1715:("rat") is pronounced /kɑndol/ ~ /kɑndao/, */prampiːr/ ("seven") as /prampɨl/, and */her/ ("hot, spicy") as /hɨl/ ~ /haə/. Excepting few similar examples, written final /r/ in modern Central Khmer dialects is silent: */kaːr/ > /kaː/. The exact phonetic realization of final /r/ in Middle Khmer has not been proven with certainty. It may have varied by dialect, either being , or (silent), although rhymes within a single text often suggest all three, indicating the pronunciation wasn't dialectal but rather the shift may have taken place gradually, affecting final /r/ in different environments in stages until /Ø/ gained prominence. Jenner suggests, by inference, that written final /r/ may have been pronounced in Early Middle Khmer.
993:
called "low register". While each vowel symbol represented a single value in Old and Early Middle Khmer, this restructuring meant that the register of the preceding consonant symbol indicated different vowel pronunciations. The secondary characteristic of breathy phonation in the high register became redundant with the development of contrasting vowels for each series and was gradually lost in most dialects by the modern era. Breathy voice versus clear voice still contrast in
Western Khmer and breathy voice in some high register vowels may still be heard in Central Khmer but it is incidental and conveys no lexical meaning; speakers are unaware of it.
1697:
in
Central Khmer, Northern Khmer and Khmer Krom, the three modern varieties representing the overwhelming majority of Khmer speakers. Western Khmer is still between stages four and five; /b/ and /d/ are present, but many vowels have not diphthongized or are in the early stages of diphthongization (i.e. still consist of a monophthong plus a slight glide) and the breathy versus clear phonation contrast is still prominent in most vowels although it is displaying an increasingly lower functional load. This is taken as further validation of the mechanisms proposed in the development of Middle Khmer.
1711:
poetic meters, words written with final /r/ were often used as if they rhymed with words written with final /l/. In fact, /-r : -l/ rhymes were more common than /-r : -r/ rhymes, especially in the very early years of Middle Khmer, indicating that Old Khmer final /r/ was already weakening by the beginning of Middle Khmer. This trend continued gradually throughout the Middle Khmer period so that by the transition to Early Modern Khmer, /-r : -Ø/ rhymes were used instead of /-r : -l/, which agrees with the fact that written final /r/ is unpronounced in modern
Central Khmer.
827:
285:, the Khmer Empire was terminally weakened and steadily lost both its hegemony and prestige in the region. Territory north of the Dangrek mountains was lost to Lao kingdoms while the west and northwest succumbed to the forerunners of the Thais. The Mekong Delta was lost to Vietnam. The center of Khmer culture retreated southeast and eventually was reduced to a small wedge between its powerful neighbors, Thailand and Vietnam, both of which vied for control of the rump polity as a vassal state.
29:
1020:, to posit that the actual devoicing of stops took place late in Middle Khmer, between the 16th and 17th century, and was completed by the 18th century. Vickery, using the same method with a larger word list, concluded that Spanish and Portuguese transliterations of Middle Khmer words proved the devoicing of stops culminated in the last two decades of the 16th century, much earlier than Lewitz's estimate.
981:. Thus, when the two consonant series merged in articulation, the contrast was maintained in the following vowels. Vowels following the originally voiceless stops were lowered in quality, in most cases manifesting on-gliding diphthongs. As the shift progressed, the on-glide became the focus of a new vowel nucleus. In words with
1011:
There is some disagreement as to when this process of devoicing and diphthongization completed, but all estimates fall within the 16th to 18th century range. Jenner, based on internal evidence, gives a basic general range between the 16th to 18th century, concluding it wasn't possible to get anymore
992:
This left the language with two redundant series of consonants and a complementary set of contrasting vowels for each consonant series, effectively doubling the number of vowel nuclei in the language. The formerly voiced stops are referred to as "high register" while the formerly voiceless stops are
314:
Informally, linguists speak of two periods of Middle Khmer based on availability of sources. Evidence of the language dated with surety from the 14th to early 17th century is scant. The many Middle Khmer texts are undated. Internal evidence gives estimates of chronological ordering, but not absolute
1714:
The loss of final /r/ was not as complete as the loss of final /s/, however. Final /r/ is still pronounced prominently in
Northern Khmer and by some speakers of Western Khmer. Also remnants of the early Middle Khmer /r/ > /l/ merger are still evident in Central Khmer where Middle Khmer */kɑntor/
1696:
In this theory, stage two and stage four take the most time to develop and there is overlap between the stages. According to the authors, this theory best accounts for all the shifts and phonological processes involved as well as explains the current situation in Modern Khmer. The shift is complete
335:
which could have dated from the early middle period. Much of the phonological changes that mark Middle Khmer were already established and many others were well underway by the time of Late Middle Khmer and the processes occurring in the early period oftentimes must be inferred by comparing Late Old
1710:
to /h/ and it is now pronounced /h/ in all modern varieties while the fate of syllable-final /r/ was not so simple. Texts written in verse throughout the Middle Khmer era demonstrate that the sound of written final /r/ was confused with, and probably pronounced as or similar to, final /l/. In the
1692:
transitions from stiff voiced stops to following vowels begin to affect the vowels by lowering and then were reinterpreted as diphthongization. In stage four, the abrupt release of stiff voice gradually conditions /p/ and /t/ to become the voiced implosives /ɓ/ and /ɗ/ while slack voiced /b̥/ and
367:
may have contrasted with and , which is rather rare, or the two sets may have evolved during different stages of Middle Khmer and never have contrasted. The vowels in parentheses are assumed to have been used in early Middle Khmer but this has never been proved nor disproved. In addition to the
1693:/d̥/ become /p/ and /t/. The redundant breathy phonation is minimized and lost in most dialects in the fifth phase. In this proposal, /b/ and /d/ never contrast with /ɓ/ and /ɗ/ and most dialects are never truly "register languages" as vowel phonation is never the sole contrastive element.
