Mexican War of Independence

3122:. In addition to declaring independence from Spain, the Morelos called for the establishment of Catholicism as the only religion (but with certain restrictions), the abolition of slavery and racial distinctions between and of all other nations," going on in point 5 to say, "sovereignty springs directly from the People." His second point makes the "Catholic Religion" the only one permissible, and that "Catholic dogma shall be sustained by the Church hierarchy" (point 4). The importance of Catholicism is further emphasized to mandate December 12, the feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe, as a day to honor her. A provision of key importance to dark-skinned plebeians (point 15) is "That slavery is proscribed forever, as well as the distinctions of caste , so that all shall be equal; and that the only distinction between one American and another shall be that between vice and virtue.". Also important for Morelos's vision of the new nation was equality before the law (point 13), rather than maintaining special courts and privileges ( 2578:. Mexican or traditional Catholicism often worshiped through the use of relics, symbols and artifacts where they believe the Holy Spirit existed in the physical form of the artifact, and was a mix of traditional indigenous forms of worship and Catholicism. This contrasted with the view of modern Catholicism that many Peninsulares shared, where God was worshiped through divine artifacts and relics, but there was no religious presence within the physical artifact. Laws prohibiting Lay preachers, a major part of Mexican Catholicism, from preaching and restrictions on villagers to engage in processions around communal land to protect from unwanted spirits caused much outcry and prompted a multitude of legal battles between indigenous groups and the colonial regime through the separate indigenous courts. Not only this, but new laws essentially forcing indigenous groups to learn Spanish in schools and the taxation of Cofradias or 3316:

forging an alliance with their former foes created a way forward to independence. If creoles had declared independence for their own political purposes without coming to terms with the insurgency in the south, then an independent Mexico would have to contend with rebels who could threaten a new nation. Iturbide initiated contact with Guerrero in January 1821, indicating he was weighing whether to abandon the royalist cause. Guerrero was receptive to listening to Iturbide's vague proposal, but was not going to commit without further clarification. Iturbide replied to Guerrero's demand for clarity, saying that he had a plan for a constitution, one apparently based on the 1812 Spanish liberal constitution. Guerrero responded that the failure of that constitution to address the grievances of many in New Spain, and particularly objected to that constitution's exclusion of

2061: 2787:, who was overthrown in 1808 by peninsular Spaniards who considered him too sympathetic to the grievances of American-born Spaniards. With the ouster of the viceroy, Allende turned against the new regime and was open to the conspiracy for independence. Hidalgo joined the conspiracy, and with Allende vouching for him rose to being one of its leaders. Word of the conspiracy got to crown officials, and the corregidor Domínguez cracked down, but his wife Josefa was able to warn Allende who then alerted Hidalgo. At this point there was no firm ideology or action plan, but the tip-off galvanized Hidalgo to action. On Sunday, 16 September 1810 with his parishioners gathered for mass, Hidalgo issued his call to arms, the 392: 227: 2557:

Atlantic world. That industry was in the hands of peninsula-born mine owners and their elite merchant investors. The crown imposed new regulations to boost their revenues from their overseas territories, particularly the consolidation of loans held by the Catholic Church. The 1804 Act of Consolidation called for borrowers to immediately repay the entire principal of the loan rather than stretch payments over decades. Borrowers were criollo land owners who could in no way repay large loans on short notice. The impact threatened the financial stability of elite Americans. The crown's forced extraction of funds is considered by some a key factor in Creoles considering political independence.

3084:). The relationship between Morelos and the Junta soured, with Morelos complaining, "Your disagreements have been of service to the enemy." Morelos was a real contrast to Hidalgo, although both were rebel priests. Both had sympathy for Mexico's downtrodden, but Morelos was of mixed-race while Hidalgo was an American-born Spaniard, so Morelos experientially understood racial discrimination in the colonial order. On more practical grounds, Morelos built an organized and disciplined military force, while Hidalgo's followers lacked arms, training, or discipline, an effective force that the royal army took seriously. Potentially Morelos could have taken the colony's second largest city, 2566:

descendants, who also occupied most government positions, and Creoles. Below this were indigenous groups, African Mexicans and mixed race Mexicans. Many Creole elites deeply resented the lack of social mobility this brought as only Peninsular-born Spaniards could occupy the highest levels of government. This contributed to their reasoning behind backing the move for independence, to achieve power. They did not wish to overthrow the status quo entirely, as this would threaten their lucrative position in Mexican society. Instead, they wished to move up the social ladder, unable to under the unspoken racial hierarchy of the regime.

307: 3611: 355: 346: 331: 322: 206: 2516:, rationalize and tighten control over the royal bureaucracy by placing peninsular-born officials rather than American-born, and increase revenues to the crown by a series of measures that undermined the economic position of American-born elites. The reforms were an attempt to revive the political and economic fortunes of the Spanish empire, but many historians see the reforms as accelerating the breakdown of its unity. This involved often removing large quantities of wealth that had been obtained in Mexico, before exporting to other parts of the empire to fund the many wars the Spanish were fighting. 3111: 2675:, France for a constitutional convention to discuss their status in the new political order. It was a shrewd political move, but none accepted the invitation. However, it became clear to the Supreme Central Junta that keeping his overseas kingdoms loyal was imperative. Silver from New Spain was vital for funding the war against France. The body expanded to include membership from Spanish America, with the explicit recognition that they were kingdoms in their own right and not colonies of Spain. Elections were set to send delegates to Spain to participate in the Supreme Central Junta. 3397: 2897: 3244:

paid and left to their own devices in territory largely controlled by insurgents. Rather than risk life and limb fighting insurgents, they avoided risky operations and stayed close to fortified garrisons. Since money to pay and supply soldiers was not forthcoming from the crown, royal forces pressed local populations for supplies. As for high officers, many saw the hopelessness of the situation and decided to make the best of it by creating what one historian has called "veritable satrapies", becoming wealthy from confiscated insurgent properties, and taxing local merchants.

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seek all employment according to their merits and virtues." For European whites, their privileged place in Mexico was to be maintained, guaranteeing their place in existing positions in government. "All branches of the government service will remain without alteration, and that all those presently employed in politics, the church, civilian business, or the military will retain the same positions held at present." Racial designations of Mexicans and distinctions between creole and peninsular Spaniards were abolished.

3290: 2975: 2913:, where one of the worst incidents of violence against Spanish civilians occurred, a month of massacres from 12 December 1810 (the Feast of the Virgin of Guadalupe) to 13 January 1811. At his trial following his capture later that year, Hidalgo admitted to ordering the murders. None "were given a trial, nor was there any reason to do so, since he knew perfectly well they were innocent." In Guadalajara, the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe suddenly disappeared from insurgents' hats and there were many desertions. 3215:. Both gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. Many did lay down their arms and received pardons, but when the opportunity arose, they often returned to the insurgency. The royal army controlled the major cities and towns, but whole swaths of the countryside were not pacified. From 1816 to 1820, the insurgency was stalemated, but not stamped out. Royalist military officer, 2828:, seized by Hidalgo from the church at Atotonilco, was symbolically important. The "dark virgin" was seen as a protector of dark-skinned Mexicans, and now seen as well as a liberator. Many men in Hidalgo's forces put the image of Guadalupe on their hats. Supporters of the imperial regime took as their patron the Virgin of Remedios, so that religious symbolism was used by both insurgents and royalists. There were a number of parish priests and other lower clergy in the insurgency, most prominently Hidalgo and 381: 372: 215: 3088:, situated halfway between the port of Veracruz and the capital, Mexico City. To avert that strategic disaster, which would have left the capital cut off from its main port, viceroy Venegas transferred Calleja from the Bajío to deal with Morelos's forces. Morelos's forces moved south and took Oaxaca, allowing him to control most of the southern region. During this period, the insurgency had reason for optimism and formulated documents declaring independence and articulating a vision for a sovereign Mexico. 451: 439: 427: 415: 403: 241: 2732:("Sentiments of the Nation") (1813). One clear point was political independence from Spain. Despite its having only a vague ideology, Hidalgo's movement demonstrated the massive discontent and power of Mexico's plebeians as an existential threat to the imperial regime. The government focused its resources on defeating Hidalgo's insurgents militarily and in tracking down and publicly executing its leadership. But by then the insurgency had spread beyond its original region and leadership. 2817: 3130: 366: 340: 316: 285: 270: 2154: 2851: 261: 186: 46: 2836:

military order and discipline, but they were few in number. The bulk of the royal army remained loyal to the imperial regime, but Hidalgo's rising had caught them unprepared and their response was delayed. Hidalgo's early victories gave the movement momentum, but "the lack of weapons, trained soldiers, and good officers meant that except in unusual circumstances the rebels could not field armies capable of fighting conventional battles against the royalists."

2700: 3304:) and the military meant that councils could put limits on taxation and many voted to cease exacting taxes to support the royalist army. Commanders lost their financial support and could no longer compel men to join militias. Militias were demobilized and men who had served outside of their native areas went home. The insurgents no longer felt the continuous pressure of the royalist military. Militia men abandoned areas where insurgents were active. 3268: 291: 196: 3578:'s bells. In the 1880s, government officials attempted to move the bell that Hidalgo rang in 1810 to gather parishioners in Dolores for what became his famous "grito". Initially the pueblo's officials said the bell no longer existed, but in 1896, the bell, known as the Bell of San José, was taken to the capital. It was renamed the "Bell of Independence" and ritually rung by Díaz. It is now an integral part of Independence Day festivities. 3092: 3625: 2422: 3165: 106: 3597: 2797: 3224: 2722:, said of Hidalgo, "Neither were his men amenable to discipline, nor was Hidalgo interested in regulations." Hidalgo issued a few important decrees in the later stage of the insurgency, but did not articulate a coherent set of goals much beyond his initial call to arms denouncing bad government. Only following Hidalgo's death in 1811 under the leadership of his former seminary student, Father 3354:, was placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the plan. The plan was so broadly based that it appealed both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together most factions. To symbolize these three guarantees of unity, religion, and independence, Iturbide adopted a green, white, and red flag; these colors are still used in the modern 2813:

acted as a cavalry under the direction of their estate foremen. Others were poorly armed Indians with bows and arrows. The numbers joining the revolt rapidly swelled under Hidalgo's leadership, they began moving beyond the village of Dolores. Despite rising tensions following the events of 1808, the royal regime was largely unprepared for the suddenness, size, and violence of the movement.

3308: 2893:. As the Hidalgo and his forces surrounded Mexico City, a group of 2,500 royalist women joined under Ana Iraeta de Mier, to create and distribute pamphlets based on their loyalty towards Spain and help fellow loyalist families. Hidalgo's forces continued to fight and achieved victory. When the cannons were captured by the rebels, the surviving Royalists retreated to the city. 3429:, which recognized Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala. O'Donojú then resigned as viceroy. The Spanish government denied that O'Donojú had the authority to sign the treaty, but events on the ground saw Iturbide and the Army of Three Guarantees march into Mexico City in triumph on 27 September 1821. The next day, the Mexican independence was proclaimed in the 3259:), had gained renown for his zeal against Hidalgo's and Morelos's rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide symbolized conservative creole values; he was devoutly religious and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges. He also resented his lack of promotion and failure to gain wealth. 2634:), who voiced Peninsular interests. Iturrigaray attempted to find a compromise between the two factions, but failed. Upon hearing the news of the Napoleonic invasion some elites suspected that Iturrigaray intended to declare the viceroyalty a sovereign state and perhaps establish himself as head of a new state. With the support of the archbishop, 2656:

and later they took up arms to achieve their goals. Garibay was of advanced years and held office for just a year, replaced by Archbishop Lizana y Beaumont, also holding office for about a year. There was a precedent for the archbishop serving as viceroy, and given that Garibay came to power by coup, the archbishop had more legitimacy as ruler.

2087:. Unlike the riot in 1624, in which elites were involved and the viceroy ousted with no repercussions against the instigators, the 1692 riot was instigated by plebeians alone and had an additional racial component. The rioters attacked key symbols of Spanish power and shouted political slogans, such as, "Kill the Spaniards and the 3433:. The Plan of Iguala and the Treaty of Córdoba had rapidly brought about an alliance of insurgents and former royalists turned autonomists resulting in the rapid achievement of independence virtually without further military conflict. Once independence was achieved, the fissures between different interests rapidly re-emerged. 3141:

document in Mexican history, since it declares Mexico an independent nation and lays out its powers as a sovereign state to make war and peace, to appoint ambassadors, and to have standing with the Papacy, rather than indirectly through the Spanish monarch. The document enshrines Roman Catholicism the sole religion.

2671:, on 25 September 1808 in Aranjuez. Its creation was a major step in the political development in the Spanish empire, once it became clear that there needed to be a central governing body rather than scattered juntas of particular regions. Joseph I of Spain had invited representatives from Spanish America to 2875:, the only special privileges for mixed-race men were eligible. Indians were excluded from the military. Royal army troops of the professional army were supplemented by local militias. The regime was determined to crush the uprising and attempted to stifle malcontents who might be drawn to the insurgency. 3553:

Although Mexico gained its independence in September 1821, the marking of this historical event did not take hold immediately. The choice of date to celebrate was problematic, because Iturbide, who achieved independence from Spain, was rapidly created Emperor of Mexico. His short-lived rule from 1821

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The question of equality for all races was a key matter for Guerrero and other insurgents, many of whom were had African ancestry. Iturbide accepted that important change. The two men negotiated about how the merging of the old insurgent forces and the former royalist army would occur. Iturbide wrote

2793:. It is unclear what Hidalgo actually said, since there are different accounts. The one which became part of the official record of accusation against Hidalgo was "Long live religion! Long live Our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live Fernando VII! Long live America and down with bad government!" 2743:

for unorthodox beliefs and speaking against the monarchy. He had already sired two daughters with Josefa Quintana. Following the death of his brother Joaquín in 1803, Hidalgo, who was having money problems due to debts on landed estates he owned, became curate of the poor parish of Dolores. He became

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The ruling white Spanish elite and the majority of the country had very different views not only in culture and religion but on the role of government and social relations, with many elites viewing the government as a tool for progressing their own power, while indigenous groups saw the government as

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and legitimacy to rule was accepted and ruled through institutions acting as mediators between competing groups, many organized as corporate entities. These were ecclesiastics, mining entrepreneurs, elite merchants, as well as indigenous communities. The crown's creation of a standing military in the

1886:. This political process had far-reaching impacts in New Spain during the independence war and beyond. Pre-existing cultural, religious, and racial divides in Mexico played a major role in not only the development of the independence movement but also the development of the conflict as it progressed. 3558:

marching into Mexico City in triumph a less than perfect day for those who had opposed him. Celebrations of independence during his reign were marked on 27 September. Following his ouster, there were calls to commemorate Mexican independence along the lines that the United States celebrated in grand

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where it was proclaimed on 24 February 1821. Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or "guarantees", for Mexican independence from Spain. Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand, another Bourbon prince or some other conservative European prince; creoles would be given equal

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From a small gathering at the Dolores church, others joined the uprising including workers on local landed estates, prisoners liberated from jail, and a few members of a royal army regiment. Many estate workers' weapons were agricultural tools now to be used against the regime. Some were mounted and

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Within the Spanish Empire there was an unofficial yet apparent racial hierarchy which affected the social mobility of those not at the top of society. White, Spanish-born Peninsulares were at the top where many occupied the highest levels of government. This was followed by Mexican-born pure Spanish

