8076: 8071: 8064: 8059: 8052: 8047: 8040: 8035: 8028: 8023: 8016: 8011: 8004: 7999: 7992: 7987: 7981:, p. 32. 7980: 7975: 7968: 7963: 7961: 7954:, p. 34. 7953: 7948: 7942:, p. 31. 7941: 7936: 7929: 7924: 7917: 7912: 7905: 7900: 7893: 7888: 7882:, p. 42. 7881: 7876: 7874: 7872: 7864: 7859: 7852: 7847: 7840: 7835: 7828: 7823: 7816: 7811: 7804: 7799: 7792: 7787: 7781:, p. 64. 7780: 7775: 7769:, p. 65. 7768: 7763: 7756: 7751: 7744: 7739: 7732: 7727: 7720: 7715: 7708: 7703: 7701: 7693: 7688: 7681: 7676: 7669: 7664: 7657: 7652: 7645: 7640: 7633: 7628: 7621: 7616: 7609: 7604: 7597: 7592: 7590: 7588: 7580: 7575: 7568: 7563: 7556: 7551: 7544: 7539: 7532: 7527: 7520: 7515: 7508: 7503: 7496: 7491: 7484: 7479: 7472: 7467: 7460: 7455: 7449:, p. 89. 7448: 7443: 7437:, p. 61. 7436: 7431: 7424: 7419: 7412: 7407: 7400: 7395: 7388: 7383: 7376: 7371: 7364: 7359: 7352: 7347: 7340: 7335: 7328: 7323: 7316: 7311: 7304: 7299: 7292: 7287: 7285: 7283: 7275: 7270: 7263: 7258: 7251: 7246: 7239: 7234: 7227: 7222: 7215: 7214:Springer 2010 7210: 7208: 7200: 7199:Springer 2010 7195: 7188: 7183: 7177:, p. 35. 7176: 7171: 7164: 7159: 7153:, p. 27. 7152: 7147: 7145: 7138:, p. 57. 7137: 7132: 7125: 7120: 7113: 7108: 7101: 7096: 7089: 7084: 7082: 7074: 7069: 7063:, p. 56. 7062: 7057: 7055: 7047: 7042: 7040: 7032: 7027: 7020: 7015: 7008: 7003: 6997:, p. 32. 6996: 6991: 6985:, p. 55. 6984: 6979: 6977: 6970:, p. 26. 6969: 6964: 6962: 6954: 6949: 6943:, p. 54. 6942: 6937: 6931:, p. 31. 6930: 6925: 6919:, p. 25. 6918: 6913: 6906: 6901: 6895:, p. 18. 6894: 6889: 6882: 6877: 6870: 6865: 6858: 6853: 6847:, p. 17. 6846: 6841: 6834: 6829: 6823:, p. 16. 6822: 6817: 6811:, p. 98. 6810: 6805: 6798: 6793: 6786: 6781: 6775:, p. 15. 6774: 6769: 6767: 6759: 6754: 6747: 6742: 6735: 6731: 6728: 6724: 6718: 6711: 6706: 6700:, p. 30. 6699: 6694: 6692: 6684: 6679: 6672: 6667: 6660: 6655: 6648: 6643: 6636: 6631: 6624: 6619: 6613:, p. 45. 6612: 6607: 6605: 6597: 6592: 6586:, p. 13. 6585: 6580: 6574:, p. 22. 6573: 6568: 6561: 6556: 6549: 6544: 6537: 6532: 6525: 6520: 6513: 6508: 6502:, p. 23. 6501: 6496: 6489: 6484: 6477: 6472: 6465: 6460: 6453: 6448: 6441: 6436: 6429: 6424: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6400: 6394:, p. 876 6393: 6389: 6384: 6378:, p. 876 6377: 6373: 6369: 6364: 6357: 6352: 6345: 6340: 6338: 6330: 6325: 6318: 6313: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6293: 6287:, p. 38. 6286: 6281: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6257: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6229: 6222: 6217: 6210: 6205: 6198: 6197:Rübekeil 2017 6193: 6186: 6181: 6174: 6173:Rübekeil 2017 6169: 6162: 6157: 6150: 6146: 6145:Rübekeil 2017 6141: 6134: 6129: 6122: 6117: 6110: 6109:Rübekeil 2017 6105: 6099:, p. 992 6098: 6097:Rübekeil 2017 6094: 6089: 6082: 6077: 6070: 6066: 6062: 6057: 6051:, p. 993 6050: 6049:Rübekeil 2017 6046: 6041: 6034: 6029: 6027: 6019: 6014: 6007: 6003: 6002:Rübekeil 2017 5999: 5994: 5992: 5985:, p. 879 5984: 5980: 5975: 5969:, p. 876 5968: 5964: 5959: 5952: 5947: 5941:, p. 876 5940: 5936: 5931: 5924: 5920: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5903: 5901: 5893: 5892:Rübekeil 2017 5888: 5882:, p. 990 5881: 5880:Rübekeil 2017 5877: 5872: 5865: 5860: 5854:, p. 85. 5853: 5848: 5842:, p. 989 5841: 5840:Rübekeil 2017 5837: 5832: 5826:, p. 989 5825: 5824:Rübekeil 2017 5821: 5817: 5813: 5808: 5801: 5796: 5789: 5784: 5778:, p. 518 5777: 5773: 5769: 5764: 5758:, p. 989 5757: 5756:Rübekeil 2017 5753: 5748: 5741: 5736: 5729: 5724: 5718:, p. 519 5717: 5713: 5709: 5704: 5697: 5692: 5685: 5680: 5674:, p. 59. 5673: 5668: 5661: 5656: 5649: 5644: 5642: 5640: 5633:, p. 57. 5632: 5627: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5613: 5608: 5606: 5598: 5593: 5586: 5581: 5574: 5573:Rübekeil 2017 5569: 5567: 5565: 5557: 5552: 5546:, p. 47. 5545: 5540: 5534:, p. 53. 5533: 5528: 5521: 5516: 5509: 5504: 5502: 5495:, p. 97. 5494: 5489: 5482: 5477: 5470: 5465: 5458: 5453: 5446: 5441: 5434: 5429: 5422: 5417: 5410: 5405: 5403: 5401: 5394:, p. 19. 5393: 5388: 5381: 5376: 5369: 5364: 5357: 5352: 5346:, p. 11. 5345: 5340: 5333: 5328: 5321: 5316: 5310:, p. 51. 5309: 5304: 5297: 5292: 5285: 5280: 5273: 5268: 5262:, p. 29. 5261: 5256: 5250:, p. 34. 5249: 5244: 5242: 5235:, p. 10. 5234: 5229: 5223:, p. 28. 5222: 5217: 5210: 5205: 5198: 5193: 5186: 5181: 5174: 5169: 5162: 5157: 5151:, p. 31. 