232:
Khmer has been written in an Indic-based script since the 6th–7th century. Old Khmer and the changes of Middle Khmer are recorded by an extensive epigraphy which has allowed Middle Khmer to be reconstructed and studied. During the Middle Khmer period, the language lost the
1705:
Old Khmer allowed 15 consonants in syllable-final position, including /s/ and /r/ in addition to the 13 presently allowed in modern Khmer. Final /s/ and /r/ are still reflected in modern Khmer orthography, but during the Middle Khmer period, syllable-final /s/ simply
293:
methods applied to modern varieties, along with the wealth of Middle Khmer texts, have given linguists a good picture of Middle Khmer. However, since there are no other extant descendants of Old Khmer, linguists must rely on analysis of its epigraphy and
288:
It is within this context, the collapse of the Khmer Empire, that Old Khmer began to quickly evolve into Middle Khmer. All modern varieties of Khmer descend directly from the "break-up of speech communities" that occurred during the Middle Khmer period.
237:
of Old Khmer which resulted in comprehensive compensatory changes to the vowel system. Old Khmer vowels following the formerly voiced stops remained mostly unchanged while the same vowels following the originally corresponding voiceless initials were
1067:
This shift has historically received less attention from linguists than the evolution of registers and the complicated vowel systems. Earlier hypotheses assumed Old Khmer, similar to other languages of
Southeast Asia, had, in addition to
1136:() as part of the Middle Khmer consonant restructuring. These hypotheses, based on assumptions about Proto-Mon-Khmer and orthographic conjecture, did not take into account phonation or account for the intricacies of the vowel system.
360:
The phonological inventory of the earliest Middle Khmer closely resembles that of Old Khmer. The consonants and vowels of the language before the major sound changes occurred are listed below. The voiced implosives
1679:
The second theory, proposed by
Wayland and Jongman, also postulates five stages of development with results similar to Diffloth's but reached by different means. In their second stage, the voiced stops take on a
1012:
specific due to the undated nature of most Middle Khmer texts. Lewitz's argument cite foreign transliterations of "Angkor" (Middle Khmer: ), which in the 16th century were written "Angar" or "Angor" with a
1139:
More recently, there have been two theories as to how this seeming "flip-flop" occurred, both of which elegantly integrate the phenomenon into the devoicing shift and attribute the redevelopment of voiced
277:(Angkor), which, at its zenith, ruled much of mainland Southeast Asia from the Mekong Delta west to the Andaman Sea and from the Gulf of Thailand north to China. Old Khmer was the language of the ruling
1339:
stop devoicing is complete; phonation affects vowel quality: modal voice vowels lower and begin to diphthongize; breathy voice vowels maintain former qualities; this stage took the longest to complete
974:
and had a simple vowels system consisting of eight or nine long monophthongs with short counterparts and two diphthongs. Vowels following the former series came to take on a secondary characteristic
1718:
The remainder of the final consonants that are allowed in modern Khmer correspond well with written forms from Old Khmer, which suggests that they were unchanged during the Middle Khmer period.
246:. Furthermore, the loss of final "-r", all but complete in most modern Khmer dialects, and the merger of syllable-final -/s/ to -/h/ took place during the Middle Khmer period.
1559:
phonation affects vowel quality: modal voice vowels lower and begin to diphthongize; breathy voice vowels maintain former qualities; this stage took the longest to complete
1255:
intermediate stage; breathy voice vs modal voice contrast strengthens; modal voice vowels force preceding /p/ and /t/ to develop implosion; /ɓ/ contrasts with /b/
352:, romances, ethical treatises and technical manuals. The devoicing of stops were complete by this time and the new vowel inventory was beginning to take shape.
