590:(PRI). It was the institutionalized way for Calles's faction to control presidential succession. It succeeded as a party by bringing in a number of different elements, including regional and local political organizations, organized labor, organized peasants, and professionals such as government bureaucrats and teachers. The party gained secure revenue and organizational strength by requiring members of constituent organizations be dues-paying members of the party. It became a national party, designed to exist as an institution rather than a coalition that came into being only during elections, and was successful in elections for local, state, and national offices.
680:, who was an ally and protĂ©gĂ© of Calles. Since Ortiz Rubio had resigned having served a sufficient length of time as president not to trigger a new election, RodrĂguez was appointed substitute president by congress. Although Calles remained influential during RodrĂguez's term of office, he was not as involved politically due to his own ill health and the illness and then death of his young second wife in 1932. RodrĂguez established clear boundaries around Calles's actions and made it clear that he, RodrĂguez, was president of Mexico, due all the honor and power of the office.
529:
610:
541:
74:
502:
failed revolt and then fled to the United States. Calles won, and served from 1924 to 1928. ObregĂłn remained a powerful presence behind the Calles presidency, and Calles pushed through a constitutional change that allowed for a non-consecutive presidential re-election. That would allow ObregĂłn to run for re-election in 1928, and potentially Calles to run in the election after that. ObregĂłn was duly elected as Calles's successor, but was assassinated in July by
29:
458:
1027:
342:
715:
655:; strikes were no longer tolerated; and the government ceased redistributing lands among poorer peasants. Calles had once been the candidate of the workers, and at one point had used Communist unions in his campaign against competing labor organizers; but later, having acquired wealth and engaging in finance, suppressed Communism. Overall, the
669:
501:
to justify their actions, and De la Huerta served as interim president for a six-month span between June and
November 1920. ObregĂłn then contested and won the 1920 presidential election, serving a four-year term. To succeed him in the 1924 election, ObregĂłn backed Calles over De la Huerta, who led a
570:
led a rebellion in March 1929 against the interim Portes Gil government. The U.S. backed the interim government and
Escobar was unable to obtain arms, so the revolt failed. Although short-lived, it highlighted the necessity of finding a better mechanism for the transfer of the presidency as well as
413:
would have served if he had not been assassinated immediately after the July 1928 elections. There needed to be some kind of political solution to the presidential succession crisis. Calles could not hold the presidency again because of restrictions on re-election without an interval out of power,
639:
Once the conflict-ridden 1929 election was over, Ortiz Rubio was inaugurated on 5 February 1930, but not without lingering acrimony. During his inauguration ceremony, Ortiz Rubio was wounded in an assassination attempt by an antireelectionist student, Daniel Flores, who was tried and received the
726:
from
Michoacán as its presidential candidate. Soon after his inauguration, however, conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas started to arise. Calles opposed Cárdenas's support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, and Cárdenas opposed Calles's violent methods and his
553:
or report to congress on 1 September 1928, a little more than a month after ObregĂłn's assassination, he declared that "There is no personality of indisputable stature, with a firm hold on public opinion and enough personal and political force to merit general confidence through is mere name and
659:
was characterized by growing polarization and radicalization on both sides of the political spectrum, with left-wing and right-wing groups often fighting against each other in the streets of Mexico's cities. In 1932, Calles forced Ortiz Rubio to step down because of the latter's appointment of
562:
became interim president, taking office on 1 December 1928 and serving until 5 February 1930. Calles retained power, despite his having said that "never, for any motivation and in no circumstances will the current president of the
Republic of Mexico come to occupy that position again." That
554:
prestige." He went on to call for "the peaceful evolutionary development of Mexico as an institutional country, in which men may become, as they should be, mere accidents with no real importance beside the perpetual and august serenity of institutions and laws."
442:, who had been chosen as the candidate for the PNR. Following the election, Calles attempted to exert control over Cárdenas, but with strategic allies Cárdenas outmaneuvered Calles politically and expelled him and his major allies from the country in 1936.