5150: 5145: 5138: 5133: 5126: 5121: 5114: 5109: 5102: 5097: 5091:, p. 19. 5090: 5085: 5078: 5073: 5066: 5061: 5059: 5051: 5046: 5039: 5034: 5027: 5022: 5020: 5013:, p. 58. 5012: 5007: 5000: 4995: 4988: 4983: 4976: 4971: 4969: 4967: 4960:, p. 11. 4959: 4954: 4952: 4944: 4939: 4937: 4929: 4924: 4918:, p. 32. 4917: 4912: 4910: 4902: 4897: 4895: 4888:, p. 28. 4887: 4882: 4876:, p. 30. 4875: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4862: 4854: 4849: 4845: 4825: 4816: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4795: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4774: 4765: 4756: 4749: 4745: 4740: 4733: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4717: 4713: 4708: 4698: 4691: 4687: 4682: 4675: 4671: 4666: 4659: 4658:Rübekeil 2017 4654: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4608:'pike' (< 4607: 4603: 4599: 4595: 4591: 4584: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4564: 4558: 4552: 4545: 4539: 4535: 4526: 4523: 4522: 4516: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4496: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4450: 4446: 4445:Wilhelm Grimm 4442: 4438: 4433: 4431: 4430:Indo-European 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4367: 4357: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4342:haplogroup I1 4339: 4334: 4330: 4326: 4322: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4298: 4295: 4290: 4284: 4281: 4275: 4269: 4262: 4260: 4256: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4234: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4173: 4168: 4159: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4104: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4082: 4077: 4068: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4031: 4028: 4024: 4009: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3996:, the wedge ( 3995: 3991: 3986: 3983: 3982: 3976: 3969: 3965: 3958:(193 CE) 3957: 3953: 3948: 3939: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3926: 3923:sources, the 3921: 3919: 3908: 3903: 3893: 3891: 3887: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3855: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3836: 3835:Indo-European 3831: 3828: 3827:casus heroici 3823: 3819: 3818:Heinrich Beck 3814: 3808: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3785: 3781: 3771: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3724: 3720: 3714: 3711: 3705: 3700: 3692: 3688: 3687:Elder Futhark 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3664: 3662: 3661: 3660:Begriffsrunen 3655: 3649: 3644: 3642: 3636: 3630: 3626: 3625:Elder Futhark 3620: 3618: 3613: 3611: 3607: 3598: 160 CE 3592: 3588: 3583: 3578: 3571:Runic writing 3563: 3561: 3557: 3552: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3495: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3478: 3471: 3466: 3456: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3412: 3410: 3406: 3405: 3399: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3376: 3372: 3371: 3366: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3330: 3326: 3324: 3323: 3318: 3317: 3312: 3311: 3306: 3305: 3300: 3295: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3260: 3256: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3223: 3220: 3218: 3214: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3171: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3153: 3149: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3123: 3119: 3117: 3113: 3111: 3108: 3106: 3103: 3101: 3098: 3097: 3094:(see below). 3093: 3089: 3088: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2963: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2924: 2920: 2915: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2883: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2868:Vendel period 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2825: 2823: 2818: 2812: 2810: 2806: 2805:Roman emperor 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2747: 2743: 2738: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2707: 2705: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2683: 2681: 2676: 2670: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2647: 2643: 2636: 2633:Mausoleum of 2631: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2607: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2535: 