Marxism–Leninism

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Russia that were considered unfavourable to orthodox Marxist theory of communist revolution. At the time, orthodox Marxists claimed that Russia was ripe for the development of capitalism, not yet for socialism. Lenin advocated the need of the development of a large corps of technical intelligentsia to assist the industrial development of Russia and advance the Marxist economic stages of development as it had too few technical experts at the time. In that vein, Lenin explained it as follows: "Our poverty is so great that we cannot, at one stroke, restore full-scale factory, state, socialist production." He added that the development of socialism would proceed according to the actual material and socio-economic conditions in Russia and not as abstractly described by Marx for industrialised Europe in the 19th century. To overcome the lack of educated Russians who could operate and administrate industry, Lenin advocated the development of a

2865: 3120: 9060:, pp. 308–310: "The linkages between ethnic cleansing and the history of communism in power are manifold. Communist governments, wherever they arose, sought to increase the purview of their states by homogenizing, categorizing and making more transparent their populations. ... The state would weed out the weak and ungovernable ... and eliminate those ethnicities or nationalities that proved able to perpetuate their cultural, political and economic distinctiveness. ... Ethnic cleansing and communism are linked not only in the history of the Soviet Union and Stalin ... Communist governments saw it in their interests to establish ethnically-homogeneous states and territories, sometimes even claiming that 'national' expulsions constituted a 'social' revolution, since those expelled were the bourgeois or aristocratic 'oppressors' of the native peoples" 6643:

strategy of the party, he found confirming evidence for five of the factors contributing to its electoral success, already mentioned in the theoretical literature on former Marxist–Leninist parties, namely the economic situation, the weakness of the opponents, the electoral laws, the fragmentation of the political spectrum and the legacy of the old regime. However, Marandici identified seven additional explanatory factors at work in the Moldovan case, namely the foreign support for certain political parties, separatism, the appeal to the ethnic minorities, the alliance-building capacity, the reliance on the Soviet notion of the Moldovan identity, the state-building process and the control over a significant portion of the media. It is due to these seven additional factors that the party managed to consolidate and expand its constituency. In the

4096: 2683: 8735:, pp. 657, 659: "Lenin argued that power could be secured on behalf of the proletariat through the so-called vanguard leadership of a disciplined and revolutionary communist party, organized according to what was effectively the military principle of democratic centralism. ... The basics of Marxism-Leninism were in place by the time of Lenin's death in 1924. ... The revolution was to be accomplished in two stages. First, a 'dictatorship of the proletariat,' managed by the élite 'vanguard' communist party, would suppress counterrevolution, and ensure that natural economic resources and the means of production and distribution were in common ownership. Finally, communism would be achieved in a classless society in which Party and State would have 'withered away'."; 4395: 8052:

bureaucracy, corruption, and alcoholism. There are production and distribution bottlenecks, plan failures, consumer scarcities, criminal abuses of power, suppression of dissidents, and expressions of alienation among some of the population." Parenti further argued that the economies of Eastern European countries and the Soviet Union suffered from "fatal distortions in their development" because of "embargo, invasion, devastating wars, and costly arms buildup; excessive bureaucratization and poor incentive systems; lack of administrative initiative and technological innovation; and a repressive political rule that allowed little critical expression and feedback while fostering stagnation and elitism."

14387:, p. 200. "When the full record is considered, it makes little sense to try to understand Stalinism either as the victorious implementation of Marxism or as the pure fury of fanatics who cannot achieve their imagined goal. Stalinism meant the substantive abandonment of the Marxian program and the pragmatic acceptance of postrevolutionary Russian reality, while the power of the dictatorship was used to reinterpret and enforce Marxist doctrine as a tool of propaganda and legitimation. No genuine ideological imperative remained. Marxism could be made to appear to justify Stalinism, but it was no longer allowed to serve either as a policy directive or an explanation of reality." 6302: 6265: 6924: 14375:, p. 200. "There remains another theory of Marxism's evil ideological influence that has come into vogue in recent years. This is the argument advanced by the American Catholic political philosopher Eric Voegelin, among others, that the commitment of Marxists to a political belief at one and the same time both deterministic and utopian was a form of "gnosticism," a heresy of hubris, leading them inexorably to the monumental crimes of Stalinism. In this view, the Marxian vision dictated the Stalinist outcome not because the communist utopia was inevitable but because it was impossible." 5589: 8751:, p. 24: "Lenin defended the dictatorial organization of the workers' state. Several years before the revolution, he had bluntly characterized dictatorship as 'unlimited power based on force, and not on law', leaving no doubt that those terms were intended to apply to the dictatorship of the proletariat. ... To socialists who accused the Bolshevik state of violating the principles of democracy by forcibly suppressing opposition, he replied: you are taking a formal, abstract view of democracy. ... The proletarian dictatorship was described by Lenin as a single-party state." 6427: 9022:, p. 301: "The labor camps developed in the USSR were introduced across the communist world. This was especially easy in eastern Europe where they inherited the punitive structures of the Third Reich. But China too was quick in developing its camp network. This became one of the defining features of communism. It is true that other types of society used forced labour as part of their penal system … What was different about communist rulership was the dispatch of people to the camps for no reason other than the misfortune of belonging to a suspect social class." 5729: 6407: 14399:, p. 23. "This article concerns the research done by the author in Stalin's private library. The notes made in the works of Marx, Engels and Lenin suggest that until the end of his life Stalin felt himself in general agreement with these "classics." The choice of books and the notes support the thesis that, despite his historical interest and his identification with some of the tsars as powerful rulers, Stalin always continued to consider himself a Marxist, and that he was uninterested in other systems of thought, including those of traditional Russia." 2502: 5905:(1979–1990) against the Sandinista government. In 1989, the Contra War concluded with the signing of the Tela Accord at the port of Tela, Honduras. The Tela Accord required the subsequent, voluntary demobilisation of the Contra guerrilla armies and the FSLN army. In 1990, a second national election installed to government a majority of non-Sandinista political parties, to whom the FSLN handed political power. Since 2006, the FSLN has returned to government, winning every legislative and presidential election in the process (2006, 2011 and 2016). 2625: 10613:, Arch Getty argued that the Soviet political system was chaotic, that institutions often escaped the control of the centre, and that Stalin's leadership consisted to a considerable extent in responding, on an ad hoc basis, to political crises as they arose. Getty's work was influenced by political science of the 1960s onwards, which, in a critique of the totalitarian model, began to consider the possibility that relatively autonomous bureaucratic institutions might have had some influence on policy-making at the highest level. 4550: 3373: 7239: 10396: 2117: 7339:. The educational system imparts the social norms for a self-disciplined and self-fulfilling way of life, by which the socialist citizens establish the social order necessary for realising a communist society. With the advent of a classless society and the abolition of private property, society collectively assume many of the roles traditionally assigned to mothers and wives, with women becoming integrated into industrial work. This has been promoted by Marxism–Leninism as the means to achieve women's emancipation. 3192:. Trotsky's permanent revolution advocated rapid industrialisation, elimination of private farming and having the Soviet Union promote the spread of communist revolution abroad. Stalin's socialism in one country stressed moderation and development of positive relations between the Soviet Union and other countries to increase trade and foreign investment. To politically isolate and oust Trotsky from the party, Stalin expediently advocated socialism in one country, a policy to which he was indifferent. In 1925, the 6253:. Gorbachev's policies were designed at dismantling authoritarian elements of the state that were developed by Stalin, aiming for a return to a supposed ideal Leninist state that retained one-party structure while allowing the democratic election of competing candidates within the party for political office. Gorbachev also aimed to seek détente with the West and end the Cold War that was no longer economically sustainable to be pursued by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union and the United States under President 4136:

Organised religion was repressed, especially minority religious groups. Education was transformed. Under Lenin, the education system allowed relaxed discipline in schools that became based upon Marxist theory, but Stalin reversed this in 1934 with a conservative approach taken with the reintroduction of formal learning, the use of examinations and grades, the assertion of full authority of the teacher and the introduction of school uniforms. Art and culture became strictly regulated under the principles of

6069: 8747:, p. 140: "The communist party-states collapsed because they no longer fulfilled the essence of a Leninist model: a strong commitment to Marxist-Leninist ideology, rule by the vanguard communist party, and the operation of a centrally planned state socialist economy. Before the mid-1980s, the communist party controlled the military, police, mass media, and state enterprises. Government coercive agencies employed physical sanctions against political dissidents who denounced Marxism-Leninism."; 5859: 19791: 8344: 2013: 18204: 8302: 5601: 4016: 1442: 2567:. Without denying the tragedy of the events, other scholars criticise the interpretation that sees communism as the main culprit as presenting a biased or exaggerated anti-communist narrative. Several academics propose a more nuanced analysis of Marxist–Leninist rule, stating that anti-communist narratives have exaggerated the extent of political repression and censorship in Marxist–Leninist states and drawn comparisons with what they see as atrocities that were perpetrated by 7551: 2932: 6903:, elections are "generally not competitive, with voters having no choice or only a strictly limited choice". Generally, when alternative candidates have been allowed to stand for election, they have not been allowed to promote very different political views. In Marxist–Leninist states, elections are generally held for all positions at all levels of government. In most states, this has taken the form of directly electing representatives, although in some states such as 8316: 5625: 4040: 1454: 19803: 14210:

it (Moore, 2012). Still other scholars argue that the famine was just an effect of the Soviet Union's push for rapid industrialization and a by-product of that was the destruction of the peasant way of life (Fischer, 1935). The final school of thought argues that the Holodomor was caused by factors beyond the control of the Soviet Union and Stalin took measures to reduce the effects of the famine on the Ukrainian people (Davies & Wheatcroft, 2006).

8078:, which remained committed to orthodox Marxism–Leninism, and those democratic Marxist–Leninists which continued to work within the liberal-democratic process for a democratic road to socialism, while many other ruling Marxist–Leninist parties became closer to democratic socialist and social democratic parties. Outside Communist states, reformed Marxist–Leninist communist parties have led or been part of left-leaning coalitions, including in the former 9395:, or populist, parties, amassed the largest popular vote (well in excess of 50 percent) and elected the greatest number of deputies (approximately 60 percent) of all the parties involved. The Bolsheviks, who had usurped power in the name of the soviets three weeks prior to the election, amassed only 24 percent of the popular vote and elected only 24 percent of the deputies. The party of Lenin had not received the mandate of the people to govern them. 4088:

communist party organised Russian society to realise rapid industrialisation programs as defence against Western interference with socialism in Bolshevik Russia. The five-year plans were prepared in the 1920s whilst the Bolshevik government fought the internal Russian Civil War (1917–1922) and repelled the external Allied intervention to the Russian Civil War (1918–1925). Vast industrialisation was initiated mostly based with a focus on

2097:'s updating and adaptation of Marxism–Leninism to Chinese conditions in which revolutionary praxis is primary and ideological orthodoxy is secondary, represents urban Marxism–Leninism adapted to pre-industrial China. The claim that Mao had adapted Marxism–Leninism to Chinese conditions evolved into the idea that he had updated it in a fundamental way applying to the world as a whole. Consequently, Mao Zedong Thought became the official 68: 9450:

revolutionary development. ... On January 5, 1918, the deputies to the Constituent Assembly met in Petrograd; on January 6 the Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets, dominated by Lenin, issued the Draft Decree on the Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly. The Constituent Assembly, the dream of Russian political reformers for many years, was swept aside as a 'deceptive form of bourgeois-democratic parliamentarism.'