778:, were charged with conspiring to blow up a railroad, placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas, and deported on April 9, 1936, to the United States. At the time of his arrest, Calles was reportedly reading a Spanish translation of
506:, a Catholic militant, before he could take office. Public reaction to the assassination was "surprise, confusion, sometimes hysteria". Calles allowed the anger of Obregón's supporters to flow, and deflected it elsewhere—toward the labor leader
699:
557:
Calles had already called on thirty prominent generals, who might have vied for power in the wake of ObregĂłn's assassination, to agree to a civilian as interim president until new elections could take place.
438:, who served out the rest of the term that ended in 1934. As President, RodrĂguez exerted more independence from Calles than had Ortiz Rubio. That year's election was won by the former revolutionary general
548:
Since Calles could not succeed himself in the presidency but wished to retain power, he sought a political solution. The long-term solution he conceived was momentous for
Mexican politics. In his final
449:
was a transitional period of personal power for ex-President Calles, but the institutionalization of political power in the party structure was a major achievement in
Mexican history.
647:
During the
Maximato, Calles became increasingly authoritarian. After a large demonstration in 1930, the Mexican Communist Party was banned; Mexico ended its support for the rebels of
691:
and the 8-hour working day. During RodrĂguez's presidency the constitutional amendment that allowed for re-election was repealed and the presidential term was extended to six years.
417:
There were two solutions to the crisis. Firstly, an interim president was to be appointed, followed by new elections. Secondly, Calles created an enduring political institution, the
563:
declaration was a repudiation of the constitutional change that had allowed re-election of previous president and forestalled any president in the future from seeking re-election.
636:(PCM). The election was marred by violence and fraud, and Vasconcelos refused to accept the result. Dozens of anti-reelectionists were killed, and Vasconcelos left the country.
702:", and the constitution was amended for this purpose, although its provisions which sought to suppress religion were removed from the constitution in 1946. The introduction of
514:(CROM), who might have been responsible for the assassination to gain power himself; and toward the assassin, Toral. Toral's interrogation was left to ObregĂłn's supporters.
706:
proved to be very controversial, and after the protestations of conservative parents, Bassols was forced to step down and socialist education was eventually abandoned.
409:
was the period in which Calles continued to exercise power and exert influence without holding the presidency. The six-year period was the term that
President-elect
621:, who had no independent power base. During the two years that Ortiz Rubio was titular president of Mexico, Calles was the power behind the presidency.
489:
dominated
Mexican politics in the 1920s, each being revolutionary generals from the northwestern state of Sonora. When the term of President
430:
lasted from 1 December 1928 to 4 February 1930. He was passed over as candidate for the newly formed PNR in favor of a political unknown,
370:
1053:
511:
294:
968:
234:
179:
97:
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477:
was
President DĂaz's perennial, protracted re-election over the course of more than three decades. After the Revolution,
877:
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419:
160:
309:
1058:
732:
363:
434:, who resigned in September 1932 in protest at Calles's continued wielding of the real power. The successor was
628:
of the National Antireelectionist Party (PNA), whose campaign was supported mainly by university students, and
736:
132:
593:
Officially, after 1929, Calles served as minister of war, as he continued to suppress the rebellion of the
629:
1048:
683:
RodrĂguez was known for his progressive reforms. Under his presidency social legislation promised by the
497:
in the office as his puppet successor, this caused the three Sonoran generals to revolt. They issued the
331:
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107:
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202:
53:
20:
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125:
73:
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President ObregĂłn in a business suit, tailored to show he lost his right arm fighting in the
197:
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112:
82:
597:; however, a few months later, following the intervention of the United States ambassador
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8:
618:
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304:
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212:
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Ortiz Rubio won the controversial 1929 election, in which he defeated the philosopher
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427:
390:
277:
224:
62:
482:
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494:
314:
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137:
1004:, Leslie Bethell, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 201–240.