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rejected it. Guzmán articulated his objection to the plan, saying that it guaranteed the privileges of the elites, welcomed opportunists who supported independence late in the struggle, and cast doubt on the clause that was to guarantee racial equality. He focused on the final words that guaranteed

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that created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal charter reached New Spain, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the status quo and a catalyst to rouse the creole elites to gain control of Mexico. Independence was achieved when conservative Royalist forces in the colonies chose

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The period 1816–1820 is often considered a period of military stalemate, unable to delivery a knockout blow. Insurgents often settled into guerrilla warfare with some banditry, while royalist forces became increasingly demoralized. Spain sent insufficient reinforcements, although a number of senior

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is now considered the father of Mexican independence. His uprising on 16 September 1810 is considered the spark igniting the Mexican War of Independence. He inspired tens of thousands of ordinary men to follow him, but did not organize them into a disciplined fighting force or have a broad military

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as viceroy. Since he was not a crown appointee, but rather the leader of a rebel faction, creoles viewed him as an illegitimate representative of the crown. The event radicalized both sides. For creoles, it was clear that to gain power they needed to form conspiracies against Peninsular rule,

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Various indigenous rebellions in the colonial era occurred but were generally local in nature, attempting to redress perceived wrongs of immediate authorities rather than throw off crown rule more broadly. They were not a broad independence movement as such. However, during the War of Independence,

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Food shortages almost a century later, due to a growing population and severe droughts, led to two food riots in 1785 and 1808. The first riot was more severe, but both culminated in violence and anger at officials of the colonial regime. However, there is no direct link between these riots and the

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The new viceroy quickly organized a defense, sending out the Spanish general Torcuato Trujillo with 1,000 men, 400 horsemen, and two cannons—all that could be found on such short notice. The crown had established a standing military in the late eighteenth century, granting non-Spaniards who served

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To reach an accord that both sides would accept, the plan explicitly laid out the terms of equality. For people of mixed race, point 12 made explicit "All inhabitants of New Spain, without distinction to their being Europeans, Africans, or Indians, are citizens of this Monarchy with the option to

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became the monarch, initially as a constitutional ruler under the Spanish constitution of 1812, but once in power, reneged on promises to have constitutional limits on his power. Crown resources did not go toward funding the war against the insurgents, so that many expeditionary soldiers were not

2966:. He was eventually stripped of his priesthood, found guilty, and executed on 30 July 1811. The heads of Hidalgo, Allende, Aldama, and Jiménez were preserved and hung from the four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas of Guanajuato as a grim warning to those who dared follow in their footsteps. 2835:

They were not organized in any formal fashion, more of a mass movement than an army. Hidalgo inspired his followers, but did not organize or train them as a fighting force, nor impose order and discipline on them. A few militia men in uniform joined Hidalgo's movement and attempted to create some

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Despite apparently having the advantage, Hidalgo retreated, against the counsel of Allende. This retreat, on the verge of apparent victory, has puzzled historians and biographers ever since. They generally believe that Hidalgo wanted to spare the numerous Mexican citizens in Mexico City from the

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With the situation changed in part because of the Spanish Constitution, Guerrero realized that creole elites might move toward independence and exclude the insurgents. For that reason, his reaching an accommodation with the royalist army became a pragmatic move. From the royalist point of view,

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led amnestied former insurgents, pursuing insurgent leader Guadalupe Victoria. Insurgents attacked key roads, vital for commerce and imperial control, such that the crown sent a commander from Peru, Brigadier Fernando Miyares y Mancebo, to build a fortified road between the port of Veracruz and

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The Congress elected Morelos as the head of the executive branch of government, as well as supreme commander of the insurgency, coordinating its far-flung components. The formal statement by the Congress of Chilpancingo, the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence, is an important formal

3463:. Iturbide included a special clause in the treaty that left open the possibility for a criollo monarch to be appointed by a Mexican congress if no suitable member of the European royalty would accept the Mexican crown. Half of the new government employees appointed were Iturbide's followers. 3280:

Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition in 1820 coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against the autocratic

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Silver entrepreneurs and large-scale merchants also had access to special privileges. Lucrative overseas trade was in the hands of family firms based in Spain with ties to New Spain. Silver mining was the motor of the economy of New Spain, but also fueled the economies of Spain and the entire

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Warfare in the northern Bajío region waned after the capture and execution of the insurgency's creole leadership, but the insurgency had already spread to other more southern regions, to the towns of Zitácuaro, Cuautla, Antequera (now Oaxaca) towns where a new leadership had emerged. Priests

2648:), and other members of elite society in the capital, Yermo led a coup d'état against the viceroy. They stormed the Viceregal Palace in Mexico City, the night of 15 September 1808, deposing the viceroy, and imprisoning him along with some American-born Spanish members of the city council. 2538:

from Spain and the overseas empire in 1767, it had a major impact on elites in New Spain, whose Jesuit sons were sent into exile, and cultural institutions, especially universities and colleges where they taught were affected. In New Spain there were riots in protest of their expulsion.

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Iturbide persuaded royalist officers to change sides and support independence as well as the mixed race old insurgent forces. For some royalist commanders, their forces simply left, some of them amnestied former insurgents. The high military command in Mexico City deposed the viceroy,

3107:, also known as the Congress of Anáhuac. The congress brought together representatives of the insurgency together. Morelos formulated his Sentiments of the Nation, addressed to the congress. In point 1, he clearly and flatly states that "America is free and independent of Spain." 3102:

Morelos was not ambitious to become leader of the insurgency, but it was clear that he was recognized by insurgents as its supreme military commander. He moved swiftly and decisively, stripping Rayón of power, dissolving the Supreme Junta, and in 1813, Morelos convened the

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Their proposal would have created a legitimate, representative, and autonomous government in New Spain, but not necessarily breaking from the Spanish Empire. Opposition to that proposal came from conservative elements, including the peninsular-born judges of the High Court

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of 1789, with the aristocrats and the king himself losing his head in revolutionary violence. The rise of military strongman Napoleon Bonaparte brought some order within France, but the turmoil there set the stage for the black slave revolt in the French sugar colony of

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became the new viceroy, practically the whole country supported the Plan of Iguala. Most soldiers had defected to Iturbide's Army of the Three Guarantees and the Spanish cause was lost. On 24 August 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown, including the new viceroy

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On the night of 18 May 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded their commander-in-chief to accept the throne. The following day, the Congress declared Iturbide

3156:, an effective insurgent. After the dissolution of the Congress of Chilpancingo, Morelos was captured 5 November 1815, interrogated, was tried and executed by firing squad. With his death, conventional warfare ended and guerrilla warfare continued uninterrupted. 2847:. Among them were some 'forced' Royalists, creoles who had served and sided with the Spanish. By this time, the rebels numbered 30,000 and the battle was horrific. They killed more than 500 European and American Spaniards, and marched on toward Mexico City. 851: 3147:

restructured the royal army in an attempt to crush the insurgency, creating commands in Puebla, Valladolid (now Morelia), Guanajuato, and Nueva Galicia, with experienced peninsular military officers to lead them. American-born officer

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rapidly bringing about the collapse of royal government and the establishment of independent Mexico. The unexpected turn of events in Mexico was prompted by events in Spain. When Spanish liberals overthrew the autocratic rule of

2962:, who was sent to Spain to serve a life sentence in prison. Allende, Jiménez, and Aldama were executed on 26 June 1811, shot in the back as a sign of dishonor. Hidalgo, as a priest, had to undergo a civil trial and review by the 844: 4931:

Andrews, Catherine; García Martínez, Leticia Dunay (2007). "Spanish Plans for the Reconquest of Mexico and the Invasion of Tampico". In Arboleyda, Ruth; Hawthorne, John; Cisneros, Gerardo Lara; Castilla, Gustavo Ramirez (eds.).

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carried on the insurgency on a different basis, organizing their forces, using guerrilla tactics, and importantly for the insurgency, creating organizations and creating written documents that articulated the insurgents' goals.

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Religious tension is arguably one of the biggest contributions to tension before the French invasion of Spain in 1808. Many Creoles, Mexican Spaniards and the majority of indigenous, mixed and African groups in Mexico practiced

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Although in the Spanish Empire there was not an ongoing tradition of high level representative government, found in Britain and British North America, towns in Spain and New Spain had elected representative ruling bodies, the

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rights "according to their merits and virtues". Álvarez, Ascencio and Guzmán declined to join the Army of the Three Guarantees, the military force created by Iturbide and Guerrero, but did continue to fight the royalists.

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Sánchez Gómez, Dolores del Mar. "El Virrey Miguel José de Azanza y la conspiración de los machetes¿ primer intento de independencia mexicana?." Una crisis atlántica: España, América, y los acontecimientos de 1808 (1808):

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inevitable sacking and plunder that would have ensued. His retreat is considered Hidalgo's greatest tactical error and his failure to act "was the beginning of his downfall." Hidalgo moved west and set up headquarters in

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on 16 September 1810. The revolt was massive and not well organized. Hidalgo was captured by royalist forces, defrocked from the priesthood, and executed in July 1811. The second phase of the insurgency was led by Father

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was declared the monarch. This turn of events set off a crisis of legitimacy. Viceroy Iturrigaray had been appointed by Charles IV, so his legitimacy to rule was not in doubt. In Mexico City, the city council

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With the execution of Morelos in 1815, Vicente Guerrero emerged as the most important leader of the insurgency. From 1815 to 1821, most of the fighting for independence from Spain was by guerrilla forces in the

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There is evidence that even from an early period in post-conquest Mexican history, some began articulating the idea of a separate Mexican identity, though at the time this would have occurred only among elite

5086: 2691:, which came to play an important political role when the legitimate Spanish monarch was ousted in 1808. The successful 1809 elections in Mexico City for delegates to be sent to Spain had some precedents. 495: 3018:, Coahuila with 3,500 men and 22 cannons. When he heard of the capture of the insurgent leaders, he fled south on 26 March 1811 to continue the fight. He subsequently fought the Spanish in the battles of 2940:). When the insurgents adopted the tactics of guerrilla warfare and operated where it was effective, such as in the hot country of southern Mexico, they were able to undermine the royalist army. Around 640: 1923:

in 1820, conservatives in New Spain saw political independence as a way to maintain their position. The unified military force entered Mexico City in triumph in September 1821 and the Spanish viceroy

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The growing insurgent force marched through towns including San Miguel el Grande and Celaya, where they met little resistance, and gained more followers. When they reached the town of Guanajuato on

3811: 3570:(1876–1911), the president's birthday coincided with the 15/16 September celebration of independence. The largest celebrations took place and continue to do so in the capital's main square, the 5067: 2542:

Colonial rule was not based on outright coercion, until the early nineteenth century, since the crown did not have sufficient personnel and firepower to enforce its rule. Rather, the crown's

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and its most valuable overseas possession, but events in Spain had a direct impact on the outbreak of the armed insurgency in 1810 and the course of warfare through the end of the conflict.

2771:, a captain in the regiment of Dragoons in New Spain, who was also among the conspirators. The "Conspiracy of Querétaro" began forming cells in other Spanish cities in the north, including 2547:

1780s began to shift the political calculus since the crown could now use an armed force to impose rule. To aid building a standing military, the crown created set of corporate privileges (

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The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. The viceroy was the "king's living image" in New Spain. In 1808 viceroy

883: 3563:, organized celebrations of both 16 September, to commemorate Hidalgo's grito and the start of the independence insurgency, and 27 September, to celebrate actual political independence. 923: 3300:

The royalist army was demoralized and the insurgents were unable to oust them. With the re-imposition of the Spanish Constitution, the relationship between newly elected town councils (

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against the Spanish crown and proclaim Mexican independence. The man seeking to bring about independendence called himself Don Guillén Lampart y Guzmán, an Irishman with the birthname

614: 3119: 1876:. That constitution sought to create a new governing framework in the absence of the legitimate Spanish monarch. It tried to accommodate the aspirations of American-born Spaniards ( 488: 5140:

Archer, Christon I. (1 January 1994). "Insurrection – Reaction – Revolution – Fragmentation: Reconstructing the Choreography of Meltdown in New Spain during the Independence Era".

2526:) from ecclesiastics that had a disproportionate impact on American-born priests, who filled the ranks of the lower clergy in New Spain. A number of parish priests, most famously 991: 933: 913: 3350:

After convincing his troops to accept the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of this conservative independence movement. A new army, the

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to 1823 ended when he was forced by the military to abdicate. This was a rocky start for the new nation, which made celebrating independence on the anniversary of Iturbide's

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Jalapa, the first major stopping point on the way to Mexico City. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos.

2756:, known now as "La Corregidora". Instead the members discussed the possibility of a popular rising, similar to one that already had recently been quashed in Valladolid (now 908: 534: 8731: 2955:

for a time successfully combined insurgency with banditry. With the capture of Hidalgo and the creole leadership in the north, this phase of the insurgency was at an end.

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Although the alliance of Iturbide and Guerrero resulted in the Plan of Iguala, there was not universal acclaim of the accord. A number of important insurgents, including

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Leading up to the crisis in 1808 both Creole and Mexican-born Spaniards, and indigenous and mixed groups had come to dislike the colonial regime for different reasons.

2034:! Arrest the viceroy!" The attack was specifically against Gelves, seen as a bad representative of the crown, rather than against the monarchy or colonial rule itself. 953: 781: 1062: 419: 5582:

Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles.

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Plans were drawn up for the commemoration of independence in 2021, as well as the establishment of the Mexican republic in 2024. The 2021 event was termed the

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The religious character of the movement was present from the beginning, embodied in leadership of the priest, Hidalgo. The movement's banner with image of the

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emerging as a leader. Neither royalists nor insurgents gained the upper hand, with military stalemate continuing until 1821, when former royalist commander

1257: 1142: 984: 549: 3377: 6870: 5743: 928: 3806: 2924:, forcing the rebels to flee north towards the United States, perhaps hoping they would attain financial and military support. They were intercepted by 2109:

independence movement of 1810, although the 1808–1809 food shortage may have been a contributory factor for popular resentment at the political regime.

7881: 6796: 2668: 2614:), a stronghold of American-born Spaniards, began promoting ideas of autonomy for New Spain, and declaring New Spain to be on an equal basis to Spain. 1087: 569: 554: 3534:

of Iturbide, the template for the modern Mexican flag with the eagle perched on a cactus. The crown on the eagle's head symbolizes monarchy in Mexico.

3136:

the day of the signing of Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America. Morelos is standing at far right, with the white kerchief

2945: 8799: 6298: 4755:

Archer, Christon I. (1 August 2008). "Royalist Scourge or Liberator of the Patria? Agustín de Iturbide and Mexico's War of Independence, 1810–1821".

2015: 141: 5064: 3638: 3366: 1683: 8346: 4983: 2832:, but the Church hierarchy was flatly opposed. Insurgents were excommunicated by the clergy and clerics preached sermons against the insurgency. 977: 888: 7841: 3830: 1262: 1979:

circles. Despite these murmurings of independence, serious challenges to Spanish imperial power before 1810 were rare and relatively isolated.

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On 27 September 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the

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Curcio-Nagy, Linda A. (1996). "Native Icon to City Protectress to Royal Patroness: Ritual, Political Symbolism and the Virgin of Remedies".

3550:. The creation of this architectural monument is part of the long process of the construction of historical memory of Mexican independence. 2553:) for the military. For the first time, mixed-race castas and blacks had access to corporate privileges, usually reserved for white elites. 2022:

from which the elites profited and curtail opulent displays of clerical power. The viceroy was removed following an urban religious riot of

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issues at the local level in these rural areas were so widespread as to constitute what some historians have called "the other rebellion".