1104:
did double duty, also representing this fourth series. As the Old Khmer voiced series became devoiced in Middle Khmer, the letters previously used for
2816:
1475:
voiced stops take on a slack voice and voiceless stops become stiff voiced; vowels still do not contrast phonation; /b̬/ contrasts with /b̥/
368:
vowel nuclei listed, there were two diphthongs inherited from Old Khmer, and , and a third, , entered the language via loanwords from Thai.
1096:(, *). According to these early hypotheses, since the Indic-based writing system had no symbol for these sounds, the Old Khmer letters for
249:
Middle Khmer is attested in a wide variety of texts as well as inscriptions of the era. Middle Khmer evolved into three modern languages:
265:"Old Khmer" describes the language as it existed until the 14th century. It was the language of three successive polities in the region,
1509:
intermediate stage; vowels following slack consonants begin to take on redundant breathy phonation; /b̬/ still contrasts with /b̥/
949:
302:
Old Khmer. While this makes understanding Middle Khmer important, it has severely hindered the investigation and reconstruction of
221:, that ended with the emergence of a language recognizable as Modern Khmer approximately concurrent with the 1777 coronation of
1040:
and , respectively. A thorough analysis of Middle Khmer must explain both how, if voiced stops merged to voiceless stops, only
1028:
Despite having lost voiced stops, all modern Khmer varieties emerged from the Middle Khmer period with two in their inventory,
2258:
315:
dates. It is assumed that many of the latest texts date to the time of King Ang Duong (1789–1859), to whom is attributed the
2528:
1221:
voiced and voiceless stops still contrast; vowels following voiced consonants begin to take on redundant breathy phonation
177:
2826:
2465:
2321:
217:. The Middle Khmer period was a stage of transition which saw relatively rapid and dramatic changes, especially in
205:
and the modern language. The beginning of the Middle Khmer period roughly coincides with the fall of the
Angkorian
1659:
first (low) register vowels sufficiently differentiated, redundant phonation becomes non-contrastive and is lost
1389:
first (low) register vowels sufficiently differentiated, redundant phonation becomes non-contrastive and is lost
167:
1036:. In both cases, it is the Old Khmer voiceless stop that is now voiced and their realizations are most commonly
2455:
281:
and the language of administration throughout the empire. After the 14th century sack of Angkor by the
Siamese
1441:
Early Middle Khmer; voiceless and voiced stops contrast; vowels are the same regardless of consonant voicing
1187:
Early Middle Khmer; voiceless and voiced stops contrast; vowels are the same regardless of consonant voicing
344:
Late Middle Khmer is the period for which we have the most evidence. In addition to inscriptions, there are
942:
2333:"An Examination of the Vowels and final Consonants in Correspondences between pre-Angkor and modern Khmer"
1145:
1141:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1029:
982:
971:
967:
801:
796:
791:
786:
762:
756:
743:
737:
731:
726:
721:
715:
702:
697:
692:
687:
682:
677:
614:
591:
586:
581:
564:
555:
534:
529:
524:
519:
500:
495:
490:
485:
480:
475:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
429:
424:
419:
414:
365:
362:
2777:
2519:
2381:
2821:
2332:
935:
299:
290:
250:
99:
73:
2692:
2644:
1684:
quality which causes following vowels to become breathy voiced while the voiceless stops become
2772:
1093:
887:
2559:
2506:
966:
of the Old Khmer voiced stops. Unlike the modern language, Old Khmer contrasted voiced stops
571:
2706:
2281:
1289:
voiced stops devoice; contrast is maintained by vowel phonation; /ɓ/ now contrasts with /p/
1152:
proposed a five-stage process presented in the table below as given by
Wayland and Jongman:
2664:
2441:. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 693–710.
866:
345:
8:
1092:, a fourth series that was both voiced and either implosive (, ), preglottalized (, ) or
1037:
543:
2442:
2425:
2310:
382:
377:
214:
34:
2786:
2268:
1149:
157:
2760:
2726:
2683:
2461:
2429:
2317:
2254:
897:
404:
397:
387:
282:
210:
2612:
1609:/b̬/ and /d̬/ develop implosion; pulmonic stops unvoice; /ɓ/ now contrasts with /p/
1128:
became redundant and were used only for the fourth series, which then normalized to
1064:
were the consonants to "reacquire" voicing instead of the originally voiced series.
257:
and the various dialects of
Central Khmer, including Standard Khmer and Khmer Krom.
