368:
100:, Paraskevakos developed a load-management system along with automatic meter-reading technology. In doing so, he utilized the ability of the system to monitor the speed of the watt power meter disc and, consequently, power consumption. This information, along with the time of day, gave the power company the ability to instruct individual meters to manage water heater and air conditioning consumption in order to prevent peaks in usage during the high consumption portions of the day. For this approach, Paraskevakos was awarded multiple patents.
136:. A higher load factor is advantageous because a power plant may be less efficient at low load factors, a high load factor means fixed costs are spread over more kWh of output (resulting in a lower price per unit of electricity), and a higher load factor means greater total output. If the power load factor is affected by non-availability of fuel, maintenance shut-down, unplanned breakdown, or reduced demand (as consumption pattern fluctuate throughout the day), the generation has to be adjusted, since
1170:
1749:
170:. While many residential consumers pay a flat rate for electricity year-round, the utility's costs actually vary constantly, depending on demand, the distribution network, and composition of the company's electricity generation portfolio. In a free market, the wholesale price of energy varies widely throughout the day. Demand response programs such as those enabled by smart grids attempt to incentivize the consumer to limit usage based upon
156:. The utility in a sense "owns the switch" and sheds loads only when the stability or reliability of the electrical distribution system is threatened. The utility (being in the business of generating, transporting, and delivering electricity) will not disrupt their business process without due cause. Load management, when done properly, is non-invasive, and imposes no hardship on the consumer. The load should be shifted to off peak hours.
304:
mains frequencies and turn off sheddable loads. In some cases, this feature is nearly free, e.g. if the controlling equipment (such as an electric power meter, or the thermostat in an air-conditioning system) already has a microcontroller. Most electronic electric power meters internally measure frequency, and require only demand control relays to turn off equipment. In other equipment, often the only needed extra equipment is a
27:
381:), or automatically when injection equipment detects mains frequency falling below 49.2 Hz. Ripple control receivers are assigned to one of several ripple channels to allow the network company to only turn off supply on part of the network, and to allow staged restoration of supply to reduce the impact of a surge in demand when power is restored to water heaters after a period of time off.
246:. Ripple control involves superimposing a higher-frequency signal (usually between 100 and 1600 Hz) onto the standard 50–60 Hz of the main power signal. When receiver devices attached to non-essential residential or industrial loads receive this signal, they shut down the load until the signal is disabled or another frequency signal is received.
74:
relays. Later, in the 1970s, transmitters with high-power semiconductors were used. These are more reliable because they have no moving parts. Modern Czech systems send a digital "telegram." Each telegram takes about thirty seconds to send. It has pulses about one second long. There are several formats, used in different districts.
58:. In addition, some peaking power plants can take more than an hour to bring on-line which makes load management even more critical should a plant go off-line unexpectedly for example. Load management can also help reduce harmful emissions, since peaking plants or backup generators are often dirtier and less efficient than
316:
frequency naturally rises to normal, so frequency-controlled load control automatically enables water heaters, air-conditioners and other comfort equipment. The cost of equipment can be less, and there are no concerns about overlapping or unreached ripple control regions, mis-received codes, transmitter power, etc.
377:
injection equipment located within each local distribution network signals to ripple control receivers at the customer's premises. Control may either done manually by the local distribution network company in response to local outages or requests to reduce demand from the transmission system operator (i.e.