2529: 2525: 2515: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2495: 2493: 2489: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2389: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2359: 2357: 2352: 2349:prompted the 2348: 2344: 2335: 2330: 2320: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2295:and possibly 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2281:Philippopolis 2278: 2274: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2208: 2204: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2183: 2177: 2173: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2152: 2148: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2137: 2132: 2128: 2125:known as the 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2103:client states 2098: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2065: 2064: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2027: 2020: 2016: 2012: 1999: 1995: 1990: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1958:Julius Caesar 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1930: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1793: 1787: 1782: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1700: 1695: 1694:Hermann Ament 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1678: 1673: 1669: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1627: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1591:East Germanic 1589: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1570: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1536:West Germanic 1534: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1508:of the sound 1507: 1503: 1499: 1496: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1479: 1474: 1471: 1470: 1469: 1467: 1466:West Germanic 1463: 1459: 1451: 1446: 1437: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1359: 1353: 1348: 1341: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1304: 1300: 1295: 1291: 1288: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1244: 1239: 1235: 1234: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1218: 1212: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1189: 1185: 1184: 1179: 1175: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1154: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1121: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1054: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1000: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 977: 969: 959: 949: 944: 940: 936: 926: 924: 920: 915: 910: 906: 902: 898: 893: 891: 886: 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 861: 857: 852: 847: 844: 839: 835: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 802: 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 772: 771: 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 733:Julius Caesar 730: 726: 722: 714: 710: 705: 696: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 638: 634: 630: 625: 620: 618: 613: 609: 605: 600: 593: 590: 584: 578: 573: 569: 565: 561: 551: 549: 545: 540: 535: 531: 527: 523: 518: 512: 506: 501: 496: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 470: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 441:by Latin and 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 419: 416: 410: 405: 400: 395: 391: 386: 381: 377: 373: 368: 362: 350: 340: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 305: 303: 299: 295: 294: 289: 285: 281: 276: 274: 270: 266: 265:Scandinavians 262: 258: 254: 248: 246: 242: 238: 234: 231:. During the 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 181: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 159: 155: 149: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 90: 85: 84: 79: 75: 71: 67: 60: 56: 52: 48: 44: 40: 33: 19: 13986:Anglo-Saxons 13976:Adrabaecampi 13959:Bucinobantes 13701:Architecture 13621: 13584: 13576: 13568: 13560: 13552: 13544: 13531: 13519: 13511: 13510:Titus Livy, 13503: 13495: 13488: 13481:Against Piso 13480: 13472: 13460: 13452: 13444: 13443: 13420: 13411: 13399:. Retrieved 13379: 13363:. Retrieved 13343: 13327:. Retrieved 13318: 13314: 13301: 13282: 13263: 13244: 13233:, retrieved 13198: 13182:. Retrieved 13162: 13149:. Retrieved 13129: 13113:. Retrieved 13104: 13091: 13071: 13052: 13040:. Retrieved 13020: 