173:
2782:
2679:
2584:
2571:
2417:
2368:
266:
2457:
Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1
2246:
2555:
1707:
841:
709:
602:
392:
91:
2665:"Notes on the numerals and numeral coefficients in Old, Middle and Modern Khmer"
2421:
882:
861:
856:
851:
818:
750:
303:
243:
201:
as it existed between the 14th and 18th centuries, spanning the period between
198:
77:
69:
962:
The impetus for the major changes that took place during Middle Khmer was the
826:
2810:
2748:
975:
913:
892:
846:
640:
254:
2575:
2372:
2482:
278:
274:
239:
206:
141:
2744:
1685:
1681:
672:
635:
295:
234:
2446:
1688:. In the third stage, slack vs stiff voice stops still contrast and the
2487:"Classifying the Austroasiatic languages: history and state of the art"
777:
645:
509:
81:
1863:
978:
963:
918:
349:
226:
218:
202:
150:
134:
120:
28:
2761:"Acoustic correlates of breathy and clear vowels: the case of Khmer"
2486:
185:
50:
46:
985:, which can't be lowered, it was the vowel following the formerly
2275:. Cornell University Library, Ithaca, NY: Unpublished manuscript.
2156:
2132:
2120:
1972:
1945:
1689:
222:
213:
and the period of Cambodian history popularly referred to as the
181:
58:
270:
2408:
Jenner, Philip N (1975). "The final liquids of middle Khmer".
2700:. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications. pp. 591–623.
2084:
1996:
2108:
1827:
319:("Conduct for Ladies"). Analysis of metrical rhymes in the
54:
2694:
Affixation in Middle Khmer with Old and Modern Comparisons
2585:"Chanthaburi Khmer vowels: phonetic and phonemic analyses"
2144:
2072:
184:
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
2800:
2185:
1148:
to the complicated phonological details of that process.
2253:. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press.
2226:
2224:
1892:
1890:
1817:
1815:
1800:
1766:
1764:
1919:
1917:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1734:
1732:
1730:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2096:
1962:
1960:
2221:
2209:
2197:
2060:
2048:
2020:
2008:
1984:
1902:
1887:
1851:
1812:
1776:
1761:
1016:
and, by the 17th century had become "Anckoor" with a
336:
Khmer with the language of later Middle Khmer texts.
2382:"The Development of the Registers in Standard Khmer"
1929:
1914:
1839:
1744:
1727:
2168:
1957:
2309:
1875:
298:, as well as the descriptions of Middle Khmer, to
2032:
2808:
1023:
2359:Lewitz, Saveros (1967). "La toponymie khmère".
1788:
348:from multiple genres or disciplines, including
2645:"Recovering extracted infixes in Middle Khmer"
2613:"Registrogenesis in Khmer: A Phonetic Account"
2610:
2582:
2564:Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient
2361:Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient
2162:
2150:
2138:
2126:
2090:
2002:
1978:
1951:
1939:
1869:
1833:
2560:"Funan reviewed: Deconstructing the ancients"
943:
323:literature indicated that among the earliest
2727:"The value of i, ī, u and ū in Middle Khmer"
2707:"The value of 'au' and 'ai' in Middle Khmer"
1120:, respectively, so the letters for original
1048:reemerged and had a distinct evolution from
950:
936:
27:
2776:
2759:Wayland, Ratree; Jongman, Allard (2003).
2611:Wayland, Ratree; Jongman, Allard (2002).
2583:Wayland, Ratree; Jongman, Allard (2001).
2439:The Relative Dating of Some Khmer CPĀ'PA*
2817:Languages attested from the 14th century
2267:
1935:
2554:
2526:
2481:
2410:STUF - Language Typology and Universals
2282:"Cham evidence for Khmer sound changes"
2279:
2251:The Indianized States of Southeast Asia
2114:
2102:
2078:
2026:
1908:
1896:
1821:
1782:
1770:
1056:as well as why the Old Khmer voiceless
178:question marks, boxes, or other symbols
2809:
2436:
2407:
2379:
2358:
2245:
2230:
2215:
2203:
2191:
2066:
2054:
2042:
2014:
1990:
1923:
1881:
1857:
1845:
1806:
1755:
1738:
1112:came to be indicate pronunciations of
2330:
2307:
2289:Papers in Southeast Asian Linguistics
2179:
2038:
1966:
309:
2453:
1794:
339:
2529:"Loan words and devoicing in Khmer"
2316:. London: Oxford University Press.
1700:
13:
2714:Southeast Asian Linguistic Studies
2636:
2460:(illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO.
14:
2838:
2794:
242:by different processes including
825:
2273:A History of the Khmer Language
2249:(1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.).
989:consonants that diphthongized.