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the "revisionist school" as representing those who "insisted that the old image of the Soviet Union as a totalitarian state bent on world domination was oversimplified or just plain wrong. They tended to be interested in social history and to argue that the Communist Party leadership had had to adjust to social forces." These "revisionist school" historians challenged the "totalitarian model", as outlined by political scientist

8676:, p. 14: "Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labeling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism." 18192: 8330: 5613: 4028: 2279: 1466: 7651: 13976:, p. 293: "The new communist states in eastern Europe and east Asia ... had much in common. Usually a single party governed ... . Dictatorship was imposed. The courts and the press were subordinated to political command. The state expropriated large sectors of the economy ... . Religion was persecuted ... . Marxism-Leninism in its Stalinist variant was disseminated, and rival ideologies were persecuted." 5932: 3328:

functionaries much discretion to interpret the intent of orders from Moscow, but this allowed their corruption. To Stalin, the correction of such abuses of authority and economic corruption were responsibility of the NKVD. In the 1937–1938 period, the NKVD arrested 1.5 million people, purged from every stratum of Soviet society and every rank and file of the party, of which 681,692 people were killed as

8668:, p. 21: "Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State."; 7824:. Although some non-communist states used forced labour, according to Service what was different was "the dispatch of people to the camps for no reason other than the misfortune of belonging to a suspect social class." According to Pons, this was justified by Marxist–Leninist ideology and seen as a means of "redemption". According to Service, their economic policies are blamed for causing major 4280: 4696: 7865:

until his death. Graeme Gill stated that Stalinism was "not a natural flow-on of earlier developments; sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors." Gill added that "difficulties with the use of the term reflect problems with the concept of Stalinism itself. The major difficulty is a lack of agreement about what should constitute Stalinism." Historians such as

5786: 2270:. Although the periods and countries vary among different ideologies and parties, they generally accept that the Soviet Union was socialist during Stalin's time, Maoists believe that China became state capitalist after Mao's death, and Hoxhaists believe that China was always state capitalist, and uphold the Albania as the only socialist state after the Soviet Union under Stalin. 3030:(All-Russian Extraordinary Commission) secret police to eliminate anti–Bolshevik opposition in the country. Initially, there was strong opposition to the Bolshevik régime because they had not resolved the food shortages and material poverty of the Russian peoples as promised in October 1917. From that social discontent, the Cheka reported 118 uprisings, including the 5851:, the Quebec government minister. The political manifesto of the FLQ condemned English-Canadian imperialism in French Quebec and called for an independent, socialist Quebec. The Canadian government's harsh response included the suspension of civil liberties in Quebec and compelled the FLQ leaders' flight to Cuba. Uruguay faced Marxist–Leninist revolution from the 5674:

provoked geopolitical, ideological and nationalist tensions, which derived from the different stages of development, between the urban society of the industrialised Soviet Union and the agricultural society of the pre-industrial China. The theory versus praxis arguments escalated to theoretic disputes about Marxist–Leninist revisionism and provoked the

9005:, pp. 5–6: "Whereas fascist totalitarianism in Italy and Germany was crushed in 1945, communist totalitarianism was reinforced in the USSR and other Marxist-Leninist states ... enough was achieved in the pursuit of comprehensive political monopoly for the USSR – as well as most other communist states – to be rightly described as totalitarian." 8157:

work of 19th-century European reformers and were greatly expanded during World War I, when state actors in all the combatant countries dramatically increased efforts to mobilise and control their populations. As the Soviet state was born at this moment of total war, it institutionalised state intervention as permanent features of governance.

5832:(22–28 October 1962) occurred when the United States opposed Cuba being armed with nuclear missiles by the Soviet Union. After a stalemate confrontation, the United States and the Soviet Union jointly resolved the nuclear-missile crisis by respectively removing United States missiles from Turkey and Italy and Soviet missiles from Cuba. 7044:(as when housing is determined by one's ability to pay)", and condemned "wide variations in personal wealth as the West has not" whilst emphasizing equality, by which they mean "free education and medical care, little disparity in housing or salaries, and so forth." When asked to comment on the claim that former citizens of 6144:

officially supported the overthrow of apartheid while the West and the United States in particular maintained official neutrality on the matter. In the 1976–1977 period of the Cold War, the United States and other Western countries found it morally untenable to politically support Apartheid South Africa, especially when the

1973:, who had previously supported multi-party free elections. After the Bolshevik defeat, Lenin started referring to the assembly as a "deceptive form of bourgeois-democratic parliamentarism". This was criticised as being the development of vanguardism as a form of hierarchical party–elite that controlled society. 8672:, p. 45: "Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all."; 3039:

1921–1924 period featured the simultaneous occurrence of economic recovery, famine (1921–1922) and a financial crisis (1924). By 1924, considerable economic progress had been achieved and by 1926 the Bolshevik government had achieved economic production levels equal to Russia's production levels in 1913.

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Marxist–Leninists respond that there was generally no unemployment in Marxist–Leninist states and all citizens were guaranteed housing, schooling, healthcare and public transport at little or no cost. In his critical analysis of Marxist–Leninist states, Ellman stated that they compared favorably with

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in China, partly as a result of Marxist–Leninist ideology. According to Gray, they were justified as a means of maintaining "proletarian power". According to Gray and Walker, political dissidents were deemed to be "distorting the true path to communism". According to Pons, repression of social groups

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had collapsed. On the one hand, as a result of the Pan-European Picnic, the Marxist–Leninist rulers of the Eastern Bloc did not act decisively, but cracks appeared between them and on the other hand the media-informed Central and Eastern European population now noticed a steady loss of power in their

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In the 1950s, the de-Stalinisation of the Soviet Union was ideological bad news for the People's Republic of China because Soviet and Russian interpretations and applications of Leninism and orthodox Marxism contradicted the Sinified Marxism–Leninism of Mao Zedong—his Chinese adaptations of Stalinist

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Stalin exercised extensive personal control over the party and unleashed an unprecedented level of violence to eliminate any potential threat to his regime. While Stalin exercised major control over political initiatives, their implementation was in the control of localities, often with local leaders

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with Stalinism, i.e. government by command-policy to realise projects such as the rapid industrialisation of cities and the collectivisation of agriculture. Such Stalinism also subordinated the interests (political, national and ideological) of Asian and European communist parties to the geopolitical

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Twelve years before the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks had failed to assume control of the February Revolution of 1905 (22 January 1905 – 16 June 1907) because the centres of revolutionary action were too far apart for proper political coordination. To generate revolutionary momentum from

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scholarship". According to Haynes and Klehr, "revisionists" are more numerous and dominate academic institutions and learned journals. A suggested alternative formulation is "new historians of American communism", but that has not caught on because these historians describe themselves as unbiased and

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after them, and is reveling because, being popularized after Lenin's death by Stalin, it contained three clear doctrinal and institutionalized principles that became a model for later Soviet-type regimes; its global influence, having at its height covered at least one-third of the world's population,

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Concepts of totalitarianism became most widespread at the height of the Cold War. Since the late 1940s, especially since the Korean War, they were condensed into a far-reaching, even hegemonic, ideology, by which the political elites of the Western world tried to explain and even to justify the Cold

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is added by democratic socialists to attempt to distinguish themselves from Communists who also call themselves socialists. All but communists, or more accurately, Marxist-Leninists, believe that modern-day communism is highly undemocratic and totalitarian in practice, and democratic socialists wish

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stated that many forms of state interventionism used by Marxist–Leninist governments, including social cataloging, surveillance and internment camps, pre-dated the Soviet regime and originated outside Russia. Hoffman further stated that technologies of social intervention developed together with the

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To secure the economic and settler colonies, foreign sources of new capital-investment-profit, the imperialist state seeks either political or military control of the limited resources (natural and human). The First World War (1914–1918) resulted from such geopolitical conflicts among the empires of

6899:, as a means to develop socialism and then communism. The communist party is the supreme political institution of the state. Marxism–Leninism asserts that the people's interests are fully represented through the communist party and other state institutions. In the words of historians Silvio Pons and 6642:

resulted in roughly the same representation in the parliament. According to Ion Marandici, a Moldovan political scientist, the Party of Communists differs from those in other countries because it managed to appeal to the ethnic minorities and the anti-Romanian Moldovans. After tracing the adaptation

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and during the Cold War was dominated by the "totalitarian model" of the Soviet Union, stressing the absolute nature of Stalin's power. The "revisionist school" beginning in the 1960s focused on relatively autonomous institutions which might influence policy at the higher level. Matt Lenoe described

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Scholars also disagree over what role the Soviet Union played in the tragedy. Some scholars point to Stalin as the mastermind behind the famine, due to his hatred of Ukrainians (Hosking, 1987). Others assert that Stalin did not actively cause the famine, but he knew about it and did nothing to stop

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wrote that there was a rise in living standards throughout Eastern Bloc countries as the result of modernisation programs under Marxist–Leninist governments. Sen found that several Marxist–Leninist states made significant gains in life expectancy and commented "one thought that is bound to occur is

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stated that Marxism–Leninism is inherently oppressive, writing that the "Marxian vision dictated the Stalinist outcome not because the communist utopia was inevitable but because it was impossible." Criticism like this has itself been criticised for philosophical determinism, i.e. that the negative

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to be torn down. The event in East Germany developed into a popular mass revolt with sections of the Berlin Wall being torn down and East and West Berliners uniting. Gorbachev's refusal to use Soviet forces based in East Germany to suppress the revolt was seen as a sign that the Cold War had ended.

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defeated the French re-establishment of European colonialism in Vietnam. To fill the geopolitical power vacuum caused by French defeat in southeast Asia, Vietnam was divided into South Vietnam and North Vietnam in 1954, and the United States then became the Western power supporting the client-state

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Social developments in the Soviet Union included the relinquishment of the relaxed social control and allowance of experimentation under Lenin to Stalin's promotion of a rigid and authoritarian society based upon discipline, mixing traditional Russian values with Stalin's interpretation of Marxism.

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According to Rachel Walker, "Marxism–Leninism" is an empty term that depends on the approach and basis of ruling Communist parties, and is dynamic and open to redefinition, being both fixed and not fixed in meaning. As a term, "Marxism–Leninism" is misleading because Marx and Lenin never sanctioned

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In the intervening quarter-century, the Soviet Union has changed substantially. Our knowledge of the Soviet Union has changed as well. We all know that the traditional paradigm no longer satisfies, despite several efforts, primarily in the early 1960s (the directed society, totalitarianism without

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of 1991 in which hardline Marxist–Leninist military leaders overthrew Gorbachev and seized control of the government. This regime only lasted briefly as widespread popular opposition erupted in street protests and refused to submit. Gorbachev was restored to power, but the various Soviet republics

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as the official state ideology. As the specifically Chinese development of Marxism–Leninism, Maoism illuminated the cultural differences between the European-Russian and the Asian-Chinese interpretations and practical applications of Marxism–Leninism in each country. The political differences then

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against the Germanic invaders who would exterminate Slavic Russia. Hitler's attack against the Soviet Union (Nazi Germany's erstwhile ally) realigned Stalin's political priorities, from the repression of internal enemies to the existential defence against external attack. The pragmatic Stalin then

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achieved the rapid industrialisation (coal, iron and steel, electricity and petroleum, among others) and the collectivisation of agriculture. It achieved 23.6% of collectivisation within two years (1930) and 98.0% of collectivisation within thirteen years (1941). As the revolutionary vanguard, the

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to eliminate any person who might be a threat, whether real, potential, or imagined. As an administrator, Stalin governed the Soviet Union by controlling the formulation of national policy, but he delegated implementation to subordinate functionaries. Such freedom of action allowed local communist

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Political developments in the Soviet Union included Stalin dismantling the remaining elements of democracy from the party by extending his control over its institutions and eliminating any possible rivals. The party's ranks grew in numbers, with the party modifying its organisation to include more

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revolutionaries, Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky recommended amelioration of the dekulakisation to lessen the negative social impact in the relations between the Soviet peoples and the party, but Stalin took umbrage and then accused them of uncommunist philosophical deviations from Lenin and Marx. That

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since at least 1974. Daniel Schwekendiek wrote that what made North Korean Marxism–Leninism distinct from that of China and the Soviet Union was that it incorporated national feelings and macro-historical elements in the socialist ideology, opting for its "own style of socialism". The major Korean

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argued that Marxist–Leninist ideology contradicted Marxism and Leninism in theory, therefore Stalin's ideology was not useful for the implementation of socialism in Russia. Moreover, Trotskyists within the party identified their anti-Stalinist communist ideology as Bolshevik–Leninism and supported

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Richter, Michael (2006). "Die doppelte Diktatur: Erfahrungen mit Diktatur in der DDR und Auswirkungen auf das Verhältnis zur Diktatur heute." [The double dictatorship: experiences with dictatorship in the GDR and effects on the relationship to the dictatorship today.]. In Besier, Gerhard;

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The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist

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dismissed the Marxist–Leninist idea of a "vanguard", stating that a revolution could not be brought about by command. She predicted that once the Bolsheviks had banned multi-party democracy and internal dissent, the "dictatorship of the proletariat" would become the dictatorship of a faction, and

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stating that Marxism was used to "justify Stalinism, but it was no longer allowed to serve either as a policy directive or an explanation of reality" during Stalin's rule. In contrast, E. Van Ree wrote that Stalin considered himself to be in "general agreement" with the classical works of Marxism

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until his death in 1953. In Marxist political discourse, Stalinism, denoting and connoting the theory and praxis of Stalin, has two usages, namely praise of Stalin by Marxist–Leninists who believe Stalin successfully developed Lenin's legacy, and criticism of Stalin by Marxist–Leninists and other

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was the revolutionary means to achieving socialism in the praxis of government, the relationship between ideology and decision-making inclined to pragmatism and most policy decisions were taken in light of the continual and permanent development of Marxism–Leninism, with ideological adaptation to

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The dominant account gives no sense of how communist regimes renewed themselves after 1956 or why western leaders feared they might overtake the capitalist world well into the 1960s. For all its brutalities and failures, communism in the Soviet Union, eastern Europe and elsewhere delivered rapid

