69:
26:
1227:
The following list comprises stray finds of early medieval millstones. Note that there is no way to distinguish millstones driven by water-power from those powered by animals turning a
126:
urban-centered literary class had been. This partly explains the relative abundance of medieval literary references to watermills compared to former times.
164:
in the 6th century, both of which yet unattested for the ancient period, allowed for a flexible response to the changing water-level of rivers and the
1989:, Boreas. Uppsala Studies in Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Civilizations, vol. 35, Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet, pp. 205–219,
129:
The quantitative growth of medieval evidence appears to be more than a mere reflection of the changing nature of surviving sources. By
336:
In the following, literary, epigraphical and documentary sources referring to watermills and other water-driven machines are listed.
2112:
1985:
Wikander, Örjan (2014), "Early Water-mills East of the Rhine", in
Karlsson, Lars; Carlsson, Susanne; Kullberg, Jesper (eds.),
2053:
1994:
1946:
1888:
1870:
1832:
1901:, Estuarine/ Alluvial Archaeology in Ireland. Towards Best Practice, University College Dublin and National Roads Authority
177:
2107:
1797:
2068:
1976:
1928:
1865:, Monographien des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, vol. 86, Mainz: Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum,
1216:
Sawmill; crank and connecting rod system without gear train; multiple mill complex with at least five watermills
2102:
2005:
1796:
Archaeology has unearthed in recent years increasingly more evidence for the existence of this wheel-type
92:
68:
2097:
19:
176:
Below the earliest medieval evidence for different types of watermills. This list complements its
1254:
1010:
2081:
1908:"A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications"
1899:
Excavations of a Mill at
Killoteran, Co. Waterford as Part of the N-25 Waterford By-Pass Project
1185:
380:
1041:
Vertical-wheeled undershot or breastshot mill, mill-pond, mill-race, fragments of mill-stones
152:, and began to spread from the former territory of the empire into the non-romanized parts of
791:
476:
915:
Below are listed excavated or surveyed watermill sites dated to the early medieval period.
773:
718:
1881:
Harnessing the Tides: The Early
Medieval Tide Mills at Nendrum Monastery, Strangford Lough
8:
1843:"Stone Sawing Machines of Roman and Early Byzantine Times in the Anatolian Mediterranean"
1132:
1113:
643:
298:
130:
123:
2026:
2018:
1228:
700:
398:
376:
134:
168:, thus demonstrating the technological innovativeness of early medieval watermillers.
2049:
2030:
1990:
1972:
1942:
1924:
1884:
1866:
1850:
1828:
935:
231:
104:
57:
37:
1955:
1863:
Die byzantinische Steinsäge von
Ephesos. Baubefund, Rekonstruktion, Architekturteile
1686:
From
Barrows to Bypass, Excavations at West Cotton Raunds Northamptonshire 1985-1989
2010:
1190:
625:
571:
549:
359:
100:
88:
1971:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400,
1919:
Rynne, Colin (2000), "Waterpower in
Medieval Ireland", in Squatriti, Paolo (ed.),
607:
589:
531:
122:) which were more inclined to address such a relatively mundane device than the
1923:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 3, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1–50,
1814:
Czysz, Wolfgang (1994), "Eine bajuwarische
Wassermühle im Paartal bei Dasing",
314:
290:
268:
235:
165:
142:
41:
1005:
Leat, sluice gate, chute, stake and wattle lined and stone surfaced wheel-pit
2091:
1854:
669:
496:
138:
1958:(1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report",
516:
433:
1265:
972:
953:
852:
455:
415:
119:
2082:
The uptake of mechanical technology in the ancient world: the water-mill
2022:
108:
2009:, vol. 92, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32,
25:
1286:
Horizontal paddle-wheel, hub and shaft, complete with pebble bearing
1095:
833:
797:
736:
293:
275:
211:
206:
161:
157:
112:
96:
53:
33:
29:
2014:
1967:
Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in
Wikander, Örjan (ed.),
107:
watermills coincided with the appearance of new documentary genres (
1907:
1842:
1466:
1464:
1462:
2003:
Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the
Ancient Economy",
1278:
1259:
1203:
1154:
1138:
1119:
1100:
1081:
1065:
1049:
1033:
1015:
997:
978:
959:
940:
323:
304:
280:
249:
227:
153:
149:
115:
80:
72:
40:
technological advance, allowing to tap the tidal power along the
1459:
137:
had become "innumerable". At the time of the compilation of the
1208:
1172:
1167:
1028:
991:
649:
258:
254:
245:
1683:
148:
By the early 7th century, watermills were well established in
858:
814:
555:
460:
438:
76:
1180:
Sawmill; crank and connecting rod system without gear train
742:
239:
217:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1520:
1518:
1449:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1554:
1552:
1481:
1479:
1447:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1429:
1331:
1329:
1327:
1325:
1231:. Most, however, are assumed to derive from watermills.