49:
on the network with the electrical load by adjusting or controlling the load rather than the power station output. This can be achieved by direct intervention of the utility in real time, by the use of frequency sensitive relays triggering the circuit breakers (ripple control), by time clocks, or by
384:
Depending on the area, the consumer may have two electricity meters, one for normal supply ("Anytime") and one for the load-managed supply ("Controlled"), with
Controlled supply billed at a lower rate per kilowatt-hour than Anytime supply. For those with load-managed supply but only a single meter,
303:
Greater loads physically slow the rotors of a grid's synchronized generators. This causes AC mains to have a slightly reduced frequency when a grid is heavily loaded. The reduced frequency is immediately sensible across the entire grid. Inexpensive local electronics can easily and precisely measure
280:
The telegrams follow different standards in different areas. For example, in the Czech
Republic, different districts use "ZPA II 32S", "ZPA II 64S" and Versacom. ZPA II 32S sends a 2.33 second on, a 2.99 second off, then 32 one-second pulses (either on or off), with an "off time" between each pulse
143:
Smaller utilities that buy power instead of generating their own find that they can also benefit by installing a load control system. The penalties they must pay to the energy provider for peak usage can be significantly reduced. Many report that a load control system can pay for itself in a single
257:
Affected residential devices will vary by region, but may include residential electric hot-water heaters, air conditioners, pool pumps, or crop-irrigation pumps. In a distribution network outfitted with load control, these devices are outfitted with communicating controllers that can run a program
120:
Long-term load management planning may begin by building sophisticated models to describe the physical properties of the distribution network (i.e. topology, capacity, and other characteristics of the lines), as well as the load behavior. The analysis may include scenarios that account for weather
112:
that cannot be effectively stored in bulk, it must be generated, distributed, and consumed immediately. When the load on a system approaches the maximum generating capacity, network operators must either find additional supplies of energy or find ways to curtail the load, hence load management. If
376:
Since the 1950s, Australia and New
Zealand have had a system of load management based on ripple control, allowing the electricity supply for domestic and commercial water storage heaters to be switched off and on, as well as allowing remote control of nightstore heaters and street lights. Ripple
253:
in various parts of the world using a system that communicates over the electrical distribution system. Early systems used rotating generators attached to distribution networks through transformers. Ripple control systems are generally paired with a two- (or more) tiered pricing system, whereby
73:
The Czechs first used ripple control in the 1950s. Early transmitters were low power, compared to modern systems, only 50 kilovolt-amps. They were rotating generators that fed a 1050 Hz signal into transformers attached to power distribution networks. Early receivers were electromechanical
284:
Nearby regions use different frequencies or telegrams, to assure that telegrams operate only in the desired region. The transformers that attach local grids to interties intentionally do not have the equipment (bridging capacitors) to pass ripple control signals into long-distance power lines.
269:
Ripple control can be unpopular because sometimes devices can fail to receive the signal to turn on comfort equipment, e.g. hot water heaters or baseboard electrical heaters. Modern electronic receivers are more reliable than old electromechanical systems. Also, some modern systems repeat the
315:
The main advantage over ripple control is greater customer convenience: Unreceived ripple control telegrams can cause a water heater to remain off, causing a cold shower. Or, they can cause an airconditioner to remain off, resulting in a sweltering home. In contrast, as the grid recovers, its
288:
Each data pulse of a telegram could double the number of commands, so that 32 pulses permit 2^32 distinct commands. However, in practice, particular pulses are linked to particular types of device or service. Some telegrams have unusual purposes. For example most ripple control systems have a
178:
should allow the price to rise. A corresponding drop in demand for the commodity should meet a fall in price. While this works for predictable shortages, many crises develop within seconds due to unforeseen equipment failures. They must be resolved in the same time-frame in order to avoid a
89:, developed a sensor monitoring system which used digital transmission for security, fire, and medical alarm systems as well as meter-reading capabilities for all utilities. This technology was a spin-off of his patented automatic telephone line identification system, now known as
429:
Rltec in the UK in 2009 reported that domestic refrigerators are being sold fitted with their dynamic load response systems. In 2011 it was announced that the
Sainsbury supermarket chain will use dynamic demand technology on their heating and ventilation equipment.
414:
The distribution system operator
Westnetz and gridX piloted a load management solution. The solution enables the grid operator to communicate with local energy management systems and adjust the available load for EV charging in response to the state of the grid.
965:
277:. Many systems repeat telegrams to assure that comfort devices (e.g. water heaters) are turned on. Since the broadcast frequencies are in the range of human hearing, they often vibrate wires, filament light-bulbs or transformers in an audible way.
319:
The main disadvantage compared to ripple control is a less fine-grained control. For example, a grid authority has only a limited ability to select which loads are shed. In controlled war-time economies, this can be a substantial disadvantage.
359:. It utilizes 800,000 load control transponders (LCTs) and controls 1,000 MW of electrical power (2,000 MW in an emergency). FPL has been able to avoid the construction of numerous new power plants due to their load management programs.