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In Western Europe, communist parties, which were still committed to Marxism–Leninism through more democratic means, were part of the initial post-war governments, and even when the Cold War forced many of those countries to remove them from government, such as in Italy, they remained part of the

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in Europe. In 1912, Lenin resolved a factional challenge to his ideological leadership of the RSDLP by the Forward Group in the party, usurping the all-party congress to transform the RSDLP into the Bolshevik party. In the early 1910s, Lenin remained highly unpopular and was so unpopular amongst

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during his dictatorship in the Soviet Union, continuing to be the official state ideology after de-Stalinisation and of other Marxist–Leninist states, the basis for elements of Marxism–Leninism predate this. The philosophy of Marxism–Leninism originated as the pro-active, political praxis of the

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of old Cambodia, first by displacing the population of the capital city, Phnom Penh; and then by displacing the national populace to work farmlands to increase food supplies. Meanwhile, the Khmer Rouge purged Kampuchea of internal enemies (social class and political, cultural and ethnic) at the

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licensed Stalin to accuse Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky of plotting against the party and the appearance of impropriety then compelled the resignations of the Old Bolsheviks from government and from the Politburo. Stalin then completed his political purging of the party by exiling Trotsky from the

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and the techniques required to operate and administrate industries. Importantly, Lenin declared that the development of socialism would not be able to be pursued in the manner originally thought by Marxists. A key aspect that affected the Bolshevik regime was the backward economic conditions in

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have offered other explanations and criticise the focus on the upper levels of society and use of concepts such as totalitarianism which have obscured the reality of the system. While the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world's first nominally communist state led to communism's widespread

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In the 1990s, following the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet Union, social democracy was adopted by some of the old communist parties. Hence, parties such as the Czech Social Democratic Party, the Bulgarian Social Democrats, the Estonian Social

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The opposition between the West and Soviet totalitarianism was often presented as an opposition both moral and epistemological between truth and falsehood. The democratic, social, and economic credentials of the Soviet Union were typically seen as 'lies' and as the product of a deliberate and

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In 1953, Carl Friedrich characterised totalitarian systems in terms of five points: an official ideology, control of weapons and of media, use of terror, and a single mass party, 'usually under a single leader'. There was of course an assumption that the leader was critical to the workings of

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Meanwhile, the Central and Eastern European Marxist–Leninist states politically deteriorated in response to the success of the Polish Solidarity movement and the possibility of Gorbachev-style political liberalisation. In 1989, revolts began across Central and Eastern Europe and China against

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Foreign policy in the Soviet Union from 1929 to 1941 resulted in substantial changes in the Soviet Union's approach to its foreign policy. In 1933, the Marxist–Leninist geopolitical perspective was that the Soviet Union was surrounded by capitalist and anti-communist enemies. As a result, the

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disagrees with blanket condemnations of former Marxist–Leninist countries, he condemned "Stalin and his autocratic system of rule and believed there were things seriously wrong with existing Soviet society.", including "serious problems of labor productivity, industrialization, urbanization,

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and the native populations and to create new markets. That the capitalists' control of national politics ensures the government's military safeguarding of colonial investments and the consequent imperial competition for economic supremacy provokes international wars to protect their national

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In the economic praxis of Bolshevik Russia, there was a defining difference of political economy between socialism and communism. Lenin explained their conceptual similarity to Marx's descriptions of the lower-stage and the upper-stage of economic development, namely that immediately after a

6143:

caused much geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union because of the Afrikaners' violent social control and political repression of the black and coloured populations of South Africa exercised under the guise of anti-communism and national security. The Soviet Union

3038:

and the lack of modern technology which were conditions that orthodox Marxism considered unfavourable to communist revolution. Agricultural Russia was sufficiently developed for establishing capitalism, but it was insufficiently developed for establishing socialism. For Bolshevik Russia, the

4572:

of the Eastern Bloc countries under Soviet predominance featured an official-and-personal style of socialist diplomacy that failed Stalin and Tito when Tito refused to subordinating Yugoslavia to the Soviet Union. In 1948, circumstance and cultural personality aggravated the matter into the

15049:

Democratic Party, and the Romanian Social Democratic Party, among others, achieved varying degrees of electoral success. Similar processes took place in Africa as the old communist parties were transformed into social democratic ones, even though they retained their traditional titles ... .

9449:

The political significance of the election to the Russian Constituent Assembly is difficult to as by a large segment of the Russian people ascertain since the Assembly was partly by a large segment of the Russian people as not being really necessary to fulfill their desires in this era of

2741:

from Russia. Membership in both the Bolshevik and Menshevik ranks diminished from 1907 to 1908 while the number of people taking part in strikes in 1907 was 26% of the figure during the year of the Revolution of 1905, dropping to 6% in 1908 and 2% in 1910. The 1908–1917 period was one of

13988:, p. 306: "Elections in the Communist states, at least until the final years when the systems were undergoing reform, were generally not competitive, with voters having no choice or only a strictly limited choice. Most elections had only one candidate standing for each position." 7480:

In the vertical perspective (social-class relations) of Marxism–Leninism, the internal and international affairs of a country are a political continuum, not separate realms of human activity. This is the philosophic opposite of the horizontal perspectives (country-to-country) of the

2000:(1926) represented Marxism–Leninism as a separate communist ideology and featured a global hierarchy of communist parties and revolutionary vanguard parties in each country of the world. With that, Stalin's application of Marxism–Leninism to the situation of the Soviet Union became 8717:

from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.

4152:

government in Germany initially caused the Soviet Union to sever diplomatic relations that had been established in the 1920s. In 1938, Stalin accommodated the Nazis and the anti-communist West by not defending Czechoslovakia, allowing Hitler's threat of pre-emptive war for the

7227:

proletarian revolution in the socialist lower-stage society the practical economy must be based upon the individual labour contributed by men and women, and paid labour would be the basis of the communist upper-stage society that has realised the social precept of the slogan "

4208:'s extensive and effective attack threatened the territorial integrity of the Soviet Union and the political integrity of Stalin's model of a Marxist–Leninist state, when the Nazis were initially welcomed as liberators by the anti-communist and nationalist populations in the 3288:

trade unions and factories. The ranks and files of the party were populated with members from the trade unions and the factories, whom Stalin controlled because there were no other Old Bolsheviks to contradict Marxism–Leninism. In the late 1930s, the Soviet Union adopted the

4643:

of the party and of the Soviet Union. He realised this with the dismantling of the Gulag archipelago of forced-labour camps and freeing the prisoners as well as allowing Soviet civil society greater political freedom of expression, especially for public intellectuals of the

3062:(8 November 1917) fulfilled Lenin's promised redistribution of Russia's arable land to the peasants, who reclaimed their farmlands from the aristocrats, ensuring the peasants' loyalty to the Bolshevik party. To overcome the civil war's economic interruptions, the policy of 7171:

are set and differentiated according to skill and intensity of work. While socially utilised means of production are under public control, personal belongings or property of a personal nature that does not involve mass production of goods remains unaffected by the state.

2498:, which stated that the Soviet Union and other Marxist–Leninist states were totalitarian systems, with the personality cult, and almost unlimited powers of the "great leader", such as Stalin. It was considered to be outdated by the 1980s and for the post-Stalinist era. 7223:. These reforms were promoted to encourage materialism and acquisitiveness in order to stimulate economic growth. This pro-consumerist policy has been advanced on the lines of industrial pragmatism as it advances economic progress through bolstering industrialisation. 2729:(Department for Protecting the Public Security and Order), émigré Bolsheviks returned to Russia to agitate, organise and lead, but then they returned to exile when peoples' revolutionary fervour failed in 1907. The failure of the February Revolution exiled Bolsheviks, 6060:. That social restructuring of Cambodia into Kampuchea included attacks against the Vietnamese ethnic minority of the country which aggravated the historical, ethnic rivalries between the Viet and the Khmer peoples. Beginning in September 1977, Kampuchea and the 7187:, the primary goal before achieving communism was the development of socialism in itself. Such was the case in the Soviet Union, where the economy was largely agrarian and urban industry was in a primitive stage. To develop socialism, the Soviet Union underwent 6064:

continually engaged in border clashes. In 1978, Vietnam invaded Kampuchea and captured Phnom Penh in January 1979, deposed the Maoist Khmer Rouge from government and established the Cambodian Liberation Front for National Renewal as the government of Cambodia.

3304:(representing the ethnic groups of the country). By 1939, with the exception of Stalin himself, none of the original Bolsheviks of the October Revolution of 1917 remained in the party. Unquestioning loyalty to Stalin was expected by the regime of all citizens. 5765:

when the United States sponsored the People's Republic of China to replace the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the representative of the Chinese people at the United Nations. In the due course of Sino-American rapprochement, China also assumed membership in the

6179:, the West joined the Soviet Union and others in enacting sanctions against weapons trade and weapons-grade material to South Africa. However, forceful actions by the United States against Apartheid South Africa were diminished under President Reagan as the 3070:, state-controlled means of distribution and nationalisation of large-scale farms, was adopted to requisite and distribute grain in order to feed industrial workers in the cities whilst the Red Army was fighting the White Army's attempted restoration of the 3017:

As promised to the Russian peoples in October 1917, the Bolsheviks quit Russia's participation in the Great War on 3 March 1918. That same year, the Bolsheviks consolidated government power by expelling the Mensheviks, the Socialist Revolutionaries and the

3078:

of Russia. Moreover, the politically unpopular forced grain-requisitions discouraged peasants from farming resulted in reduced harvests and food shortages that provoked labour strikes and food riots. In the event, the Russian peoples created an economy of

7354:

without any socio-economic mobility. It focuses upon modernisation and distancing society from the past, the bourgeoisie and the old intelligentsia. The socio-cultural changes required for establishing a communist society are realised with education and

5449: 7501:, allowed the exportation of high-profit investment capital to undeveloped countries with uneducated, native populations (sources of cheap labour), plentiful raw materials for exploitation (factors for manufacture) and a colonial market to consume the 8178:, "has been to relativise the unique crimes of Nazism, bury those of colonialism and feed the idea that any attempt at radical social change will always lead to suffering, killing and failure." Other leftists, including some Marxist–Leninists, apply 3148:

on 21 January 1924, Lenin's political testament was read aloud to the Central Committee, who chose to ignore Lenin's ordered removal of Stalin as General Secretary because enough members believed Stalin had been politically rehabilitated in 1923.

2864: 4581:

to the geopolitical agenda (economic and military) of the Soviet Union, i.e. Tito at Stalin's disposal. Stalin punished Tito's refusal by denouncing him as an ideological revisionist of Marxism–Leninism; by denouncing Yugoslavia's practice of

7119:

and of distribution to supply and deliver the goods and services required throughout society and the national economy. The state serves as a safeguard for the ownership and as the coordinator of production through a universal economic plan.

7103:(material necessity) would maximise individual liberty by enabling men and women to pursue their interests and innate talents (artistic, industrial and intellectual) whilst working by choice, without the economic coercion of poverty. In the 6654:'s 1980s reforms by initiating significant privatisation of the national economy. At the same time, no corresponding political liberalisation has occurred as happened in previous years to Eastern European countries. In the early 2010s, the 6726:

in 2008. Prachanda has since been deposed as prime minister, leading the Maoists, who consider Prachanda's removal to be unjust, to abandon their legalistic approach and return to their street actions and militancy and to lead sporadic

5756:

with the United States in an effort to publicly challenge the Soviet Union for leadership of the international Marxist–Leninist movement. Mao Zedong's pragmatism permitted geopolitical rapprochement and eventually facilitated President

3308:

interpreting the policies in a way that served themselves best. This abuse of power by local leaders exacerbated the violent purges and terror campaigns carried out by Stalin against members of the party deemed to be traitors. With the

5987:

operation that decisively turned international public opinion against the United States intervention to the Vietnamese civil war, with the military withdrawal of the United States from Vietnam in 1973 and the subsequent and consequent

3246:. In 1929, Stalin politically controlled the party and the Soviet Union by way of deception and administrative acumen. In that time, Stalin's centralised, socialism in one country régime had negatively associated Lenin's revolutionary 15019:

Because many communists now call themselves democratic socialists, it is sometimes difficult to know what a political label really means. As a result, social democratic has become a common new label for democratic socialist political

7267:(childcare and continuing education) necessary to increase the productivity of the workers and the socialist economy to develop a communist society. As part of the planned economy, the Marxist–Leninist state is meant to develop the 3312:(1936–1938), Stalin rid himself of internal enemies in the party and rid the Soviet Union of any alleged socially dangerous and counterrevolutionary person who might have offered legitimate political opposition to Marxism–Leninism. 2802:

international socialist movement that by 1914 it considered censoring him. Unlike the European socialists who chose bellicose nationalism to anti-war internationalism, whose philosophical and political break was consequence of the

4315:

effectively resisted the German Nazi and Italian Fascist occupation. In the 1943–1944 period, the Yugoslav Partisans liberated territories with Red Army assistance and established the communist political authority that became the

4168:

front organisations to encourage European socialists and democrats to join the Soviet communists to fight throughout Nazi-occupied Europe, creating agreements with France to challenge Germany. After Germany and Britain signed the

2256:, the ruling parties hold Marxism–Leninism as their official ideology, although they give it different interpretations in terms of practical policy. Marxism–Leninism is also the ideology of anti-revisionist, Hoxhaist, Maoist, and 7718:. Rival ideologies were persecuted, including dissident leftists, and most elections had only one candidate. According to Daniel Gray, Silvio Pons, and David Martin Walker, Marxist–Leninist regimes have carried out killings and 6349:

in 1980 and the subsequent vacuum of strong leadership amidst an economic crisis allowed the rise of rival ethnic nationalism in the multinational country. The first leader to exploit such nationalism for political purposes was

8135:

Others such as Parenti stated that Marxist–Leninist states experienced greater economic development than they would have otherwise, or that their leaders were forced to take harsh measures to defend their countries against the

7460:) withers away, so shall international relations wither away because they are projections of national economic forces, Lenin said that the capitalists' exhaustion of domestic sources of investment profit by way of price-fixing 6458: 12529: 10742:

terror, the mobilization system) to articulate an acceptable variant. We have come to realize that models which were, in effect, offshoots of totalitarian models do not provide good approximations of post-Stalinist reality.