18:
For an overview of ancient watermills until 500 AD, see
1603:
1515:
1622:
1549:
1476:
1426:
967:
Mill-channel, woodwork of three vertical water-wheels
1770:
1768:
1581:
1579:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1533:
1322:
1906:
Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007),
141:(1086), there were an estimated 6,500 watermills in
1377:
1905:
1765:
1740:
1714:
1688:. Northamptonshire County Council. pp. 29–32.
1576:
1530:
1399:
721:, Recensio Guntchramna, X, 6; XII, 1–3; XXXI, 3
2089:
1878:
1729:
2084:– Quantitative data on watermills up to 700 AD
874:Vita S. Brigidae virginis, cols. 787–8 Migne
1987:ΛΑΒΡΥΣ. Studies presented to Pontus Hellström
1417:
1415:
758:Senchus Mòr, De ceithri slichtaib Athgabála
1818:, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 152–154
1879:McErlean, Thomas; Crothers, Norman (2007),
1412:
156:a century later. The introduction of the
1984:
1966:
1954:
1860:
1840:
1774:
1759:
1748:
1744:
1718:
1659:
1647:
1635:
1616:
1597:
1585:
1570:
1558:
1543:
1524:
1509:
1497:
1485:
1453:
1407:
1403:
1383:
1371:
1359:
1335:
1316:
133:times, references to watermills in the
67:
24:
1684:Windell, Chapman and Woodiwiss (1990).
905:
2090:
2002:
1896:
1710:
1421:
1395:
1304:
986:Mill-channel, horizontal-wheeled mill
889:Vita S. Remigi episcopi Remensis, 17
63:
2043:
1936:
1921:Working with Water in Medieval Europe
1918:
1813:
1698:
1671:
1470:
2046:The Archaeology of Mills and Milling
1969:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
1883:, Belfast: Stationery Office Books,
1822:
1347:
171:
103:lords. The sharp rise in numbers of
1270:Mill-paddles from horizontal wheel
13:
2080:The Oxford Roman Economy Project:
2037:
1849:, vol. 13, pp. 283–303,
910:
331:
93:demise of the Western Roman Empire
52:comprises a selection of European
14:
2124:
2074:
2069:List of tide mills on Long Island
1962:, vol. 10, pp. 151–179
1914:, vol. 20, pp. 138–163
1827:, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers,
1741:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
1715:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
1400:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
1162:Vertical-wheeled undershot mill
99:continued to grow under the new
1790:
1753:
1734:
1723:
1704:
1692:
1677:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1591:
1564:
1503:
1491:
1473:, pp. 10, fig. 1.2, 17, 49
1389:
1365:
1353:
1341:
1310:
1298:
552:, Historia Francorum III, 19
1:
2113:Technology in the Middle Ages
1825:The Mills of Medieval England
1292:
1222:
1198:Horizontal-wheeled tide mill
1127:Horizontal-wheeled tide mill
948:Horizontal-wheeled tide mill
317:mill (Norse or Greek mill)
2006:The Journal of Roman Studies
1912:Journal of Roman Archaeology
1798:in the imperial Roman period
1730:McErlean & Crothers 2007
628:, VII, 2.12 and VIII, 4.30
87:Largely unaffected from the
7:
2062:
1146:Vertical-wheeled tide mill
1108:Vertical-wheeled tide mill
10:
2129:
1807:
1374:, pp. 379 & 383f.
964:Probably late 7th century
776:, Carmina, III, 12, 37–8
574:, Vitae Patrum, XVIII, 2
89:turbulent political events
20:List of ancient watermills
17:
2108:Middle Ages-related lists
2048:, The History Press LTD,
1248:
1242:
1239:
1236:
929:
926:
923:
920:
353:
350:
347:
344:
341:
197:
191:
189:Water-powered mill types
188:
185:
50:early medieval watermills
1861:Mangartz, Fritz (2010),
1783:
1089:Horizontal-wheeled mill
1057:Horizontal-wheeled mill
808:Watermill (?) machinery
739:V (=Goth. I), 19.19–22
1897:Murphy, Donald (2005),
1841:Kessener, Paul (2010),
930:Identification/Remains
685:Nomos georgikós 81–82
214:V (=Goth. I), 19.19–22
60:, from 500 to 1000 AD.
