Cataphract - Knowledge

611: 1612: 1871: 1281:...all the companies were clad in iron, and all parts of their bodies were covered with thick plates, so fitted that the stiff-joints conformed with those of their limbs; and the forms of human faces were so skillfully fitted to their heads, that since their entire body was covered with metal, arrows that fell upon them could lodge only where they could see a little through tiny openings opposite the pupil of the eye, or where through the tip of their nose they were able to get a little breath. Of these some, who were armed with pikes, stood so motionless that you would think them held fast by clamps of bronze. 31: 1188: 803: 287: 1684:

cavalrymen, this unit was clearly designed with a single decisive charge in mind as the centre of the unit was composed of mounted archers. These would release volleys of arrows into the enemy as the unit advanced at a trot, with the first four rows of mace-armed Kataphraktoi then penetrating the enemy formation through the resulting disruption (contrary to popular representations, Byzantine Kataphraktoi did not charge, they advanced at a steady medium-pace trot and were designed to roll over an enemy already softened by the archers).

1490:, Sarmatians, Parthians, and Sassanids presented a grievous problem for the traditionally less mobile, infantry-dependent Roman Empire. Roman writers throughout imperial history made much of the terror of facing cataphracts, let alone receiving their charge. Parthian armies repeatedly clashed with the Roman legions in a series of wars, featuring the heavy usage of cataphracts. Although initially successful, the Romans soon developed ways to crush the charges of heavy horsemen, through use of terrain and maintained discipline. 619: 1393: 1851: 1372:, for use in the melee that often followed a charge. Some wore armor that was primarily frontal: providing protection for a charge and against missiles yet offering relief from the weight and encumbrance of a full suit. In yet another variation, cataphracts in some field armies were not equipped with shields at all, particularly if they had heavy body armor, as having both hands occupied with a shield and lance left no room to effectively steer the horse. Eastern and Persian cataphracts, particularly those of the 299: 1470: 1345: 926: 1236:) that was flexible enough to give the rider and horse a good degree of motion, but strong enough to resist the immense impact of a thunderous charge into infantry formations. Scale armor was made from overlapping, rounded plates of bronze or iron (most being around one to two millimeters thick), which had two or four holes drilled into the sides, to be threaded with a bronze wire that was then sewn onto an undergarment of leather or animal 1909:, etc.). According to surviving records, the Western Han Dynasty had 5,330 sets of horse armor at the Donghai Armory. Comprehensive full-body armor for horses made of organic materials such as rawhide may have existed as early as the Qin Dynasty according to archaeological discoveries of stone lamellar armor for horses. Comprehensive armor for horses made of metal might have been used in China as early as the 1688:

where the first blow did not smash the enemy (no feigned flight or repeated charges were possible due to the formation employed). It is for this reason that Byzantine military manuals (Praecepta Militaria and the Taktika) advise where possible, for the use of a second wedge of Kataphraktoi which could be hurled at the enemy in the event that they resisted the initial charge.

468:. However, it appears with more frequency in Latin sources than in Greek throughout antiquity. A twofold origin of the Greek term has been proposed: either that it was a humorous reference to the heavily armored cataphracts as men encased in armor who would heat up very quickly much like in an oven; or that it was further derived from the 680:. Although evidence is scant, they are believed to have raised and bred horses for specific purposes, as is evidenced by the large archaeological record of their use of the chariot and several treatises on the training of chariot horses. The one founding prerequisite towards the development of cataphract cavalry in the 1687:

This formation is the only method prescribed for Kataphraktoi in the Praecepta Militaria of Emperor Nikephoros which was designed as a decisive hammer-blow which would break the enemy. Due to the rigidity of the formation, it was not possible for it to re-form and execute a second charge in instances

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also developed cataphract units to counter those of the Liao, Xia, and Jin, but the shortage of suitable grazing lands and horse pastures in Song territory made the effective breeding and maintenance of Song cavalry far more difficult. This added to the Song's vulnerability to continual raids by the

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Contemporary depictions, however, imply that Byzantine cataphracts were not as completely armored as the earlier Roman and Sassanid incarnation. The horse armor was noticeably lighter than earlier examples, being made of leather scales or quilted cloth rather than metal at all. Byzantine cataphracts

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as an anti-cavalry weapon. They were roughly four meters in length, with a capped point made of iron, bronze, or even animal bone and usually wielded with both hands. Most had a chain attached to the horse's neck and at the end by a fastening attached to the horse's hind leg, which supported the use

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and Saka. While the offensive weapons of these prototype cataphracts were identical to those of the Assyrians, they differed in that not only the rider but also the head and flanks of the horse were protected by armor. Whether this development was influenced by the Assyrians, as Rubin postulates, or