7641:

said that ideologically the "Bolshevik communists were not merely atheists, but, according to Lenin's terminology, militant atheists" in excluding religion from the social mainstream, from education and from government.

2722:. Most importantly, the experience of this revolution caused Lenin to conceive of the means of sponsoring socialist revolution through agitation, propaganda and a well-organised, disciplined and small political party. 7778:, as partly of an effort to extend state control by homogenising their populations and removing ethnic groups that maintained their "cultural, political and economic distinctiveness". Such states have been accused of 7146:

of the worker are determined according to the type of skills and the type of work he or she can perform within the national economy. Moreover, the economic value of the goods and services produced is based upon their

4200:, who were poorly led, ill-trained and under-equipped. As a result, they fought poorly and suffered great losses of soldiers (killed, wounded and captured). The weakness of the Red Army was partly consequence of the 2742:

disillusionment in the Bolshevik party over Lenin's leadership, with members opposing him for scandals involving his expropriations and methods of raising money for the party. This political defeat was aggravated by

8285:

in contemporary times, writing that the latter "are guilty of mass manslaughter or mass deaths from criminal negligence because of their not taking obvious measures to reduce mass deaths", and a possible defense of

3183:

in the party and the country. The direction of the party was decided in confrontations of politics and personality between Stalin's troika and Trotsky over which Marxist policy to pursue, either Trotsky's policy of

2170:

that excluded such political rapprochement with the West. To the Albanian Marxist–Leninists, the Chinese dealings with the United States indicated Mao's lessened, practical commitments to ideological orthodoxy and

7294:

and an education that teaches citizens to abide by a disciplined and self-fulfilling lifestyle dictated by the social norms of communism as a means to establish a new social order. The judicial reformation of

6440:

Since the fall of the Eastern European Marxist–Leninist regimes, the Soviet Union and a variety of African Marxist–Leninist regimes in 1991, only a few Marxist–Leninist parties remained in power. This include

11585: 7873:

criticised the focus upon the upper levels of society and the use of Cold War concepts, such as totalitarianism, which have obscured the reality of Marxist–Leninist systems, such as that of the Soviet Union.

10534:

Academic Sovietology, a child of the early Cold War, was dominated by the 'totalitarian model' of Soviet politics. Until the 1960s it was almost impossible to advance any other interpretation, in the USA at

3007: 8152:, including the rights that everyone is treated equal regardless of education or financial stability; that any citizen can keep a job; or that there is a more efficient and equal distribution of resources. 4111:

During the 1930s, the rapid industrialisation of the country accelerated the Soviet people's sociological transition from poverty to relative plenty when politically illiterate peasants passed from Tsarist

3241:

in the 1920s). In 1927, the party endorsed Stalin's policy of socialism in one country as the Soviet Union's national policy and expelled the leftist Trotsky and the centrists Kamenev and Zinoviev from the

1969:, which obtained 37.6%. On 6 January 1918, the Draft Decree on the Dissolution of the Constituent Assembly was issued by the Central Executive Committee of the Congress of Soviets, a committee dominated by 11179: 10697:... the Western scholars who in the 1990s and 2000s were most active in scouring the new archives for data on Soviet repression were revisionists (always 'archive rats') such as Arch Getty and Lynne Viola. 3143:

of the party and that he be replaced with "some other person who is superior to Stalin only in one respect, namely, in being more tolerant, more loyal, more polite, and more attentive to comrades." Upon

15387: 4363:(16 April–2 May 1945). On concluding the Great Patriotic War (1941–1945), the Soviet Union was a military superpower with a say in determining the geopolitical order of the world. Apart from the failed 5835:

Both Bolivia, Canada and Uruguay faced Marxist–Leninist revolution in the 1960s and 1970s. In Bolivia, this included Che Guevara as a leader until being killed there by government forces. In 1970, the

16043: 10381: 10189: 5701:, who voted for war despite the absent Soviet Union and authorised an international military expedition to intervene, expel the northern invaders from the south of Korea and restore the geopolitical 17730: 2994:. These communist forces were soon crushed by anti-communist forces and attempts to create an international communist revolution failed. However, a successful revolution occurred in Asia, when the 2555:

and described deaths under Marxist–Leninist regimes (civil wars, deportations, famines, repressions, and wars) as being a direct consequence of Marxism–Leninism. Some of these works, in particular

4465:

in the Third World. With the end of the Grand Alliance and the start of the Cold War, anti-fascism became part of both the official ideology and language of Marxist–Leninist states, especially in

2655:

in realising political change in Tsarist Russia. Lenin's leadership transformed the Bolsheviks into the party's political vanguard which was composed of professional revolutionaries who practised

2373:

to stress the importance of Stalin's leadership to the Marxist–Leninist ideology. Radek's suggestion failed to catch on, as Stalin as well as CPSU's ideologists preferred to continue the usage of

17725: 7517:. For the colonised working classes who create the wealth (goods and services), the elimination of war for natural resources (access, control, and exploitation) is resolved by overthrowing the 4116:

to self-determination and became politically aware urban citizens. The Marxist–Leninist economic régime modernised Russia from the illiterate, peasant society characteristic of monarchy to the

16438: 6398:

were now set for independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev officially announced the dissolution of the Soviet Union, ending the existence of the world's first Marxist–Leninist-led state.

2476:), "orthodox", and "right-wing"; Norman Markowitz, a prominent "revisionist", referred to them as "reactionaries", "right-wing romantics", "romantics", and "triumphalist" who belong to the " 8024:

dismissed Marxism–Leninism as political opportunism that preserved capitalism because of the claim that the exchange of commodities would occur under socialism. He believed that the use of

5995:

With the end of the Vietnam War, Vietnam was reunited under Marxist–Leninist government in 1976. Marxist–Leninist regimes were also established in Vietnam's neighbour states. This included

1714:

in 1924, Marxism–Leninism became a distinct movement in the Soviet Union when Stalin and his supporters gained control of the party. It rejected the common notion among Western Marxists of

9924: 8781:

The 1936 Constitution described the Soviet Union for the first time as a 'socialist society', rhetorically fulfilling the aim of building socialism in one country, as Stalin had promised.

5697:

and the imperial war for regional hegemony sponsored by the United States and the Soviet Union. The international response to the North Korean invasion of South Korea was realised by the

9770: 2710:(22 January 1905), the Bolsheviks encouraged workers to use political violence in order to compel the bourgeois social classes (the nobility, the gentry and the bourgeoisie) to join the 4602:

and the establishment of Yugoslavia's diplomatic and commercial relations with countries of the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc. Yugoslavia's international relations matured into the

3638: 7228: 4598:(Cominform). The break from the Eastern Bloc allowed the development of a socialism with Yugoslav characteristics which allowed doing business with the capitalist West to develop the 2309: 12847:

Lahodynsky, Otmar (9 August 2014). "Paneuropäisches Picknick: Die Generalprobe für den Mauerfall" [Pan-European picnic: the dress rehearsal for the fall of the Berlin Wall].

12539: 8218:. According to Parenti, these revolutionary governments "extended a number of popular freedoms without destroying those freedoms that never existed in the previous regimes", such as 3034:(7–17 March 1921) against the economic austerity of the War Communism imposed by the Bolsheviks. The principal obstacles to Russian economic development and modernisation were great 18710: 16073: 16024: 12942: 12294:

multiform propaganda. ... In this context, the concept of totalitarianism was itself an asset. As it made possible the conversion of prewar anti-fascism into postwar anti-communism.

10362: 10264: 10170: 10066: 9254: 8971: 8564: 5669:

interpretation and praxis for establishing socialism in China. To realise that leap of Marxist faith in the development of Chinese socialism, the Chinese Communist Party developed

1775:

The internationalism of Marxism–Leninism was expressed in supporting revolutions in other countries, initially through the Communist International and then through the concept of

9843: 17536: 17403: 6076:, a trilingual sign in English, Afrikaans and Zulu enforces the segregation of a Natal beach as exclusively "for the sole use of members of the white race group." The Afrikaner 5233: 3139:

of December 1922 named Trotsky and Stalin as the most able men in the Central Committee, but he harshly criticised them. Lenin said that Stalin should be removed from being the

1764: 808: 649: 16506: 11215: 8056:

liberal-democratic process. By the 1960s and 1970s, many Western Marxist–Leninists had criticised many of the actions of Communist states, distanced from them, and developed a

7489:

approaches to international relations. Colonial imperialism is the inevitable consequence in the course of economic relations among countries when the domestic price-fixing of

7359:(agitation and propaganda) which reinforce communal and communist values. The modernisation of educational and cultural policies eliminates the societal atomisation, including 1867:

regimes, have been variously described as "bureaucratic-authoritarian systems", and China's socio-economic structure has been referred to as "nationalistic state capitalism".

15471: 10571:

totalitarianism: at the apex of a monolithic, centralised, and hierarchical system, it was he who issued the orders which were fulfilled unquestioningly by his subordinates.

2200:. In 2009, the constitution was quietly amended so that not only did it remove all Marxist–Leninist references present in the first draft but also dropped all references to 13121: 4359:(5 July – 23 August 1943). The Red Army then repelled the Nazi and Fascist occupation armies from Eastern Europe until the Red Army decisively defeated Nazi Germany in the 3164:

said that the true threat to the ideological integrity of the party was Trotsky, who was a personally charismatic political leader as well as the commanding officer of the

2920:(1917–1922) against the Bolshevik government. Moreover, despite the White–Red civil war, Russia remained a combatant in the Great War that the Bolsheviks had quit with the 19857: 19114: 19097: 17531: 17526: 17521: 5228: 5223: 5218: 4084: 3340:

camps for regular criminals and political dissidents, for culturally insubordinate artists and politically incorrect intellectuals and for homosexual people and religious

3140: 3128: 2450:, historiography is characterised by a split between traditionalists and revisionists. "Traditionalists", who characterise themselves as objective reporters of an alleged 1788: 803: 798: 793: 14196: 6183:

feared the rise of revolution in South Africa as had happened in Zimbabwe against white minority rule. In 1979, the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan to establish a

19144: 6199:, as a means to challenge the Soviet Union. The war became a Soviet equivalent of the Vietnam War to the United States and it remained a stalemate throughout the 1980s. 5824:, a state formally recognised by the Soviet Union. In response, the United States launched a coup against the Castro government in 1961. However, the CIA's unsuccessful 5693:(1950–1953), the first proxy war between the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc, resulted from dual origins, namely the nationalist Koreans' post-war resumption of their 5078: 3193: 2663:

of proactive, pragmatic commitment to achieving revolution was the Bolsheviks' advantage in out-manoeuvring the liberal and conservative political parties who advocated

14973: 12678: 10792: 5128: 11081: 11579: 6762: 6410:

Map of current and former Communist states, most of which followed, as party or state–party ideology, or were inspired by Marxist–Leninist ideology and development:

14126: 10891: 7203:

to grow food to feed the industrial workers in the industrialised cities. Since the mid-1930s, Marxism–Leninism has advocated an austere social-equality based upon

6207: 8269:

stated that mass deaths from famines are not a "uniquely Stalinist evil", and compared the behavior of the Stalinist regime vis-à-vis the Holodomor to that of the

4618: 3782: 2955: 2856:(17 August 1914 – 3 March 1918) by sending Lenin and his Bolshevik cohort in a diplomatically sealed train, anticipating them partaking in revolutionary activity. 11169: 2142:

of the 1970s, a small portion of Marxist–Leninists began to downplay or repudiate the role of Mao in the Marxist–Leninist international movement in favour of the