13007:. Retrieved 12988: 12975: 12966: 12957: 12953: 12915: 12904: 12867: 12848: 12836:. Retrieved 12816: 12800:. Retrieved 12780: 12757: 12731:. Retrieved 12722: 12717: 12706: 12693:. Retrieved 12673: 12660:. Retrieved 12640: 12624:. Retrieved 12604: 12591:. Retrieved 12571: 12555:. Retrieved 12535: 12522:. Retrieved 12502: 12498:Reich, David 12479: 12467:. Retrieved 12447: 12432:, retrieved 12413:Die Germanen 12412: 12392: 12383: 12357:. Retrieved 12348: 12343: 12323: 12311:. Retrieved 12286: 12282: 12252:. Retrieved 12243: 12238: 12225:. Retrieved 12205: 12192: 12175: 12156: 12137: 12118: 12099: 12090: 12055: 12051: 12036:, retrieved 12027: 11997:. Retrieved 11988: 11983: 11963: 11937:. Retrieved 11928: 11923: 11910:. Retrieved 11886: 11872:13 September 11870:. Retrieved 11861: 11857: 11829: 11814:. Retrieved 11794: 11756: 11752: 11733:. Retrieved 11713: 11693: 11671: 11660:, retrieved 11651: 11647: 11631:. Retrieved 11610: 11604: 11578: 11535: 11531: 11498:. Retrieved 11489: 11484: 11468:. Retrieved 11443:10138/255652 11425: 11421: 11405:. Retrieved 11385: 11375:. Blackwell. 11372: 11350: 11331: 11322: 11318: 11280: 11256: 11244:. Retrieved 11223: 11217: 11210:Halsall, Guy 11198:. Retrieved 11178: 11158: 11139: 11127:. Retrieved 11107: 11084: 11065: 11053:. Retrieved 11034: 11004: 10992:. Retrieved 10972: 10947: 10928: 10916:. Retrieved 10891: 10887: 10880:Ghosh, Shami 10859: 10841:. Retrieved 10821: 10791:. Retrieved 10782: 10777: 10750:. Retrieved 10741: 10736: 10726: 10709: 10685: 10681: 10672: 10653: 10644: 10632:. Retrieved 10613: 10583:. Retrieved 10574: 10569: 10556:. Retrieved 10536: 10509:. Retrieved 10500: 10495: 10469: 10448: 10438: 10412:. Retrieved 10403: 10398: 10388: 10362:. Retrieved 10353: 10348: 10327: 10315:Bibliography 10301: 10289: 10282:Halsall 2007 10277: 10265: 10253: 10241: 10229: 10217: 10205: 10193: 10181: 10169: 10157: 10145: 10133: 10121: 10109: 10097: 10085: 10078:Halsall 2014 10073: 10061: 10049: 10037: 10025: 10013: 10006:Murdoch 2004 10001: 9989: 9982:Murdoch 2004 9977: 9965: 9953: 9941: 9929: 9917: 9910:Murdoch 2004 9888: 9876: 9864: 9835: 9823: 9811: 9799: 9770: 9758: 9746: 9734: 9707: 9695: 9683: 9671: 9659: 9647: 9620: 9608: 9596: 9569: 9557: 9530: 9518: 9506: 9494: 9482: 9470: 9458: 9446: 9434: 9422: 9410: 9383: 9346:Murdoch 2004 9341: 9329: 9317: 9305: 9293: 9286:Murdoch 2004 9281: 9269: 9257: 9245: 9233: 9221: 9214:Dilcher 2011 9209: 9197: 9185: 9173: 9166:Dilcher 2011 9161: 9149: 9142:Dilcher 2011 9137: 9115:Dilcher 2011 9110: 9098: 9086: 9074: 9062: 9057:, p. 8. 9050: 9038: 9026: 9019:Goering 2020 9014: 9002: 8990: 8978: 8966: 8954: 8942: 8913: 8901: 8889: 8877: 8865: 8853: 8841: 8829: 8800: 8788: 8783:, p. 4. 8776: 8764: 8752: 8740: 8728: 8721:Padberg 2010 8716: 8709:Padberg 2010 8704: 8692: 8685:Stenton 1971 8680: 8668: 8656: 8644: 8632: 8620: 8608: 8596: 8584: 8567: 8555: 8543: 8534: 8522: 8517: 8505: 8492: 8485:Kroonen 2013 8480: 8448: 8400: 8388: 8316: 8309:Schjødt 2020 8304: 8292: 8280: 8268: 8256: 8244: 8232: 8210:Wolfram 1997 8205: 8198:Heather 1996 8193: 8181: 8174:Wolfram 1997 8169: 8142: 8130: 8123:Wolfram 1997 8118: 8106: 8094: 8082: 8070: 8058: 8046: 8034: 8022: 8015:Halsall 2007 8010: 7998: 7986: 7974: 7947: 7935: 7928:Goffart 2006 7923: 7911: 7904:Heather 1996 7899: 7892:Heather 1996 7887: 7863:Halsall 2007 7858: 7851:Halsall 2007 7846: 7839:Heather 1996 7834: 7822: 7810: 7803:Halsall 2007 7798: 7791:Wolfram 1997 7786: 7774: 7762: 7755:Heather 1996 7750: 7743:Heather 1996 7738: 7731:Halsall 2007 7726: 7719:Heather 1996 7714: 7692:Halsall 2007 7687: 7680:Halsall 2007 7675: 7668:Halsall 2007 7663: 7651: 7644:Halsall 2007 7639: 7627: 7620:Goffart 2006 7615: 7608:Heather 1996 7603: 7579:Heather 1996 7574: 7567:Heather 1996 7562: 7555:Halsall 2007 7550: 7543:Heather 1996 7538: 7531:Heather 1996 7526: 7519:Heather 1996 7514: 7502: 7490: 7483:Halsall 2007 7478: 7471:Heather 2009 7466: 7454: 7447:Wolfram 1997 7442: 7430: 7423:Halsall 2007 7418: 7411:Heather 1996 7406: 7394: 7387:Heather 1996 7382: 7375:Heather 1996 7370: 7363:Wolfram 1997 7358: 7351:Halsall 2007 7346: 7334: 7327:Heather 1996 7322: 7315:Heather 1996 7310: 7303:Heather 1996 7298: 7274:Heather 1996 7269: 7262:Heather 1996 7257: 7250:Brather 2010 7245: 7238:Brather 2010 7233: 7226:Brather 2010 7221: 7194: 7187:Halsall 2007 7182: 