2044:Watts, Martin (2002),
1937:Watts, Martin (2006),
1823:Holt, Richard (1988),
1619:, p. 400, fn. 124
1527:, p. 400, fn. 123
1512:, p. 399, fn. 121
1186:Nendrum Monastery mill
680:Likely watermill site
84:
45:
32:, along with riverine
1960:History of Technology
1638:, p. 168, fn. 14
1573:, p. 169, fn. 26
1561:, p. 169, fn. 42
1488:, p. 168, fn. 18
1338:, p. 170, fn. 45
1073:Entire establishment
1023:Entire establishment
401:, Sermones, VIII, 4
71:
28:
1743:, pp. 151–153;
1717:, pp. 149–151;
1402:, pp. 149–153;
1020:Between 846 and 864
983:9th or 10th century
906:Archaeological finds
774:Venantius Fortunatus
719:Pactus legis Salicae
572:Gregorius Turonensis
550:Gregorius Turonensis
418:, Variae III, 31.2
95:, the importance of
2103:Lists of watermills
508:Possible watermill
393:Possible watermill
178:ancient counterpart
64:Historical overview
1701:, pp. 152–154
1456:, pp. 155–157
1350:, pp. 7–8, 11
945:Early 8th century
708:Early 7th century
701:Pactus Alamannorum
406:Early 6th century
399:Caesarius of Arles
377:Benedict of Nursia
315:Horizontal-wheeled
291:Horizontal-wheeled
85:
75:ship mills on the
46:
2098:Early Middle Ages
2055:978-0-7524-1966-4
1996:978-91-554-8831-4
1948:978-0-7478-0654-7
1890:978-0-337-08877-3
1872:978-3-88467-149-8
1834:978-0-631-15692-5
1290:
1289:
1246:
1245:(or find context)
1220:
1219:
903:
902:
690:Late 7th century
644:Marius Aventicius
615:Probably 725/728
477:Ethelbert of Kent
351:Type of evidence
329:
328:
195:
172:Earliest evidence
58:early Middle Ages
2120:
2058:
2033:
1999:
1981:
1963:
1951:
1933:
1915:
1902:
1893:
1875:
1857:
1837:
1819:
1801:
1794:
1778:
1772:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1738:
1732:
1727:
1721:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1681:
1675:
1669:
1663:
1662:, pp. 213f.
1657:
1651:
1650:, pp. 214f.
1645:
1639:
1633:
1620:
1614:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1547:
1541:
1528:
1522:
1513:
1507:
1501:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1474:
1468:
1457:
1451:
1424:
1419:
1410:
1393:
1387:
1386:, pp. 383f.
1381:
1375:
1369:
1363:
1357:
1351:
1345:
1339:
1333:
1320:
1319:, pp. 372f.
1314:
1308:
1302:
1244:
1234:
1233:
1191:Northern Ireland
1094:Killoteran near
918:
917:
626:Lex Visigothorum
475:Charter of king
454:Charter of king
432:Charter of king
360:Annals of Ulster
339:
338:
274:Killoteran near
269:Vertical-wheeled
193:
183:
182:
2128:
2127:
2123:
2122:
2121:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2088:
2087:
2077:
2065:
2056:
2040:
2038:Further reading
2015:10.2307/3184857
1997:
1979:
1956:Wikander, Örjan
1949:
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1323:
1315:
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1303:
1299:
1295:
1225:
1062:Cloontycarthy
994:, West Cotton
913:
911:Watermill sites
908:
750:Historiography
608:Lex Baivariorum
590:Lex Alamannorum
563:Historiography
532:Edictus Rothari
334:
332:Written sources
238:system without
174:
66:
36:, were a major
23:
12:
11:
5:
2126:
2116:
2115:
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2085:
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2075:External links
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236:connecting rod
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194:(or reference)
190:
187:
173:
170:
166:Atlantic Ocean
135:Frankish Realm
105:early medieval
91:following the
83:, around 1411.