5480:"The Revolution in Mexican Independence: Insurgency and the Renegotiation of Property, Production, and Patriarchy in the Bajío, 1800–1855" 2116:

Finally, before the events of 1808 upended the political situation in New Spain, there was an isolated and abortive 1799 event called the

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that put Spanish authority at risk. Punishment was swift and brutal, and no further riots in the capital challenged the Pax Hispanica."

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that Mexico did not get control of until 23 November 1825. Spanish attempts to re-establish control over Mexico culminated in the 1829

1571: 1519: 5408:"We are Now the True Spaniards": Sovereignty, Revolution, Independence, and the Emergence of the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1808–1824 5084:"Historiadores se reunen con miras al bicentenario de la consumación de la independencia en 2021". INAH, Gobierno de México.2019/09/10 3072:

pursued successful military engagements, accepting the authority of the Supreme Junta. After winning victories and taking the port of

1833:

in Mexico City on September 28, 1821, following the collapse of royal government and the military triumph of forces for independence.

1825:. It was not a single, coherent event, but local and regional struggles that occurred within the same period, and can be considered a 8843: 6261: 3286:

to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it was an about-face compared to their previous opposition to the peasant insurgency.

8711: 7815: 6493: 1576: 1467: 3080:. The Junta failed to send aid to Morelos. Morelos's troops held out and broke out of the siege, going on to take Antequera, (now 3010:

Following the execution of Hidalgo and other insurgents, leadership of the remaining insurgent movement initially coalesced under

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was appointed viceroy and landed in Veracruz in August, reaching Mexico City 14 September 1810. The next day, Hidalgo issued his

2060: 1152: 2374: 1551: 6420: 6175: 6044: 6933: 4638: 8569: 6680: 6308: 5547: 5456: 5427: 5401: 5376: 5313: 4903: 4864: 4806: 4739: 4551: 4281: 4129: 3870: 3778: 3668: 3575: 2635: 1623: 1586: 1462: 829: 37: 7531: 7400: 7027: 7023: 5574: 2863: 2840: 529: 8883: 8664: 8659: 8027: 7433: 7076: 6529: 5708: 5673: 4097:[The Consolidation of Vales Reales as a determining factor in the struggle for independence in Mexico, 1804–1808]. 3648: 3484: 3430: 2314: 2259: 2177: 1951: 1830: 1710: 1693: 1618: 1177: 1107: 8726: 7846: 6137: 6022: 5132: 3559:

style its Independence Day on 4 July. The creation of a committee of powerful men to mark independence celebrations, the

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In 1692, there was a major riot in Mexico City, where a plebeian mob attempted to burn down the viceroy's palace and the

1534: 1472: 1162: 6715: 3501: 1252: 147: 8493: 7810: 7746: 7468: 7448: 6923: 6655: 6618: 6039: 5948: 5656: 5512:

Van Young, Eric (1988). "Islands in the Storm: Quiet Cities and Violent Countrysides in the Mexican Independence Era".

2928:, who pretended to join the fleeing insurgent forces. Hidalgo and his remaining soldiers were captured in the state of 2735:

Hidalgo was a learned priest who knew multiple languages, had a significant library, and was friends with men who held

1700: 8858: 7962: 1052: 8559: 8468: 7866: 7410: 6963: 6593: 5870: 5758: 5698: 5121: 4960: 4585: 2240: 2094: 2030:, was reported to have shouted, "Long live the King! Long live Christ! Death to bad government! Death to the heretic 1678: 1606: 1403: 1272: 1057: 1035: 808: 756: 8759: 7443: 6927: 6705: 6446: 5865: 5840: 5620: 3688: 3144: 2920:, were becoming more effective against disorganized and poorly armed of Hidalgo, defeating them at a bridge on the 2917: 2389: 2093:

who eat our corn! We go to war happily! God wants us to finish off the Spaniards! We do not care if we die without

1408: 1277: 1117: 1082: 8135: 8070: 3054:(Supreme National Governing Junta of America), which claimed legitimacy to lead the insurgency. Rayón articulated 8696: 8488: 8275: 8075: 7624: 7559: 7145: 7047: 6363: 5958: 5897: 4331:

Krauze, Enrique. Mexico, Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico 1810–1996. HarperCollins: New York, 1997.

3340: 3076:, then the towns Tixtla, Izúcar, and Taxco, Morelos was besieged for 72 days by royalist troops under Calleja at 2866:

all the Spaniards who went thinking it was a safe refuge. After his execution, Hidalgo's head hung on one corner.

2443: 1902:, who was captured by royalist forces and executed in 1815. The insurgency devolved into guerrilla warfare, with 1514: 1237: 1212: 1197: 1132: 1067: 701: 8614: 8130: 7574: 7458: 1025: 8893: 8716: 8654: 8453: 7871: 7584: 7564: 7536: 7453: 7428: 7288: 7096: 7003: 6943: 6910: 6107: 5835: 2889:

while en route to Mexico City and on 30 October, Hidalgo's army encountered Spanish military resistance at the

2753: 2740: 1688: 1668: 1187: 1020: 625: 8679: 8508: 8265: 3216: 3181: 3019: 1581: 1359: 1147: 681: 384: 8831: 8809: 8764: 8706: 8684: 8498: 8270: 7952: 7741: 7726: 6811: 6675: 6628: 6170: 6075: 5830: 5678: 4095:"La Consolidación de Vales Reales como factor determinante de la lucha de independencia en México, 1804–1808" 3643: 2890: 2212: 1987: 1633: 1596: 1591: 1442: 1432: 1418: 1413: 1374: 1227: 1127: 1072: 544: 8060: 736: 8701: 8669: 8200: 8065: 7501: 6881: 6690: 6486: 6378: 6276: 6180: 6160: 5980: 5963: 5860: 5065:

Emiliano Hernández Camargo, "Bicentenario de la independencia y la república". El Sol de Durango 2019/04/25

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In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy

1915: 1873: 1826: 1663: 1653: 1628: 1423: 1157: 1137: 218: 62: 8689: 8022: 5051:

Michael Costeloe, "The Junta Patriótica and the Celebration of Independence in Mexico City, 1825–1855" in

4952:

Fechas históricas de México: las efemérides más destacadas desde la época prehispánica hasta nuestros días

3118:

On 6 November of that year, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the

2728: 2512:. With the reforms the crown sought to increase the power of the Spanish state, decrease the power of the 1364: 604: 8674: 8574: 8205: 7657: 7589: 6558: 6085: 5985: 5912: 5600: 4297:

Peterson, Jeanette Favrot (December 1992). "The Virgin of Guadalupe: Symbol of Conquest or Liberation?".

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views. He held the important position of rector of the Seminary of San Nicolás, but had run afoul of the

2411: 2399: 1947: 1673: 1332: 1122: 1077: 741: 8125: 8032: 5183:

Benson, Nettie (1 February 2004). "The Elections of 1809: Transforming Political Culture in New Spain".

2080: 2064: 8609: 7972: 7619: 7506: 7418: 7390: 7017: 6987: 6792: 6623: 6388: 6209: 6100: 6090: 5763: 5718: 4676:

Morelos, José María. "Sentiments of the Nation, or Points Outlined by Morelos for the Constitution" in

3196:) in April, in 1817 and fought for seven months until his capture by royalist forces in November 1817. 3023: 2436: 2282: 2133: 2117: 1658: 1601: 1566: 1499: 1379: 686: 7992: 7947: 4990: 4490: 2901: 2855: 2844: 473: 8528: 8478: 8336: 8235: 7731: 7604: 7569: 7521: 7423: 7035: 6919: 6608: 6578: 6573: 6293: 6012: 5995: 5917: 5850: 4094: 3993:

The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence, 1810–1821

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In 1910, as part of the celebrations marking the centennial of the Hidalgo revolt of 1810, President

2820:

Towns on the route of Hidalgo's campaign and the regions where the insurgency took hold in 1810–1811.

2714: 2703: 2571: 2347: 1890: 1745: 1715: 1539: 1349: 1327: 1312: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1267: 1192: 1112: 1092: 54: 7153: 5579: 2950: 8888: 8473: 8356: 8316: 8255: 8250: 8190: 7609: 7599: 7385: 7088: 6999: 6700: 6195: 6190: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5824: 5815: 5693: 5016: 3494: 3133: 3104: 3041: 3011: 3003: 2878: 2718:

strategy, but he did want to destroy the old order. Fellow insurgent leader and second in command,

2657: 2362: 2227: 1955: 1772: 1638: 1561: 1509: 1398: 1287: 1282: 1217: 1182: 1167: 798: 793: 407: 294: 245: 163: 8853: 7932: 7165: 6685: 5444: 1817:, 16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821) was an armed conflict and political process resulting in 306: 8523: 8381: 8225: 8165: 8115: 8017: 7614: 7579: 7526: 7161: 7031: 6995: 6725: 6598: 6583: 6479: 6266: 6127: 5855: 5663: 4457: 3504:, signed in Madrid by the Mexican Commissioner Miguel Santa María and the Spanish state minister 3069: 3056: 2987: 2979: 2829: 2748:. They met under the guise of being a literary society, supported by the wife of crown official ( 2723: 2531: 1899: 1740: 1556: 1482: 1222: 766: 310: 58: 7716: 5723: 3508:. Mexico was the first former colony whose independence was recognized by Spain; the second was 3068:. The Supreme Junta generated a flood of detailed regulations and orders. On the ground, Father 2707: 2601:(1803–1808) was in office when Napoleon's forces invaded Iberia and deposed the Spanish monarch 803: 8814: 8386: 8321: 7825: 7711: 7594: 7554: 7198: 6991: 6650: 6640: 6331: 6236: 6142: 6132: 5990: 5970: 5668: 5593: 5325:"Royalist Counterinsurgency and the Continuity of Rebellion: Guanajuato and Michoacán, 1813–20" 3240: 3185: 3110: 3061: 2761: 2534:, subsequently became involved in the insurgency for independence. When the crown expelled the 2471:

destabilized not only Spain but also Spain's overseas possessions. In 1776, the Anglo-American

2205: 2153: 1943: 1920: 1857: 1524: 1437: 1388: 1344: 1097: 958: 771: 396: 354: 345: 330: 321: 205: 7957: 5366: 5017:"Historia, arquitectura y nación bajo el Régimen de Porfirio Díaz. Ciudad de México 1876–1910" 4950: 4893: 4854: 4796: 4731: 3442: 3401: 3252: 3149: 3031: 2784: 2622: 2598: 1939: 1907: 1889:

The conflict had several phases. The first uprising for independence was led by parish priest

1836:

Mexican independence from Spain was not an inevitable outcome of the relationship between the

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Brewster, Claire (2005). "Women and the Spanish-American Wars of Independence: An Overview".

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From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico : Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750–1940

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Despite the creation of the Mexican nation, the Spanish still managed to hold onto a port in

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successfully gained their independence in 1783, with the help of both the Spanish Empire and

2277: 2054: 1882:) for more local control and equal standing with Peninsular-born Spaniards, known locally as 1750: 1504: 691: 358: 8794: 8195: 7982: 7942: 7901: 6875: 4265: 3382: 2037:

In 1642, there was a brief conspiracy to unite American-born Spaniards, blacks, Indians and

813: 8769: 8438: 8401: 8391: 8331: 8230: 8210: 8105: 7917: 7736: 6613: 6603: 6415: 6251: 6226: 6221: 6112: 6017: 5651: 5636: 3663: 3616: 3531: 3497:, during which a Spanish invasion force was surrounded in Tampico and forced to surrender. 3452: 3446: 3272: 3060:, which states that "Sovereignty arises directly from the people, resides in the person of 2958:

The captured rebel leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death, except for

2805: 2736: 2192: 2162: 2097:! Is this not our land?" The viceroy attempted to address the cause of the riot, a hike in 1963: 1935: 1755: 1705: 1232: 938: 721: 134: 70: 8295: 8085: 8007: 5773: 5533:

The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle for Independence

3850:

The First America: The Spanish Monarchy, Creole Patriots, and the Liberal State, 1492–1867

3426: 2368: 1928: 1848:

in 1808 touched off a crisis of legitimacy of crown rule, since he had placed his brother

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Image of women participating in Mexican Independence Day celebrations, Los Angeles, 1935.

3683: 3180:(hot country) of southern Mexico and to a certain extent in northern New Spain. In 1816, 3027: 2825: 2602: 2476: 2384: 1853: 1720: 1494: 1457: 1452: 1447: 1317: 1102: 1040: 716: 696: 74: 8584: 8285: 3422: 3417: 2667:

Immediately after the Mexico City coup ousting Iturrigaray, juntas in Spain created the

2592: 1924: 731: 455: 209: 167: 8599: 8589: 8564: 8518: 8483: 8341: 8050: 7927: 7800: 7298: 7278: 6938: 6826: 6553: 6398: 6373: 5936: 5922: 5738: 5517: 5472:

From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence, 1750–1940

5433: 5346: 5283: 5157: 5110: 4438: 4430: 4366: 4358: 4163:

The King's Living Image: The Culture and Politics of Viceregal Power in Colonial Mexico

3200: 3152:

was part of this royalist leadership. Brigadier Ciriaco de Llano captured and executed

3037: 2999: 2493: 2292: 2011:

Another challenge to crown authority occurred in 1624 when elites ousted the reformist

2005: 1792: 1393: 1369: 1354: 818: 788: 746: 349: 20: 7922: 7851: 3526: 1869: 8779: 8721: 8554: 8326: 8300: 8290: 8280: 8215: 8170: 8100: 8080: 8055: 8002: 7977: 7242: 6769: 6710: 6665: 6524: 6439: 6323: 6303: 6288: 6185: 6117: 6058: 6032: 5845: 5820: 5810: 5628: 5561:

Vagrants and citizens: Politics and the Masses in Mexico City from Colony to Republic

5543: 5452: 5423: 5397: 5372: 5309: 5117: 5034: 4956: 4899: 4860: 4802: 4735: 4724: 4581: 4547: 4442: 4370: 4277: 4200: 4125: 3941: 3866: 3774: 3471:. On 31 October 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic 3468: 3153: 3095: 3050: 2991: 2941: 2859: 2783:, now named after Allende. Allende had served in a royal regiment during the rule of 2776: 2484: 2472: 2464: 2357: 2304: 2142: 1735: 1730: 1643: 1202: 751: 334: 6800: 2933: 2921: 2745: 1247: 8411: 8406: 8371: 8351: 8110: 7987: 7886: 7790: 7252: 7092: 6341: 6095: 5788: 5783: 5683: 5491: 5336: 5275: 5217: 5192: 5149: 5055:, eds. William H. Beezley and David E. Lorey. Wilmington: SR Books 2001, pp. 44–45. 5024: 4764: 4635: 4422: 4350: 4310: 4306: 3933: 3460: 3212: 3208: 3168: 3077: 2995: 2925: 2652: 2639: 2617: 2606: 2535: 2394: 2379: 2217: 1903: 1861: 1849: 1242: 1030: 776: 726: 325: 78: 66: 8789: 6821: 5130:

Anna, Timonty E. "The Army of New Spain and the Wars of Independence, 1790–1821".

5029: 3539: 3343:

would retain its privileges and position as the established religion of the land.