19087: 16918: 16164: 7064: 7000:

after the Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe at the end of World War II. Similarly, inequality went back up after the collapse of the Soviet system. According to

6703: 4104: 3807: 1795:, political centralisation, and repression. During the Cold War, Marxism–Leninist countries like the Soviet Union and its allies were one of the major forces in 16551: 11903: 6289:

to test the reaction of the Soviet Union, then triggered a peaceful chain reaction in August 1989, at the end of which there was no longer East Germany and the

4617:

became leader of the Soviet Union and of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and then consolidated an anti-Stalinist government. In a secret meeting at the

2054: 19607: 19107: 15359: 7756: 6457:. Most Marxist–Leninist communist parties outside of these nations have fared relatively poorly in elections, although other parties have remained or became a 1496: 3098:

restored some private enterprise to animate the Russian economy. As part of Lenin's pragmatic compromise with external financial interests in 1918, Bolshevik

18240: 16609: 16064: 16019: 14160: 13090: 10349: 10157: 7740: 7666:

and in the last phase of the wall's development the "death strip" between fence and concrete wall gave guards a clear shot at would-be escapees from the East

6117: 4457:(1947–1991), a protracted state of tension (military and diplomatic) between the United States and the Soviet Union which often threatened a Soviet–American 3387: 144: 5804:

Communist revolution erupted in the Americas in this period, including revolutions in Bolivia, Cuba, El Salvador, Grenada, Nicaragua, Peru and Uruguay. The

4177:(1938–1945), Stalin adopted pro-German policies for the Soviet Union's dealings with Nazi Germany. In 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany agreed to the 19133: 19102: 16798: 9389:

Out of a total vote of approximately 42 million and a total of 703 elected deputies, the primarily agrarian Social Revolutionary Party, plus nationalistic

8387: 7188: 5828:(17 April 1961) by anti-communist Cuban exiles impelled the Republic of Cuba to side with the Soviet Union in the geopolitics of the bipolar Cold War. The 3243: 8144:. Parenti wrote that accounts of political repression are exaggerated by anti-communists and that communist party rule provided some human rights such as 7056:, replied: "Millions of people in Eastern Europe are now free from employment, free from safe streets, free from health care, free from social security." 19092: 19044: 18168: 13033: 6992:

The fact that Marxist–Leninist governments confiscated private businesses and landholdings radically increased income and property equality in practice.

6627: 2005: 1416: 14499: 6326:

Honecker was pressured to resign from office and the new government committed itself to reunification with West Germany. The Marxist–Leninist regime of

6112:(1961–1974) in three countries, namely Angola, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. In Ethiopia, a Marxist–Leninist revolution deposed the monarchy of Emperor 16955: 15602: 15070: 13060: 11042: 7989:, where the capitalist elite have been replaced by an unaccountable bureaucratic elite and there is no true democracy or workers' control of industry. 4855: 3224: 10609:

Tucker's work stressed the absolute nature of Stalin's power, an assumption which was increasingly challenged by later revisionist historians. In his

30:

This article is about the political philosophy and state ideology developed by Joseph Stalin. For countries governed by Marxist–Leninist parties, see

19341: 15425: 9800: 7794:; there is still a debate among scholars whether ideology played a role, to what extent, and whether they meet the legal definition of genocide. For 6381:

The Soviet Union itself collapsed between 1990 and 1991, with a rise of secessionist nationalism and a political power dispute between Gorbachev and

4383: 2105:

as well as the ideological basis of communist parties around the world which sympathised with China. In the late 1970s, the Peruvian communist party

16923: 8094:, which abolished the monarchy in 2008 and turned the country into a federal liberal-democratic republic, and have democratically shared power with 1237: 19852: 16448: 14085: 8064:. This development was criticised by both non-Marxist–Leninists and other Marxist–Leninists in the East as amounting to social democracy. With the 5170: 13834:

The origin of Marxist–Leninist atheism, as understood in the USSR, is linked with the development of the German philosophy of Hegel and Feuerbach.

3050:

which had been private property of the Russian aristocracy during the Tsarist monarchy. Lenin was immediately committed to avoid antagonising the

18098: 13000: 7286:

and ending the exploitation of women. Marxist–Leninist policy on family law has typically involved the elimination of the political power of the

4627: 1335: 13297: 9993: 2746:'s political reformations of Imperial Russian government. In practise, the formalities of political participation (the electoral plurality of a 17746: 16581: 12830:

Szabo, Hilde (16 August 1999). "Die Berliner Mauer begann im Burgenland zu bröckeln" [The Berlin Wall began to crumble in Burgenland].

9743: 8182:, and have at times criticised Marxist–Leninist praxis and some actions by Marxist–Leninist governments, while acknowledging its advancements, 8016:

but rather a composite ideology that Stalin used to expediently determine what is communism and what is not communism for the countries of the

7633:) to examine the socio-economic relations among people and things as parts of a dynamic, material world that is unlike the immaterial world of 7099:

that give limited financial-access to the material necessities of life, such as food and shelter. That personal and societal emancipation from

6611: 6506: 6108:

became Marxist–Leninist states governed by their respective native peoples during the 1968–1980 period. Marxist–Leninist guerrillas fought the

5399: 4269: 3812: 15336: 11256: 11122: 6606:

has led an interim and later national unity government between 1989 and 1990, constantly remaining the third or fourth most popular party. In

1898:, as well as free universal education and healthcare, low unemployment and lower prices for certain goods. Historians such as Silvio Pons and 19039: 18652: 18015: 6164:

for education which black South Africans were required to speak when addressing white people and Afrikaners; and the police assassination of

5983:(the General Offensive and Uprising of Tet Mau Than, 1968). Although a military failure for the guerrillas and the army, it was a successful 4672:. In that geopolitical vein, Khrushchev presented de-Stalinisation as the restoration of Leninism as the state ideology of the Soviet Union. 3332:. To provide manpower (manual, intellectual and technical) to realise the construction of socialism in one country, the NKVD established the 2810:(1914–1918). That nationalist betrayal of socialism was denounced by a small group of socialist leaders who opposed the Great War, including 1257: 14862: 8039:

Other leftists, including Marxist–Leninists, criticise it for its repressive state actions, while recognising certain advancements, such as

7247:

which reads the following: "In order to have more, it is necessary to produce more. In order to produce more, it is necessary to know more."

6187:(existed until 1992), although the act was seen as an invasion by the West which responded to the Soviet military actions by boycotting the 2982:. In Hungary, the disorganised workers who had proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic were fought and defeated by the royal armies of the 18705: 17885: 17845: 17517: 13401: 8382: 8367: 7417: 5975:

politician. Despite possessing military superiority, the United States failed to safeguard South Vietnam from the guerrilla warfare of the

5382: 5213: 2925: 2905: 2832: 1137: 1100: 788: 171: 17691: 6650:

In Asia, a number of Marxist–Leninist regimes and movements continue to exist. The People's Republic of China has continued the agenda of

5913: 2659:

to elect leaders and officers as well as to determine policy through free discussion, then decisively realised through united action. The

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which is then regulated with nationalist wars such as the Great War among the empires of Europe. To relieve strategic pressures from the

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in the 1970s. This was made official in 1992 and 2009, when constitutional references to Marxism–Leninism were dropped and replaced with

724: 719: 714: 709: 14582: 14288: 12330: 7111:

that improve the means of production and the means of distribution. To meet the material needs of a socialist society, the state uses a

2085:

claimed to be the sole heir and successor to Stalin concerning the correct interpretation of Marxism–Leninism and ideological leader of

19481: 19441: 19351: 19162: 18678: 18000: 17413: 10995: 9878: 9823: 6623: 4578: 4557: 4510:

The events that precipitated the Cold War in Europe were the Soviet and Yugoslav, Bulgarian and Albanian military interventions to the

3650: 3119: 1962: 1489: 656: 12915:

The Factors Leading to the Electoral Success, Consolidation and Decline of the Moldovan Communists' Party During the Transition Period

7383:

necessary for developing a communist society as opposed to the antithetic bourgeois individualist associated with social atomisation.

2485:

scholarly and contrast their work to the work of anti-communist traditionalists whom they would term biased and unscholarly. Academic

19469: 19364: 19236: 19022: 18233: 17975: 17671: 14475:

Alam, Javeed. “Can Democratic Centralism Be Conducive to Democracy?” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 44, no. 38, 2009, pp. 37–42.

11205: 10846:"Advocating for the Cause of the 'Victims of Communism' in the European Political Space: Memory Entrepreneurs in Interstitial Fields" 8634: 7275:(political education) to facilitate their contextual understanding of the historical development of communism as presented in Marx's 6631: 6595: 6466: 3852: 3296:

for every man and woman older than 18 years of age and organised the soviets (councils of workers) into two legislatures, namely the

2147: 1212: 918: 5709:

at the 38th Parallel of global latitude. Consequent to Chinese military intervention in behalf of North Korea, the magnitude of the

19907: 19374: 19291: 19184: 17881: 16818: 11841: 6912: 6715: 6342: 5655: 5424: 5404: 4317: 3772: 2547:), wrote of mass, excess deaths under Marxist–Leninist regimes. These authors defined the political repression by communists as a " 2409:

should be the bulwark of the revolutionary energy, which is led by the working class. Three common Maoist values are revolutionary

1132: 15448: 12104: 7024:, they were correct to the extent that historically only violent shocks have resulted in major reductions in economic inequality. 6731:

using their substantial influence on the Nepalese labour movement. These actions have oscillated between mild and intense. In the

2113:, a contemporary variety of Marxism–Leninism that is a supposed higher level of Marxism–Leninism that can be applied universally. 1799:. With the death of Stalin and the ensuing de-Stalinisation, Marxism–Leninism underwent several revisions and adaptations such as 19847: 19314: 19121: 18988: 18163: 13113: 7771: 6389:. With the Soviet Union collapsing, Gorbachev prepared the country to become a loose federation of independent states called the 5456: 5444: 5439: 4095: 3172:

and revolutionary partner of Lenin. To thwart Trotsky's likely election to head the party, Stalin, Kamenev and Zinoviev formed a

2098: 1411: 12880: 9721: 3011: 19012: 18857: 17805: 17398: 17010: 15532: 14186: 7192: 6851: 6801: 6793: 6755: 6748: 6553: 5779: 5758: 4209: 3645: 3402: 2652: 2632: 2551:", "Communist genocide", "Red Holocaust", or followed the "victims of Communism" narrative. Some of them compared Communism to 1816: 1748: 1060: 644: 313: 16531: 9901: 8290:

and his associates is that "their behaviour was no worse than that of many rulers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."

7107:

of upper-stage economic development, the elimination of alienating labour (mechanistic work) depends upon the developments of

6996:

dropped in Russia under the rule of the Soviet Union, then rebounded after its demise in 1991. It also dropped rapidly in the

6678:, the communists continued to shrink in India and are currently only take power in the state of Kerala. The armed wing of the 5678:(1956–1966) and the two countries broke their international relations (diplomatic, political, cultural and economic). China's 2682: 19872: 19499: 19000: 18966: 18954: 18949: 18840: 18102: 17477: 16691: 16424: 16401: 16304: 16282: 16256: 16225: 16153: 16123: 16086: 16037: 15979: 15885: 15862: 15836: 15783: 15734: 15711: 15554: 15512: 15465: 15306: 15265: 15172: 15122: 15041: 15012: 14944: 14918: 14740: 14424: 14341: 14302: 14252: 14052: 13929: 13897: 13808: 13783: 13751: 13722: 13568: 13539: 13371: 13229: 13159: 12814: 12773: 12741: 12662: 12621: 12574: 12509: 12453: 12424: 12394: 12369: 12324: 12286: 12253: 12122: 12064: 11706: 11480: 11451: 11426: 11401: 10989: 10917: 10825: 10602: 10563: 10527: 10375: 10285: 10183: 10140: 10079: 9965: 9918: 9837: 9695: 9660: 9582: 9473: 9331: 9299: 9267: 9192: 9111: 8984: 8812: 8774: 8709: 8581: 8534: 8499: 8464: 8431: 8179: 8145: 8129: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6230:

Social resistance to the policies of Marxist–Leninist regimes in Eastern Europe accelerated in strength with the rise of the

5329: 5146: 4807: 3700: 3437: 2803: 1792: 1538:. It was the predominant ideology of most communist governments throughout the 20th century. It was developed in Russia by 1482: 1342: 820: 741: 676: 191: 19426: 16365: 14347: 14115:"The Crime of Genocide Committed against the Poles by the USSR before and during World War II: An International Legal Study" 12688: 10895: 10761: 9479: 9117: 8072:, there was a split among Marxist–Leninists between those hardline Marxist–Leninists, sometimes referred to in the media as 6245:

rose to power in the Soviet Union and began policies of radical political reform involving political liberalisation, called

1722:. According to its supporters, the gradual transition from capitalism to socialism was signified by the introduction of the 19536: 19304: 18226: 18020: 17835: 17800: 17472: 17423: 15178: 14830: 14430: 14258: 10945: 7482: 7200: 7073: 6770: 6639: 6619: 6615: 6565: 6374:

in 1990, the victory of nationalists in multi-party elections in most of Yugoslavia's constituent republics and eventually

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is derived from Marxism–Leninism, although its evolution is disputed. Marxist–Leninist states are commonly referred to as "

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Because Marxism–Leninism has historically been the state ideology of countries who were economically undeveloped prior to

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communist parties worldwide. The anti-revisionists criticise some rule of the communist states by claiming that they were

19867: 19416: 19082: 19029: 19017: 18078: 18029: 18005: 17980: 17860: 17840: 16838: 16778: 16753: 15904: 14746: 14114: 6915:

this also included indirect elections, such as deputies being elected by deputies as the next lower level of government.