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region, notably at a time when the Scythians, who relied on light horse archers, were superseded by the Sarmatians. By the 3rd century BC, light cavalry units were used in most eastern armies, but still only "relatively few states in the East or West attempted to imitate the Assyrian and Chorasmian

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These later Roman cataphracts were a much feared force in their heyday. The army of Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas reconstituted Kataphraktoi during the tenth century and included a complex and highly developed composition of an offensive, blunt-nosed wedge formation. Made up of roughly five hundred

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As with the original cataphracts, the Leonian/Nikephorian units seemed to have fallen out of favour and use with their handlers, making their last, recorded appearance in battle in 970 and the last record of their existence in 1001, referred to as being posted to garrison duty. If they had indeed

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used by late Roman infantry. These were to be hurled at the enemy lines during or just before a charge, to disorder the defensive formation immediately before the impact of the lances. With or without darts, a cataphract charge would usually be supported by some kind of missile troops (mounted or

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The penetrating power of the cataphract's lance was recognized as being fearful by Roman writers, described as being capable of transfixing two men at once, as well as inflicting deep and mortal wounds even on opposing cavalries' mounts, and were definitely more potent than the regular one-handed

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of the saddle) independently to give a further degree of movement for the horse and to allow the armor to be affixed to the horse reasonably tightly so that it should not loosen too much during movement. Usually but not always, a close-fitting helmet that covered the head and neck was worn by the

2798:. Official state history recorded Li Shimin (Emperor Taizong of Tang) commanding his Black Armor Cavalry Force to break and penetrate Dou Jiande's formation in Battle of Hulao (621 AD). On the ceremony of this triumph, the later emperor led a force of 10000 cataphracts and 30000 armored infantry. 1602:

that Persian cataphract archers were adept at firing their arrows in very quick succession and saturating enemy positions but with little hitting power, resulting in mostly non-incapacitating limb wounds for the enemy. The Roman cataphracts, on the other hand, released their shots with far more

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to shield themselves from the huge numbers of incoming arrows. This made them fatally susceptible to a massed cataphract charge, since the testudo made the legionaries immobile and incapable of attacking or defending themselves in close combat against the long reach of the Parthian cataphracts'

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to "fasten" the rider to the horse's body, much like the later knightly saddles of Medieval Europe. These saddles had a cantle at the back of the saddle and two guard clamps that curved across the top of the rider's thighs and fastened to the saddle, thereby enabling the rider to stay properly

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of the lance by transferring the full momentum of a horse's gallop to the thrust of the charge. Though they lacked stirrups, the traditional Roman saddle had four horns with which to secure the rider; enabling a soldier to stay seated upon the full impact. During the Sassanid era, the

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unmounted) placed on either flank of the enemy formation. Some armies formalised this tactic by deploying separate types of cataphract, the conventional, very heavily armored, bowless lancer for the primary charge and a dual purpose, lance-and-bow cataphract for supporting units.

602:). Given that "cataphract" was used for more than a millennium by various cultures, it appears that different types of fully armored cavalry in the armies of different nations were assigned this name by Greek and Roman scholars not familiar with the native terms for such cavalry. 735:, and are believed to have influenced many modern horse breeds. With the growing aggressiveness of cavalry in warfare, protection of the rider and the horse became paramount. This was especially true of peoples who treated cavalry as the basic arm of their military, such as the 1571:, used exclusively by Roman emperors. Ammianus Marcellinus remarked in his memoirs that members of the Pushtigban were able to impale two Roman soldiers on their spears at once with a single furious charge. Persian cataphract archery also seems to have been again revived in 1135:. The Romans deployed both native and mercenary units of cataphracts throughout the Empire, from Asia Minor all the way to Britain, where a contingent of 5,500 Sarmatians (including cataphracts, infantry, and non-combatants) were posted in the 2nd century by Emperor 1404:

While they varied in design and appearance, cataphracts were universally the heavy assault force of most nations that deployed them, acting as "shock troops" to deliver the bulk of an offensive manoeuvre, while being supported by various forms of infantry and

696:. Cataphract cavalry needed immensely strong and endurant horses, and without selectively breeding horses for muscular strength and hardiness, they would have surely not been able to bear the immense loads of armor and a rider during the strain of battle. The 1664:, probably reflecting a revival that paralleled the transformation of the Eastern Roman army from a largely defensive force into a largely offensive force. The cataphracts deployed by the Eastern Roman Empire (most noticeably after the 7th century, when 778:. The successive Persian Empires that followed the Medes after their downfall in 550 BC took these already long-standing military tactics and horse-breeding traditions and infused their centuries of experience and veterancy from conflicts against the 1257:

rider; the Persian variants extended this even further and encased the wearer's entire head in metal, leaving only minute slits for the nose and eyes as openings. Ammianus Marcellinus, a noted Roman historian and general who served in the army of

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perhaps the Achaemenid Empire, or whether they occurred spontaneously and entirely unrelated to the advances in heavily armored cavalry made in the Ancient Near East, cannot be discerned by the archaeological records left by these mounted nomads.