1856:. In Spain and many of its overseas possessions, the local response was to set up 200: 8854:

Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)

8604: 8544: 8458: 8366: 8240: 8220: 8185: 7967: 7937: 7876: 7486: 7476: 7372: 7257: 7149: 7106: 6866: 6774: 6645: 6455: 6410: 6393: 6383: 6346: 6281: 6231: 5768: 5506:

Mexico City, 1808: Power, Sovereignty, and Silver in an Age of War and Revolution

5248:. Translated by Jaime E. Rodríguez O. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1974. 5090: 5071: 4933: 4642: 4204: 4106: 3834: 3815: 3547: 2974: 2959: 2768: 2719: 2575: 2513: 2509: 2352: 2298: 2042: 2027: 1959: 1760: 1546: 1322: 298: 279: 275: 190: 8513: 4426: 4318: 4042:

Magistrates of the Sacred: Priests and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico

3926:"Brave New Spain: An Irishman's Independence Plot in Seventeenth-Century Mexico" 3362: 3320:

from citizenship, while according it to European whites, Indians, and mestizos.

655: 8448: 8361: 8245: 7997: 7820: 7805: 7706: 7680: 7665: 7546: 7141: 7135: 7039: 6806: 6720: 6670: 6548: 6502: 6080: 5902: 5528: 5246:

Counterrevolution: The Role of Spaniards in the Independence of Mexico, 1804–38

4768: 4680:, ed. Gilbert M. Joseph et al. Durham: Duke University Press 2002, pp. 189–191. 4580:] (in Spanish) (6th ed.). Mexico City: Editorial Porrua. p. 358. 3989: 3678: 3355: 3325: 3289: 3126:) to particular groups, such as churchmen, miners, merchants, and the military. 2789: 2661: 2527: 2489: 2468: 2309: 1976: 1911: 1894: 1878: 1845: 1837: 1822: 1725: 1001: 380: 371: 264: 232: 214: 6953: 5496: 5479: 5437: 5222: 5205: 8877: 8012: 6862: 6779: 6588: 6460: 6313: 6007: 5341: 5324: 5266:

Hamill, Hugh M. (1961). "Early Psychological Warfare in the Hidalgo Revolt".

5258:

Guedea, Virginia. "The First Popular Elections in Mexico City, 1812–1813" in

5196: 5038: 3945: 3846: 3630: 3317: 3255:, to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid (now 3228: 3204: 3085: 2726:, was a document created that made explicit the goals of the insurgency, the 2579: 2426: 2102: 1777: 1529: 1477: 1292: 969: 365: 339: 315: 284: 269: 4386:

Guedea, Virginia. "The Old Colonialism Ends, the New Colonialism Begins" in

1868:—a small corner of the Iberian Peninsula still under Spanish control—as the 8784: 8774: 8503: 8042: 7896: 7721: 7237: 7013: 6695: 6543: 6351: 6152: 5748: 3937: 3602: 3500:

On 28 December 1836, Spain recognized the independence of Mexico under the

3459:

was henceforth to be called. The Treaty of Córdoba was not ratified by the

3239:

officers arrived. By 1814, the Peninsular War against Napoleon was won and

3129: 2687: 2681: 2319: 2019: 1883: 8095: 3542:

inaugurated the monument to Mexico's political separation from Spain, the

3281:

monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to reinstate the liberal

2882: 2850: 2816: 2053:. Today, there is a statue of Lamport in the mausoleum at the base of the 1982:

One early challenge to crown authority came after the introduction of the

1852:

on the Spanish throne after forcing the abdication of the Spanish monarch

7685: 7511: 7080: 6958: 6336: 3335: 3311:

A representation of mestizos in a "Caste Painting" from the colonial era.

3081: 2963: 2910: 2071:, showing damage of the viceroy's palace by the 1692 rioters (top right). 2046: 2031: 2023: 1797: 7675: 4259: 4257: 4203:. "The Elections of 1809: Transforming Political Culture in New Spain." 2089: 2026:

commoners in 1624 stirred up by the elites. The crowd, which was mostly

1996:

were to be ended following the deaths of the current grant holders. The

260: 185: 45: 8549: 7283: 6563: 5733: 5728: 5703: 5688: 5350: 5287: 5161: 4544:

History of Mexico: Her Civil Wars and Colonial and Revolutionary Annals

4434: 4362: 3925: 3881: 3567: 3193: 2699: 2497: 2287: 2254: 2248: 2222: 2076: 1992: 1934:

Following independence, the mainland of New Spain was organized as the

1207: 1172: 503: 5554:

The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero, First Black Indian President of Mexico

5521: 3412:

in July 1821, replacing him with an interim viceroy, royalist general

3267: 290: 195: 7516: 7273: 7173: 6948: 6850: 6784: 5641: 5239:

Insurrection or Loyalty: the Breakdown of the Spanish American Empire

4783:

The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero, Mexico's First Black Indian President

4254: 3673: 3456: 2886: 2644: 2593:

French invasion of Spain and political crisis in New Spain, 1808–1809

2480: 2182: 5279: 5153: 4354: 3571: 3091: 2508:

Tensions in New Spain were growing after the mid-eighteenth-century

2120:, perpetrated by a small group in Mexico City seeking independence. 2101:

prices that affected the urban poor. But the 1692 riot "represented

7690: 6568: 6271: 5753: 5177:!Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of 16 September 3490: 3164: 3073: 3015: 2969: 2929: 2804:

carried by Hidalgo and his insurgent militia. Liberal bishop-elect

2582:

negatively affected the literacy and living standards in villages.

2543: 2337: 2050: 1983: 1841: 1787: 5585: 5262:. Jaime E. Rodríguez O., ed. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources 1993. 5053:!Viva Mexico! !Viva la Independencia! Celebrations of 16 September 3828:

http://pares.mcu.es/Bicentenarios/portal/reconocimientoEspana.html

2843:, they found Spanish forces barricaded inside the public granary, 2045:. Lamport's conspiracy was discovered, and he was arrested by the 1865: 8848: 8819: 7329: 7314: 6471: 4274:

Viva Mexico! Viva la Independencia!: Celebrations of September 16

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Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America

2757: 2672: 2012: 1782: 2625:, overthrown in a coup d'état by peninsular conspirators in 1808 146:

Spain would not recognize Mexican independence until signing of

7785: 7339: 7334: 7111: 5616: 4144:

Professor Benjamin T. Smith, University of Warwick, Lecture on

3658: 3329: 3188:, joined the independence movement. Mina and 300 men landed at 3159: 3123: 2772: 1818: 111: 3014:, a civilian lawyer and businessman. He had been stationed in 2796: 2744:

member of a group of well-educated American-born Spaniards in

1942:. This ephemeral constitutional monarchy was overthrown and a 8826: 7100: 6764: 5451:. Los Angeles: UCLA Latin American Center Publications 1989. 5449:

The Independence of Mexico and the Creation of the New Nation

4935:

People, Places and Conflicts in Northeastern Mexico and Texas

3391: 3262: 3223: 2549: 2521: 2098: 2038: 450: 438: 426: 414: 402: 240: 7169: 7084: 5253:

Con el cura Hidalgo en la guerra de independencia en México

3044:, royalist military commander and then viceroy of New Spain 2560: 7062: 3863:

Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America

3751:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 147–186. 3307: 2808:

denounced the insurgents' use of her image as a sacrilege.

5540:

Stormy Passage: Mexico from Colony to Republic, 1750–1850

4785:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 2002, 123–127. 4263: 2123: 3171:, mixed-race leader of the insurgency in southern Mexico 5464:

Morelos of Mexico: Priest, Soldier, Statesman of Mexico

4266:"Images of Independence in the Nineteenth Century: The 3899:

Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610–1670

3478: 3436: 4930: 3522:

Celebration of Mexican political anniversaries in 2010

6817:

Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France

4571: 4486:

Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence

4018:. New Haven: Yale University Press 1996, pp. 147–152. 3211:

in the village of Tixla, in what is now the state of

2503: 1864:. Delegates in Spain and overseas territories met in 5389:. Mexico City: Secretaría de Educación Pública 1973. 4721: 4264:

Fernández Tejedo, Isabel; Nava Nava, Carmen (2001).

4148:

speaking at University of Warwick 21 October 2021. (

3592: 2008:, who was exiled, with other conspirators executed. 16:

Armed conflict which ended Spanish rule of New Spain

5508:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2018. 5297:

The Hidalgo Revolt: Prelude to Mexican Independence

4856:

The History of Mexico: From Pre-Conquest to Present

4399:Archer, Christon. "Military: Bourbon New Spain" in 4070:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1977. 3184:, a Spanish military leader who had fought against 2900:On 28 September 1810, Hidalgo led the siege of the 5109: 4891: 4723: 4272:. In Beezley, William H.; Lorey, David E. (eds.). 5179:. Wilmington DL: Scholarly Resources Books 2001. 4984:"Tratado Definitivo de Paz entre Mexico y España" 4794: 4390:. New York: Oxford University Press 2000, p. 289. 4229:Guedea, Virginia. "Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla" in 3431:Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire 2483:'s French monarchy. Louis XVI was toppled in the 2016:Diego Carrillo de Mendoza, 1st Marquess of Gelves 1969: 1831:Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire 142:Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire 8875: 5556:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 2001. 4843:Guedea, "The Old Colonialism Ends", pp. 298–299. 4636:http://www.lhistoria.com/mexico/sitio-de-cuautla 4476: 4207:/Estudios Mexicanos, Feb. 2004, vol. 20(1). 1–20 4083:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press 1957. 4016:The Americas in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1850 3797:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 1595–1601. 3639:Afro-Mexicans in the Mexican War of Independence 2970:Insurgency in the South under Morelos, 1811–1815 2694: 7361: 5420:Political Culture in Spanish America, 1500–1830 5306:Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions, 1750–1824 5255:. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1982. 4955:(in Spanish). Panorama Editorial. p. 128. 4489:. Woodstock: The Overlook Press. Archived from 3818:, Monografias, 1996; accessed 21 December 2018. 3793:Archer, Christon I. "Wars of Independence" in 3276:, Guerrero and Iturbide form an alliance, 1821. 1966:recognized the independence of Mexico in 1836. 5396:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1998. 5359:Roots of Insurgency: Mexican Regions 1750–1824 4948: 4852: 4708: 4706: 4704: 4667:Archer, "Wars of Independence", pp. 1597–1598. 4178:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 637–638. 4029:Crown and Clergy in Colonial Mexico, 1759–1821 2467:was already underway when the 1808 Napoleonic 1540:Banda Oriental and Rio Grande do Sul (1762–63) 999: 870:Resistance and Consummation Phases (1815–1821) 7006:, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon) 6487: 5601: 5474:. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1986. 5387:Génesis del gobierno constitucional en México 5361:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1986. 5260:the Evolution of the Mexican Political System 5175:Beezley, William H. and David E. Lorey, eds. 4600:Archer, "Military: Bourton New Spain", p. 904 4482: 3852:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991. 2669:Supreme Central Junta of Spain and the Indies 2444: 2049:in 1642 and executed fifteen years later for 1530:Iberian Peninsula and South America (1762–63) 985: 845: 641: 489: 6681:Independence of Spanish continental Americas 5413: 5364: 4609:Archer, Christon. "Wars of Independence" in 4044:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1996. 3160:Insurgency under Vicente Guerrero, 1815–1820 2881:joined Hidalgo's forces whilst passing near 94:(11 years, 1 week and 4 days) 6138:North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) 5535:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001. 5416:"The Nature of Representation in New Spain" 5410:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2012. 5299:. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. 5241:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1980. 5112:The Fall of Royal Government in Mexico City 4701: 4689:Guedea, "The Old Colonialism Ends", p. 291. 4340: 4276:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 1–41. 4081:The "Fuero Militar" in New Spain, 1764–1800 3995:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001. 2500:and gained independence for Haiti in 1804. 6494: 6480: 5608: 5594: 5542:. Lanham MD: Rowman and Littlefield 2022. 4801:. Taylor & Francis. pp. 308–309. 4613:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 1597. 4567: 4565: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4464:(in Spanish). Real Academia de la Historia 3392:Collapse of imperial rule and independence 3263:Guerrero, Iturbide, and the Plan of Iguala 3048:In an important step, Rayón organized the 2710:, Jalisco Governmental Palace, Guadalajara 2451: 2437: 992: 978: 852: 838: 648: 634: 496: 482: 8800:Colonial universities in Hispanic America 5511: 5495: 5340: 5234:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1966. 5221: 5116:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 5028: 5014: 4898:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 220. 4251:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 638. 4233:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 641. 1946:was declared in 1823 and codified in the 1910:made an alliance with Guerrero under the 1829:. It culminated with the drafting of the 65:in Mexico City, Mural of independence by 8805:Colonial universities in the Philippines 5206:"The Contested Mexican Election of 1812" 4834:Archer, "Wars of Independence", p. 1600. 4412: 4296: 3525: 3395: 3306: 3288: 3266: 3222: 3203:(born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) in 3163: 3128: 3109: 3090: 3036: 2973: 2895: 2849: 2815: 2795: 2698: 2616: 2574:while the ruling Peninsulares preferred 2561:Religious, racial, and cultural tensions 2059: 7796:Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia 5466:. El Paso: Texas Western College Press. 5461: 5422:. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 31–50. 5322: 5303: 5268:The Hispanic American Historical Review 4712:Archer, "Wars of Independence" p. 1599. 4698:Archer, "Wars of Independence" p. 1598. 4556: 4220:. New York: HarperCollins 1997, p. 106. 4092: 3901:. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1975. 3746: 3654:Timeline of Mexican War of Independence 3251:sent a force led by a royalist Colonel 299: 8876: 8749: 5477: 5294: 5265: 5203: 5182: 5139: 4754: 4403:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, 903. 4247:Guedea, Virginia, "Hidalgo Revolt" in 4174:Guedea, Virginia. "Hidalgo Revolt" in 4119: 4093:Wobeser, Gisela von (1 October 2006). 3768: 2124:Age of Revolution, Spain and New Spain 2069:View of the Plaza Mayor of Mexico City 1990:. Under these laws, the grants of the 8748: 8644: 8643: 7767: 7645: 7360: 7219: 7187: 7124: 7061: 6976: 6899: 6839: 6753: 6742: 6514: 6513: 6475: 5589: 5323:Hamnett, Brian R. (1 February 1982). 4895:The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780–1824 4382: 4380: 4243: 4241: 4239: 4068:The Army in Bourbon Mexico, 1760–1810 3985: 3983: 3981: 3923: 3800: 3771:The Birth of Modern Mexico, 1780–1824 3669:Spanish American wars of independence 3576:Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City 2642:, the merchant guild of Mexico City ( 2636:Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont 1525:Caribbean and North America (1739–48) 973: 833: 629: 477: 92:16 September 1810 – 27 September 1821 38:Spanish American wars of independence 7077:Captaincy General of the Philippines 6569:New Laws in favour of the indigenous 5204:Benson, Nettie Lee (1 August 1946). 5172:. Wilmington DL: SR Publishers 2003. 5107: 4546:. Gardners Books, 2007, pp. 84–86. 3884:, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, 3764: 3762: 3760: 3758: 3742: 3740: 3738: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3649:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico 3485:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico 3479:Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico 3437:Creation of the First Mexican Empire 3066:Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América 3051:Suprema Junta Gubernativa de América 162:Spain loses the continental area of 8780:Indochristian painting in New Spain 6900: 5615: 5484:Hispanic American Historical Review 5394:The Independence of Spanish America 5329:Hispanic American Historical Review 5210:Hispanic American Historical Review 5133:Hispanic American Historical Review 4455: 4189:The Independence of Spanish Ame ica 4055:The Independence of Spanish America 3973:The Early History of Greater Mexico 3960:The Early History of Greater Mexico 3912:The Early History of Greater Mexico 3886:The Early History of Greater Mexico 3724:The Early History of Greater Mexico 3707: 1026:Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (1478) 13: 7747:Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires 7220: 6501: 5575:Chieftains of Mexican Independence 5185:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 5142:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 5100: 4757:Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos 4377: 4236: 3978: 3888:. Prentice Hall 2003, pp. 246–247. 3726:. Prentice Hall 2003, pp. 341–358. 3114:Official seal of the Supreme Junta 2504:Political and economic instability 14: 8905: 6977: 6840: 6721:Independence of Equatorial Guinea 5759:Institutional Revolutionary Party 5568: 5563:. Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. 4949:Orozco Linares, Fernando (1996). 4873:from the original on 10 June 2016 4726:The Mexican Wars for Independence 4456:Pacheco, María Cristina Torales. 3755: 3729: 2469:invasion of the Iberian Peninsula 1962:in 1829, Spain under the rule of 1815:Guerra de Independencia de México 8832:Criollos in the colonial society 8760:Spanish missions in the Americas 7882:Charles Bonaventure de Longueval 5015:Gutiérrez, Arnaldo Moya (2007). 3808:Mexico independiente, 1821–1851 3623: 3609: 3595: 2651:The peninsular rebels installed 2420: 2152: 449: 437: 425: 413: 401: 390: 379: 370: 364: 353: 344: 338: 329: 320: 314: 305: 289: 283: 274: 268: 259: 239: 225: 213: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 104: 44: 8859:Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649 6743: 5414:Rodriguez O., Jaime E. (2018). 5077: 5058: 5045: 5008: 4976: 4942: 4924: 4912:from the original on 9 May 2016 4885: 4846: 4837: 4828: 4815: 4788: 4775: 4748: 4715: 4692: 4683: 4670: 4661: 4648: 4629: 4616: 4603: 4594: 4536: 4523: 4510: 4497: 4449: 4406: 4393: 4334: 4325: 4290: 4223: 4210: 4194: 4181: 4168: 4155: 4138: 4113: 4086: 4073: 4060: 4047: 4034: 4021: 4008: 3998: 3965: 3952: 3917: 3904: 3891: 3875: 3341:Roman Catholic Church in Mexico 2463:In the early 19th century, the 1248:Argentine Northwest (1560–1667) 7188: 6911:Captaincy General of Guatemala 6619:Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) 5478:Tutino, John (1 August 1998). 5371:. Cambridge University Press. 5308:. Cambridge University Press. 4823:The Legacy of Vicente Guerrero 4798:Concise Encyclopedia of Mexico 4572:Ángel Miranda Basurto (2002). 4311:10.1080/00043249.1992.10791596 4124:. Princeton University Press. 3855: 3840: 3821: 3787: 3716: 3701: 2519:The crown removed privileges ( 1970:Prior challenges to crown rule 1: 8810:General Archive of the Indies 8071:Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 7742:Camino Real de Tierra Adentro 7727:Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas 6676:Third Treaty of San Ildefonso 6629:War of the Spanish Succession 6594:Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) 5679:Centralist Republic of Mexico 5232:Mexico and the Spanish Cortes 5030:10.15517/rcs.v0i117-118.11023 4722:Timothy J. Henderson (2009). 3694: 3644:List of wars involving Mexico 3199:Two insurgent leaders arose: 2891:Battle of Monte de las Cruces 2695:The Hidalgo revolt, 1810–1811 1988:Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 7768: 6882:Captaincy General of Yucatan 6812:Union with Holy Roman Empire 6791:Southern Italy (Kingdoms of 6706:German–Spanish Treaty (1899) 6108:Institutional stock exchange 5744:Second American intervention 5462:Timmons, Wilbert H. (1963). 5021:Revista de Ciencias Sociales 4989:(in Spanish). Archived from 4458:"Ana María de Iraeta Ganuza" 4388:The Oxford History of Mexico 4031:. London: Athlone Press 1968 3773:. Rowman & Littlefield. 3689:History of Spain (1808–1874) 3583:Consummation of Independence 3556:Army of the Three Guarantees 3502:Santa María–Calatrava Treaty 3352:Army of the Three Guarantees 3295:Army of the Three Guarantees 3283:Spanish Constitution of 1812 2944:, regional insurgent leader 2916:The royalist forces, led by 2079:'s residence. A painting by 1874:Spanish Constitution of 1812 1860:, ruling in the name of the 1716:Dominican Republic (1863–65) 219:Army of the Three Guarantees 148:Santa María–Calatrava Treaty 19:Not to be confused with the 7: 8884:Mexican War of Independence 7646: 7362:Administrative subdivisions 6559:War of the League of Cognac 6309:Water supply and sanitation 5674:Spanish reconquest attempts 4892:Christon I. Archer (2007). 4427:10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400200 4216:quoted in Krauze, Enrique. 4165:. New York: Routledge, 2004 3924:Crewe, R. D. (2010-04-22). 3749:A Concise History of Mexico 3588: 3217:Antonio López de Santa Anna 2918:Félix María Calleja del Rey 1952:Spanish reconquest attempts 1811:Mexican War of Independence 863:Mexican War of Independence 385:Antonio López de Santa Anna 31:Mexican War of Independence 10: 8910: 8076:Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar 8061:Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada 7963:Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca 7125: 6861:), Western United States ( 6754: 6624:Portuguese Restoration War 5709:Second French intervention 5657:Control of Central America 5304:Hamnett, Brian R. (1986). 5244:Flores Caballero, Romero. 5170:The Birth of Modern Mexico 4859:. Routledge. p. 132. 4795:Michael S. Werner (2001). 4769:10.1525/msem.2008.24.2.325 4656:Mexico: Biography of Power 4624:Mexico: Biography of Power 4531:Mexico: Biography of Power 4518:Mexico: Biography of Power 4505:Mexico: Biography of Power 4218:Mexico: Biography of Power 3865:. New York: Norton, 2001. 3837:accessed 21 December 2018. 3574:, with the pealing of the 3519: 3482: 3440: 3064:, and is exercised by the 3057:Elementos constitucionales 2118:Conspiracy of the Machetes 2000:' conspiracy included Don 1572:Banda Oriental (1776–1777) 1003:Spanish colonial campaigns 23:in the early 20th century. 18: 8844:Slavery in Spanish Empire 8755: 8744: 8650: 8639: 8537: 8431: 8424: 8309: 8158: 8151: 8144: 8131:Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor 8041: 7910: 7872:Álvaro de Bazán the Elder 7834: 7778: 7774: 7763: 7732:Barcelona Trading Company 7699: 7656: 7652: 7641: 7545: 7497:New Andalusia (1501–1513) 7467: 7409: 7371: 7367: 7356: 7307: 7266: 7230: 7226: 7215: 7194: 7131: 7072: 7004:Venezuela, part of Guyana 6983: 6906: 6857:, Central United States ( 6846: 6760: 6749: 6738: 6589:Bruneian–Spanish conflict 6574:Expulsion of the Moriscos 6520: 6509: 6433: 6322: 6217: 6208: 6066: 6057: 5944: 5935: 5908:Tropical cyclone rainfall 5806: 5797: 5627: 5538:Van Young, Eric. (2022). 5497:10.1215/00182168-78.3.367 5223:10.1215/00182168-26.3.336 5168:Archer, Christon I., ed. 5108:Anna, Timothy E. (1978). 3958:quoted in Altman et al., 3769:Archer, Christon (2007). 3515: 3333:rights and privileges to 2800:Banner with the image of 2767:Hidalgo was friends with 2760:) in 1809 in the name of 2754:Josefa Ortíz de Domínguez 2729:Sentimientos de la Nación 2715:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 2704:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 2348:Petroleum nationalization 2018:, who sought to break up 1891:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla 1821:'s independence from the 1624:Spanish America (1808–33) 1619:Río de la Plata (1806–07) 1011: 879: 677: 525: 467: 462: 253: 178: 84: 43: 35: 30: 8785:Quito painting tradition 8775:Cusco painting tradition 8136:García López de Cárdenas 8126:Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera 8033:Felipe González de Ahedo 7953:Pedro Menéndez de Avilés 6530:Conquest of the Americas 5949:Administrative divisions 5368:Mexico: The Colonial Era 5342:10.1215/00182168-62.1.19 5295:Hamill, Hugh M. (1966). 