6847: 6766: 6647:, the Party of Communists are the only ones who have been in power for so long and did not change the name of the party. 6584: 5736:

facilitated Russian and Chinese rapprochement with the United States and expanded East–West geopolitics into a tri-polar

5511: 4217: 4193: 4174: 3407: 2672: 2082: 1598: 1318: 1242: 1217: 1115: 1095: 9154: 8438:

By 1985, one-third of the world's population lived under a Marxist–Leninist system of government in one form or another.

5916:, an organisation of left-wing parties fighting against the right-wing military government of El Salvador. In 1983, the 4522:(1948–1949) by the Soviet Union. The event that precipitated the Cold War in continental Asia was the resumption of the 19464: 19459: 19179: 19127: 17970: 17960: 17815: 17810: 17795: 17766: 17666: 16574: 13847: 10301:

Walker, Rachel (April 1989). "Marxism–Leninism as Discourse: The Politics of the Empty Signifier and the Double Bind".

10211:

Meisner, Maurice (January–March 1971). "Leninism and Maoism: Some Populist Perspectives on Marxism-Leninism in China".

8864: 6831: 6744: 6736: 6659: 6525: 6474: 6390: 6371: 6257:

joined in pushing for the dismantlement of apartheid and oversaw the dismantlement of South African colonial rule over

6184: 6043:. To eliminate Western cultural influence, Kampuchea expelled all foreigners and effected the destruction of the urban 5387: 4255:

meant to realise the Nazi German colonisation of Bolshevik Russia. In response, Stalin ordered the Red Army to fight a

4213: 3935: 3832: 2951: 2885: 2564: 1070: 1065: 1050: 1015: 913: 15951: 11522: 8919: 7411:

between communist and non-communist anti-fascists against strong fascist movements. This Marxist–Leninist approach to

6576: 19716: 19667: 19600: 19411: 19139: 18741: 18645: 18108: 17855: 17830: 17825: 17711: 17700: 17026: 16641: 16359: 16331: 16318: 16004: 15760: 15221: 14901: 14884: 13431: 13331: 11892: 11875: 10495: 10463: 10431: 8091: 7752: 7486: 7473: 6679: 6635: 6541: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6470: 5917: 5409: 4631:(25 February 1956) in which he specified and condemned Stalin's dictatorial excesses and abuses of power such as the 4204:(1936–1938) of senior officers and career soldiers whom Stalin considered politically unreliable. Strategically, the 4128:

was virtually eliminated in the country during the 1930s. However, this rapid industrialisation also resulted in the

3862: 1871: 1349: 1110: 1085: 1080: 958: 946: 119: 10028: 9799:[First stipulation of the 'Seongun Thought' of the North Korean Constitution] (in Korean). Radio Free Asia. 8128:

and Paul Gready reported that Marxist–Leninist states pressed Western governments to include economic rights in the

7335:("illegitimate children"), and voided the political power of the bourgeoisie and the private property-status of the 7131:

as the guiding principle of the economy. The state's huge purchasing power replaces the role of market forces, with

2928:

by the armies of seventeen countries, featuring Great Britain, France, Italy, the United States and Imperial Japan.

2344:

was advocated and classes deemed hostile were to be repressed. In the 1920s, it was first defined and formulated by

19902: 19842: 19746: 19734: 19558: 19548: 19504: 19319: 18995: 18944: 18827: 17900: 17820: 17686: 16511:(2nd revised ed.). Translated and edited from Russian by Dutt, Clemens. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. 14771: 14333: 13921: 11512: 8107: 7008:

that was so attractive to egalitarian Western intellectuals that they quietly justified the killing of millions of

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from the Eastern European countries occupied by the Axis Powers and installed native Marxist–Leninist governments.

3238: 2991: 1828: 1152: 1075: 933: 17: 16556:. Translated by Syrovatkin, Sergei. Moscow: Progress Publishers. Retrieved 31 December 2020 – via Wayback Machine. 14148: 13082: 11578:, ed. (1927) . "First All-Russian Congress of Soviets: Composition of the First All-Russian Congress of Soviets". 7027:

Marxist–Leninists respond to this type of criticism by highlighting the ideological differences in the concept of

6277:

Marxist–Leninist regimes. In China, the government refused to negotiate with student protestors, resulting in the

19751: 19739: 19595: 19580: 19494: 19396: 18978: 18798: 18325: 17895: 17865: 17850: 17721: 16945: 16748: 16723: 9507: 8065: 7559: 7415:

derives from the analyses (political, economic, sociological and geopolitical) that Lenin presented in the essay

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legislative elections, respectively. From 2017 to 2021, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia supported the

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Soviet Union in 1929. Afterwards, the political opposition to the practical régime of Stalinism was denounced as

3003: 2472:. Alternative characterisations for traditionalists include "anti-communist", "conservative", "Draperite" (after 2401:, who gave a more democratic implication than Lenin's for why workers remained passive. A key difference between 2110: 1672: 1295: 1147: 1120: 1105: 968: 235: 9758: 7199:

and then became the workforce of the new factories and industries. Similarly, the farmer populations worked the

2818:

and Lenin, who said that the European socialists had failed the working classes for preferring patriotic war to

19692: 19672: 19369: 18983: 18808: 18736: 17910: 17761: 17751: 17676: 17627: 17622: 17418: 17408: 16773: 14294: 13023: 8891: 6867: 6683: 6478: 6334:

was forcefully overthrown in 1989 and Ceaușescu was executed. Almost Eastern Bloc regimes also fell during the

6278: 6235: 5314: 5302: 5138: 4374:, with the Soviet Union contributing to the Allied victory in World War II. In accordance with the three-power 4129: 3867: 3842: 3019: 2999: 2893: 1162: 1010: 1000: 923: 885: 661: 10897:

The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law)

7881:, noting that a large number of people in the Soviet Union were still in poverty despite its planned economy. 3284:(Bolshevik–Leninism), described as a deviation from Marxism–Leninism, the state ideology of the Soviet Union. 19827: 19763: 19590: 19454: 19406: 19167: 18961: 18835: 18818: 17890: 17781: 17681: 16634: 16604: 16567: 14961: 14490: 12683: 11833: 7982: 7587: 7184: 6904: 6781: 6758: 6723: 6573: 6331: 6140: 6077: 6061: 5414: 4591: 4543: 4426: 2904:, the Bolshevik's seizure of power against the Provisional Government resulted in their establishment of the 2734: 2102: 1966: 1762:, this text became the foundation of the philosophy of Marxism–Leninism. In 1938, Stalin's official textbook 1142: 1030: 928: 102: 82: 51: 15807: 15582: 15062: 13056: 11032: 8246:, economic betterment, the preservation of health and human life, and the end of many of the worst forms of 7421:(1917). Extrapolating from five philosophical bases of Marxism, namely that human history is the history of 19359: 19034: 18929: 18730: 18638: 18604: 18087: 17965: 17905: 17587: 17512: 16823: 16758: 16686: 16671: 15896: 14192: 11393: 8057: 7972:, are critical of Marxism–Leninism, particularly for what they see as its authoritarianism. Polish Marxist 7760: 7703: 7630: 7583: 7545: 5648: 5334: 5208: 4740: 4661: 4595: 3752: 3180: 2995: 2819: 2755: 2172: 2066: 1328: 1207: 1157: 850: 783: 181: 156: 15413: 14790:

The Human Rights Reader: Major Political Essays, Speeches, and Documents from Ancient Times to the Present

11511:(1974) . "First All Russia Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies". In Apresyan, Stephan; 9793: 4394: 3102:

temporarily returned 91% of industry to private ownership or trusts until the Soviet Russians learned the

2183:, which retained orthodox Marxism–Leninism when compared to the ideology of the post-Stalin Soviet Union. 19897: 19640: 19622: 19388: 19246: 19207: 19174: 18864: 18852: 18768: 18670: 18619: 18599: 18308: 17995: 17776: 17632: 17442: 17139: 17090: 16733: 16544:. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House. Retrieved 31 December 2020 – via Marxists Internet Archive. 12996: 10901: 8372: 8243: 7837: 7791: 7347: 7308: 7220: 6080:

cited anti-communism as a reason for the treatment of the black and coloured populations of South Africa.

5324: 5030: 4178: 3673: 3452: 3320: 3216: 2853: 2841: 2751: 2690: 2523: 2510: 2329: 1776: 1232: 1025: 704: 371: 250: 14072: 13360:

The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century

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in the public and private affairs of human society. The tenets of the Soviet Union's national policy of

6301: 19635: 19612: 19585: 18594: 18429: 18113: 18040: 18035: 17985: 17925: 17786: 17492: 16978: 16266: 16145: 16137: 15538: 15164: 15114: 14461: 13363: 12361: 11174: 10720: 10594: 10555: 10519: 10310: 10089: 9095: 8008:, pp. 110–126 and dismissed one-party rule as undemocratic. She further stated that it is neither 7986: 7795: 7744: 7323:

secular into a "free and voluntary union" between persons who are social-and-legal equals, facilitated

7180: 6900: 6843: 6592: 6557: 6486: 6049: 5847:(FLQ) featured the kidnap of James Cross, the British Trade Commissioner in Canada; and the killing of 5718: 4715: 4056: 3822: 3727: 3054:

by making efforts to coax them away from the Socialist Revolutionaries, allowing a peasant takeover of

2881: 2439: 2009:

Marxists who repudiate Stalin's political purges, social-class repressions and bureaucratic terrorism.

1985: 1899: 1843:. The socio-economic nature of Marxist–Leninist states, especially that of the Soviet Union during the 1758: 1602: 1359: 1267: 1252: 1222: 1035: 761: 14913:

Parenti, Michael (August 2007). Contrary Notions: The Michael Parenti Reader. City Lights Books, 403.

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In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism. ... he adjective

9149: 7452:

of the means of production and so will eliminate the economic causes of war; and that once the state (

7219:

semi-officially allowed some limited, small-scale wage inequality to boost labour productivity in the

5893:(1 December 1974 – 17 July 1979) to establish a socialist Nicaragua. Within months, the government of 3203:

Kamenev and Zinoviev for an expedient alliance with the three most prominent leaders of the so-called

19887: 19832: 19677: 19650: 19553: 18293: 18218: 17945: 17642: 17577: 16828: 16763: 16496: 14866: 13289: 12278: 9505:

Franks, Benjamin (May 2012). "Between Anarchism and Marxism: The Beginnings and Ends of the Schism".

8914: 6859: 6797: 6789: 6603: 5722: 5429: 5344: 4970: 4835: 4792: 4515: 4406: 3990: 3827: 2963: 2943: 2939: 2533: 2230: 2159: 1848: 978: 19645: 18563: 17319: 13415: 11253: 9407:

Dando, William A. (June 1966). "A Map of the Election to the Russian Constituent Assembly of 1917".

9347:

Dando, William A. (June 1966). "A Map of the Election to the Russian Constituent Assembly of 1917".

9204:

to emphasise by their name that they disagree strongly with the Marxist-Leninist brand of socialism.

6156:

upon the non-white peoples of South Africa, specifically the imposition of the Germanic language of

3196:

chose Stalin's policy, defeating Trotsky as a possible leader of the party and of the Soviet Union.