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it was illegal for private citizens to possess horse armor. Production of horse armor was controlled by the government. However, the use of cataphracts was mentioned in many records and literature. Cataphracts were also used in warfare from the

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adopted some cataphracts. Pergamese reliefs show cavalry similarly armed and equipped as Seleucid cataphracts, indicating an adoption. Yet these were probably equipped from trophies taken from the Seleucids, which would suggest limited numbers.

747:: second only to perhaps the bow, horses were held in reverence and importance in these societies as their preferred and mastered medium of warfare, due to an intrinsic link throughout history with the domestication and evolution of the horse. 1035:

due to their poor tactical abilities against disciplined infantry as well as against more mobile, light cavalry. However, the lingering period of exposure to cataphracts at the eastern frontier as well as the growing military pressure of the

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The cataphract charge was very effective due to the disciplined riders and the large numbers of horses deployed. As early as the 1st century BC, especially during the expansionist campaigns of the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, Eastern

1252:. Specifically, the horse armor was usually sectional (not joined together as a cohesive "suit"), with large plates of scales tied together around the animal's waist, flank, shoulders, neck and head (especially along the 1739:

It is difficult to determine when exactly the cataphract saw his final day. After all, cataphracts and knights fulfilled a roughly similar role on the medieval battlefield, and the armored knight survived well into the

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to the fall of the Tang Dynasty. During the Five Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms era, cataphracts were important units in this civil war. In the same period, cataphracts were also popular among nomadic empires, such as the

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continued the cavalry traditions of the Parthians, fielding units of super-heavy cavalry. This gradually fell out of favour, and a "universal" cavalryman was developed during the later 3rd century, able to fight as a

1240:, worn by the horse. A full set of cataphract armor consisted of approximately 1,300 or so "scales" and could weigh an astonishing 40 kilograms or 88 pounds (not inclusive of the rider's body weight). Less commonly, 1182:

Three examples of the various styles of interweaving and wire threading that were commonly employed in the creation of cataphract scale armor to form a stiffened, "armored shell" with which to protect the

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were one and the same type of cavalry, designated differently simply as a result of their divided geographical locations and local linguistic preferences. Cataphract-like cavalry under the command of the

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period, but the usage wasn't widely adapted as most cavalry formation requires maneuverability. It was not until the early 4th century, however, that cataphracts came into widespread use among with the

1656:, published during the same period, made no mention of cataphracts or their tactical employment. This absence persisted through most of the Thematic period, until the cataphracts reappeared in Emperor 885:(705–681 BC), they eventually became capable both of long-range and hand-to-hand combat, mirroring the development of dual-purpose cataphract archers by the Parthian Empire during the 1st century BC. 1196:

But no sooner had the first light of day appeared, than the glittering coats of mail, girt with bands of steel, and the gleaming cuirasses, seen from afar, showed that the king's forces were at hand.

1179: 2912:. In this call for surrender, Li Cunxu (Emperor Zhuang of the later Tang) boasted that his soldiers captured 5000 cataphracts of the Later Liang Dynasty victory in the Battle of Baixiang (910 AD). 1977:, successors to the Song, were a continuation of the Mongol Empire, and seem to have all but forgotten the cataphract traditions of their predecessors. The last remaining traces of cataphracts in 877:

was formed and reached its military peak, is believed to have been the first context within which the Assyrian kingdom formed crude regiments of cataphract-like cavalry. Even when armed only with

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As Western European metalwork became increasingly sophisticated, the traditional image of the cataphract's awe-inspiring might and presence quickly evaporated. From the 15th century and onwards,

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and penetrating enemy formations to create gaps, enabling lighter troops to make a breakthrough. Alternatively, they were used to target the head of the enemy force, typically a foreign emperor.

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The further evolution of these early forms of heavy cavalry in Western Eurasia is not entirely clear. Heavily armored riders on large horses appear in 4th century BC frescoes in the northern

1433:, as only the wealthiest men of noble birth could afford the panoply of the cataphract, not to mention the costs of supporting several war horses and ample amounts of weaponry and armor. 1417:

or generic heavy cavalry, they should not be considered analogous to these forms of cavalry, and instead represent the separate evolution of a very distinct class of heavy cavalry in the

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as well as a cataphract. This was perhaps in response to the harassing, nomadic combat style used by the Sassanids' northern neighbours who frequently raided their borders, such as the

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at Carrhae. This initially unexpected and humiliating defeat for Rome was followed by numerous campaigns over the next two centuries entailing many notable engagements such as: the

1700:(possibly representing a distinct class of cavalry from the cataphract) was brought to the fore in the 10th and 11th centuries of the Byzantine Empire, known in Byzantine Greek as 3373: 1988:

used cataphracts as the elite assault force of its armies for much of its history. The Gokturk Khaganates might also have had cataphracts, as the Orkhon inscriptions mentioned

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seems to have faded with the downfall of the Yuan in 1368 and later heavy cavalry never reached the levels of armor and protection for the horses as these earlier cataphracts.