5230:Benson, Nettie Lee, ed. 5197:10.1525/msem.2004.20.1.1 5023:(in Spanish) (117–118). 3814:22 December 2018 at the 3425:and Iturbide signed the 3134:Congress of Chilpancingo 3105:Congress of Chilpancingo 2658:Francisco Javier Venegas 2363:Mexican Movement of 1968 2183:Viceroyalty of New Spain 2083:shows the damage of the 2081:Cristóbal de Villalpando 2065:Cristóbal de Villalpando 1793:Western Sahara (1973–76) 1721:Peru and Chile (1864–66) 1520:Banda Oriental (1735–37) 1021:Canary Islands (1402–96) 246:Viceroyalty of New Spain 164:Viceroyalty of New Spain 8570:Comuneros (New Granada) 8347:Balearic Islands (1558) 8066:Hernán Pérez de Quesada 7993:Ruy López de Villalobos 7948:Miguel López de Legazpi 7862:García de Toledo Osorio 6726:Western Sahara conflict 6716:Independence of Morocco 6656:Treaty of Madrid (1750) 6599:Piracy in the Caribbean 6584:French Wars of Religion 6364:Handcrafts and folk art 6133:National stock exchange 5871:Protected natural areas 5699:Second Mexican Republic 5664:Supreme Executive Power 5406:Rodríguez O., Jaime E. 4853:Philip Russell (2011). 4578:The Evolution of Mexico 4101:(in Spanish): 373–425. 3861:John Charles Chasteen. 3833:17 October 2018 at the 3747:Hamnett, Brian (1999). 3324:the final draft of the 2902:Alhóndiga de Granaditas 2856:Alhóndiga de Granaditas 2845:Alhóndiga de Granaditas 2802:the Virgin of Guadalupe 2605:and Napoleon's brother 2241:Second Federal Republic 1931:, ending Spanish rule. 1914:in 1821. They formed a 1827:revolutionary civil war 1577:North America (1779–83) 1495:North America (1702–13) 1333:Philippines (1599-1600) 1268:Philippines (1565–1898) 530:Alhóndiga de Granaditas 51:Clockwise from top left 8815:Colonial Spanish Horse 8489:Colonia del Sacramento 7712:Spanish treasure fleet 7289:Royal Decree of Graces 6176:States by unemployment 6166:Science and technology 5669:First Mexican Republic 5445:Rodríguez O., Jaime E. 5392:Rodríguez O. Jaime E. 5093:accessed 20 March 2020 5074:accessed 20 March 2020 4730:. Macmillan. pp. 4645:accessed Dec 21, 2018. 4611:Encyclopedia of Mexico 4574:La Evolución de México 4483:Robert Harvey (2000). 4401:Encyclopedia of Mexico 4249:Encyclopedia of Mexico 4231:Encyclopedia of Mexico 4176:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3795:Encyclopedia of Mexico 3535: 3404: 3312: 3297: 3277: 3235: 3172: 3137: 3115: 3099: 3045: 2982: 2905: 2867: 2821: 2809: 2711: 2626: 2315:Occupation of Veracruz 2072: 1916:unified military force 1814: 884:Cañada de Los Naranjos 615:San Ignacio de Piaxtla 468:250,000–500,000 killed 254:Commanders and leaders 166:with the exception of 124:Independence agreement 8894:Wars involving Mexico 7973:Vasco Núñez de Balboa 7933:Juan Sebastián Elcano 7248:Council of the Indies 6609:Spanish–Moro conflict 6579:Ottoman–Habsburg wars 6539:Treaty of Tordesillas 6404:Our Lady of Guadalupe 5898:Territorial evolution 5714:Second Mexican Empire 5552:Vincent, Theodore G. 5365:Knight, Alan (2002). 5089:20 March 2020 at the 5070:20 March 2020 at the 4781:Vincent, Theodore G. 4120:Tutino, John (1989). 3544:Angel of Independence 3529: 3512:on 16 February 1840. 3399: 3310: 3292: 3270: 3226: 3182:Francisco Javier Mina 3167: 3132: 3113: 3094: 3086:Puebla de los Angeles 3040: 2977: 2899: 2853: 2819: 2799: 2702: 2620: 2492:(Haiti) in 1791. The 2278:Second Mexican Empire 2063: 2055:Angel of Independence 1798:Western Sahara (1975) 1751:Philippines (1896–98) 1706:Cochinchina (1858–62) 1607:Caribbean (1796–1802) 1468:Lake Maracaibo (1669) 1404:Philippines (1638-46) 1278:Philippines (1567–72) 1133:El Salvador (1524–39) 1128:Guatemala (1524–1697) 1088:Puerto Rico (1511–29) 924:San Diego de la Unión 702:Llanos de Santa Juana 666:Organizational phase 463:Casualties and losses 8770:Mesoamerican Codices 8494:Comuneros (Paraguay) 8332:Siege of Castelnuovo 7918:Christopher Columbus 7737:Consulate of the Sea 7717:Casa de Contratación 7308:Titles and positions 6701:Spanish–American War 6691:Liberal constitution 6534:Asia and the Pacific 6421:World Heritage Sites 5836:Environmental issues 5694:Mexican–American War 5652:First Mexican Empire 4161:Cañeque, Alejandro. 4150:video recording lost 4146:Mexican Independence 4066:Archer, Christon I. 3938:10.1093/pastj/gtq005 3897:Jonathan I. Israel. 3710:Latin America's Wars 3664:First Mexican Empire 3617:Latin America portal 3506:José María Calatrava 3447:First Mexican Empire 3410:Juan Ruiz de Apodaca 3249:Juan Ruiz de Apodaca 2806:Manuel Abad y Queipo 2781:San Miguel el Grande 2752:) Miguel Domínguez, 2708:José Clemente Orozco 2400:Coronavirus pandemic 2375:1982 economic crisis 2228:Mexican–American War 1948:Constitution of 1824 1936:First Mexican Empire 1478:New Mexico (1680–92) 809:Lomas de Santa María 135:First Mexican Empire 71:Embrace of Acatempan 8499:Cartagena de Indias 8121:Diego de Mazariegos 8091:Pere Fages i Beleta 7958:Sebastián de Ocampo 7439:Provincias Internas 7411:Captaincies General 7325:Municipal president 7294:School of Salamanca 7065:Spanish East Indies 7044:Misiones Orientales 6916:Spanish West Indies 6880:, Central America ( 6827:Pyrénées-Orientales 6780:Union with Portugal 6671:Napoleonic invasion 6651:War of Jenkins' Ear 6076:Automotive industry 5964:Chamber of Deputies 5647:War of Independence 5559:Warren, Richard A. 4938:. pp. 477–487. 4270:, History and Myth" 4079:McAlister, Lyle C. 4040:Taylor, William B. 4014:Langley, Lester D. 3722:Altman, Ida et al. 3684:Our Lady of Sorrows 3443:Agustín de Iturbide 3416:. By the time that 3402:Agustín de Iturbide 3273:Abrazo de Acatempan 3253:Agustín de Iturbide 3150:Agustín de Iturbide 3042:Félix María Calleja 3012:Ignacio López Rayón 3004:Ignacio López Rayón 2879:Ignacio López Rayón 2826:Virgin of Guadalupe 2785:José de Iturrigaray 2623:José de Iturrigaray 2599:José de Iturrigaray 2586:a communal vessel. 2572:Mexican Catholicism 2477:American Revolution 2385:Mexican peso crisis 2260:French intervention 2213:Centralist Republic 2188:War of Independence 1940:Agustín de Iturbide 1908:Agustín de Iturbide 1711:Morocco (1859–1860) 1701:Balanguingui (1848) 1669:Venezuela (1811–23) 1634:Argentina (1810–18) 1148:Yucatán (1527–1697) 1123:Chiapas (1523–1695) 914:Fuerte del Sombrero 545:Monte de las Cruces 420:Félix María Calleja 376:Agustín de Iturbide 295:Ignacio López Rayon 8795:Academia Antártica 8750:Other civil topics 8116:Pánfilo de Narváez 8018:Sebastián Vizcaíno 7983:Andrés de Urdaneta 7943:Juan Ponce de León 7928:Ferdinand Magellan 7902:Bernardo de Gálvez 7801:Indian auxiliaries 7299:Trial of residence 7279:Laws of the Indies 7063:Asia and Oceania ( 6924:Dominican Republic 6277:Indigenous peoples 6181:Telecommunications 6040:State legislatures 5981:Federal government 5861:Metropolitan areas 5739:Mexican Revolution 5514:Past & Present 5357:Hamnett, Brian R. 5237:Dominguez, Jorge. 4654:quoted in Krauze, 4641:2018-12-22 at the 4622:quoted in Krauze, 4516:quoted in Krauze, 4201:Benson, Nettie Lee 4027:Farriss, Nancy M. 3930:Past & Present 3536: 3405: 3313: 3298: 3278: 3236: 3201:Guadalupe Victoria 3173: 3138: 3116: 3100: 3070:José María Morelos 3046: 3000:Guadalupe Victoria 2988:José María Morelos 2983: 2980:José María Morelos 2906: 2868: 2854:The corner of the 2830:José María Morelos 2822: 2810: 2724:José María Morelos 2712: 2627: 2576:Modern Catholicism 2532:José María Morelos 2494:Haitian Revolution 2073: 1900:José María Morelos 1872:, and drafted the 1842:Napoleon Bonaparte 1756:Puerto Rico (1898) 1726:Puerto Rico (1868) 1684:Colombia (1819–20) 1679:Colombia (1815–16) 1659:El Salvador (1811) 1644:Paraguay (1810–11) 1587:New Granada (1781) 1557:Philippines (1762) 1463:Porto Bello (1668) 1433:Philippines (1646) 1389:Philippines (1630) 1345:Philippines (1602) 1328:Puerto Rico (1598) 1318:Philippines (1596) 1313:Puerto Rico (1595) 1308:Cambodia (1593–97) 1188:Colombia (1537–40) 1138:Honduras (1524–39) 1103:Mexico (1519–1821) 610:Puerto del Carnero 350:Guadalupe Victoria 311:José María Morelos 59:José María Morelos 21:Mexican Revolution 8871: 8870: 8867: 8866: 8740: 8739: 8645:Spanish conquests 8635: 8634: 8631: 8630: 8627: 8626: 8623: 8622: 8420: 8419: 8101:Pedro de Alvarado 8086:Gaspar de Portolà 8081:Pedro de Valdivia 8056:Francisco Pizarro 8008:Nicolás de Ovando 8003:Alonso de Ercilla 7978:Alonso de Salazar 7811:Ships of the line 7759: 7758: 7755: 7754: 7637: 7636: 7633: 7632: 7352: 7351: 7348: 7347: 7211: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7183: 7182: 7140:Northern Africa ( 7136:Equatorial Guinea 7120: 7119: 7057: 7056: 6972: 6971: 6895: 6894: 6886:Spanish Caribbean 6859:Spanish Louisiana 6835: 6834: 6770:Crown of Castille 6734: 6733: 6711:Spanish Civil War 6686:Adams–Onís Treaty 6666:Nootka Convention 6614:Thirty Years' War 6604:Eighty Years' War 6525:Catholic Monarchs 6515:Timeline–immersed 6469: 6468: 6429: 6428: 6204: 6203: 6053: 6052: 6023:Political parties 5986:Foreign relations 5931: 5930: 5719:Restored Republic 5637:Pre-Columbian era 5548:978-1-4422-0901-5 5457:978-0-87903-070-4 5429:978-1-4962-0470-7 5402:978-0-521-62673-6 5378:978-0-521-89196-7 5315:978-0-521-32148-8 5136:61:4 (Nov. 1981). 4905:978-0-7425-5602-7 4866:978-1-136-96828-0 4808:978-1-57958-337-8 4741:978-0-8090-9509-4 4678:The Mexico Reader 4552:978-0-548-32604-6 4283:978-0-8420-2915-5 4131:978-0-691-02294-9 4099:Historia Mexicana 3871:978-0-393-97613-7 3780:978-0-7425-5602-7 3495:Battle of Tampico 3469:Emperor of Mexico 3427:Treaty of Córdoba 3414:Francisco Novella 3154:Mariano Matamoros 3096:Mariano Matamoros 3020:Puerto de Piñones 2992:Mariano Matamoros 2862:where insurgents 2485:French Revolution 2473:Thirteen Colonies 2465:Age of Revolution 2461: 2460: 2427:Mexico portal 2369:La Década Perdida 2358:Mexican Dirty War 2342:(1928–1934) 2305:Plan of Guadalupe 2299:La decena trágica 2283:Restored Republic 2178:Spanish-Aztec War 1929:Treaty of Córdoba 1893:, who issued the 1846:invasion of Spain 1806: 1805: 1788:Morocco (1957–58) 1783:Morocco (1920–26) 1778:Morocco (1911–12) 1741:Morocco (1893–94) 1689:Ecuador (1820–22) 1629:Bolivia (1809–25) 1562:Chile (1766–1767) 1510:Chile (1723–1726) 1443:Hispaniola (1655) 1350:Insulindia (1603) 1303:Insulindia (1585) 1298:Insulindia (1582) 1208:Chile (1546–1662) 1098:Algeria (1517–18) 967: 966: 934:Cerro de Barrabás 909:Los Arrastraderos 873: 827: 826: 742:Tenango del Valle 737:Huajuapan de León 682:Puerto de Piñones 671: 623: 622: 535:Puerto de Carroza 519: 472: 471: 444:Francisco Novella 408:Francisco Venegas 335:Mariano Matamoros 174: 173: 130:Treaty of Córdoba 8901: 8746: 8745: 8712:Chibchan Nations 8641: 8640: 8610:Santiago de Cuba 8469:Guadalupe Island 8429: 8428: 8156: 8155: 8149: 8148: 8111:Diego de Almagro 7988:Antonio de Ulloa 7892:Ambrosio Spinola 7887:Pedro de Zubiaur 7857:Alfonso d'Avalos 7847:Antonio de Leyva 7791:Army of Flanders 7776: 7775: 7765: 7764: 7654: 7653: 7643: 7642: 7369: 7368: 7358: 7357: 7228: 7227: 7217: 7216: 7185: 7184: 7158:Peñón of Algiers 7122: 7121: 7059: 7058: 6974: 6973: 6897: 6896: 6879: 6837: 6836: 6751: 6750: 6740: 6739: 6661:Seven Years' War 6634:Queen Anne's War 6511: 6510: 6496: 6489: 6482: 6473: 6472: 6449: 6442: 6389:National symbols 6215: 6214: 6156: 6101:Renewable energy 6091:Economic history 6064: 6063: 5942: 5941: 5804: 5803: 5784:Chiapas conflict 5684:Texas Revolution 5610: 5603: 5596: 5587: 5586: 5525: 5516:(118): 130–155. 5501: 5499: 5467: 5441: 5382: 5354: 5344: 5319: 5300: 5291: 5227: 5225: 5200: 5165: 5127: 5115: 5094: 5081: 5075: 5062: 5056: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5032: 5012: 5006: 5005: 5003: 5001: 4995: 4988: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4971: 4969: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4917: 4889: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4850: 4844: 4841: 4835: 4832: 4826: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4792: 4786: 4779: 4773: 4772: 4752: 4746: 4745: 4729: 4719: 4713: 4710: 4699: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4681: 4674: 4668: 4665: 4659: 4652: 4646: 4633: 4627: 4620: 4614: 4607: 4601: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4569: 4554: 4540: 4534: 4527: 4521: 4514: 4508: 4501: 4495: 4494: 4493:on 10 July 2013. 4480: 4474: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4410: 4404: 4397: 4391: 4384: 4375: 4374: 4338: 4332: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4294: 4288: 4287: 4268:Grito de Dolores 4261: 4252: 4245: 4234: 4227: 4221: 4214: 4208: 4198: 4192: 4185: 4179: 4172: 4166: 4159: 4153: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4117: 4111: 4110: 4090: 4084: 4077: 4071: 4064: 4058: 4051: 4045: 4038: 4032: 4025: 4019: 4012: 4006: 4002: 3996: 3987: 3976: 3969: 3963: 3956: 3950: 3949: 3921: 3915: 3910:Altman, et al., 3908: 3902: 3895: 3889: 3879: 3873: 3859: 3853: 3844: 3838: 3825: 3819: 3804: 3798: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3766: 3753: 3752: 3744: 3727: 3720: 3714: 3713: 3705: 3633: 3628: 3627: 3626: 3619: 3614: 3613: 3612: 3605: 3600: 3599: 3598: 3561:Junta Patriótica 3400:Oil painting of 3386: 3375: 3209:Vicente Guerrero 3169:Vicente Guerrero 2996:Vicente Guerrero 2954: 2926:Ignacio Elizondo 2790:Grito de Dolores 2653:Pedro de Garibay 2640:Gabriel de Yermo 2496:obliterated the 2453: 2446: 2439: 2425: 2424: 2423: 2395:Mexican drug war 2380:Chiapas conflict 2343: 2218:Texas Revolution 2156: 2146: 2128: 2127: 2057:in Mexico City. 1954:, including the 1944:federal republic 1904:Vicente Guerrero 1862:Bourbon monarchy 1694:Mexico (1821–29) 1649:Mexico (1810–21) 1552:Nicaragua (1762) 1203:Halmahera (1545) 1173:Brazil (1534-36) 1108:Mexico (1519–21) 1006: 1004: 994: 987: 980: 971: 970: 874: 872: 867: 864: 854: 847: 840: 831: 830: 672: 670: 663: 650: 643: 636: 627: 626: 585:Real del Rosario 520: 518: 511: 498: 491: 484: 475: 474: 454: 453: 442: 441: 430: 429: 418: 417: 406: 405: 395: 394: 393: 383: 374: 368: 359:Francisco Xavier 357: 348: 342: 333: 326:Vicente Guerrero 324: 318: 309: 301: 293: 287: 278: 272: 263: 244: 243: 231: 229: 228: 217: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 168:San Juan de Ulúa 110: 108: 107: 86: 85: 48: 28: 27: 8909: 8908: 8904: 8903: 8902: 8900: 8899: 8898: 8889:1810s conflicts 8874: 8873: 8872: 8863: 8839:Old inquisition 8751: 8736: 8646: 8619: 8575:Trinidad (1797) 8545:La Noche Triste 8533: 8529:San Juan (1797) 8479:San Juan (1595) 8416: 8305: 8145:Notable battles 8140: 8106:Martín de Ursúa 8037: 7968:Alonso de Ojeda 7938:Juan de la Cosa 7923:Pinzón brothers 7906: 7877:John of Austria 7852:Martín de Goiti 7830: 7770: 7751: 7695: 7648: 7629: 7541: 7537:Terra Australis 7532:Río de la Plata 7477:Castilla de Oro 7463: 7405: 7401:Río de la Plata 7363: 7344: 7303: 7262: 7258:Santa Hermandad 7222: 7203: 7199:Terra Australis 7190: 7179: 7146:Spanish Morocco 7127: 7116: 7107:Northern Taiwan 7068: 7053: 7024:Río de la Plata 6979: 6968: 6902: 6901:Central America 6891: 6873: 6842: 6831: 6775:Crown of Aragon 6756: 6745: 6730: 6646:Bourbon Reforms 6516: 6505: 6500: 6470: 6465: 6452: 6445: 6438: 6425: 6318: 6294:Public holidays 6267:Nationality law 6262:Life expectancy 6200: 6154: 6049: 6013:Law enforcement 5927: 5918:Water resources 5793: 5769:Mexican miracle 5623: 5614: 5571: 5566: 5529:Van Young, Eric 5430: 5379: 5316: 5280:10.2307/2510201 5251:García, Pedro. 5154:10.2307/1051967 5124: 5103: 5101:Further reading 5098: 5097: 5091:Wayback Machine 5082: 5078: 5072:Wayback Machine 5063: 5059: 5050: 5046: 5013: 5009: 4999: 4997: 4996:on 4 March 2016 4993: 4986: 4982: 4981: 4977: 4967: 4965: 4963: 4947: 4943: 4929: 4925: 4915: 4913: 4906: 4890: 4886: 4876: 4874: 4867: 4851: 4847: 4842: 4838: 4833: 4829: 4820: 4816: 4809: 4793: 4789: 4780: 4776: 4753: 4749: 4742: 4720: 4716: 4711: 4702: 4697: 4693: 4688: 4684: 4675: 4671: 4666: 4662: 4653: 4649: 4643:Wayback Machine 4634: 4630: 4621: 4617: 4608: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4570: 4557: 4542:Young, Philip. 