258:
that limits the duty cycle of the equipment under control. Consumers are usually rewarded for participating in the load control program by paying a reduced rate for energy. Proper load management by the utility allows them to practice
183:. Many utilities who are interested in demand response have also expressed an interest in load control capability so that they might be able to operate the "on-off switch" before price updates could be published to the consumers.
405:
tariff also includes different types of days with different prices, but has been discontinued for new clients as well (as of July 2009). Reduced prices during nighttime are available for customers for a higher monthly fee.
452:
SP transmission deployed
Dynamic Load Management scheme in Dumfries and Galloway area using real time monitoring of embedded generation and disconnecting them, should an overload be detected on the transmission Network.
371:
A ripple control receiver fitted to a New
Zealand house. The left circuit breaker controls the water storage heater supply (currently on), while the right one controls the nightstore heater supply (currently
657:
U.S. patents Nos. 4,241,237, 4,455,453 and 7,940,901 (remote management of products and services) as well as
Canadian Patent No. 1,155,243 (apparatus and method for remote sensor monitoring, metering and
441:. There is also a programme that allows industrial loads to be disconnected using circuit breakers triggered automatically by frequency sensitive relays fitted on site. This operates in conjunction with
401:
France has an EJP tariff, which allows it to disconnect certain loads and to encourage consumers to disconnect certain loads. This tariff is no longer available for new clients (as of July 2009). The
966:
Commercial
Opportunities for Back-Up Generation and Load Reduction via National Grid, the National Electricity Transmission System Operator (NETSO) for England, Scotland, Wales and Offshore.
128:, a measure of average capacity utilization. Capacity factor is a measure of the output of a power plant compared to the maximum output it could produce. Capacity factor is often defined as
312:(a small integrated circuit) so the microcontrollers' digital input can sense a reliable fast digital edge. A schmitt trigger is already standard equipment on many microcontrollers.
911:
890:
273:
Modern ripple controls send a digital telegram, from 30 to 180 seconds long. Originally these were received by electromechanical relays. Now they are often received by
206:
systems can return electricity from an electric vehicle's batteries to the utility, or they can throttle the recharging of the vehicle batteries to a slower rate.
715:
Liasi, Sahand
Ghaseminejad; Golkar, Masoud Aliakbar (2017). "Electric vehicles connection to microgrid effects on peak demand with and without demand response".
562:
668:
N. A. Sinitsyn. S. Kundu, S. Backhaus (2013). "Safe Protocols for Generating Power Pulses with Heterogeneous Populations of Thermostatically Controlled Loads".
473:
873:
50:
using special tariffs to influence consumer behavior. Load management allows utilities to reduce demand for electricity during peak usage times (
1021:
941:
1694:
929:
424:
270:
telegrams to turn on comfort devices. Also, by popular demand, many ripple control receivers have a switch to force comfort devices on.
78:
174:
concerns. As costs rise during the day (as the system reaches peak capacity and more expensive peaking power plants are used), a free
121:
forecasts, the predicted impact of proposed load-shed commands, estimated time-to-repair for off-line equipment, and other factors.
908:
70:
Modern utility load management began about 1938, using ripple control. By 1948 ripple control was a practical system in wide use.
887:
848:
732:
1773:
1752:
1169:
810:
1591:
1699:
1014:
559:
1778:
1319:
46:
979:
62:. New load-management technologies are constantly under development — both by private industry and public entities.
779:
670:
1482:
1407:
1278:
378:
254:
electricity is more expensive during peak times (evenings) and cheaper during low-usage times (early morning).
214:
Ripple control is a common form of load control, and is used in many countries around the world, including the
1654:
1586:
1576:
1452:
1352:
1007:
494:
489:
1507:
1467:
1044:
627:
499:
484:
1734:
1729:
1447:
1422:
1412:
1388:
1383:
1089:
467:
1649:
1367:
1337:
1114:
509:
347:, the power grids routinely use privately held, emergency diesel generators in load management schemes
445:, a programme using diesel generators. These can also be remotely switched using BBC Radio 4 Longwave
1704:
1193:
1154:
281:
of one second. ZPA II 64S has a much shorter off time, permitting 64 pulses to be sent, or skipped.