197:is the historical stage of the
225:, the father of the poet-king
1:
2787:10.1016/s0095-4470(02)00086-4
2239:
1410:Wayland and Jongman's theory
1024:Reacquisition of voiced stops
2684:10.1016/0024-3841(65)90011-2
2163:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
2151:Wayland & Jongman (2001)
2139:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
2127:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
2091:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
2003:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
1979:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
1952:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
1870:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
1834:Wayland & Jongman (2002)
1418:Consonant and Vowel contrast
1164:Consonant and Vowel contrast
355:
7:
2454:Keat, Gin Ooi, ed. (2004).
2422:10.1524/stuf.1975.28.16.599
1940:Wayland & Jongman (2002
10:
2843:
2280:Headley, Robert K (1998).
260:
2827:Extinct languages of Asia
2725:Jenner, Philip N (1977).
2705:Jenner, Philip N (1974).
2643:Bauer, Christian (1989).
2527:Vickery, Michael (1992).
2437:Jenner, Philip N (1976).
2380:Jenner, Philip N (1974).
2312:Introduction to Cambodian
1658:
1627:
1608:
1577:
1558:
1527:
1508:
1493:
1474:
1459:
1440:
1425:
1417:
1388:
1357:
1338:
1307:
1288:
1273:
1254:
1239:
1220:
1205:
1186:
1171:
1163:
644:
639:
634:
632:
620:
618:
613:
611:
601:
595:
590:
585:
580:
570:
561:
559:
554:
552:
542:
533:
528:
523:
518:
508:
499:
494:
457:
452:
447:
442:
428:
423:
418:
413:
403:
391:
386:
381:
376:
374:
164:
148:
132:
127:
113:
88:
64:
42:
26:
21:
2691:Jacob, Judith M (1976).
2663:Jacob, Judith M (1965).
2331:Jacob, Judith M (1976).
2308:Jacob, Judith M (1968).
1721:
2801:Dictionary of Old Khmer
2576:10.3406/befeo.2003.3609
2373:10.3406/befeo.1967.5052
813:Part of a series on the
2514:Cite journal requires
2117:, p. 240, note 1.
1006:> > (modern: )
300:internally reconstruct
166:This article contains
2765:Journal of Phonetics
346:palm-leaf manuscript
2340:Pacific Linguistics
2194:, pp. 606–607.
2165:, pp. 111–113.
2141:, pp. 109–112.
2129:, pp. 106–107.
2081:, pp. 244–246.
1981:, pp. 104–105.
1954:, pp. 109–110.
1809:, pp. 236–237.
1411:
1157:
84:by the 18th century
1409:
1156:Diffloth's theory
1155:
310:Early Middle Khmer
215:Post-Angkor Period
2734:Mon-Khmer Studies
2652:Mon-Khmer Studies
2617:Mon-Khmer Studies
2592:Mon-Khmer Studies
2536:Mon Khmer Studies
2260:978-0-8248-0368-1
2045:, pp. 48–49)
1677:
1676:
1407:
1406:
1018:⟨k⟩
1014:⟨g⟩
960:
959:
807:
806:
626:
625:
609:
578:
550:
516:
472:
440:
411:
340:Late Middle Khmer
283:Ayutthaya Kingdom
211:Ayutthaya Kingdom
192:
191:
174:rendering support
170:phonetic symbols.
2834:
2790:
2780:
2741:
2731:
2721:
2711:
2701:
2699:
2687:
2669:
2659:
2649:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2607:
2605:
2603:
2589:
2579:
2556:Vickery, Michael
2551:
2549:
2547:
2533:
2523:
2517:
2512:
2510:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2450:
2433:
2416:(1–6): 599–609.
2404:
2402:
2400:
2386:
2376:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2337:
2327:
2315:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2286:
2276:
2269:Diffloth, Gérard
2264:
2234:
2228:
2219:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2189:
2183:
2177:
2166:
2160:
2154:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2124:
2118:
2112:
2106:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2070:
2064:
2058:
2052:
2046:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2012:
2006:
2000:
1994:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1964:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1933:
1927:
1921:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1894:
1885:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1810:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1759:
1753:
1742:
1736:
1701:Final consonants
1412:
1408:
1158:
1154:
1147:
1143:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1035:
1031:
1019:
1015:
984:
973:
969:
952:
945:
938:
829:
810:
809:
803:
798:
793:
788:
764:
758:
745:
739:
733:
728:
723:
717:
704:
699:
694:
689:
684:
679:
630:
629:
616:
607:
593:
588:
583:
576:
566:
557:
548:
536:
531:
526:
521:
514:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
470:
465:
460:
455:
450:
445:
438:
431:
426:
421:
416:
409:
372:
371:
244:diphthongization
160:
144:
137:
94:
31:
19:
18:
2842:
2841:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2807:
2806:
2797:
2778:10.1.1.576.8853
2758:
2729:
2724:
2709:
2704:
2697:
2690:
2667:
2662:
2647:
2642:
2639:
2637:Further reading
2626:
2624:
2601:
2599:
2587:
2545:
2543:
2531:
2515:
2513:
2504:
2503:
2496:
2494:
2493:. Lincom Europa
2472:
2470:
2468:
2398:
2396:
2384:
2349:
2347:
2335:
2324:
2298:
2296:
2284:
2261:
2242:
2237:
2229:
2222:
2214:
2210:
2202:
2198:
2190:
2186:
2178:
2169:
2161:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2137:
2133:
2125:
2121:
2113:
2109:
2101:
2097:
2089:
2085:
2077:
2073:
2069:, pp. 387.