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Voennaia arkheologiia: Oruzhie i voennoe delo v istoricheskoi i sotsial.noi perspektive (Military Archaeology: Weaponry and Warfare in the Historical and Social Perspective)

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against the Roman heavy infantry. The Parthian horse archers encircled the Roman formation and bombarded it with arrows from all sides, forcing the legionaries to form the

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being forced to concede peace with Parthia. As a result of this lingering period of exposure to cataphracts, by the 4th century, the Roman Empire had adopted a number of

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era. Numerous burial seals, military figurines, murals, and official reliefs from this period testify to the great importance of armored cavalry in warfare. The later

2826:. This military report recorded a border battle between Tang and Tibetan Armies in the middle 8th Century. Among the 5000 Tang cavalry troops, 1200 were cataphracts. 610: 1439:

was deemed particularly important for the proper deployment of cataphracts. The Parthian army that defeated the Romans at Carrhae in 53 BC operated primarily as a

961:'s kingdom who reigned over conquered Persia and Asia Minor after his death in 323 BC. The Parthians, who wrested control over their native Persia from the last 794:

tribes with the significant role cavalry played not only in warfare but everyday life to form a military reliant almost entirely upon armored horses for battle.

572:' heavy Greek influence (especially after the 7th century, when Latin ceased to be the official language). Contemporary sources, however, sometimes imply that 1819:, rendered the relatively thin and flexible armor of cataphracts obsolete. Despite these advances, the Byzantine army, often unable to afford newer equipment 1696:

system, providing the Byzantine Empire with a motivated and professional force that could support its own wartime expenditures. The previously mentioned term

1376:, carried bows as well as blunt-force weapons, to soften up enemy formations before an eventual attack, reflecting upon the longstanding Persian tradition of 1823:, was left ill-equipped and forced to rely on its increasingly archaic military technology. The cataphract finally passed into the pages of history with the 2080:. Военная археология: оружие и военное дело в исторической и социальной перспективе. Материалы Международной конференции . St. Petersburg. pp. 131–138. 1728:(1081–1118) established a new military force from the ground up, which was directly responsible for transforming the aging Byzantine Empire from one of the 1462:. The end result was a far smaller force of Parthian cataphracts and horse archers wiping out a Roman army four times their number, due to a combination of 715:

in 625 BC. It was the Median Empire that left the first written proof of horse breeding around the 7th century BC, being the first to propagate a specific

3378: 2883:. The book recorded that the Tang arsenal once distributed 150 Modao glaives and 100 catapharact horse armors to border troops in Yanzhou in 8th century. 2854:. In this official call to arms, the Tang military leader threatened the Nanzhao leaders by stating that he had 4 units of cataphracts, 500 in each unit. 1582:

by the 6th century had become the cataphract, modelled after the very force that had fought them in the east for more than 500 years earlier. During the

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before and during battles, and then to pursue retreating enemies after a victory. The adoption of cataphract-like cavalry formations took hold among the

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dynasties—the heavy cataphracts of the Xia and Jin were especially effective and were known as "Iron Sparrowhawks" and "Iron Pagodas" respectively. The

1248:(which is similar in appearance but divergent in design, as it has no backing) was substituted for scale armor, while for the most part the rider wore 953:, is very likely the first Western encounter of cataphract cavalry, and to a degree heavy cavalry in general. The cataphract was widely adopted by the 1575:, perhaps as a response (or even a stimulus) to an emerging trend of the late Roman army towards mobility and versatility in their means of warfare. 2075: 837:

region were also significant to the development of cataphract-like cavalry during the 1st millennium BC. Reliefs discovered in the ancient ruins of

363:("covered, protected"), which is interpreted along the lines of "fully armored" or "closed from all sides". The term first appears substantively in 3363: 3358: 3289: 3121: 1744:

of Europe. The Byzantine army maintained units of heavily armored cavalrymen up until its final years, mostly in the form of Western European

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Warfare in the Classical World: An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Weapons, Warriors, and Warfare in the Ancient Civilisations of Greece and Rome

1073:, who created a highly mobile force in response to the multiple threats along the northern and eastern frontier. However, as late as 272 AD, 506:

use the term "cataphract" in their military treatises to describe any type of cavalry with either partial or full horse and rider armor. The

2146:, "The Coming of the Greeks: Indo-European Conquests in the Aegean and the Near East.", Princeton University Press, Chariot Warfare. p. 61. 2526: 1510:, literally meaning "riders") during the era of the Sassanid army and remained a formidable force from the 3rd to 7th centuries until the 1088:

The Romans fought a prolonged and indecisive campaign in the East against the Parthians beginning in 53 BC, commencing with the defeat of

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showing Persian kings doing battle in a fashion not dissimilar to later depictions of jousts and mounted combat from the Medieval era.