7170: 7158: 7131: 7119: 7112:Heather 2009 7107: 7095: 7088:Wolfram 1997 7068: 7026: 7014: 7007:Halsall 2007 7002: 6990: 6948: 6936: 6924: 6912: 6900: 6888: 6876: 6864: 6857:Roymans 2004 6852: 6840: 6828: 6816: 6804: 6792: 6780: 6753: 6741: 6722: 6717: 6705: 6678: 6666: 6654: 6642: 6630: 6618: 6591: 6579: 6567: 6555: 6543: 6531: 6519: 6507: 6495: 6483: 6471: 6459: 6447: 6435: 6423: 6399: 6383: 6372:Kroonen 2013 6368:Fortson 2004 6363: 6356:Brather 2004 6351: 6324: 6312: 6307:, p. 85 6301:Fortson 2004 6292: 6280: 6265:Seebold 2017 6261:Anthony 2007 6256: 6237:Seebold 2017 6233:Anthony 2007 6228: 6221:Fortson 2004 6216: 6204: 6192: 6180: 6168: 6156: 6140: 6128: 6116: 6104: 6088: 6076: 6065:Seebold 2017 6061:Fortson 2004 6056: 6045:Fortson 2004 6040: 6013: 5974: 5963:Fortson 2004 5958: 5946: 5930: 5919:Sanders 2010 5887: 5876:Kroonen 2013 5871: 5859: 5847: 5831: 5820:Seebold 2017 5807: 5800:Seebold 2017 5795: 5788:Seebold 2017 5783: 5772:Seebold 2017 5763: 5747: 5735: 5723: 5712:Anthony 2007 5703: 5696:Wolters 2001 5691: 5679: 5667: 5660:Wolters 2001 5655: 5648:Wolters 2001 5612:Wolters 2001 5597:Wolters 2001 5592: 5585:Tacitus 1948 5580: 5551: 5539: 5527: 5515: 5488: 5476: 5464: 5452: 5440: 5428: 5416: 5411:, p. 3. 5387: 5375: 5363: 5351: 5339: 5327: 5315: 5308:Riggsby 2010 5303: 5291: 5279: 5274:, p. 3. 5267: 5255: 5228: 5221:Harland 2021 5216: 5209:Neidorf 2018 5204: 5192: 5180: 5175:, p. 6. 5168: 5156: 5144: 5132: 5120: 5108: 5096: 5084: 5077:Winkler 2016 5072: 5067:, p. 8. 5052:, p. 4. 5045: 5033: 5028:, p. 1. 5006: 4999:Pfeifer 2000 4994: 4989:, p. 5. 4987:Wolfram 1988 4982: 4977:, p. 9. 4923: 4881: 4848: 4824: 4815: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4794: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4773: 4764: 4755: 4739: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4707: 4697: 4681: 4665: 4653: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4629: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4562: 4560: 4556: 4551: 4542:The earlier 4538: 4512: 4497: 4493:Scandinavism 4476: 4434: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4404: 4378: 4365: 4363: 4318: 4293: 4285: 4263: 4251: 4203: 4177: 4140: 4113: 4108: 4088: 4086: 4071:Metalworking 4063: 4052: 4032: 4027:Heiko Steuer 4020: 3993: 3987: 3971: 3929: 3924: 3916: 3913: 3896:Germanic law 3874: 3856: 3832: 3822:origo gentis 3813:Merkdichtung 3794:Gothic Bible 3790:oral culture 3787: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3715: 3707:'victory' + 3698: 3696: 3690: 3658: 3647: 3645: 3640: 3628: 3621: 3614: 3605: 3603: 3553: 3551:in 776/777. 3518: 3494:Christianity 3491: 3483:Gothic Bible 3447:, including 3437: 3413: 3402: 3385: 3378: 3368: 3362: 3336: 3320: 3316:eddic poetry 3314: 3308: 3302: 3296: 3277: 3269: 3265: 3258: 3252: 3247: 3242: 3231:Old English 3210: 3199: 3193: 3188: 3183: 3175: 3169: 3160: 3155: 3145: 3141: 3135: 3130: 3125: 3115: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3091: 3085: 3079: 3073: 3068: 3063: 3052:Old English 3034:philologists 3013: 3011: 2981:examples of 2964: 2928: 2844:Anglo-Saxons 2841: 2826: 2813: 2750: 2684: 2671: 2651: 2639: 2591: 2589: 2561: 2531: 2508:Amal dynasty 2496: 2457: 2405: 2365: 2340: 2315: 2307: 2305: 2303:was killed. 2293:Thessalonica 2270: 2245: 2228: 2210: 2191:Edward James 2180: 2169: 2164:Suebian knot 2134: 2099: 2095: 2068: 2061: 2049: 2022: 1937: 1931: 1927:Cimbrian War 1887: 1877: 1870:Cimbrian War 1828: 1812: 1797:Finno-Permic 1785: 1774: 1764: 1732: 1724: 1704: 1675: 1667: 1665: 1638: 1624: 1574: 1568: 1563: 1538:: including 1517: 1513: 1509: 1487: 1483: 1477: 1455: 1421: 1416: 1414: 1383: 1370:tetradrachms 1351: 1340:harja-gastiz 1333: 1330:Negau helmet 1322: 1318: 1310: 1308: 1276: 1251: 1231: 1227: 1215: 1197:(a kind of ' 1181: 1171: 1155: 1135:Pre-Germanic 1130: 1126: 1122: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1096:strong verbs 1094:(notably in 1084:Verner's law 1061: 1041: 1036: 1032: 1024: 1012: 1001: 996: 980: 973: 966: Other 929:Subdivisions 896: 894: 889: 880: 868: 859: 855: 850: 848: 803: 798: 794: 790: 782: 774: 768: 764: 760: 748: 736: 720: 718: 712: 708: 664: 653:runic script 648: 644: 640: 637:Heiko Steuer 632: 628: 623: 621: 594: 571: 559: 557: 547: 543: 533: 529: 525: 521: 499: 489: 485: 481: 477: 473: 471: 467:East Francia 462: 458: 446: 438: 434: 422: 420: 357: 312: 306: 291: 288:Germanic law 277: 273:Latin script 261:Anglo-Saxons 249: 184: 182: 150: 145: 113: 109: 101: 93: 87: 82: 81: 65: 63: 59:Suebian knot 47: 14426:Nahanarvali 14349:Hilleviones 14262:Frisiavones 14130:Cananefates 14120:Burgundians 14031:Banochaemae 13881:Anglo-Saxon 13832:Anglo-Saxon 13798:Anglo-Saxon 13781:Anglo-Saxon 13764:Anglo-Saxon 13585:The History 13567:Suetonius, 13543:Procopius, 13235:10 February 12313:10 February 12038:20 February 11864:: 819–853. 