987:, Leslie Bethell, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 241–320.
648:
900:
852:
695:
507:
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218:
575:. Calles himself took command of government troops to suppress the months' long
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Not all the generals were on board with the new political arrangement. General
990:
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239:
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855:, "National Revolutionary Party/Partido Nacional Revolucionario-PNR" in
28:
780:
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was the premise of "no re-election", since a hallmark of the preceding
207:
174:
168:
142:
672:
Abelardo L. RodrĂguez, substitute president of Mexico of 1932 to 1934.
457:
397:
from 1 December 1928 to 1 December 1934. Named after former president
668:
652:
102:
714:
601:, the Mexican government and the Cristeros signed a peace treaty.
663:
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Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically by removing the
617:
The PNR candidate chosen for the 1929 was a political unknown,
544:
Emilio Portes Gil, interim president of Mexico of 1928 to 1930.
394:
1000:
Meyer, Jean. "Revolution and reconstruction in the 1920s" in
975:
Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919-1936
859:, vol.4, pp. 30-31. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
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from political posts and exiling his most powerful allies:
469:
Enshrined in the ideologies of those that carried out the
613:
Pascual Ortiz Rubio, president of Mexico of 1930 to 1932.
423:(PNR), which held presidential power from 1929 to 2000.
928:. HarperCollins Publishers Inc. New York, 1997, p. 436
983:. "The rise and fall of Cardenismo, c. 1930-1946" in
727:
closeness to fascist organizations, most notably the
1022:
604:
857:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
1040:
961:Plutarco ElĂas Calles and the Mexican Revolution
722:In 1934, the PNR selected revolutionary general
687:was introduced for the first time, including a
414:but he remained the dominant figure in Mexico.
939:"Roberto Galvan: A Latino Leader of the 1940s"
664:Presidency of Abelardo L. RodrĂguez, 1932-1934
924:Krauze, Enrique. Mexico: Biography of Power.
364:
660:several anti-Callists in public functions.
911:Meyer, Michael C. and William L. Sherman,
371:
357:
977:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1961.
963:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield 2007.
770:, and finally Calles himself. Calles and
512:Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers
804:, New York: Harper Collins 1997, p. 426.
774:, one of the last remaining influential
713:
667:
608:
539:
527:
456:
27:
493:ended in 1920, he attempted to install
1041:
536:, with the colors of the Mexican flag.
926:A History of Modern Mexico, 1810-1996
676:Ortiz Rubio was succeeded by General
582:Calles took the lead in founding the
588:Partido Revolucionario Institucional
694:RodrĂguez's secretary of education
586:or PNR, the predecessor of today's
517:
13:
952:
32:Plutarco ElĂas Calles, called the
14:
1070:
1054:Institutional Revolutionary Party
945:52.3/4 (Summer/Fall 2006) p. 160.
605:Presidency of Pascual Ortiz Rubio
524:Institutional Revolutionary Party
389:was a transitional period in the
1025:
1016:Mexican Government in Transition
943:The Journal of San Diego History
915:(5th E. Oxford Univ. Press 1995)
698:tried to implement a system of "
340:
72:
997:. New York: HarperCollins 1997.
931:
584:Partido Nacional Revolucionario
534:Partido Nacional Revolucionario
420:Partido Nacional Revolucionario
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905:
883:
862:
846:
833:
820:
807:
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465:. He was assassinated in 1928.
1:
913:The Course of Mexican History
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735:, which harassed communists,
452:
1009:The Mexican Political System
685:Mexican constitution of 1917
40:leader of Mexico during the
7:
10:
1075:
995:Mexico: Biography of Power
802:Mexico: Biography of Power
733:Nicolás RodrĂguez Carrasco
521:
426:The interim presidency of
405:(the maximum leader), the
18:
1002:Mexico Since Independence
985:Mexico Since Independence
813:Calles quoted in Krauze,
268:Petroleum nationalization
16:Period of Mexican history
894:, Sixth Edition. 2001-05
391:historical and political
283:Mexican Movement of 1968
103:Viceroyalty of New Spain
19:Not to be confused with
890:Calles, Plutarco ElĂas
868:Payne, Stanley (1996).