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Mielczarek, M. (1993) Cataphracti and Clibanari. Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World. Lodz: Oficyna Naukowa MS.

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Nikonorov, Valerii P. (1998). "Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii: Another Look at the old problem of their Identifications".

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frontier led to a gradual integration of cataphracts into the Roman army. Thus, although cavalrymen with armor were deployed in the

400:, writing in the fourth century, described armor of any sort as "cataphracts" – which at the time of writing would have been either 529:

There is, therefore, some doubt as to what exactly cataphracts were in late antiquity, and whether or not they were distinct from

766:'s vast expanse across Central Asia, which was the native homeland of the early, north-eastern Iranian ethnic groups such as the 3097:

Nikonorov, Valerii P. (1985b). "The Development of Horse Defensive Equipment in the Antique Epoch". In Kruglikova, I. T. (ed.).

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Other East Asian cultures were also known to have used cataphracts during a similar time period to the Chinese. Meanwhile, the

1870: 1704:, which appeared to be a throwback to the super-heavy cavalry of earlier antiquity. These cataphracts specialised in forming a 2436: 2106: 83:

Historically, the cataphract was a very heavily armored horseman, with both the rider and mount almost completely covered in

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attempted to reinstate the super-heavy cataphracts of previous Persian dynasties to counter the formation of the new, Roman

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Perevalov, S. M. (translated by M. E. Sharpe) (Spring 2002). "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture".

980:. Cataphracts had varying levels of success against Roman military tactics more so at the Battle of Carrhae and less so at 1650:

References to Eastern Roman cataphracts seemed to have disappeared in the late 6th century, as the manual of war known as

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Archaeological excavations also indicate that, by the 6th century BC, similar experimentation had taken place among the

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The primary weapon of practically all cataphract forces throughout history was the lance. Cataphract lances (known in

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Kingdom in the East in 147 BC, were also noted for their reliance upon cataphracts as well as horse archers in battle.

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as the mount of nobility. These warhorses, sometimes referred to as "Nisean chargers", were highly sought after by the

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dating between the 7th to 10th centuries BC—however, this armor did not cover the entire horse and was likely made of

1736:. However, even in this case, it seems that the cataphract was eventually superseded by other types of heavy cavalry. 849:

composed of metal scales, presumably deployed to provide the Assyrians with a tactical advantage over the unprotected

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The evolution of the heavily armored horseman was not isolated to one focal point during a specific era (such as the

232:, as well as numerous defeats at the hands of Iranian cataphracts across the steppes of Eurasia, most notably in the 2657:: all four horses are armoured by thin metal plates. Horses need to be light as well as easily steered and trained." 3274:

Antigüedad y cristianismo: Monografías históricas sobre la Antigüedad tardía, Nº 16, pages 397-418.ISSN 0214-7165.

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Cataphracts served as the elite cavalry force for most empires and nations that fielded them, primarily used for

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of nobility (as only those of noble birth or caste could become cavalry warriors), now spread throughout the

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Rubin, Berthold (1955), "Die Entstehung der Kataphraktenreiterei im Lichte der chorezmischen Ausgrabungen",

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Battle scenes showing combat between Parthian and Sassanian cataphracts on horses with barding using lances.

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in its existence into a major economic and military power, akin to its existence during the golden age of

1957: 1167: 1004:, whose long-range weapons proved very effective, defeated the uphill-storming Parthian armored cavalry. 707:

kingdoms and statehoods were to a large degree the ancestors of the north-eastern Iranian tribes and the

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from around 1000 BC to 800 BC. Two of these tribes are attested based upon archaeological evidence: the

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intensified to the West, sweeping military reforms were again re-established. During the 4th century,

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José J. Vicente Sánchez (1999). Los regimientos de catafractos y clibanarios en la tardo antigüedad.