65:
62:
42:Atlantic Coast
38:early medieval
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2125:
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1980:
1978:90-04-11123-9
1974:
1970:
1965:
1961:
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1944:
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1935:
1932:
1930:90-04-10680-4
1926:
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1821:
1817:
1812:
1811:
1799:
1793:
1789:
1777:, p. 165
1776:
1775:Wikander 1985
1771:
1769:
1762:, p. 372
1761:
1760:Wikander 2000
1756:
1750:
1749:Kessener 2010
1746:
1745:Mangartz 2010
1742:
1737:
1731:
1726:
1720:
1719:Kessener 2010
1716:
1712:
1707:
1700:
1695:
1687:
1680:
1673:
1668:
1661:
1660:Wikander 2014
1656:
1649:
1648:Wikander 2014
1644:
1637:
1636:Wikander 1985
1632:
1630:
1628:
1626:
1618:
1617:Wikander 2000
1613:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1600:, p. 214
1599:
1598:Wikander 2014
1594:
1588:, p. 212
1587:
1586:Wikander 2014
1582:
1580:
1572:
1571:Wikander 1985
1567:
1560:
1559:Wikander 1985
1555:
1553:
1546:, p. 384
1545:
1544:Wikander 2000
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1526:
1525:Wikander 2000
1521:
1519:
1511:
1510:Wikander 2000
1506:
1500:, p. 399
1499:
1498:Wikander 2000
1494:
1487:
1486:Wikander 1985
1482:
1480:
1472:
1467:
1465:
1463:
1455:
1454:Wikander 1985
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1430:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1409:
1408:Mangartz 2010
1405:
1404:Kessener 2010
1401:
1397:
1392:
1385:
1384:Wikander 2000
1380:
1373:
1372:Wikander 2000
1368:
1362:, p. 400
1361:
1360:Wikander 2000
1356:
1349:
1344:
1337:
1336:Wikander 1985
1332:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1318:
1317:Wikander 2000
1313:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1252:
1235:
1232:
1230:
1215:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1133:Little Island
1131:
1130:
1126:
1123:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1114:Little Island
1112:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1022:
1019:
1017:
1014:
1012:
1009:
1008:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
993:
990:
989:
985:
982:
980:
977:
974:
971:
970:
966:
963:
961:
958:
955:
952:
951:
947:
944:
942:
939:
937:
934:
933:
919:
916:
899:
896:
893:
891:
888:
887:
884:
881:
878:
876:
873:
872:
869:Mill-channel
868:
865:
862:
860:
857:
854:
850:
849:
846:
843:
840:
838:
835:
831:
830:
827:
824:
821:
819:
816:
812:
811:
807:
804:
801:
799:
796:
793:
789:
788:
785:
783:
780:
778:
775:
772:
771:
768:
765:
762:
760:
757:
756:
752:
749:
746:
744:
741:
738:
735:
734:
731:
728:
725:
723:
720:
717:
716:
713:
710:
707:
705:
702:
699:
698:
695:
692:
689:
687:
684:
683:
679:
676:
673:
671:
670:Niederalteich
667:
664:
663:
659:
656:
653:
651:
648:
645:
642:
641:
638:
635:
632:
630:
627:
624:
623:
620:
617:
614:
612:
609:
606:
605:
602:
599:
596:
594:
591:
588:
587:
584:
581:
578:
576:
573:
570:
569:
565:
562:
559:
557:
554:
551:
548:
547:
544:
541:
538:
536:
533:
530:
529:
526:
523:
521:760s onwards
520:
518:
515:
512:
511:
507:
504:
501:
498:
495:
492:
491:
488:
485:
482:
480:
478:
474:
473:
470:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
453:
452:
448:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
431:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
414:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
397:
396:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
378:
375:
374:
371:
368:
365:
363:
361:
358:
357:
340:
337:
325:
322:
320:Ballykilleen
319:
316:
313:
310:
309:
306:
303:
300:
299:Little Island
297:
295:
292:
289:
286:
285:
282:
279:
277:
273:
270:
267:
264:
263:
260:
256:
253:
251:
247:
244:
241:
237:
233:
229:
226:
223:
222:
219:
216:
213:
210:
208:
205:
202:
201:
184:
181:
179:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
146:
144:
140:
139:Domesday Book
136:
132:
127:
125:
121:
117:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
82:
78:
74:
70:
61:
59:
56:spanning the
55:
51:
48:This list of
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
21:
16:
2045:
2004:
1986:
1968:
1959:
1938:
1920:
1911:
1898:
1880:
1862:
1846:
1824:
1815:
1792:
1755:
1736:
1725:
1706:
1694:
1685:
1679:
1667:
1655:
1643:
1593:
1566:
1505:
1493:
1391:
1379:
1367:
1355:
1343:
1312:
1300:
1283:9th century
1226:
1213:6th century
1177:6th century
1143:7th century
1105:6th century
914:
897:Hagiography
882:Hagiography
866:Hagiography
844:Hagiography
841:c. 380/420?