11662:11 February 11654:: 111–161, 11617:: 379–382. 11230:: 515–532. 11129:23 December 10306:Kaiser 2007 10042:Steuer 2021 10018:Steuer 2021 9934:Steuer 2021 9893:Steuer 2021 9804:Steuer 2021 9792:Steuer 2021 9739:Steuer 2021 9712:Steuer 2021 9700:Steuer 2021 9688:Steuer 2021 9676:Steuer 2021 9652:Steuer 2021 9640:Steuer 2021 9613:Steuer 2021 9574:Steuer 2021 9562:Steuer 2021 9535:Steuer 2021 9523:Steuer 2021 9511:Steuer 2021 9499:Steuer 2021 9487:Steuer 2021 9451:Steuer 2021 9439:Steuer 2021 9427:Steuer 2021 9403:Steuer 2021 9376:Steuer 2021 9322:Steuer 2021 9310:Steuer 2021 9298:Steuer 2021 9262:Steuer 2021 9250:Steuer 2021 9067:Millet 2008 9043:Millet 2008 9031:Millet 2008 8906:Düwel 2010b 8649:Cusack 1998 8625:Düwel 2010a 8601:Düwel 2010a 8589:Cusack 1998 8577:Witzel 2017 8573:Puhvel 1989 8527:Lindow 2001 8454:Storms 2013 8322:Lindow 2001 8261:Steuer 2021 6881:Steuer 2021 6785:Steuer 2021 6710:Steuer 2021 6635:Steuer 2006 6536:Harris 1979 6408:Steuer 2021 6392:Nedoma 2017 6376:Nedoma 2017 6297:Polomé 1992 6209:Nedoma 2017 6185:Nedoma 2017 6161:Nedoma 2017 6149:Nedoma 2017 6133:Nedoma 2017 6121:Nedoma 2017 6081:Stiles 2017 6033:Nedoma 2017 6018:Nedoma 2017 5998:Nedoma 2017 5983:Nedoma 2017 5967:Nedoma 2017 5951:Nedoma 2017 5939:Nedoma 2017 5923:Nedoma 2017 5816:Nedoma 2017 5752:Stiles 2017 5684:Steuer 2021 5672:Steuer 2021 5284:Steuer 2021 5272:Steuer 2021 5260:Steuer 2021 5185:Steuer 2021 4928:Steuer 2021 4916:Steuer 2021 4886:Steuer 2021 4874:Steuer 2021 4724:Bhr̥ghn̥tes 4690:Polomé 1992 4469:nationalist 4457:Germanentum 4321:Guy Halsall 4248:(69–96 CE). 3844:Old English 3764:(Old Norse 3684:Proto-Norse 3587:Vimose Comb 3545:Charlemagne 3304:Poetic Edda 3217:Atharvaveda 3213:Vedic India 3165:Unattested 3022:Old English 3016:, proposed 2876:Lindisfarne 2848:Northumbria 2801:Charlemagne 2799:. His son, 2646:sacked Rome 2488:Theodoric I 2480:sacked Rome 2412:Marcianople 2382:under King 2356:Middle Ages 2301:Cannabaudes 2266:Saxon Shore 2160:Osterby Man 1874:Gallic Wars 1801:Finno-Samic 1709:Lower Rhine 1697: [ 1560:Langobardic 1548:Old Frisian 1544:Old English 1406:Scandinavia 1270:languages: 1243:fram-ij-an- 1188:Nahanarvali 1106:qualities ( 1039:chapter 2. 1021:Nahanarvali 743:, opposite 608:Walter Pohl 586:(Latin) or 517:Deutschland 343:Terminology 241:Charlemagne 144:. The term 122:Scandinavia 14858:Categories 14645:Vinoviloth 14433:Marcomanni 14416:Helveconae 14394:Heaðobards 14364:Istvaeones 14354:Ingaevones 14339:Hermunduri 14307:Ostrogoths 14297:Greuthungi 14175:Chattuarii 14001:Angrivarii 13996:Ampsivarii 13964:Lentienses 13793:Literature 13683:Viking Age 13569:12 Caesars 13545:Gothic War 13502:Jordanes, 13451:Agathias, 12960:: 291–312. 12254:6 February 12184:B000W259Y8 12058:: 105333. 11939:5 February 11912:15 January 11776:1887/70150 11538:(4): 511. 11246:17 January 10647:. Cassell. 10585:5 February 10364:22 January 10258:Derry 2012 10234:Mosse 1964 10102:Manco 2013 9334:Green 1998 9103:Ghosh 2007 9055:Ghosh 2016 8918:Düwel 2004 8894:Düwel 2004 8882:Düwel 2004 8870:Düwel 2004 8858:Green 1998 8846:Düwel 2004 8834:Düwel 2004 8822:Green 1998 8757:Düwel 2004 8560:Simek 1993 8523:Grímnismál 8510:Simek 1993 8498:Simek 1993 8326:Simek 1993 8039:Pohl 2004a 8003:Pohl 2004a 7979:Pohl 2004a 7952:Pohl 2004a 7940:Pohl 2004a 7880:Pohl 2004a 7779:James 2014 7767:James 2014 7175:Pohl 2004a 7151:Pohl 2004a 7100:James 2014 7073:James 2014 7031:Geary 1999 7019:Pohl 2004a 6995:James 2014 6968:Pohl 2004a 6929:James 2014 6917:Pohl 2004a 6893:Pohl 2004a 6869:Pohl 2004a 6845:Pohl 2004a 6833:Pohl 2004a 6821:Pohl 2004a 6809:Wells 1995 6773:Pohl 2004a 6683:Gruen 2006 6671:Gruen 2006 6659:Wells 2004 6584:Pohl 2004a 6560:Woolf 2012 6548:Burns 2003 6440:Green 1998 6329:Pohl 2004a 6305:Ringe 2006 6249:Reich 2018 5979:Ringe 2006 5935:Green 1998 5915:Ringe 2006 5911:Green 1998 