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for use as heavy cavalry. The Nisean would become renowned in the Ancient World and particularly in

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Cataphracti, Catafractarii and Clibanarii: Another Look at the old problem of their Identifications

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An Arab-Syrian Gentleman and Warrior in the Period of the Crusades: Memoirs of Usamah Ibn-Munquidh

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The reliance on cavalry as a means of warfare in general lies with the ancient inhabitants of the

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Helmut Nickel, Tamga and Runes, Magic Numbers and Magic Symbols, The Metropolitan Art Museum 1973

2016: – Period of the Byzantine Empire that created a new army that served from 1081 AD – 1204 AD 1989: 1620: 1113: 1089: 744: 2523: 2646: 1824: 1772:, and other Eurasian peoples emulated Byzantine military equipment. During medieval times, the 1652: 1567:

divisions and were akin in their deployment and military role to their Roman counterparts, the

1560: 1057: 981: 274:(died 268) arguably contributed much to the institution of Roman cataphract contingents in the 174: 34: 2717: 2600: 1634:

Some cataphracts fielded by the later Roman Empire were also equipped with heavy, lead-weight

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power, able to launch arrows with lethal kinetic energy behind them, albeit at a slower pace.

458:, meaning "camp oven" or "metallic furnace"; the word has also been tentatively linked to the 3211:(y III). La caballería pesada del ejército romano-bizantino, de Justiniano a Alejo Comneno", 2972: 1713: 1426: 929:

A stone-etched relief depicting a Parthian cataphract fighting against a lion. Housed in the

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were in fact a heavier type of cavalryman, or formed special-purpose units (such as the late

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had no exclusive term ascribed to them, with both the Latin variant and the Greek innovation

240:. Traditionally, Roman cavalry was neither heavily-armored nor decisive in effect; the Roman 881:, these early horsemen were effective mounted cavalrymen, but when provided with bows under 1861: 1498: 1201: 559: 545: 417: 27:

Type of heavy cavalry originating in Persia and used throughout Eurasia and Northern Africa

2551:"The Sarmatians 600 BC - AD 450", Brzezinski & Mielczarek, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 1902: 1887:

Horses covered with scale armor are alluded to in the ancient Chinese book of poetry, the

1187: 1065:(117–138 AD), who created the first, regular unit of auxiliary, mailed cavalry called the 802: 8: 3383: 3293: 2022: 1944: 1827:

on 29 May 1453, when the last nation to refer to its cavalrymen as cataphracts fell (see

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seemed to fall out of favour with Eastern noble cavalrymen as elaborate and robust plate

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of the 10th century were drawn from the ranks of the middle-class landowners through the

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techniques and the necessary grazing pastures for raising horses, was the development of

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seems to have been a response to the Eastern campaigns of the Parthians and Sasanians in

115: 3086: 1277:, described the sight of a contingent of massed Persian cataphracts in the 4th century: 3146: 3129:

Perevalov, S. M. (2002), "The Sarmatian Lance and the Sarmatian Horse-Riding Posture",

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Cataphracti and Clibanarii. Studies on the Heavy Armoured Cavalry of the Ancient World

1466:, which pinned the enemy down, wore them out and left them vulnerable to a deathblow. 1333:

wielding them told of occasions when it was capable of bursting through two layers of

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Peoples and states deploying cataphracts at some point in their history included: the

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of Sarmatian cataphracts belonging to the tribe of Royal Sarmatians, was used by the

1463: 1448: 1400:, dubbed "Golden Man". The overlapping golden scales are typical of cataphract armor. 1312: 1151: 1032: 1020: 787: 779: 681: 638: 499: 484: 403: 233: 170: 150: 244:

corps comprised mainly lightly-armored horsemen bearing spears and swords and using

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Bivar, A. D. H. (1972), "Cavalry Equipment and Tactics on the Euphrates Frontier",

1926:, which led to the readoption of cataphracts en masse by Chinese armies during the 1716:, a period of thorough financial, territorial and military reform that changed the 1568: 1515: 1178: 1163: 724: 693: 618: 190: 127: 119: 1668:

ceased to be the official language of the empire) were exclusively referred to as

1392: 700:

is generally believed to have been the focal point for where this first occurred.

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and unmounted). While their roles in military history often seem to overlap with

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The spread of Iranic peoples in Eurasia during the Iron Age highlighted in green.

431: 275: 253: 178: 166: 162: 146: 96: 88: 77: 69: 65: 38: 2619: 1850: 845:

during the 13th century BC) are the earliest known depictions of riders wearing

286: 3196:. La caballería pesada del ejército romano, de Severo Alejandro a Justiniano", 3181:. La caballería pesada del ejército romano, de Vespasiano a Severo Alejandro", 2674: 2090: 2013: 1969:

for over two decades, which eventually vanquished them in 1279 at the hands of

1919: 1910: 1796: 1781: 1721: 1717: 1635: 1572: 1556: 1410: 1381: 1286: 1258: 1245: 1222: 1061:) by the Roman Empire comes in the 2nd century AD, during the reign of Emperor 1001: 938: 930: 740: 732: 728: 689: 511: 459: 393: 381: 218: 206: 198: 3142: 1712:

disappeared, then it is possible that they were revived once again during the

1477:; Sasanian era silver plate with gold coating, Azerbaijan Museum, Tabriz, Iran 1344: 3312: 2670: 1966: 1559:

of the late Roman Empire. The elite of the Persian cataphracts, known as the

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Roman Heavy Cavalry (1): Cataphractarii & Clibanarii, 1st Century BC–5th