2065:
2061:
2053:
2049:
2037:
2033:
2025:
2021:
2013:
2009:
2001:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1977:
1973:
1965:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1936:Diffloth (1990)
1934:
1930:
1922:
1915:
1907:
1903:
1895:
1888:
1880:
1876:
1872:, Introduction.
1868:
1864:
1856:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1832:
1828:
1820:
1813:
1805:
1801:
1793:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1769:
1762:
1754:
1745:
1737:
1728:
1724:
1703:
1655:
1648:
1641:
1634:
1605:
1598:
1591:
1584:
1555:
1548:
1541:
1534:
1385:
1378:
1371:
1364:
1335:
1328:
1321:
1314:
1026:
1017:
1013:
1007:
1003:> > ~
1002:
997:
956:
808:
627:
358:
342:
312:
263:
209:to the Siamese
172:Without proper
156:
140:
133:
123:
116:
109:
95:
92:Language family
90:
68:developed into
38:
37:in Middle Khmer
17:
12:
11:
5:
2840:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2822:Khmer language
2819:
2805:
2804:
2796:
2795:External links
2793:
2792:
2791:
2771:(2): 181–201.
2756:
2742:
2722:
2702:
2688:
2660:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2608:
2580:
2570:(1): 101–143.
2552:
2524:
2516:|journal=
2479:
2467:978-1576077702
2466:
2451:
2434:
2405:
2377:
2367:(2): 375–451.
2356:
2328:
2323:978-0197135563
2322:
2305:
2277:
2265:
2259:
2247:Coedès, George
2241:
2238:
2236:
2235:
2233:, p. 607.
2220:
2218:, p. 605.
2208:
2206:, p. 603.
2196:
2184:
2167:
2155:
2143:
2131:
2119:
2115:Vickery (1992)
2107:
2105:, p. 248.
2103:Vickery (1992)
2095:
2093:, p. 106.
2083:
2079:Vickery (1992)
2071:
2059:
2057:, p. 674.
2047:
2031:
2027:Headley (1998)
2019:
2017:, p. 696.
2007:
2005:, p. 112.
1995:
1993:, p. 695.
1983:
1971:
1956:
1944:
1942:, p. 106)
1928:
1913:
1909:Headley (1998)
1901:
1897:Headley (1998)
1886:
1874:
1862:
1860:, p. 705.
1850:
1848:, p. 707.
1838:
1836:, p. 101.
1826:
1824:, p. 107.
1822:Sidwell (2009)
1811:
1799:
1787:
1785:, p. 125.
1783:Vickery (2003)
1775:
1773:, p. 240.
1771:Vickery (1992)
1760:
1758:, p. 694.
1743:
1741:, p. 693.
1725:
1723:
1720:
1702:
1699:
1675:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1661:
1660:
1657:
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1646:
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1629:
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1600:
1596:
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1456:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1427:
1423:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1405:
1404:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1391:
1390:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1373:
1369:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1355:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1341:
1340:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1319:
1316:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1025:
1022:
970:with unvoiced
958:
957:
955:
954:
947:
940:
932:
929:
928:
927:
926:
921:
916:
908:
907:
903:
902:
901:
900:
895:
890:
888:Northern Khmer
885:
877:
876:
872:
871:
870:
869:
864:
859:
854:
849:
844:
836:
835:
831:
830:
822:
821:
819:Khmer language
815:
814:
805:
804:
799:
794:
789:
784:
782:
780:
774:
773:
771:
769:
767:
765:
760:
753:
747:
746:
741:
734:
729:
724:
719:
712:
706:
705:
700:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
669:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
649:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
624:
623:
621:
619:
617:
612:
610:
605:
599:
598:
596:
594:
589:
584:
579:
574:
568:
567:
562:
560:
558:
553:
551:
546:
540:
539:
537:
532:
527:
522:
517:
512:
506:
505:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
467:
466:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
435:
434:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
401:
400:
395:
390:
385:
380:
375:
370:
357:
354:
341:
338:
311:
308:
262:
259:
251:Northern Khmer
199:Khmer language
190:
189:
176:, you may see
162:
161:
154:
146:
145:
138:
130:
129:
128:Language codes
125:
124:
119:
117:
114:
111:
110:
108:
107:
98:
96:
89:
86:
85:
74:Northern Khmer
66:
62:
61:
44:
40:
39:
32:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2839:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2814:
2812:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2746:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2728:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2703:
2696:
2695:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2666:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2646:
2641:
2640:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2553:
2541:
2537:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2508:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2483:Sidwell, Paul
2480:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2458:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2363:(in French).