1679:
1487:
1427:
1084:
462:
1618:
1608:
1598:
356:
191:
1539:
1402:
1185:
1074:
355:
The largest residential load control system in the world is found in Florida and is managed by
433:
In the UK, night storage heaters are often used with a time-switched off-peak supply option -
1674:
1442:
1437:
1417:
97:
59:
942:"GridX Press Release: Following successful pilot, gridX agrees on cooperation with Westnetz"
1268:
1030:
17:
8:
1639:
1472:
1372:
1347:
1300:
1109:
1099:
1064:
504:
186:
The application of load control technology continues to grow today with the sale of both
167:
137:
86:
55:
1513:
1124:
738:
697:
679:
367:
292:
385:
electricity is billed at the "Composite" rate, priced between Anytime and Controlled.
1664:
1544:
1149:
827:
728:
537:
852:
742:
724:
701:
1613:
1554:
1258:
1253:
1230:
1139:
1079:
720:
693:
689:
591:
446:
442:
305:
263:
955:
News/media/downloads | Dynamic Demand, Smart Grid solutions, energy balancing
1644:
1603:
1581:
1432:
1397:
1357:
1159:
915:
894:
814:
566:
309:
274:
203:
187:
159:
125:
995:
All about ripple control in the Netherlands. Ales over Toonfrequent in Nederland
807:
162:
places the "on-off switch" in the hands of the consumer using devices such as a
152:
When the decision is made to curtail load, it is done so on the basis of system
1669:
1659:
1457:
1069:
584:
Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers - Part II: Power Engineering
579:
340:
231:
223:
199:
180:
175:
549:
US Dept. Of Energy, Office of Electricity Delivery and Electricity Reliability
1767:
1689:
1477:
1362:
1342:
1273:
1263:
1220:
1104:
1059:
336:
259:
215:
1709:
1684:
1549:
1518:
1332:
1134:
595:
519:
479:
250:
243:
202:
systems can prevent the recharging of electric vehicles during peak hours.
124:
The utilization of load management can help a power plant achieve a higher
114:
30:
Daily load diagram; Blue shows real load usage and green shows ideal load.
1534:
1502:
1295:
1283:
1203:
1129:
1119:
1049:
239:
227:
195:
93:. In, 1974, Paraskevakos was awarded a U.S. patent for this technology.
1497:
1492:
1305:
1288:
1144:
999:
538:
Example of largest load management system developed by private industry
474:
National Grid (Great Britain): Estimating costs per kWh of transmission
438:
163:
1213:
1208:
1094:
1054:
667:
514:
434:
219:
90:
757:
1327:
684:
327:
in the early 21st century, and has been shown to stabilize grids.
1248:
1238:
393:
The Czechs have operated ripple control systems since the 1950s.
235:
54:), which can, in turn, reduce costs by eliminating the need for
1243:
344:
298:
109:
82:
26:
985:
Distributed Energy Resources Customer Adoption Model (DER-CAM)
289:
telegram to set clocks in attached devices, e.g. to midnight.
994:
954:
849:"FPL Files Proposal to Enhance Energy Conservation Programs"
548:
1198:
324:
113:
they are unsuccessful, the system will become unstable and
23:
Process of balancing the supply of electricity on a network
780:"Loads as a Resource: Frequency Responsive Demand Control"
134:
the ratio of average load to peak load in a period of time
717:
2017 Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE)
249:
Early implementations of ripple control occurred during
103:
984:
580:"Centralized ripple control on high-voltage networks"
648:
U.S. Patent No. 3,842,208 (sensor monitoring device)
989:
825:
147:
1765:
198:systems can also serve as load control systems.
295:is one common brand of ripple control systems.
1015:
990:Center for Energy and innovative Technologies
755:
578:Ross, T. W.; Smith, R. M. A. (October 1948).
828:"Mega Load Management System Pays Dividends"
425:Control of the National Grid (Great Britain)
362:
299:Frequency-based decentralized demand control
714:
1022:
1008:
683:
577:
1029:
980:Load Manager for automotive applications
622:
620:
618:
616:
614:
612:
366:
25:
1766:
330:
1003:
609:
478:Calculating the cost of back up: See
130:the ratio of average load to capacity
108:Since electrical energy is a form of
708:
826:Michael Andreolas (February 2004).