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continued to maintain a very active corps of cataphracts long after their

2615: 1970: 1961: 1953: 1906: 1894: 1877: 1800: 1733: 1595: 1583: 1241: 1237: 1132: 1121: 882: 846: 716: 469: 440:

is a Latin word for "mail-clad riders", itself a derivative of the Greek

237: 84: 42: 1543:

and relied almost solely upon horse archers for combat. However, as the

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Image of Sarmatian armored horse detail on the Trajan's column project

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The cataphract-style parade armor of a Saka (Scythian) royal from the

1221:

Cataphracts were almost universally clad in some form of scale armor (

976:

The Romans came to know cataphracts during their frequent wars in the

750:

These early riding traditions, which were strongly tied to the ruling

1978: 1876:

A Chinese ceramic figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, from the

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J. Birkenmeier in "The Development of the Komnenian Army: 1081-1180"

1085:, proving the continuing importance of mobility on the battlefield. 1055:, VI, 25, 3), the first recorded deployment and use of cataphracts ( 949:, an uprising against Persian rule in Asia Minor which preluded the 114:

formations. Chronicled by many historians from the earliest days of

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populations who migrated from the steppes of Central Asia into the

420:, Roman soldier and historian of the fourth century, mentions the " 397: 271: 229: 202: 111: 3038:

Eadie, John W. (1967), "The Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry",

2389:

Eadie, John W. (1967). "The Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry".

1069:. A key architect in the process was evidently the Roman emperor 1915: 1804: 1769: 1532: 1414: 1406: 1307: 1078: 1062: 708: 673: 646: 634: 387: 268: 241: 123: 73: 2514:, Philip K. Hitti (trans.) (New Jersey: Princeton), 1978. p. 69. 2427:

D'Amato, Raffaele; Negin, Andrey Evgenevich (20 November 2018).

1672:, due to the Empire's strong Greek influence, as opposed to the 2710: 2639: 2007: 1898: 1812: 1807:

arrived from the West; this, in combination with the advent of

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Campbell, Brian (1987), "Teach Yourself How to Be a General",

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spear used by most other cavalries of the period. Accounts of

1860:

figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, created during the

1777: 1761: 1753: 1503: 1459: 1365: 1294: 905: 817:), but rather developed simultaneously in different parts of 775: 771: 751: 515: 453: 441: 364: 358: 352: 322: 186: 142: 100: 1116:

in 217 AD, which resulted in a slight Parthian victory, and

3076:

Nikonorov, Valerii P. (1985a). "The Parthian Cataphracts".

2431:. Elite. Vol. 225. Osprey Publishing. pp. 11–12. 1628: 1483: 1353: 1262: 797: 430:" (implying that clibanarii is a foreign term, not used in 302: 154: 649:. Most of these nomadic tribes and wandering pastoralists 2010: – Type of light or heavy cavalry armed with a lance 1720:

of previous ages, which is referred to separately as the

1524: 1421:

that had certain connotations of prestige, nobility, and

1015:

considered cataphracts with horse armor to be typical of

568:

being used in historical sources, largely because of the

380:

There appears to be some confusion about the term in the

2281:

Armies of the Macedonian and Punic Wars 359 BC to 146 BC

1077:'s army, completely composed of light cavalry, defeated 2018:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

1473:

Two heavily armored noblemen dueling on horseback with

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Cataphracts would often be equipped with an additional

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from around 600 BC and onwards due to contact with the

548:, where Latin was the official tongue, always bore the 526:), which would translate as "fully iron-clad knights". 3374:

Military units and formations of the Hellenistic world

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general Kul-Tegin exchanged armored horses in battle.

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attached to them. In many armies, this reflected upon

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of the 5th century BC with the Achaemenid Empire. The

743:. To a larger extent, the same can be said of all the 426:" – the "cataphract cavalry which they regularly call 396:

later became exclusively designated as "cataphracts".

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Military units and formations of the Byzantine Empire

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Chetvertaia vsesoiuznaia shkola molodykh vostokovedov

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seated, especially during violent contact in battle.

377:", meaning "the armored, whom they call cataphract". 3329:

Cavalry units and formations of the Sassanian Empire

1496:

cataphracts were a contiguous division known as the

463: 309:

cataphract armour with neck-guard. 1st century BCE.