4541: 4537: 4528: 4524: 4515: 4511: 4502: 4498: 4481: 4477: 4467: 4465: 4454: 4450: 4415:Feminist Review 4411: 4407: 4398: 4394: 4385: 4378: 4355:10.2307/1008006 4339: 4335: 4330: 4326: 4295: 4291: 4284: 4262: 4255: 4246: 4237: 4228: 4224: 4215: 4211: 4205:Mexican Studies 4199: 4195: 4186: 4182: 4173: 4169: 4160: 4156: 4143: 4139: 4132: 4118: 4114: 4091: 4087: 4078: 4074: 4065: 4061: 4052: 4048: 4039: 4035: 4026: 4022: 4013: 4009: 4003: 3999: 3990:Van Young, Eric 3988: 3979: 3971:Altman et al., 3970: 3966: 3957: 3953: 3922: 3918: 3909: 3905: 3896: 3892: 3880: 3876: 3860: 3856: 3845: 3841: 3835:Wayback Machine 3826: 3822: 3816:Wayback Machine 3805: 3801: 3792: 3788: 3781: 3767: 3756: 3745: 3730: 3721: 3717: 3706: 3702: 3697: 3629: 3624: 3622: 3615: 3610: 3608: 3601: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3548:Avenida Reforma 3524: 3518: 3487: 3481: 3449: 3441:Main articles: 3439: 3394: 3380: 3378:Gordiano Guzmán 3369: 3265: 3227:Royalist issue 3178:tierra caliente 3162: 2972: 2960:Mariano Abasolo 2948: 2938:Norias de Baján 2769:Ignacio Allende 2720:Ignacio Allende 2697: 2595: 2580:Confraternities 2563: 2514:Catholic church 2510:Bourbon reforms 2506: 2457: 2421: 2419: 2405: 2404: 2353:Mexican miracle 2341: 2333: 2325: 2324: 2273: 2265: 2264: 2243: 2233: 2232: 2208: 2198: 2197: 2173: 2165: 2144: 2137: 2126: 2043:William Lamport 1972: 1960:Isidro Barradas 1870:Cortes of Cádiz 1807: 1802: 1674:Chile (1812–27) 1535:Portugal (1762) 1428:Valdivia (1643) 1365:Petén (1618–97) 1007: 1002: 1000: 998: 968: 963: 919:Cerro de Cóporo 875: 868: 866: 862: 860: 858: 828: 823: 673: 667: 664: 662: 660:of Independence 659: 656: 654: 624: 619: 605:Calderón Bridge 521: 515: 512: 510: 508:of Independence 507: 504: 502: 448: 447: 436: 435: 432:Juan Ruiz de A. 424: 423: 412: 411: 400: 399: 391: 389: 378: 369: 360: 352: 343: 328: 319: 304: 288: 280:Ignacio Allende 273: 238: 226: 224: 212: 158: 140:Signing of the 114: 105: 103: 93: 63:Trigarante Army 49: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8907: 8897: 8896: 8891: 8886: 8869: 8868: 8865: 8864: 8862: 8861: 8856: 8851: 8846: 8841: 8836: 8835: 8834: 8824: 8823: 8822: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8777: 8772: 8767: 8762: 8756: 8753: 8752: 8742: 8741: 8738: 8737: 8735: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8693: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8655:Canary Islands 8651: 8648: 8647: 8637: 8636: 8633: 8632: 8629: 8628: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8620: 8618: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8602: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8572: 8567: 8562: 8557: 8552: 8547: 8541: 8539: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8509:Túpac Amaru II 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8456: 8454:Bogotá savanna 8451: 8446: 8441: 8435: 8433: 8426: 8422: 8421: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8362:Spanish Armada 8359: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8313: 8311: 8307: 8306: 8304: 8303: 8298: 8293: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8263: 8258: 8256:White Mountain 8253: 8251:Cape Celidonia 8248: 8246:English Armada 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8162: 8160: 8153: 8146: 8142: 8141: 8139: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8058: 8053: 8047: 8045: 8039: 8038: 8036: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8023:Juan Fernández 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7998:Diego Columbus 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7914: 7912: 7908: 7907: 7905: 7904: 7899: 7894: 7889: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7854: 7849: 7844: 7838: 7836: 7832: 7831: 7829: 7828: 7826:Army of Africa 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7806:Spanish Armada 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7782: 7780: 7772: 7771: 7761: 7760: 7757: 7756: 7753: 7752: 7750: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7707:Manila galleon 7703: 7701: 7697: 7696: 7694: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7662: 7660: 7650: 7649: 7639: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7631: 7630: 7628: 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6855:Coastal Alaska 6847: 6844: 6843: 6833: 6832: 6830: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6761: 6758: 6757: 6747: 6746: 6736: 6735: 6732: 6731: 6729: 6728: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6708: 6703: 6698: 6693: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6637: 6636: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6527: 6521: 6518: 6517: 6507: 6506: 6503:Spanish Empire 6499: 6498: 6491: 6484: 6476: 6467: 6466: 6464: 6463: 6458: 6451: 6450: 6443: 6435: 6434: 6431: 6430: 6427: 6426: 6424: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6408: 6407: 6406: 6396: 6391: 6386: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6355: 6354: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6328: 6326: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6279: 6269: 6264: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6229: 6224: 6218: 6212: 6206: 6205: 6202: 6201: 6199: 6198: 6196:Water scarcity 6193: 6191:Transportation 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6158: 6150: 6148:Pension system 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6104: 6103: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6067: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6051: 6050: 6048: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6036: 6035: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 6004: 6003: 5998: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5967: 5966: 5961: 5951: 5945: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5929: 5928: 5926: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5889: 5888: 5886:Municipalities 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5841:Extreme points 5838: 5833: 5828: 5825:Climate change 5818: 5813: 5807: 5801: 5795: 5794: 5792: 5791: 5786: 5781: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5746: 5741: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5666: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5649: 5644: 5639: 5633: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5613: 5612: 5605: 5598: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5577: 5570: 5569:External links 5567: 5565: 5564: 5557: 5550: 5536: 5526: 5509: 5504:Tutino, John. 5502: 5490:(3): 367–418. 5475: 5470:Tutino, John. 5468: 5459: 5442: 5438:j.ctt1xhr7ns.7 5428: 5411: 5404: 5390: 5383: 5377: 5362: 5355: 5320: 5314: 5301: 5292: 5274:(2): 206–235. 5263: 5256: 5249: 5242: 5235: 5228: 5216:(3): 336–350. 5201: 5180: 5173: 5166: 5137: 5128: 5122: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5096: 5095: 5076: 5057: 5044: 5007: 4975: 4961: 4941: 4923: 4904: 4884: 4865: 4845: 4836: 4827: 4825:, pp. 130–131. 4814: 4807: 4787: 4774: 4763:(2): 325–361. 4747: 4740: 4714: 4700: 4691: 4682: 4669: 4660: 4647: 4628: 4615: 4602: 4593: 4586: 4555: 4535: 4522: 4509: 4496: 4475: 4448: 4405: 4392: 4376: 4349:(3): 367–391. 4333: 4324: 4289: 4282: 4253: 4235: 4222: 4209: 4193: 4187:Rodríguez O., 4180: 4167: 4154: 4137: 4130: 4112: 4085: 4072: 4059: 4053:Rodríguez O., 4046: 4033: 4020: 4007: 3997: 3977: 3964: 3951: 3932:(207): 53–87. 3916: 3903: 3890: 3874: 3854: 3847:Brading, D. A. 3839: 3820: 3799: 3786: 3779: 3754: 3728: 3715: 3699: 3698: 3696: 3693: 3692: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3679:Cry of Dolores 3676: 3671: 3666: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3646: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3620: 3606: 3590: 3587: 3532:Mexican Empire 3517: 3514: 3483:Main article: 3480: 3477: 3461:Spanish Cortes 3453:Mexican Empire 3438: 3435: 3393: 3390: 3367:Pedro Ascensio 3326:Plan of Iguala 3264: 3261: 3161: 3158: 2971: 2968: 2934:Wells of Baján 2922:Calderón River 2696: 2693: 2594: 2591: 2562: 2559: 2528:Miguel Hidalgo 2505: 2502: 2490:Saint-Domingue 2459: 2458: 2456: 2455: 2448: 2441: 2433: 2430: 2429: 2416: 2415: 2407: 2406: 2403: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2377: 2372: 2365: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2334: 2331: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2310:Tampico Affair 2307: 2302: 2295: 2290: 2288:The Porfiriato 2285: 2280: 2274: 2271: 2270: 2267: 2266: 2263: 2262: 2257: 2252: 2244: 2239: 2238: 2235: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2225: 2220: 2215: 2209: 2206:First Republic 2204: 2203: 2200: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2190: 2185: 2180: 2174: 2171: 2170: 2167: 2166: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2149: 2148: 2139: 2138: 2131: 2125: 2122: 1971: 1968: 1912:Plan of Iguala 1895:Cry of Dolores 1838:Spanish Empire 1823:Spanish Empire 1804: 1803: 1801: 1800: 1795: 1790: 1785: 1780: 1775: 1773:Morocco (1909) 1769: 1768: 1764: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1748: 1746:Cuba (1895–98) 1743: 1738: 1736:Cuba (1879–80) 1733: 1731:Cuba (1868–78) 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1697: 1696: 1691: 1686: 1681: 1676: 1671: 1666: 1664:Uruguay (1811) 1661: 1656: 1654:Peru (1811–24) 1651: 1646: 1641: 1639:Florida (1810) 1636: 1631: 1621: 1615: 1614: 1610: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1597:Algiers (1784) 1594: 1592:Algiers (1783) 1589: 1584: 1582:Peru (1780–82) 1579: 1574: 1569: 1567:Algiers (1775) 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1543: 1542: 1537: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1512: 1507: 1505:Bahamas (1720) 1502: 1497: 1491: 1490: 1486: 1485: 1483:Morocco (1689) 1480: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1458:Jamaica (1658) 1455: 1453:Jamaica (1657) 1450: 1448:Jamaica (1655) 1445: 1440: 1438:Tortuga (1654) 1435: 1430: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1377: 1372: 1367: 1362: 1360:Morocco (1614) 1357: 1355:Tunisia (1605) 1352: 1347: 1341: 1340: 1336: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1288:Tunisia (1574) 1285: 1283:Tunisia (1573) 1280: 1275: 1273:Florida (1565) 1270: 1265: 1263:Morocco (1564) 1260: 1258:Morocco (1563) 1255: 1253:Algeria (1563) 1250: 1245: 1243:Tunisia (1560) 1240: 1238:Algeria (1558) 1235: 1233:Algeria (1556) 1230: 1228:Algeria (1555) 1225: 1220: 1218:Tunisia (1550) 1215: 1213:Algeria (1547) 1210: 1205: 1200: 1198:Algeria (1543) 1195: 1193:Algeria (1541) 1190: 1185: 1183:Tunisia (1535) 1180: 1178:Algeria (1535) 1175: 1170: 1168:Tunisia (1534) 1165: 1163:Peru (1532–72) 1160: 1158:Algeria (1531) 1155: 1153:Algeria (1529) 1150: 1145: 1143:Morocco (1525) 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1118:Tunisia (1520) 1115: 1113:Algeria (1519) 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1093:Algeria (1516) 1090: 1085: 1083:Tunisia (1510) 1080: 1078:Tripoli (1510) 1075: 1073:Algeria (1510) 1070: 1068:Algeria (1509) 1065: 1063:Morocco (1508) 1060: 1058:Algeria (1507) 1055: 1053:Algeria (1505) 1049: 1048: 1044: 1043: 1041:Melilla (1497) 1038: 1036:Algeria (1497) 1033: 1028: 1023: 1017: 1016: 1012: 1009: 1008: 997: 996: 989: 982: 974: 965: 964: 962: 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 899:Soto la Marina 896: 891: 886: 880: 877: 876: 857: 856: 849: 842: 834: 825: 824: 822: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 785: 784: 779: 774: 769: 764: 754: 749: 744: 739: 734: 729: 724: 719: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 678: 675: 674: 653: 652: 645: 638: 630: 621: 620: 618: 617: 612: 607: 602: 597: 592: 587: 582: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 526: 523: 522: 501: 500: 493: 486: 478: 470: 469: 465: 464: 460: 459: 387: 265:Miguel Hidalgo 256: 255: 251: 250: 249: 248: 233:Spanish Empire 221: 181: 180: 176: 175: 172: 171: 160: 154: 153: 152: 151: 144: 138: 137:is established 132: 120: 116: 115: 102: 100: 96: 95: 90: 82: 81: 55:Miguel Hidalgo 41: 40: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8906: 8895: 8892: 8890: 8887: 8885: 8882: 8881: 8879: 8860: 8857: 8855: 8852: 8850: 8847: 8845: 8842: 8840: 8837: 8833: 8830: 8829: 8828: 8825: 8821: 8818: 8817: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8790:Tapada limeña 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8758: 8757: 8754: 8747: 8743: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8672: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8652: 8649: 8642: 8638: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8571: 8568: 8566: 8563: 8561: 8558: 8556: 8553: 8551: 8548: 8546: 8543: 8542: 8540: 8536: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8455: 8452: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8436: 8434: 8430: 8427: 8423: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8382:Montes Claros 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8322:Vienna (1529) 8320: 8318: 8315: 8314: 8312: 8308: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8292: 8289: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8163: 8161: 8157: 8154: 8150: 8147: 8143: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8051:Hernán Cortés 8049: 8048: 8046: 8044: 8043:Conquistadors 8040: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8013:Juan de Ayala 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7915: 7913: 7909: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7868: 7867:Duke of Savoy 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7848: 7845: 7843: 7840: 7839: 7837: 7833: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7783: 7781: 7777: 7773: 7766: 7762: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7698: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7666:Dollar (Peso) 7664: 7663: 7661: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7644: 7640: 7626: 7625:Santo Domingo 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7613: 7611: 7608: 7606: 7603: 7601: 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7550: 7548: 7544: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7502:New Andalusia 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7474: 7472: 7470: 7466: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7449:Santo Domingo 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7416: 7414: 7412: 7408: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7378: 7376: 7374: 7373:Viceroyalties 7370: 7366: 7359: 7355: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7312: 7310: 7306: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7265: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7225: 7218: 7214: 7200: 7197: 7196: 7193: 7186: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7130: 7123: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7102: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7071: 7066: 7060: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7029: 7025: 7022: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6993: 6989: 6986: 6985: 6982: 6978:South America 6975: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6929: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6909: 6908: 6905: 6898: 6887: 6883: 6877: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6863:Spanish Texas 6860: 6856: 6852: 6849: 6848: 6845: 6841:North America 6838: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6822:Franche-Comté 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6767: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6759: 6752: 6748: 6741: 6737: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6697: 6694: 6692: 6689: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6635: 6632: 6631: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6531: 6528: 6526: 6523: 6522: 6519: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6497: 6492: 6490: 6485: 6483: 6478: 6477: 6474: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6448: 6444: 6441: 6437: 6436: 6432: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6405: 6402: 6401: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6390: 6387: 6385: 6382: 6380: 6377: 6375: 6372: 6370: 6367: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6353: 6350: 6349: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6325: 6321: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6299:States by HDI 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6270: 6268: 6265: 6263: 6260: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6225: 6223: 6220: 6219: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6207: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6171:States by GDP 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6157: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6128:Manufacturing 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6102: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6068: 