5852:Ringe 2006 5836:Ringe 2006 5812:Ringe 2006 5728:Penzl 1972 5708:Ringe 2006 5631:Pohl 2004a 5532:Pohl 2004a 5520:Pohl 2004a 5508:Pohl 2004a 5445:Krebs 2011 5409:Pohl 2004a 5392:Pohl 2004a 5380:Pohl 2004a 5368:Pohl 2004a 5356:Pohl 2004a 5344:Pohl 2004a 5197:Pohl 2004a 5065:Green 1998 5050:Pohl 2004a 5026:Pohl 2004a 5011:Pohl 2004a 4836:References 4686:Ringe 2006 4508:Nazi Party 4489:Viking Age 4465:Deutschtum 4423:, and the 4305:See also: 4118:Siegerland 4006:chain mail 3952:Marcomanni 3882: 551 3742:Hariwulfaz 3738:Heruwulfaz 3734:Haþuwulfaz 3549:Saxon Wars 3380:Grímnismál 3310:Prose Edda 3286:, and the 3228:Old Norse 3049:Old Norse 2952:Bronze Age 2880:Viking Age 2512:Ostrogoths 2460:Radagaisus 2408:Gothic War 2368:Greuthungi 2306:The Roman 2071:Maroboduus 2046:Marcomanni 1934:Ariovistus 1761:(Germanic) 1672:common era 1635:Prehistory 1611:Burgundian 1554:(6th c.), 1550:(6th c.), 1530:Viking Age 1410:Common Era 1374:Bratislava 1361:'ferry' + 1252:raun-ij-az 1051:See also: 968:Herminones 943:Istaevones 939:Herminones 935:Ingaevones 905:Sarmatians 661:gullgubber 657:bracteates 463:Germanicus 347:See also: 323:, such as 205:Marcomanni 14640:Vidivarii 14635:Victohali 14625:Vangiones 14558:Thuringii 14463:Nuithones 14359:Irminones 14322:Visigoths 14312:Thervingi 14272:Gambrivii 14225:Dulgubnii 14220:Dauciones 14170:Chasuarii 14110:Brondings 14036:Bastarnae 14026:Baiuvarii 14006:Armalausi 13969:Raetovari 13903:Languages 13871:Symbology 13731:Folklore 13726:Festivals 13583:Tacitus, 13575:Tacitus, 13561:Geography 13553:Geography 13551:Ptolemy, 13453:Histories 13377:(1997) . 13329:21 August 13225:229209928 13151:25 August 13042:25 August 12942:241474332 12894:161016819 12838:25 August 12802:25 August 12695:25 August 12662:25 August 12593:25 August 12524:25 August 12326:. Brill. 12303:165792664 12227:25 August 12082:233858713 11846:241474332 11816:25 August 11798:. Brill. 11785:0003-598X 11753:Antiquity 11633:29 August 11460:164376362 11452:0003-598X 11422:Antiquity 11407:25 August 11373:The Goths 11307:244947891 11273:241474332 10964:241474332 10931:. Brill. 10908:161148492 10843:25 August 10793:23 August 10702:241474332 10558:25 August 10511:23 August 10486:233770774 10270:Todd 1999 10222:Beck 2004 10210:Beck 2004 10126:Beck 2004 10066:Todd 1999 10054:Todd 1999 10030:Todd 1999 9994:Todd 1999 9970:Todd 1999 9958:Todd 1999 9946:Todd 1999 9922:Todd 1999 9857:Todd 1999 9775:Todd 1999 9763:Todd 1999 9751:Todd 1999 9727:Todd 1999 9664:Todd 1999 9625:Todd 1999 9601:Todd 1999 9589:Todd 1999 9550:Todd 1999 9475:Todd 1999 9463:Todd 1999 9415:Todd 1999 9361:Todd 1999 9178:Lück 2010 8548:Orel 2003 8473:Orel 2003 8441:Orel 2003 8422:Orel 2003 8393:Orel 2003 8381:Orel 2003 8364:Orel 2003 8345:Orel 2003 8237:Todd 1999 8186:Todd 1999 8162:Todd 1999 8135:Todd 1999 8111:Todd 1999 8099:Todd 1999 8027:Todd 1999 7991:Todd 1999 7967:Todd 1999 7916:Todd 1999 7827:Todd 1999 7815:Todd 1999 7707:Todd 1999 7656:Todd 1999 7632:Todd 1999 7596:Todd 1999 7507:Todd 1999 7495:Todd 1999 7459:Todd 1999 7435:Todd 1999 7399:Todd 1999 7291:Todd 1999 7163:Todd 1999 7136:Todd 1999 7124:Todd 1999 7061:Todd 1999 7046:Todd 1999 6983:Todd 1999 6941:Todd 1999 6905:Todd 1999 6721:Tacitus, 6611:Todd 1999 6572:Todd 1999 6500:Todd 1999 6428:Koch 2020 6412:Koch 2020 6285:Koch 2020 6241:Heyd 2017 5907:Todd 1999 4975:Todd 1999 4958:Todd 1999 4841:Citations 4720:Brigantes 4716:Burgunþaz 4712:Koch 2020 4640:'board'; 4636:'barge'; 4610:*handuga- 4555:Tacitus, 4401:Gothicism 4370:humanists 4156:cloisonné 3975:comitatus 3932:Roman law 3848:Old Norse 3802:Old Norse 3680:runestone 3525:Baiuvarii 3421:seeresses 3373:from the 3026:Old Norse 3014:Sinthgunt 2995:Sinthgunt 2948:Stone Age 2932:Rhineland 2923:Thuringia 2921:, modern 2829:Liuvigild 2822:Liutprand 2781:Pippinids 2753:Austrasia 2732:(843–870) 2691:Baiuvarii 2687:Justinian 2654:Theodoric 2602:from the 2421:Visigoths 2384:Athanaric 2372:Ermanaric 2351:Visigoths 2145:Vespasian 1880:Bastarnae 1858:Bastarnae 1579:Rhineland 1540:Old Saxon 1522:Old Norse 1372:found in 1264:Old Saxon 1260:Old Norse 1214:(English 1147:phonology 1047:Languages 987:, son of 923:Procopius 729:Scythians 505:Germanien 451:humanists 404:Old Irish 378:origins. 