661:
560:Analysis of current US DOE Projects
104:Advantages and operating principles
47:balancing the supply of electricity
13:
1700:Renewable energy commercialization
140:is often prohibitively expensive.
79:Theodore George “Ted” Paraskevakos
14:
1790:
973:
777:
418:
388:
209:
1748:
1747:
1168:
808:Claverton Energy experts library
758:"The Remote Control Frequencies"
671:Energy Conversion and Management
194:based systems. Certain types of
65:
959:
948:
934:
920:
899:
878:
867:
841:
819:
801:
771:
749:
725:10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985237
308:to sense the mains cycle and a
694:10.1016/j.enconman.2012.11.021
651:
642:
571:
553:
542:
531:
148:Comparisons to demand response
1:
1695:Renewable Energy Certificates
1655:Cost of electricity by source
1577:Arc-fault circuit interrupter
1453:High-voltage shore connection
525:
495:Cost of electricity by source
490:National Grid Reserve Service
335:In many countries, including
1710:Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread
1508:Transmission system operator
1468:Mains electricity by country
1045:Automatic generation control
500:Diesel-electric transmission
485:Energy in the United Kingdom
7:
1774:Electric power transmission
1735:List of electricity sectors
1730:Electric energy consumption
1448:High-voltage direct current
1423:Electric power transmission
1413:Electric power distribution
1090:Energy return on investment
468:Energy storage as a service
456:
323:The system was invented in
10:
1795:
1650:Carbon offsets and credits
1368:Three-phase electric power
851:. May 2006. Archived from
813:February 17, 2010, at the
510:Three-phase electric power
422:
409:
350:
15:
1743:
1718:
1705:Renewable Energy Payments
1628:
1565:
1527:
1381:
1318:
1229:
1194:Fossil fuel power station
1184:
1177:
1166:
1037:
565:October 15, 2008, at the
396:
363:Australia and New Zealand
16:For the sports term, see
1779:Electrical power control
1488:Single-wire earth return
1428:Electrical busbar system
1085:Energy demand management
874:Claverton Energy Experts
630:. EnergoConsult CB S.R.O
463:Energy management system
1619:Residual-current device
1609:Power system protection
1599:Generator interlock kit
778:Kalsi, K.; et al.
357:Florida Power and Light
192:powerline communication
1403:Distributed generation
1075:Electric power quality
914:June 24, 2009, at the
893:June 24, 2009, at the
719:. pp. 1272–1277.
596:10.1049/ji-2.1948.0126
373:
96:At the request of the
60:base load power plants
39:demand-side management
31:
1675:Fossil fuel phase-out
1443:Electricity retailing
1438:Electrical substation
1418:Electric power system
370:
98:Alabama Power Company
45:), is the process of
29:
1031:Electricity delivery
81:, while working for
56:peaking power plants
18:Resting the starters
1640:Availability factor
1592:Sulfur hexafluoride
1473:Overhead power line
1373:Virtual power plant
1348:Induction generator
1301:Sustainable biofuel
1110:Home energy storage
1100:Grid energy storage
1065:Droop speed control
756:Jean Marie Polard.
331:Examples of schemes
168:load control switch
138:grid energy storage
87:Huntsville, Alabama
1514:Transmission tower
1125:Nameplate capacity
374:
293:Zellweger off-peak
266:and reduce costs.