1878:. Marxist–Leninist states have been marked by a high degree of centralised control by the state and 1874:

and mainly focuses on the actions and policies of Marxist–Leninist leaders, most notably Stalin and

551: 19892: 19758: 18589: 18461: 17955: 17428: 17048: 16879: 16701: 16488: 16351: 16274: 15802: 15326: 15298: 15004: 13362:. The Princeton Economic History of the Western World (hardcover ed.). Princeton, New Jersey: 12881:"People's Front 0.33% ahead of Poroshenko Bloc with all ballots counted in Ukraine elections – CEC" 12056: 11837: 11112: 10762:"A Tale of 'Two Totalitarianisms': The Crisis of Capitalism and the Historical Memory of Communism" 10586: 10547: 10511: 8377: 7316: 6027:

to restructure the society of old Cambodia and to be effected and realised with the abolishment of

5890: 5419: 5162: 5154: 4767: 4657: 4345: 4120:, socialist society of educated farmers and industrial workers. Industrialisation led to a massive 3857: 3847: 3817: 3442: 3289: 3189: 2979: 2959: 2341: 2048: 1863:. The Eastern Bloc, including Marxist–Leninist states in Central and Eastern Europe as well as the 1727: 1719: 1202: 973: 671: 273: 201: 9982: 8701: 8688: 6234:, the first non-Marxist–Leninist controlled trade union in the Warsaw Pact that was formed in the 2340:, was hailed to be a historical necessity by Marxist–Leninists. Moreover, the introduction of the 97: 19007: 18473: 18406: 18330: 18303: 17990: 17950: 17940: 17935: 17597: 17393: 16873: 16656: 16393: 14856: 14244: 14156: 13560: 12566: 12501: 11612: 11037: 9829: 8766: 8697: 7618: 7412: 6351: 6109: 6053: 5844: 5641: 5573: 5506: 5372: 5191: 5120: 4797: 4531: 4325: 4304: 4284: 3930: 3900: 3633: 3301: 3145: 2921: 2694: 2394: 2382: 2209: 2179:, head of the Albanian Labour Party, theorised anti-revisionist Marxism–Leninism, referred to as 2078: 1796: 1739: 1610: 1594: 1590: 1579: 1559: 1197: 1192: 1187: 860: 686: 639: 134: 12943:"Mid-life crisis or terminal decline? The Indian Communist movement from its foundation to-date" 11136:

industrialisation, mass education, job security and huge advances in social and gender equality.

7167:

as a driving force for production is replaced by social obligation to fulfil the economic plan.

6264: 2624: 19877: 19687: 19279: 19217: 18512: 18347: 17219: 17129: 16416: 15846: 14040: 13410: 12316: 10788: 9957: 8274: 7925: 7861: 7533: 7525: 7312: 7276: 6923: 6136: 6073: 5292: 4649: 4496: 4261: 3915: 3555: 2798: 2711: 2495: 2212:, which eventually developed after losing its original Marxist–Leninist elements. According to 1743: 1227: 446: 361: 216: 17164: 15207: 15108: 13441: 13143: 12046: 11797: 4351:

In 1943, the Red Army began to repel the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, especially at the

4251:

killings of the Jewish populations, the local communists, the civil and community leaders—the

391: 19806: 18778: 18337: 18320: 18010: 17607: 17542: 17274: 16813: 16803: 16209: 15854: 14751:

The Soviet bureaucracy and Western capitalism rested on mutually antagonistic social systems.

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that transplanted peasant populations to the cities, where they were educated and trained as

7152: 7041: 6822:

In the Americas, there have been several insurgencies and Marxist–Leninist movements. In the

6800:

is a pan-African, Marxist–Leninist party founded in 2013 by expelled former president of the

6580: 6393:. Hardline Marxist–Leninist leaders in the military reacted to Gorbachev's policies with the 6180: 6093: 5984: 5886: 5870: 5733: 4802: 4574: 4492: 4402: 3995: 3925: 3895: 3457: 2987: 2743: 2656: 2390: 2337: 2304:

and his successors. Endorsing the final objective, namely the creation of a community-owning

2266: 2143: 2024: 1864: 1832: 1680: 1660: 1247: 870: 506: 124: 114: 17189: 16347:

The Bolsheviks: The Intellectual and Political History of the Triumph of Communism in Russia

16107: 14996: 13148:

Totalitarianism and the Prospects for World Order: Closing the Door on the Twentieth Century

10979: 9870: 9248:

Morgan, W. John (2001). "Marxism-Leninism: The Ideology of Twentieth-Century Communism". In

8965:

Morgan, W. John (2001). "Marxism-Leninism: The Ideology of Twentieth-Century Communism". In

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variants, across the political spectrum. Most Marxist–Leninist states have been regarded as

6132:(1964–1979) that deposed white-minority rule and then established the Republic of Zimbabwe. 4975: 3540: 1734:, the Soviet Union, and the Communist International to establish universal Marxist–Leninist 416: 19568: 19431: 19251: 18763: 17695: 17602: 17567: 17334: 17016: 16706: 16176: 15775: 15203: 13870: 13714: 10850: 7849: 7833: 7719: 7514: 7256: 7176: 7135: 7092: 6740: 6588: 6517: 6363: 6188: 6153: 6020: 5909: 5829: 5825: 5683: 5479: 5392: 5260: 5104: 4777: 4665: 4603: 4410: 4352: 3685: 3490: 3255: 3185: 3136: 3124: 2707: 2568: 2325: 2296:, as they became equivalent to the ideas of Marxism–Leninism, namely the interpretation of 2289: 2044: 1883: 1723: 1648: 1567: 1531: 941: 865: 835: 566: 206: 67: 19655: 17294: 11170:"How To Be A Socialist Without Being An Apologist For The Atrocities Of Communist Regimes" 8946: 8649: 8032:

were more effective than a vanguard organised by democratic centralism. Anarcho-communist

7715: 7123:

For the purpose of reducing waste and increasing efficiency, scientific planning replaces

6327: 3595: 2518: 2505: 1919:, several academics say that Marxism–Leninism in practice was a form of state capitalism. 531: 8: 19795: 19524: 19329: 19258: 19066: 18915: 18793: 18715: 18688: 18614: 18524: 18342: 18257: 18118: 17652: 17637: 17612: 17344: 17063: 17042: 16890: 16808: 16676: 16646: 16521: 16502: 16478: 16292: 15648: 14997: 14793: 14763: 9910: 9465:

The Socialist Alternative to Bolshevik Russia: The Socialist Revolutionary Party, 1921–39

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narrative that Stalin and Hitler were twin evils, therefore communism is as monstrous as

7957: 7937: 7860:

events in the movement's history were predetermined by their convictions, with historian

7614: 7506: 7380: 7376: 7336: 7272: 7116: 7013: 6979: 6966: 6938: 6827: 6785: 6751: 6502: 6406: 6367: 6359: 6355: 6335: 6282: 6269: 6004: 5964: 5951: 5839:(5 October – 28 December 1970) occurred in Canada, a brief revolution in the province of 5775: 5563: 5434: 5319: 5297: 5270: 5265: 4817: 4745: 4636: 4504: 4371: 4341: 4189: 3980: 3960: 3885: 3757: 3515: 3297: 3095: 3047: 3031: 2971: 2869: 2763: 2604: 2543: 2305: 2167: 2139: 2124: 1840: 1804: 1692: 1676: 1364: 1354: 890: 875: 616: 576: 283: 166: 17304: 17154: 16716: 14609:

Meyer, Gerald (Summer 2003). "Anarchism, Marxism and the Collapse of the Soviet Union".

12246:

The Totalitarian Paradigm after the End of Communism: Towards a Theoretical Reassessment

7524:

and establishing a socialist state because a peaceful world economy is feasible only by

6776:

In Africa, several Marxist–Leninist states reformed themselves and maintained power. In

5950:(1955–1975) was the second East–West war fought during the Cold War (1947–1991). In the 5778:

that allowed continual growth for the Chinese economy. The ideological justification is

541: 19882: 19837: 19662: 19573: 18890: 18803: 18693: 18683: 17647: 17592: 17467: 17354: 17229: 17031: 16983: 16385: 16314: 16196: 16188: 15943: 15828: 15772:

Communism in History and Theory: From Utopian Socialism to the Fall of the Soviet Union

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Western states in some health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy.

8029: 7949: 7870: 7775: 7579: 7502: 7498: 7469: 7196: 7139: 6839: 6707: 6699: 6644: 6426: 6386: 6129: 5921: 5920:(25–29 October 1983) thwarted the assumption of power by the elected government of the 5728: 5679: 5521: 5474: 5349: 5307: 5255: 5025: 4940: 4915: 4812: 4710: 4491:, became epithets widely used by Marxist–Leninists to smear their opponents, including 4320:. To end the Imperial Japanese occupation of China in continental Asia, Stalin ordered 4308: 4182: 3965: 3690: 3600: 3525: 3520: 3495: 3412: 3356: 3329: 3324: 3293: 2983: 2901: 2884:(KPD) and anti-communist Freikorps units called in by the German government led by the 2747: 2676: 2611:

communist and other socialist currents, both of which have been victims of repression.

2608: 2596: 2548: 2293: 2090: 2062: 1911: 1860: 1684: 1606: 1535: 895: 855: 731: 456: 109: 17204: 15450:

The Communist International, Anti-Imperialism and Racial Equality in British Dominions

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not being achieved through market forces but by economic planning based on scientific

4577:(1948–1955) that resulted from Tito's rejection of Stalin's demand to subordinate the 3535: 3058:' estates while no immediate nationalisations were enacted on peasants' property. The 431: 19770: 19710: 19489: 19275: 18971: 18773: 18758: 18700: 18579: 18281: 18271: 17582: 17487: 17299: 17254: 17174: 17149: 17100: 16993: 16929: 16848: 16793: 16711: 16666: 16651: 16547: 16420: 16397: 16355: 16327: 16300: 16297:

From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation

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between a ruling class and an exploited class; that capitalism creates antagonistic

6862:

between the Peruvian government and Marxist–Leninist–Maoist militants including the

6362:

by the other republics in the Yugoslav federation. This resulted in a surge of both

6148:

government killed 176 people (students and adults) in the police suppression of the

6084:

A new front of Marxist–Leninist revolution erupted in Africa between 1961 and 1979.

4955: 4425:

Upon Allied victory concluding the Second World War (1939–1945), the members of the

4179:

Treaty of Non-aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

3510: 1831:. This also caused several splits between Marxist–Leninist states, resulting in the 356: 18359: 18249: 18208: 18196: 18153: 18142: 17557: 17552: 17374: 17359: 17214: 17209: 17194: 17021: 16966: 16629: 16624: 16614: 16434: 16244: 16180: 15939: 15935: 15744: 15652: 15594: 15574: 15542: 15496: 15371: 14675: 14665: 14618: 14537: 14458:

Poverty in the Soviet Union: The Life-styles of the Underprivileged in Recent Years

13867:

The Evolution of Dialectical Materialism: A Philosophical and Sociological Analysis

13420: 13254: 12885: 12605: 12110: 11472: 10859: 10814:

The Criminalisation of Communism in the European Political Space after the Cold War

10776: 10724: 10680: 10634: 10479: 10447: 10415: 10314: 10273: 10220: 9516: 9416: 9356: 9099: 8569: 8518: 8335: 8307: 8255: 8215: 8195: 8028:

organisations by the Communist International and a political vanguard organised by

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from 1996 to 2006 that managed to topple the monarchy there and create a republic.

6694:

has had Marxist–Leninist ministers in their national governments. Maoist rebels in

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by Robert L. Worden, Marxism–Leninism was abandoned immediately after the start of

2163: 2128: 1891: 1852: 1780: 1735: 1715: 1645: 1637: 1547: 1513: 1470: 1446: 1401: 825: 606: 586: 441: 436: 421: 92: 87: 14768:

American Capitalism: Social Thought and Political Economy in the Twentieth Century

12581:

Most estimates of the number of Chinese dead are in the range of 15 to 30 million.

10864: 10845: 9825:

A Concise History of Modern Korea: From the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present

3042:

Initial Bolshevik economic policies from 1917 to 1918 were cautious, with limited

2667:

without a practical plan of action for the Russian society they wished to govern.

2116: 19862: 19682: 18895: 18847: 18753: 18384: 18369: 18288: 18253: 18178: 18158: 17497: 17239: 17199: 17184: 17179: 16950: 16843: 16768: 16482: 16345: 16103: 16068: 15990: 15752: 15703: 15578: 14936: 14785: 14410: 14327: 14238: 13913: 13775: 13396: 13355: 13151: 12525: 11575: 11024: 10757: 10709:

Zimmerman, William (September 1980). "Review: How the Soviet Union is Governed".

10061: 9520: 9463: 9249: 9089: 8966: 8362: 8321: 8227: 8103: 8048: 8033: 8001: 7969: 7885: 7638: 7575: 7494: 7457: 7453: 7216: 7128: 7112: 7108: 7021: 7005: 6953:, willingly sacrificing their life for the good of the collective. Terms such as 6896: 6892: 6528:. AKEL has consistently been the first and third most popular party, winning the 6346: 6196: 6149: 6040: 5752:

Consequent to the Sino-Soviet split, the pragmatic China established politics of

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of the farmlands of the Soviet Union, a politically radical dispossession of the

3043: 2873: 2849: 2837: 2815: 2759: 2698: 2592: 2584: 2473: 2398: 2333: 2241: 2086: 2031: 1993: 1992:

as political expediencies used to realise his plans for the Soviet Union and for

1958: 1949: 1903: 1879: 1856: 1668: 1622: 1458: 1426: 1406: 768: 466: 426: 411: 406: 228: 223: 186: 161: 31: 17289: 15751:. Malden, Massachusetts; Oxford, England; Melbourne, Victoria; Berlin, Germany: 15656: 15191:

As a result of communist modernization, living standards in Eastern Europe rose.