6065: 6062: 6060: 6056: 6046: 6045:Supreme Court 6043: 6041: 6038: 6034: 6031: 6030: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5993: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5965: 5962: 5960: 5957: 5956: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5946: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5934: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5887: 5884: 5883: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5826: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5808: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5796: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5745: 5742: 5740: 5737: 5735: 5732: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5638: 5635: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5611: 5606: 5604: 5599: 5597: 5592: 5591: 5588: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5572: 5562: 5558: 5555: 5551: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5534: 5530: 5527: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5507: 5503: 5498: 5493: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5476: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5460: 5458: 5454: 5450: 5446: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5412: 5409: 5405: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5388: 5385:Macías, Ana. 5384: 5380: 5374: 5370: 5369: 5363: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5307: 5302: 5298: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5264: 5261: 5257: 5254: 5250: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5236: 5233: 5229: 5224: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5181: 5178: 5174: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5129: 5125: 5123:0-8032-0957-6 5119: 5114: 5113: 5106: 5105: 5092: 5088: 5085: 5080: 5073: 5069: 5066: 5061: 5054: 5048: 5040: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5022: 5018: 5011: 4992: 4985: 4979: 4964: 4962:9789683802958 4958: 4954: 4953: 4945: 4937: 4936: 4927: 4911: 4907: 4901: 4897: 4896: 4888: 4872: 4868: 4862: 4858: 4857: 4849: 4840: 4831: 4824: 4818: 4810: 4804: 4800: 4799: 4791: 4784: 4778: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4758: 4751: 4743: 4737: 4733: 4728: 4727: 4718: 4709: 4707: 4705: 4695: 4686: 4679: 4673: 4664: 4657: 4651: 4644: 4640: 4637: 4632: 4625: 4619: 4612: 4606: 4597: 4589: 4587:970-07-3678-4 4583: 4579: 4575: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4560: 4553: 4549: 4545: 4539: 4532: 4526: 4519: 4513: 4506: 4500: 4492: 4488: 4487: 4479: 4463: 4459: 4452: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4402: 4396: 4389: 4383: 4381: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4337: 4328: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4293: 4285: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4269: 4260: 4258: 4250: 4244: 4242: 4240: 4232: 4226: 4219: 4213: 4206: 4202: 4197: 4190: 4184: 4177: 4171: 4164: 4158: 4151: 4147: 4141: 4133: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4089: 4082: 4076: 4069: 4063: 4056: 4050: 4043: 4037: 4030: 4024: 4017: 4011: 4001: 3994: 3991: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3974: 3968: 3961: 3955: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3920: 3913: 3907: 3900: 3894: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3858: 3851: 3848: 3843: 3836: 3832: 3829: 3824: 3817: 3813: 3810: 3809: 3803: 3796: 3790: 3782: 3776: 3772: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3759: 3750: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3737: 3735: 3733: 3725: 3719: 3712:. p. 84. 3711: 3704: 3700: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3675: 3672: 3670: 3667: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3632: 3631:Mexico portal 3621: 3618: 3607: 3604: 3593: 3586: 3584: 3579: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3564: 3562: 3557: 3551: 3549: 3545: 3541: 3540:Porfirio Díaz 3533: 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2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2914: 2912: 2904:in Guanajuato 2903: 2898: 2894: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2874: 2873:fuero militar 2865: 2861: 2857: 2852: 2848: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2831: 2827: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2803: 2798: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2786: 2782: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2765: 2763: 2762:Ferdinand VII 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2742: 2738: 2737:Enlightenment 2733: 2731: 2730: 2725: 2721: 2716: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2692: 2690: 2689: 2688:ayuntamientos 2684: 2683: 2676: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2663: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2613: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2590: 2587: 2583: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2567: 2558: 2554: 2552: 2551: 2545: 2540: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2523: 2517: 2515: 2511: 2501: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2454: 2449: 2447: 2442: 2440: 2435: 2434: 2432: 2431: 2428: 2418: 2417: 2414: 2413: 2409: 2408: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2376: 2373: 2371: 2370: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2346: 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After some 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1925:Juan O'Donojú 1922: 1921:Ferdinand VII 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1834: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1799: 1796: 1794: 1791: 1789: 1786: 1784: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1766: 1765: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1695: 1692: 1690: 1687: 1685: 1682: 1680: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1650: 1647: 1645: 1642: 1640: 1637: 1635: 1632: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1616: 1612: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1541: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1521: 1518: 1516: 1513: 1511: 1508: 1506: 1503: 1501: 1500:Chiloé (1712) 1498: 1496: 1493: 1492: 1488: 1487: 1484: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1473:Panama (1671) 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1427: 1422: 1420: 1419:Taiwan (1642) 1417: 1415: 1414:Taiwan (1641) 1412: 1410: 1409:Brazil (1640) 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1399:Brazil (1638) 1397: 1395: 1394:Brazil (1631) 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1383: 1378: 1376: 1375:Taiwan (1626) 1373: 1371: 1370:Brazil (1625) 1368: 1366: 1363: 1361: 1358: 1356: 1353: 1351: 1348: 1346: 1343: 1342: 1338: 1337: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1293:Brunei (1578) 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1031:Guinea (1478) 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1018: 1014: 1013: 1010: 1005: 995: 990: 988: 983: 981: 976: 975: 972: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 894:Valle de Maíz 892: 890: 889:Mina campaign 887: 885: 882: 881: 878: 871: 865: 855: 850: 848: 843: 841: 836: 835: 832: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 783: 780: 778: 775: 773: 770: 768: 767:Rosillo Creek 765: 763: 760: 759: 758: 755: 753: 750: 748: 745: 743: 740: 738: 735: 733: 730: 728: 725: 723: 720: 718: 715: 713: 710: 708: 705: 703: 700: 698: 695: 693: 690: 688: 685: 683: 680: 679: 676: 669: 661: 651: 646: 644: 639: 637: 632: 631: 628: 616: 613: 611: 608: 606: 603: 601: 598: 596: 593: 591: 588: 586: 583: 581: 578: 576: 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 536: 533: 531: 528: 527: 524: 517: 514:First Stage 509: 499: 494: 492: 487: 485: 480: 479: 476: 466: 461: 457: 456:Juan O'Donojú 452: 445: 440: 433: 428: 421: 416: 409: 404: 398: 397:Ferdinand VII 388: 386: 382: 377: 373: 367: 362: 356: 351: 347: 341: 336: 332: 327: 323: 317: 312: 308: 302: 296: 292: 286: 281: 277: 271: 266: 262: 258: 257: 252: 247: 242: 237: 236: 235: 234: 222: 220: 216: 211: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 183: 182: 177: 169: 165: 161: 156: 155: 149: 145: 143: 139: 136: 133: 131: 128: 127: 126: 125: 121: 118: 117: 113: 101: 98: 97: 91: 88: 87: 83: 80: 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 47: 42: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 8765:Architecture 8660:The Americas 8524:Newfoundland 8514:Túpac Katari 8504:Cuerno Verde 8439:Tenochtitlan 8271:Valenciennes 8028:Luis Fajardo 7897:Blas de Lezo 7842:Duke of Alba 7722:Spanish Road 7560:Buenos Aires 7469:Governorates 7238:Ayuntamiento 7231:Organization 6696:Carlist Wars 6544:Italian Wars 6332:Architecture 6237:Demographics 6081:Central bank 5991:Human rights 5971:Constitution 5789:War on drugs 5764:World War II 5749:Cristero War 5646: 5642:Colonial era 5560: 5553: 5539: 5532: 5513: 5505: 5487: 5483: 5471: 5463: 5448: 5419: 5407: 5393: 5386: 5367: 5358: 5335:(1): 19–48. 5332: 5328: 5305: 5296: 5271: 5267: 5259: 5252: 5245: 5238: 5231: 5213: 5209: 5188: 5184: 5176: 5169: 5148:(1): 63–98. 5145: 5141: 5131: 5111: 5079: 5060: 5052: 5047: 5020: 5010: 4998:. 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Retrieved 4461: 4451: 4421:(1): 20–35. 4418: 4414: 4408: 4400: 4395: 4387: 4346: 4343:The Americas 4342: 4336: 4327: 4305:(4): 39–47. 4302: 4298: 4292: 4273: 4267: 4248: 4230: 4225: 4217: 4212: 4196: 4191:, pp. 59–61. 4188: 4183: 4175: 4170: 4162: 4157: 4149: 4145: 4140: 4121: 4115: 4098: 4088: 4080: 4075: 4067: 4062: 4057:, pp. 27–28. 4054: 4049: 4041: 4036: 4028: 4023: 4015: 4010: 4000: 3992: 3972: 3967: 3959: 3954: 3929: 3919: 3911: 3906: 3898: 3893: 3885: 3877: 3862: 3857: 3849: 3842: 3823: 3807: 3802: 3794: 3789: 3770: 3748: 3723: 3718: 3709: 3703: 3603:Spain portal 3582: 3580: 3565: 3560: 3552: 3537: 3530:Flag of the 3499: 3488: 3465: 3450: 3406: 3363:Juan Álvarez 3360: 3356:Mexican flag 3349: 3345: 3336:peninsulares 3334: 3328:, named for 3322: 3314: 3301: 3299: 3293:Flag of the 3279: 3271: 3246: 3237: 3198: 3189: 3177: 3174: 3143: 3139: 3117: 3101: 3065: 3055: 3049: 3047: 3009: 2984: 2957: 2937: 2915: 2907: 2877: 2872: 2869: 2841:28 September 2838: 2834: 2823: 2811: 2788: 2766: 2749: 2734: 2727: 2713: 2686: 2680: 2677: 2666: 2664:in Dolores. 2662:call to arms 2650: 2643: 2638:, landowner 2631: 2628: 2612:ayuntamiento 2611: 2596: 2588: 2584: 2568: 2564: 2555: 2548: 2541: 2524:eclesiástico 2520: 2518: 2507: 2462: 2410: 2390:PRI downfall 2367: 2338: 2320:Cristero War 2297: 2247: 2193:First Empire 2187: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2088: 2084: 2074: 2068: 2036: 2010: 1998:encomenderos 1997: 1993:encomenderos 1991: 1981: 1973: 1933: 1888: 1884:peninsulares 1877: 1835: 1810: 1808: 1767:20th century 1648: 1613:19th century 1602:Chile (1792) 1489:18th century 1425: 1384:Nevis (1629) 1381: 1339:17th century 1223:Libya (1551) 1047:16th century 1015:15th century 959:Azcapotzalco 869: 861: 772:Alazan Creek 707:Huauchinango 665: 658:Mexican War 657: 513: 506:Mexican War 505: 223: 179:Belligerents 123: 122: 50: 36:Part of the 25: 8732:Philippines 8697:El Salvador 8317:Capo d'Orso 8201:St. Quentin 8176:Rome (1527) 7835:Strategists 7585:Guadalajara 7512:New Navarre 7507:New Castile 7492:La Luisiana 7444:Puerto Rico 7434:Philippines 7391:New Granada 7081:Philippines 7042:(Uruguay), 7038:(Bolivia), 6988:New Granada 6928:Puerto Rico 6874: [ 6744:Territories 6564:Encomiendas 6257:Immigration 6123:Land reform 6071:Agriculture 5893:Territories 5831:Earthquakes 5779:Peso crisis 5774:Lost Decade 5191:(1): 1–20. 4916:25 November 4877:25 November 4468:13 December 4299:Art Journal 3882:Altman, Ida 3568:Díaz regime 3566:During the 3381: [ 3370: [ 2964:Inquisition 2949: [ 2911:Guadalajara 2741:Inquisition 2143:History of 2047:Inquisition 2024:Mexico City 1986:in 1542 by 1964:Isabella II 1927:signed the 1761:Guam (1898) 1547:Cuba (1762) 1515:Oran (1732) 1323:Cuba (1596) 782:San Antonio 762:Nacogdoches 692:El Veladero 668:(1811–1815) 560:Guadalajara 516:(1810–1811) 157:Territorial 8878:Categories 8402:Somosierra 8392:Manila Bay 8266:Nördlingen 8206:Gravelines 7686:Columnario 7658:Currencies 7575:Concepción 7547:Audiencias 7522:New Toledo 7487:La Florida 7320:Corregidor 7284:Papal bull 7189:Antarctica 7097:Micronesia 6554:Golden Age 6416:Television 6374:Literature 6252:Healthcare 6227:Censorship 6222:Corruption 6155:(currency) 6113:Irrigation 5734:Porfiriato 5729:Yaqui Wars 5704:La Reforma 5689:Pastry War 4107:2426912454 3695:References 3520:See also: 3339:; and the 3194:Tamaulipas 2942:Guanajuato 2860:Guanajuato 2777:Guanajuato 2750:corregidor 2603:Charles IV 2498:slavocracy 2293:Revolution 2255:Reform War 2249:La Reforma 2223:Pastry War 2095:confession 2090:Gachupines 2077:archbishop 1956:expedition 1854:Charles IV 1813:(Spanish: 1380:St. Kitts 939:Agua Zarca 804:La Chincúa 722:Tenancingo 590:Tres Palos 580:Guanajuato 540:Valladolid 210:Insurgents 170:, Veracruz 8707:Nicaragua 8685:Guatemala 8595:Pichincha 8580:Chacabuco 8519:Pensacola 8464:Mataquito 8444:Cajamarca 8425:New World 8397:Trafalgar 8301:Alhucemas 8181:Landriano 8166:Comuneros 8152:Old World 8096:Joan Orpí 7816:Royalists 7590:Guatemala 7517:New Spain 7454:Venezuela 7429:Guatemala 7386:New Spain 7381:Columbian 7274:Exequatur 7174:Cape Juby 7028:Argentina 6851:New Spain 6785:Gibraltar 6549:Habsburgs 6379:Monuments 6369:Languages 6242:Education 6161:Petroleum 6118:Labor law 6086:Companies 6028:President 5976:Elections 5866:Mountains 5799:Geography 5724:Caste War 5039:2215-2601 4968:22 August 4821:Vincent, 4658:, p. 110. 4626:, p. 107. 4533:, p. 100. 4520:, p. 100. 4443:154141760 4371:147175103 4319:223311874 3975:, p. 249. 3962:, p. 248. 3946:0031-2746 3914:, p. 247. 3708:Scheina. 3674:New Spain 3457:New Spain 3330:the place 3032:Zitácuaro 3028:El Maguey 3024:Zacatecas 2887:Michoacan 2883:Maravatío 2864:massacred 2746:Querétaro 2645:consulado 2632:Audiencia 2481:Louis XVI 2272:1864–1928 2004:, son of 1938:, led by 944:Zapotepec 904:Peotillos 717:Tecualoya 712:Zitácuaro 697:El Maguey 687:Zacatecas 600:Urepetiro 595:Aguanueva 565:Acaponeta 434:(1816–21) 422:(1810–16) 410:(1810–13) 8717:Colombia 8702:Honduras 8615:Asomante 8600:Ayacucho 8590:Carabobo 8565:Curalaba 8342:Ceresole 8236:Gembloux 8196:Mühlberg 7911:Mariners 7769:Military 7691:Doubloon 7676:Maravedí 7620:Santiago 7527:Paraguay 7253:Germania 7093:Caroline 7048:Malvinas 7032:Paraguay 6992:Colombia 6934:Trinidad 6801:Sardinia 6641:Bourbons 6456:Category 6399:Religion 6359:Folklore 6018:Military 5996:Intersex 5954:Congress 5937:Politics 5923:Wildlife 5913:Volcanos 5754:Maximato 5621:articles 5087:Archived 5068:Archived 5000:30 April 4910:Archived 4871:Archived 4639:Archived 4529:Krauze, 4507:, p. 99. 4503:Krauze, 4315:ProQuest 4103:ProQuest 3831:Archived 3812:Archived 3589:See also 3491:Veracruz 3234:8 Reales 3213:Guerrero 3074:Acapulco 3016:Saltillo 2930:Coahuila 2682:cabildos 2621:Viceroy 2544:hegemony 2475:and the 2412:Timeline 2339:Maximato 2134:a series 2132:Part of 2067:, 1695. 2051:sedition 2032:Lutheran 2028:Catholic 1984:New Laws 1879:criollos 954:Veracruz 819:Temalaca 814:Puruarán 799:Acapulco 747:Escamela 575:San Blas 550:Zacoalco 99:Location 79:Guerrero 75:Iturbide 73:between 67:O'Gorman 8849:Asiento 8820:Mustang 8680:Yucatán 8675:Chiapas 8555:Tucapel 8387:Passaro 8337:Algiers 8327:Preveza 8296:Tetouan 8291:Vitoria 8281:Bitonto 8221:Antwerp 8216:Lepanto 8171:Bicocca 7647:Economy 7570:Charcas 7565:Caracas 7459:Yucatán 7330:Regidor 7315:Alcalde 7243:Cabildo 7150:Tripoli 7089:Mariana 7036:Charcas 7012:(Peru, 6996:Ecuador 6959:Bonaire 6954:Curazao 6939:Jamaica 6867:Florida 6440:Outline 6347:Cuisine 6324:Culture 6314:Welfare 6304:Smoking 6289:Poverty 6210:Society 6186:Tourism 6059:Economy 6033:Cabinet 5851:Islands 5846:Forests 5821:Climate 5811:Borders 5629:History 5351:2515413 5288:2510201 5162:1051967 4435:3874426 4363:1008006 3510:Ecuador 3257:Morelia 3232:Durango 3145:Calleja 3078:Cuautla 2978:Father 2932:at the 2758:Morelia 2673:Bayonne 2536:Jesuits 2085:tumulto 2013:Viceroy 1424:Chiloé 949:Córdoba 929:El Tamo 789:Orizaba 752:Zitlala 727:Cuautla 297: ( 159:changes 150:in 1836 8827:Castas 8585:Boyacá 8560:Guiana 8550:Iguape 8474:Recife 8412:Mactan 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