2362:
2357:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2329:
2325:
2319:
2314:
2313:
2306:
2294:
2290:
2283:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2243:
2232:
2231:Jenner (1975)
2227:
2225:
2217:
2216:Jenner (1975)
2212:
2205:
2204:Jenner (1975)
2200:
2193:
2192:Jenner (1975)
2188:
2182:, p. 24.
2181:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2164:
2159:
2152:
2147:
2140:
2135:
2128:
2123:
2116:
2111:
2104:
2099:
2092:
2087:
2080:
2075:
2068:
2067:Lewitz (1967)
2063:
2056:
2055:Jenner (1976)
2051:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2029:, p. 24.
2028:
2023:
2016:
2015:Jenner (1976)
2011:
2004:
1999:
1992:
1991:Jenner (1976)
1987:
1980:
1975:
1969:, p. 23.
1968:
1963:
1961:
1953:
1948:
1941:
1937:
1932:
1926:, p. 51.
1925:
1924:Jenner (1974)
1920:
1918:
1911:, p. 23.
1910:
1905:
1899:, p. 21.
1898:
1893:
1891:
1883:
1882:Jenner (1976)
1878:
1871:
1866:
1859:
1858:Jenner (1976)
1854:
1847:
1846:Jenner (1976)
1842:
1835:
1830:
1823:
1818:
1816:
1808:
1807:Coedès (1968)
1803:
1796:
1791:
1784:
1779:
1772:
1767:
1765:
1757:
1756:Jenner (1976)
1752:
1750:
1748:
1740:
1739:Jenner (1976)
1735:
1733:
1731:
1726:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1698:
1694:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1651:
1644:
1637:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1612:
1601:
1594:
1587:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1569:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1551:
1544:
1537:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1512:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1381:
1374:
1367:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1342:
1331:
1324:
1317:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1224:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1160:
1159:
1153:
1151:
1137:
1095:
1094:pre-nasalized
1065:
1039:
1021:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
990:
988:
980:
977:
965:
953:
948:
946:
941:
939:
934:
933:
931:
930:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
914:Proto-Khmeric
912:
911:
910:
909:
905:
904:
899:
896:
894:
893:Western Khmer
891:
889:
886:
884:
881:
880:
879:
878:
874:
873:
868:
865:
863:
860:
858:
855:
853:
850:
848:
845:
843:
840:
839:
838:
837:
833:
832:
828:
824:
823:
820:
817:
816:
812:
811:
800:
795:
790:
785:
783:
781:
779:
776:
775:
772:
770:
768:
766:
761:
754:
752:
749:
748:
742:
735:
730:
725:
720:
713:
711:
708:
707:
701:
696:
691:
686:
681:
676:
674:
671:
670:
666:
663:
660:
657:
654:
651:
650:
647:
642:
637:
631:
622:
606:
604:
600:
597:
575:
573:
569:
563:
547:
545:
541:
538:
513:
511:
507:
504:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
468:
462:
437:
436:
433:
408:
406:
402:
399:
396:
394:
389:
384:
379:
373:
369:
366:
363:
353:
351:
347:
337:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
307:
305:
301:
297:
292:
286:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
258:
256:
255:Western Khmer
252:
247:
245:
241:
236:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
169:
163:
159:
155:
153:
152:
147:
143:
139:
136:
131:
126:
122:
118:
112:
106:
103:
102:
101:
100:Austroasiatic
97:
93:
87:
83:
79:
78:Western Khmer
75:
71:
67:
63:
60:
56:
52:
48:
45:
41:
36:
30:
25:
20:
2768:
2764:
2750:
2745:Miyake, Marc
2737:
2733:
2717:
2713:
2693:
2675:
2671:
2655:
2651:
2625:. Retrieved
2620:
2616:
2600:. Retrieved
2595:
2591:
2567:
2563:
2544:. Retrieved
2539:
2535:
2507:cite journal
2495:. Retrieved
2490:
2471:. Retrieved
2456:
2438:
2413:
2409:
2397:. Retrieved
2392:
2389:Canberra: PL
2388:
2364:
2360:
2348:. Retrieved
2343:
2339:
2311:
2297:. Retrieved
2292:
2288:
2272:
2250:
2211:
2199:
2187:
2180:Jacob (1976)
2158:
2146:
2134:
2122:
2110:
2098:
2086:
2074:
2062:
2050:
2043:Jenner (1974
2039:Jacob (1968)
2034:
2022:
2010:
1998:
1986:
1974:
1967:Jacob (1976)
1947:
1931:
1904:
1877:
1865:
1853:
1841:
1829:
1802:
1790:
1778:
1717:
1713:
1708:debuccalized
1704:
1695:
1686:stiff voiced
1678:
1138:
1066:
1027:
1010:
1008:> >
1005:
1000:
998:> >
996:> >
995:
991:
986:
961:
924:Middle Khmer
923:
359:
343:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
313:
287:
275:Khmer Empire
264:
248:
235:voiced stops
231:
207:Khmer Empire
195:Middle Khmer
194:
193:
165:
149:
105:Middle Khmer
104:
22:Middle Khmer
2678:: 143–162.