32:
1761:
1760:
1665:Environmental tax
1545:Cascading failure
1314:
1313:
1150:Utility frequency
789:. U.S. Government
734:978-1-5090-5963-8
264:rolling blackouts
1786:
1751:
1750:
1660:Energy subsidies
1614:Protective relay
1555:Rolling blackout
1182:
1181:
1172:
1140:Power-flow study
1080:Electrical fault
1024:
1017:
1010:
1001:
1000:
968:
963:
957:
952:
946:
945:
938:
932:
928:
924:
918:
907:
903:
897:
886:
882:
876:
871:
865:
864:
862:
860:
845:
839:
838:
836:
834:
823:
817:
805:
799:
798:
796:
794:
784:
775:
769:
768:
766:
764:
753:
747:
746:
712:
706:
705:
687:
665:
659:
655:
649:
646:
640:
639:
637:
635:
628:"Ripple control"
624:
607:
606:
604:
602:
575:
569:
557:
551:
546:
540:
535:
447:Radio teleswitch
443:Standing Reserve
306:resistor divider
37:, also known as
1794:
1793:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1764:
1763:
1762:
1757:
1739:
1723:
1721:
1714:
1645:Capacity factor
1633:
1631:
1624:
1604:Numerical relay
1582:Circuit breaker
1570:
1568:
1561:
1523:
1463:Load management
1433:Electrical grid
1398:Demand response
1391:
1386:
1377:
1358:Microgeneration
1310:
1225:
1173:
1164:
1160:Vehicle-to-grid
1033:
1028:
976:
971:
964:
960:
953:
949:
940:
939:
935:
926:
925:
921:
916:Wayback Machine
905:
904:
900:
895:Wayback Machine
884:
883:
879:
872:
868:
858:
856:
855:on 16 June 2011
847:
846:
842:
832:
830:
824:
820:
815:Wayback Machine
806:
802:
792:
790:
782:
776:
772:
762:
760:
754:
750:
735:
713:
709:
666:
662:
656:
652:
647:
643:
633:
631:
626:
625:
610:
600:
598:
590:(47): 470–480.
576:
572:
567:Wayback Machine
558:
554:
547:
543:
536:
532:
528:
505:Motor–generator
459:
427:
421:
412:
399:
391:
365:
353:
333:
310:schmitt trigger
301:
275:microprocessors
212:
204:Vehicle-to-grid
188:radio frequency
160:Demand response
150:
126:capacity factor
106:
68:
35:Load management
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
1792:
1782:
1781:
1776:
1759:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1744:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1726:
1724:
1720:Statistics and
1719:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1670:Feed-in tariff
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1636:
1634:
1629:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1622:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1601:
1596:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1579:
1573:
1571:
1566:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1547:
1542:
1537:
1531:
1529:
1525:
1524:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1460:
1458:Interconnector
1455:
1450:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1410:
1408:Dynamic demand
1405:
1400:
1394:
1392:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1338:Combined cycle
1335:
1330:
1324:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1298:
1293:
1292:
1291:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1261:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1241:
1235:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1217:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1190:
1188:
1179:
1175:
1174:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1117:
1115:Load-following
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1070:Electric power
1067:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1034:
1027:
1026:
1019:
1012:
1004:
998:
997:
992:
987:
982:
975:
974:External links
972:
970:
969:
958:
947:
933:
930:EDF Price grid
919:
898:
877:
866:
840:
818:
800:
770:
748:
733:
707:
660:
650:
641:
608:
570:
552:
541:
529:
527:
524:
523:
522:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
476:
471:
465:
458:
455:
420:
419:United Kingdom
417:
411:
408:
398:
395:
390:
389:Czech Republic
387:
364:
361:
352:
349:
341:United Kingdom
332:
329:
300:
297:
232:United Kingdom
224:Czech Republic
211:
210:Ripple control
208:
200:Charge control
181:power blackout
176:market economy
149:
146:
105:
102:
67:
64:
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1791:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1754:
1746:
1745:
1742:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1690:Pigouvian tax
1688:
1686:
1683:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1627:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1587:Earth-leakage
1585:
1584:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1564:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1551:
1548:
1546:
1543:
1541:
1538:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1528:Failure modes
1526:
1520:
1517:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1489:
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1478:Power station
1476:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1411:
1409:
1406:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1363:Rankine cycle
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1343:Cooling tower
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1317:
1307:
1304:
1302:
1299:
1297:
1294:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1250:
1247:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1234:
1232:
1228:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1189:
1187:
1186:Non-renewable
1183:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1128:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1105:Grid strength
1103:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1060:Demand factor
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1011:
1006:
1005:
1002:
996:
993:
991:
988:
986:
983:
981:
978:
977:
967:
962:
956:
951:
943:
937:
931:
923:
917:
913:
910:
902:
896:
892:
889:
881:
875:
870:
854:
850:
844:
829:
822:
816:
812:
809:
804:
788:
781:
774:
759:
752:
744:
740:
736:
730:
726:
722:
718:
711:
703:
699:
695:
691:
686:
681:
677:
673:
672:
664:
654:
645:
629:
623:
621:
619:
617:
615:
613:
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
574:
568:
564:
561:
556:
550:
545:
539:
534:
530:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
477:
475:
472:
469:
466:
464:
461:
460:
454:
450:
448:
444:
440:
436:
431:
426:
416:
407:
404:
394:
386:
382:
380:
369:
360:
358:
348:
346:
342:
338:
337:United States
328:
326:
321:
317:
313:
311:
307:
296:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
276:
271:
267:
265:
261:
260:load shedding
255:
252:
247:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
216:United States
207:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
184:
182:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
155:
145:
141:
139:
135:
131:
127:
122:
118:
116:
111:
101:
99:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
75:
71:
66:Brief history
63:
61:
57:
53:
48:
44:
40:
36:
28:
19:
1685:Net metering
1632:and policies
1550:Power outage
1519:Utility pole
1483:Pumped hydro
1462:
1389:distribution
1384:Transmission
1333:Cogeneration
1135:Power factor
961:
950:
936:
922:
901:
880:
869:
857:. Retrieved
853:the original
843:
831:. Retrieved
821:
803:
791:. Retrieved
786:
773:
761:. Retrieved
751:
716:
710:
675:
669:
663:
653:
644:
632:. Retrieved
599:. Retrieved
587:
583:
573:
555:
544:
533:
520:Wet stacking
480:spark spread
451:
432:
428:
413:
402:
400:
392:
383:
375:
354:
334:
322:
318:
314:
302:
291:
287:
283:
279:
272:
268:
256:
251:World War II
248:
244:South Africa
213:
185:
171:
158:
153:
151:
142:
133:
129:
123:
119:
107:
95:
76:
72:
69:
52:peak shaving
51:
42:
38:
34:
33:
1680:Load factor
1535:Black start
1503:Transformer
1204:Natural gas
1155:Variability
1130:Peak demand
1120:Merit order
1050:Backfeeding
927:(in French)
906:(in French)
885:(in French)
793:16 February
678:: 297–308.
240:Netherlands
228:New Zealand
196:smart meter
166:controlled
154:reliability
117:can occur.
1768:Categories
1722:production
1567:Protective
1498:Super grid
1493:Smart grid
1320:Generation
1254:Geothermal
1145:Repowering
634:18 October
601:18 October
526:References
439:Economy 10
423:See also:
379:Transpower
164:smart grid
1630:Economics
1353:Micro CHP
1231:Renewable
1214:Petroleum
1209:Oil shale
1095:Grid code
1055:Base load
909:EDF Tempo
685:1211.0248
515:Load bank
435:Economy 7
262:to avoid
220:Australia
115:blackouts
91:caller ID
77:In 1972,
1753:Category
1540:Brownout
1328:AC power
1038:Concepts
912:Archived
891:Archived
811:Archived
787:pnnl.gov
743:22071272
702:32067734
658:control)
563:Archived
457:See also
144:season.
1569:devices
1279:Thermal
1274:Osmotic
1269:Current
1249:Biomass
1239:Biofuel
1221:Nuclear
1178:Sources
888:EDF EPJ
859:21 June
833:21 June
763:21 June
470:(ESaaS)
410:Germany
351:Florida
236:Germany
1264:Marine
1244:Biogas
741:
731:
700:
397:France
345:France
242:, and
238:, the
230:, the
110:energy
83:Boeing
1621:(GFI)
1510:(TSO)
1296:Solar
1284:Tidal
1259:Hydro
783:(PDF)
739:S2CID
698:S2CID
680:arXiv
403:Tempo
372:off).
1387:and
1306:Wind
1289:Wave
1199:Coal
861:2011
835:2011
795:2018
765:2011
729:ISBN
636:2019
603:2019
343:and
325:PNNL
190:and
172:cost
721:doi
690:doi
592:doi
437:or
132:or
85:in
43:DSM
1770::
785:.
737:.
727:.
696:.
688:.
676:67
674:.
611:^
588:95
586:.
582:.
449:.
339:,
234:,
226:,
222:,
218:,
1023:e
1016:t
1009:v
944:.
863:.
837:.
797:.
767:.
745:.
723::
704:.
692::
682::
638:.
605:.
594::
41:(
20:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