634:Mexican Communist Party
571:to bring to an end the
161:Second Federal Republic
1059:20th century in Mexico
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709:
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630:Pedro RodrĂguez Triana
614:
545:
537:
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235:Occupation of Veracruz
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899:May 16, 2008, at the
892:Columbia Encyclopedia
841:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
772:Luis Napoleon Morones
752:Tomás Garrido Canabal
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678:Abelardo L. RodrĂguez
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612:
543:
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487:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
460:
436:Abelardo L. RodrĂguez
399:Plutarco ElĂas Calles
198:Second Mexican Empire
36:. He was seen as the
31:
870:A History of Fascism
568:José Gonzalo Escobar
320:Coronavirus pandemic
295:1982 economic crisis
148:Mexican–American War
973:Dulles, John F. W.
700:socialist education
619:Pascual Ortiz Rubio
499:Plan of Agua Prieta
491:Venustiano Carranza
479:Adolfo de la Huerta
432:Pascual Ortiz Rubio
305:Mexican peso crisis
180:French intervention
133:Centralist Republic
108:War of Independence
1049:Mexican Revolution
1007:Padgett, Vincent.
959:Buchenau, JĂĽrgen.
828:Biography of Power
815:Biography of Power
720:
674:
615:
546:
538:
504:José de León Toral
471:Mexican Revolution
467:
463:Mexican Revolution
46:
1014:Scott, Robert E.
969:978-0-7425-3749-1
937:Larralde, Carlos
764:Saturnino Cedillo
760:Emilio Portes Gil
731:, led by General
577:Escobar Rebellion
560:Emilio Portes Gil
428:Emilio Portes Gil
381:
380:
347:Mexico portal
289:La DĂ©cada Perdida
278:Mexican Dirty War
262:(1928–1934)
225:Plan of Guadalupe
219:La decena trágica
203:Restored Republic
98:Spanish-Aztec War
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1035:
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1018:, rev. ed. 1964.
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800:Enrique Krauze,
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626:José Vasconcelos
518:Creating the PNR
510:of the powerful
495:Ignacio Bonillas
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315:Mexican drug war
300:Chiapas conflict
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138:Texas Revolution
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718:Lázaro Cárdenas
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696:Narciso Bassols
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508:Luis N. Morones
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440:Lázaro Cárdenas
393:development of
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273:Mexican miracle
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411:Alvaro ObregĂłn
403:el Jefe Máximo
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872:. Routledge.
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642:death penalty
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689:minimum wage
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532:Logo of the
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446:
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310:PRI downfall
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258:
257:
240:Cristero War
217:
167:
113:First Empire
41:
37:
33:
25:
768:Aarón Sáenz
729:Gold Shirts
63:History of
34:jefe máximo
1043:Categories
839:Buchenau,
788:References
781:Mein Kampf
475:Porfiriato
453:Background
213:Revolution
175:Reform War
169:La Reforma
143:Pastry War
817:, p. 427.
776:callistas
748:callistas
653:Nicaragua
192:1864–1928
21:Maximator
897:Archived
843:, p. 152
830:, p. 426
826:Krauze,
657:Maximato
447:Maximato
407:Maximato
386:Maximato
332:Timeline
259:Maximato
54:a series
52:Part of
42:Maximato
38:de facto
1011:. 1966.
741:Chinese
632:of the
551:informe
967:
876:
485:, and
395:Mexico
252:Modern
65:Mexico
56:on the
880:p.342
965:ISBN
874:ISBN
739:and
737:Jews
445:The
383:The
710:End
651:in
1045::
993:.
941:.
784:.
766:,
762:,
758:,
754:,
743:.
644:.
579:.
481:,
372:e
365:t
358:v
44:.
23:.
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