2346:(19): 19–38
2041:, cited in
1938:, cited in
1795:Keat (2004)
1682:slack voice
1001:> >
572:Approximant
304:Proto-Khmer
296:orthography
291:Comparative
180:instead of
49:, parts of
35:inscription
2811:Categories
2740:: 101–133.
2720:: 157–173.
2658:(155–164).
2602:14 January
2546:12 January
2473:31 January
2240:References
867:Literature
350:chronicles
115:Early form
82:Khmer Krom
2803:(SEAlang)
2773:CiteSeerX
2627:3 January
2623:: 101–114
2542:: 240–250
2497:3 January
2430:131639485
2399:6 January
2350:3 January
2299:9 January
1038:implosive
979:phonation
964:devoicing
919:Old Khmer
898:Khmer Khe
842:Phonology
710:Close-mid
549:Voiceless
544:Fricative
439:Voiceless
410:Aspirated
356:Phonology
327:were the
317:cbap srei
227:Ang Duong
219:phonology
203:Old Khmer
151:Glottolog
135:ISO 639-3
121:Old Khmer
2753:-lusters
2747:. 2012.
2558:(2003).
2485:(2009).
2447:20019179
2271:(1990).
1150:Diffloth
883:Overview
875:Dialects
862:Numerals
857:Keyboard
852:Alphabet
751:Open-mid
383:Alveolar
378:Bilabial
333:kuna cau
329:ker kala
273:and the
186:Help:IPA
158:midd1376
51:Thailand
47:Cambodia
2598:: 65–82
2395:: 47–60
2295:: 21–29
1690:formant
1132:() and
976:breathy
847:Grammar
834:Aspects
641:Central
405:Plosive
398:Glottal
388:Palatal
261:History
240:lowered
223:Ang Eng
182:Unicode
59:Vietnam
2775:
2749:Khmer
2672:Lingua
2464:
2445:
2428:
2320:
2257:
1573:ɡ̊V̤-
1523:ɡ̊V̤-
1421:Notes
1167:Notes
987:voiced
972:/kctp/
968:/ɡɟdb/
906:Stages
608:Voiced
577:Voiced
515:Voiced
471:Voiced
279:Khmers
271:Chenla
43:Region
2730:(PDF)
2710:(PDF)
2698:(PDF)
2668:(PDF)
2648:(PDF)
2588:(PDF)
2532:(PDF)
2443:JSTOR
2426:S2CID
2385:(PDF)
2336:(PDF)
2285:(PDF)
1722:Notes
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1570:ɟ̊V̤-
1567:d̥V̤-
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1520:ɟ̊V̤-
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1415:Stage
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1303:kV̤-
1269:ɡV̤-
1235:ɡV̤-
1161:Stage
1080:and *
673:Close
667:long
664:short
658:short
652:short
636:Front
603:Trill
510:Nasal
393:Velar
267:Funan
70:Khmer
16:Khmer
2629:2016
2604:2016
2548:2016
2520:help
2499:2016
2475:2016
2462:ISBN
2401:2016
2352:2016
2318:ISBN
2301:2016
2255:ISBN
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1260:bV̤-
1232:ɟV̤-
1229:dV̤-
1226:bV̤-
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1144:and
1124:and
1116:and
1108:and
1100:and
1090:/tʰ/
1078:/pʰ/
1060:and
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983:/aː/
778:Open
661:long
655:long
646:Back
364:and
331:and
325:cbap
321:cbap
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1134:/d/
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