354:Etymology 134:Bastarnae 14706:Category 14613:Hasdingi 14598:Usipetes 14578:Tubantes 14563:Toxandri 14543:Tencteri 14518:Suarines 14503:Sicambri 14498:Semnones 14478:Reudigni 14448:Mattiaci 14438:Marsacii 14389:Lombards 14379:Lacringi 14374:Juthungi 14205:Corconti 14190:Cherusci 14165:Charudes 14145:Chaedini 14115:Bructeri 14100:Bateinoi 14071:Eburones 14066:Condrusi 14061:Caeroesi 14056:Atuatuci 13991:Ambrones 13954:Brisgavi 13949:Alemanni 13827:Paganism 13716:Clothing 13711:Calendar 13658:Germania 13577:Germania 13559:Strabo, 13525:in Latin 13479:Cicero, 13471:Caesar, 13466:in Latin 13401:30 March 13395:Archived 13365:30 March 13359:Archived 13341:(1988). 13323:Archived 13229:archived 13184:7 August 13178:Archived 13145:Archived 13127:(1999). 13109:Archived 13036:Archived 13009:7 August 13003:Archived 12832:Archived 12796:Archived 12778:(2014). 12727:Archived 12689:Archived 12656:Archived 12626:7 August 12620:Archived 12587:Archived 12569:(2006). 12557:6 August 12551:Archived 12518:Archived 12500:(2018). 12469:30 March 12463:Archived 12434:30 March 12428:archived 12353:Archived 12307:Archived 12248:Archived 12221:Archived 12032:archived 11993:Archived 11933:Archived 11906:Archived 11884:(2015). 11866:Archived 11810:Archived 11735:8 August 11729:Archived 11692:(2020). 11656:archived 11627:Archived 11623:20658494 11599:(2007). 11577:(2014). 11564:Archived 11494:Archived 11470:22 April 11464:Archived 11401:Archived 11383:(2009). 11371:(1996). 11240:Archived 11212:(2014). 11200:30 March 11194:Archived 11123:Archived 11105:(1998). 11049:Archived 11025:(2009). 10994:30 March 10988:Archived 10912:Archived 10882:(2007). 10837:Archived 10819:(2004). 10787:Archived 10746:Archived 10628:Archived 10579:Archived 10552:Archived 10505:Archived 10414:9 August 10408:Archived 10358:Archived 10325:(2007). 6730:Archived 4779:Germania 4644:'lock'; 4572:Germania 4557:Germania 4519:See also 4513:Germanic 4477:Germania 4473:völkisch 4417:Germania 4375:Jordanes 4366:Germania 4354:R1b-U106 4350:R1b-P312 4301:Genetics 4294:Germania 4222:distaffs 4214:Spindles 4182:and the 4152:filigree 4094:Łysogóry 4081:filigree 3871:Jordanes 3758:theonyms 3539:such as 3529:Clovis I 3521:Alemanni 3516:in 587. 3514:Reccared 3502:Orthodox 3409:Jordanes 3347:Lombards 3307:and the 3018:cognates 2956:Iron Age 2886:Religion 2860:Wulfhere 2839:by 725. 2773:Burgundy 2765:Neustria 2726:Clovis I 2702:nomadic 2682:in 533. 2675:Clovis I 2562:By 440, 2556:Sapaudia 2548:Carthage 2534:Geiseric 2476:Honorius 2448:Stilicho 2433:Stilicho 2380:Tervingi 2376:Dniester 2285:Abrittus 2249:Alamanni 2225:Commodus 2172:Domitian 2156:bog body 2107:Frisians 2083:Arminius 2063:Germania 2050:Germania 2034:Cherusci 2026:Frisians 1994:Germania 1978:Usipetes 1974:Tencteri 1970:Nijmegen 1942:Besançon 1923:Hispania 1911:Ambrones 1899:(Greek: 1829:Urheimat 1827:, whose 1807:between 1784:'king'; 1781:kuningaz 1775:kuningas 1743:Iron Age 1677:Urheimat 1552:Frankish 1352:Fariarix 1319:Germania 1311:Germania 1281:fremmian 1238:compound 1211:saipwōn- 1162:Bauivari 1076:dialects 1037:Germania 1033:Germania 1029:Semnones 1025:Germania 1013:Germania 981:Germania 890:Germania 856:Germania 783:Germania 713:Germania 691:, and a 665:Germanic 645:Germania 633:Germanic 629:Germanic 624:Germanic 589:Germanoi 560:Germanic 539:Germania 534:Germania 511:Deutsche 500:Germania 495:Germanen 482:Germanic 474:Germanic 459:Germania 439:Germanoi 388:must be 376:Illyrian 367:Germania 349:Germania 333:völkisch 313:Germania 229:Alemanni 189:Augustus 146:Germani 124:and the 114:Germania 89:Germania 76:and the 14630:Varisci 14618:Silingi 14608:Vandals 14583:Tulingi 14573:Triboci 14568:Treveri 14548:Teutons 14538:Taifals 14513:Sitones 14453:Nemetes 14411:Helisii 14384:Lemovii 14302:Gutones 14235:Firaesi 14230:Favonae 14210:Cugerni 14200:Cobandi 14155:Chamavi 14150:Chaemae 14140:Casuari 14135:Caritni 14105:Betasii 14076:Paemani 14011:Auiones 13876:Warfare 13854:Scripts 13822:Numbers 13646:History 13115:27 July 12733:27 July 12359:27 July 12060:Bibcode 11999:27 July 11560:4811514 11500:27 July 11055:27 July 10918:28 July 10752:27 July 10634:25 July 6723:Annales 4618:kéntron 4614:kenteîn 4606:*handu- 4598:*swerd- 4481:liberal 4449:Germans 4268:glaesum 4114:Germani 4089:Germani 4064:Germani 4056:joinery 4035:Einkorn 3994:Germani 3981:auxilia 3954:on the 3942:Warfare 3936:orality 3886:Francia 3748:- and * 3746:hailaga 3721:). 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