825:Hagiography
805:Hagiography
665:"Muliheim"
646:, Chronica
582:Hagiography
517:Lorsch Abbey
434:Childebert I
354:Comments on
335:
265:6th century
224:6th century
175:
147:
128:
97:watermilling
86:
49:
47:
44:for milling.
15:
1816:Antike Welt
1711:Wilson 2002
1674:, p. 6
1422:Murphy 2005
1396:Wilson 2002
1307:, p. 3
1305:Wilson 2002
1266:Anglo-Saxon
1002:Late Saxon
973:Old Windsor
954:Old Windsor
766:Legal code
753:Ship mills
729:Legal code
711:Legal code
693:Legal code
636:Legal code
618:Legal code
600:Legal code
542:Legal code
456:Dagobert II
416:Cassiodorus
271:tide mill
131:Carolingian
120:hagiography
109:legal codes
2092:Categories
1939:Watermills
1699:Czysz 1994
1672:Watts 2006
1471:Rynne 2000
1293:References
1223:Millstones
834:S. Orienti
792:Haimhrammi
660:Ship mill
566:Ship mill
513:Charters
499:-Thulbach
449:Ship mill
342:Reference
192:Find spot
54:watermills
34:ship mills
30:Tide mills
2031:154629776
1941:, Shire,
1855:1301-2746
1348:Holt 1988
1275:Moycraig
1264:Probably
1096:Waterford
1078:Drumard
936:Ebbsfleet
836:, II, 3
798:Thuringia
703:, V, 14
610:, IX, 2
592:, 79–80
534:149–151
493:Charter
345:Location
294:tide mill
276:Waterford
207:Ship mill
198:Location
162:tide mill
158:ship mill
2063:See also
1249:Remains
1240:Country
1151:Morett
1038:696/697
1011:Tamworth
924:Country
894:486/511
726:567/596
677:Charter
633:568/586
597:717/719
579:484/507
524:Charter
505:Charter
486:Charter
468:Charter
446:Charter
423:510/511
388:529/547
383:66.6–7
116:charters
113:monastic
101:Germanic
2023:3184857
1808:Sources
1279:Ireland
1260:England
1229:capstan
1204:Ephesus
1159:c. 710
1155:Ireland
1139:Ireland
1124:c. 630
1120:Ireland
1101:Ireland
1086:c. 782
1082:Ireland
1070:c. 833
1066:Ireland
1054:c. 636
1050:Ireland
1034:Germany
1016:England
998:England
979:England
960:England
941:England
879:c. 650
863:c. 765
822:c. 740
802:c. 770
781:c. 600
763:c. 600
560:c. 575
324:Ireland
311:c. 636
305:Ireland
287:c. 630
281:Ireland
250:Ephesus
242:train
228:Sawmill
154:Germany
150:Ireland
145:alone.
143:England
124:ancient
81:Cologne
2052:
2029:
2021:
1993:
1975:
1945:
1927:
1887:
1869:
1853:
1847:Adalya
1831:
1255:Stroud
1209:Turkey
1173:Jordan
1168:Gerasa
1029:Dasing
992:Raunds
855:, 20
853:Sturmi
817:, 12
815:Leobae
794:, 37
737:Procop
657:Annal
650:Geneva
381:Regula
369:Annal
259:Turkey
255:Jordan
246:Gerasa
212:Procop
73:German
2027:S2CID
2019:JSTOR
1784:Notes
1243:Date
1237:Site
927:Date
921:Site
859:Fulda
851:Vita
832:Vita
813:Vita
790:Vita
668:Near
556:Dijon
461:Trier
439:Paris
348:Date
232:crank
186:Date
77:Rhine
2050:ISBN
1991:ISBN
1973:ISBN
1943:ISBN
1925:ISBN
1885:ISBN
1867:ISBN
1851:ISSN
1829:ISBN
1135:II
975:II
747:537
743:Rome
674:731
654:563
539:643
502:754
497:Wang
483:762
465:646
443:556
366:650
257:and
248:and
240:gear
234:and
218:Rome
203:537
160:and
2011:doi
1116:I
956:I
79:at
2094::
2025:,
2017:,
1910:,
1845:,
1767:^
1747:;
1624:^
1605:^
1578:^
1551:^
1532:^
1517:^
1478:^
1461:^
1428:^
1414:^
1406:;
1324:^
379:,
301:I
230:;
180:.
118:,
111:,
2013::
1800:.
22:.
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