15158: 14826: 14622: 13424: 13399:; Abalakina-Paap, Marina (1992). "Authoritarianism in the former Soviet Union". 12413:

Lasten diktatorischer Vergangenheit – Herausforderungen demokratischer Gegenwart

7944:

critics see it as an example of state capitalism, and have referred to it as a "

4185:, by way of which Nazi Germany started the Second World War (1 September 1939). 2908:(1917–1991), yet parts of Russia remained occupied by the counter-revolutionary 526: 19702: 19630: 18910: 18900: 18517: 18173: 18128: 18083: 17329: 17314: 17309: 17269: 17234: 17144: 17134: 16696: 16133: 16055: 15691: 15636: 15104: 14852: 14822: 14670: 14653: 13319: 13285: 13281: 13245:

Horn, Eva (2006). "Actors/Agents: Bertolt Brecht and the Politics of Secrecy".

12984: 12832: 11545: 11508: 11249: 10841: 10809: 8909: 8270: 8266: 8211: 8021: 7973: 7599: 7422: 7400: 7391:

Marxism–Leninism aims to create an international communist society. It opposes

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Cultivating the Masses: Modern State Practices and Soviet Socialism, 1914–1939

14730: 13258: 12358:

How the Cold War Transformed Philosophy of Science: To the Icy Slopes of Logic

10318: 10224: 10027:. Translated by Roberts, Moss. New York City, New York: Monthly Review Press. 7493:

has voided profitable competition in the capitalist homeland. The ideology of

7346:

social relations among citizens by eliminating the capitalist value system of

6754:

state structures in the Philippines; under the administration, however, of an

4307:) against fascist military occupation. In Mediterranean Europe, the communist 4157:

to annex the land and "rescue the oppressed German peoples" living in Czecho.

2047:

to differentiate themselves from Stalin's justification and implementation of

2012: 19821: 19563: 18502: 18394: 17617: 17324: 17244: 17114: 17058: 16934: 16853: 16681: 16527: 15560: 15546: 14689: 14630: 14551: 14542: 14525: 14191:(Education and Human Development Master's Theses). The College at Brockport: 14080: 14068: 13767: 13381: 13211: 11986: 11210: 10711: 10692: 10646: 9687: 9528: 9428: 9368: 9323: 9315: 9291: 9283: 9144: 9103: 9081: 9073: 8804: 8397: 8287: 8262: 8207: 8187: 8074: 8061: 8044: 8025: 7889: 7866: 7856: 7803: 7691: 7679: 7555: 7408: 7264: 7164: 7132: 7049: 7037: 6842:

which has been waged since 1964 between the Colombian government and aligned

6823: 6812: 6804: 6651: 6382: 6375: 6345:, although for different reasons than those of the Warsaw Pact. The death of 6224: 6125: 5980: 5968: 5955: 5894: 5882: 5862: 5771: 5339: 5280: 5005: 4960: 4910: 4772: 4484: 4230: 3920: 3710: 3530: 3485: 3432: 3417: 3337: 3271: 3063: 2877: 2643: 2619: 2345: 2317: 2257: 1981: 1907: 1887: 1784: 1783:. The establishment of other communist states after World War II resulted in 1633: 1539: 880: 621: 596: 556: 521: 471: 346: 303: 255: 176: 38:. For Lenin's ideology in the form that existed in Lenin's own lifetime, see 34:. For the means of governing and related policies implemented by Stalin, see 13851: 13341: 10953: 10131:

Ilyin, Mikhail (2011). "Stalinism". In Badie, Bertrand; et al. (eds.).

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resulted in the loss of its 32 members and no parliamentary representation.

5770:

of the United Nations. In the post-Mao period of Sino-American détente, the

501: 19446: 19267: 18661: 18411: 18379: 18298: 18148: 18025: 17791: 17736: 17507: 17349: 17264: 17169: 17095: 16728: 16619: 16515: 16377: 16010: 15793: 15726: 15695: 15598: 15528: 15331: 15322: 15239: 15154: 15140: 14726: 14442: 14359: 14312: 14270: 14110: 13028: 12729: 12342: 12100: 12082: 11516: 11117: 11108: 11076: 11067: 11007: 10941: 10927: 10483: 10451: 10419: 10357: 10259: 10161: 9855: 9679: 9621: 9491: 9129: 8796: 8183: 8167: 8162: 8137: 8120: 8079: 8017: 7821: 7807: 7783: 7683: 7550: 7518: 7509:(1881–1914) in which imperialism was safeguarded by the national military. 7426: 7404: 7304: 6997: 6946: 6863: 6777: 6314: 6294: 6290: 6176: 6165: 6068: 6036: 5979:

sponsored by North Vietnam. On 30 January 1968, North Vietnam launched the

5809: 5793: 5593: 5377: 5045: 5035: 4905: 4900: 4653: 4561: 4446: 4442: 4434: 4430: 4368: 4364: 4165: 4161: 4145: 4125: 4121: 4100: 3742: 3722: 3580: 3319:(People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs) to rise above the law and the 3276: 3208: 3111:

who would propel the industrial development of Russia to self-sufficiency.

3084: 2950:

Elsewhere, the successful October Revolution in Russia had facilitated the

2931: 2783: 2738: 2588: 2576: 2490: 2451: 2447: 2226: 2106: 2035: 2016: 1933: 1916: 1563: 1555: 1396: 1045: 985: 778: 756: 581: 491: 396: 240: 16248: 15920: 12114: 11546:"First All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies" 7505:

which the capitalist homeland cannot consume. The example is the European

5858: 2607:

position that does not deny the atrocities but make a distinction between

19309: 19271: 19263: 18885: 18869: 18783: 18725: 18546: 18539: 18466: 18354: 18314: 18133: 17876: 17771: 17572: 17562: 17482: 17279: 17259: 17224: 17159: 16972: 16858: 16439:"Socialism Means Abolishing the Distinction Between Bosses and Employees" 15504: 15253: 14827:"Theses on the Role of the Communist Party in the Proletarian Revolution" 14234: 13290:"From Soviets to oligarchs: Inequality and property in Russia, 1905–2016" 12613: 12306: 11028: 10887: 10353: 10255: 10165: 10022: 8251: 8203: 8125: 8040: 7978: 7945: 7841: 7731: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7634: 7606: 7438: 7434: 7396: 7392: 7287: 7268: 7009: 6816: 6769:

has preferred nonviolent parliamentary struggle through participation in

6732: 6671: 6394: 6322: 6306: 6246: 6216: 6044: 6012: 5959: 5947: 5940: 5813: 5789: 5717:(July 1951 – July 1953). Afterwards, the shooting war was ended with the 5536: 5096: 5050: 4945: 4895: 4840: 4632: 4569: 4458: 4367:

policy in the early 1930s, Marxist–Leninists played an important role in

4296: 4265: 4201: 4154: 3975: 3940: 3705: 3590: 3585: 3467: 3309: 3173: 3157: 2771: 2660: 2600: 2572: 2486: 2321: 2234: 2187: 2176: 2153: 2120: 2039: 1895: 1787:, and these states tended to follow the Soviet Marxist–Leninist model of 1688: 1664: 1618: 1571: 1389: 1379: 1040: 1020: 840: 830: 746: 601: 511: 486: 451: 386: 245: 17076: 16192: 14638: 9598:

Butenko, Alexander (1996). "Sotsializm segodnya: opyt i novaya teoriya"

9550:

Butenko, Alexander (1996). "Sotsializm segodnya: opyt i novaya teoriya"

8315: 6819:, the country's long standing leader, was a professed Marxist–Leninist. 6626:

parliamentary elections. The April 2009 Moldovan elections results were

5721:(27 July 1953); and the superpower Cold War in Asia then resumed as the 5624: 4039: 2935: 2458:

and Marxist–Leninist states, are criticised by their opponents as being

2166:

Albanian Labour Party perceived as an ideological betrayal of Mao's own

2146:

and stricter adherence to Stalin. The Sino-Albanian split was caused by

1453: 19299: 18584: 18556: 18534: 18444: 18064: 18054: 17547: 17379: 17339: 17119: 17053: 16960: 15383: 14680: 14486: 14474: 14284: 13324:

Political Pilgrims: Western Intellectuals in Search of the Good Society

11201: 10736: 10018: 9436: 9376: 8099: 7917: 7913: 7909: 7844:

put the Great Chinese Famine in a global context, stating that lack of

7727: 7699: 7687: 7300: 7296: 7204: 6687: 6430: 6192: 6101: 5902: 5762: 5690: 5558: 5275: 5245: 5203: 5055: 5015: 4985: 4980: 4890: 4880: 4875: 4607: 4527: 4337: 4321: 4288: 4246: 4149: 3970: 3837: 3762: 3281: 3247: 3103: 2913: 2859: 2827: 2823: 2775: 2730: 2360: 2094: 2058: 1941: 1875: 1847:(1924-1953), has been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of 1844: 1652: 1629: 1543: 1300: 1285: 815: 611: 571: 351: 18630: 18248: 15664: 15416:[Law and Socialism in the Perspective of Human Emancipation]. 14729:(October 1995). "Preface, and Trotsky and the Collapse of Stalinism". 13024:"Mugabes under the spotlight – Zimbabwe's first family filmed at home" 12417:

Burdens of the dictatorial past – challenges of the democratic present

11826:

From the Factory to the Kremlin: Mikhail Tomsky and the Russian Worker

10589:; Harris, James (8 September 2005). "Joseph Stalin: Power and Ideas". 10550:; Harris, James (8 September 2005). "Joseph Stalin: Power and Ideas". 10514:; Harris, James (8 September 2005). "Joseph Stalin: Power and Ideas". 10326: 10232: 5753: 4196:(Operation Barbarossa, 22 June 1941) was ineffectively opposed by the 3199:

In the 1925–1927 period, Stalin dissolved the troika and disowned the

1718:

as a prerequisite for building socialism, in favour of the concept of

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Blackshirts and Reds: Rational Fascism and the Overthrow of Communism

15996: 15457: 15213: 13889: 10975: 10817: 9391: 8392: 8219: 7941: 7845: 7829: 7779: 7671: 7595: 7445: 7430: 7343: 7148: 7072:

encouraging peasants and farmers to strengthen working discipline in

6875: 6719: 6691: 6157: 6145: 5996: 5976: 5936: 5852: 5714: 5494: 4935: 4930: 4762: 4750: 4735: 4622: 4560:

provoked Stalin to expel the Yugoslav leader and Yugoslavia from the

4462: 4256: 4252: 4205: 4140:

and Russian traditions that Stalin admired were allowed to continue.

3747: 3364: 2967: 2807: 2648: 2580: 2455: 2414: 2282: 2201: 2001: 1989: 1800: 1730:. By the late 1920s, Stalin established ideological orthodoxy in the 1527: 1384: 1369: 516: 318: 278: 35: 15375: 13116:[Marxist–Leninist Party Peru Libre and the class struggle]. 10728: 9420: 9360: 8214:

for education, health, housing, and jobs as well as the increase of

7255:. The Marxist–Leninist state provides for the national welfare with 6658:-led Indian government depended on the parliamentary support of the 6031:

and private property, the outlawing of religion, the killing of the

4389: 1746:

in the 1930s by Stalin and his associates, such as in Stalin's text

19509: 19054: 18788: 18748: 18449: 18364: 18093: 18059: 17502: 17404:

The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)

17369: 16900: 16895: 16559: 16443: 16078: 16029: 15877: 15723:

Comparative Political Systems: Policy Performance and Social Change

13326:(4th ed.). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. 12913: 10638: 10367: 10269: 10175: 10071: 9259: 8976: 8837: 8141: 8013: 7929: 7490: 7356: 7332: 7328: 7320: 7244: 6962: 6927: 6835: 6808: 6569: 6549: 6250: 6121: 6116:(1930–1974) and established the Derg government (1974–1987) of the 6097: 6057: 6011:(1941–1955), the native Cambodian Marxist–Leninists and the Maoist 5737: 5710: 5541: 5531: 5489: 5020: 4995: 4990: 4925: 4454: 4450: 4414: 4197: 4117: 3945: 3737: 3165: 3153: 3055: 2789:

In Swiss exile, Lenin developed Marx's philosophy and extrapolated

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