3286:—Roman, Parthian and Sasanid military organisation. 3085:Smith, William; et al. (1890). "Cataphracti". 2341: 1146:This tradition was later paralleled by the rise of 1031:, they were still held in rather low esteem in the 968:Besides the Seleucids it is possible that also the 452:), meaning "camp oven bearers" from the Greek word 256:during the late 3rd and 4th centuries. The Emperor 3299:Third century AD graffito of Parthian Cataphractus 3093:The text of this book is now in the public domain. 2312: 2302: 2300: 2162: 2084: 2035: 1619:cataphracts fleeing from Roman cavalry during the 3399:Types of cavalry unit in the army of ancient Rome 3394:Military units and formations of the Tang dynasty 2361: 2359: 920: 45:for the horse. The rider is covered by extensive 3310: 2426: 1607:Later history and usage in the early Middle Ages 1191:Breakdown of a fully armoured Chinese cataphract 537:. Some historians theorise that cataphracts and 423:cataphracti equites (quos clibanarios dictitant) 2714:Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry 2643:Collected Commentaries on the Classic of Poetry 2297: 1897:, not metal as traditionally believed (e.g. by 1208:historian and soldier, describing the sight of 558:. The cataphract-like cavalry stationed in the 2796:Old Book of Tang 舊唐書 Vol.2 Emperor Taizong 太宗上 2356: 122:, they may have influenced the later European 2939:Tongdian 通典 Vol.4 Border defense·Tibet 邊防典·吐蕃 1938:continued the use of cataphracts. During the 821:(especially among the peoples inhabiting the 491:, which translates into "neck-guard wearer". 290:Close combat between soldiers in cataphract. 3304:The historical works of Ammianus Marcellinus 3099:Zheleznyi vek Kavkaza, Srednei Azii i Sibiri 2074:Nikonorov, Valerii P. (2–5 September 1998). 110:to break through opposing heavy cavalry and 3088:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities 2524:"Equestrian battle reliefs from Firuozabad" 2477:Driel-Murray, C. van; Connolly, P. (1991). 1834: 1173: 841:(the ancient Assyrian city founded by king 594: 579: 573: 563: 553: 538: 530: 421: 409: 401: 385: 372: 224:In Europe, the fashion for heavily armored 3379:Military units and formations of antiquity 3120:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3096: 3075: 2095:Romano-Byzantine Armies, 4th–9th Centuries 1067:ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum catafractata 3227: 3128: 3105: 2350: 2323: 2073: 1563:, were sourced from the very best of the 1387: 1124:of mercenary cataphract cavalry (see the 941:first encountered cataphracts during the 739:, including the Medes and the successive 3131:Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 2999: 2653:，四馬皆以淺薄之金為甲。欲其輕而易於馬之旋習也。" translation: " 2335: 2157:Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia 1610: 1468: 1391: 1343: 1186: 1177: 924: 853:of their nomadic enemies, primarily the 801: 798:Spread to Central Asia and the Near East 617: 609: 297: 285: 41:cataphract, complete with a full set of 29: 3364:Military history of the Parthian Empire 3261: 3243: 2393:, Vol. 57, No. 1/2 (1967), pp. 161–173. 2184: 1356:showing Cataphracts dueling with lances 641:, who were one of the first peoples to 351:) is composed of the Greek root words, 14: 3311: 2878: 1680:, which subsequently fell out of use. 1331:later period Middle Eastern cavalrymen 1112:and finally culminating in the bloody 996:in 69 BC. In 38 BC, the Roman general 622:Sculpture of a Sasanian cataphract in 3359:Military history of the Mongol Empire 3218: 3156: 3084: 3037: 2969: 2414: 2402: 2377: 2365: 2306: 2266: 2254: 2242: 2230: 2218: 1578:In an ironic twist, the elite of the 873:(745–727 BC) period, under which the 645:and pioneered the development of the 3252: 2824:Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol. 352 河西破蕃賊露布 2793: 2517: 2451:Ammianus Marcellinus, (353 AD) 2278: 1380:and its use in battle by successive 1337:. There are also reliefs in Iran at 1216:in Asia Minor, circa fourth century. 552:variant of the original Greek name, 3246:Sassanian Elite Cavalry, AD 224–642 3110:. St. Petersburg. pp. 131–138. 2936: 2910:Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol.103 曉諭梁將王檀書 2173:Sassanian Elite Cavalry, AD 224–642 374:loricatos, quos cataphractos vocant 24: 3319:Ancient Greek military terminology 2852:Quan Tang Wen (全唐文) Vol. 827 責南詔蠻書 2728:, four forses covered by armours." 2188:Sassanian elite cavalry AD 224–642 2060:KHALCHAYAN – Encyclopaedia Iranica 917:experiments with mailed cavalry". 605: 25: 3410: 3277: 3255:The Savaran: The Original Knights 3230:Late Roman Cavalryman, 236–565 AD 2567:"The Sarmatians", T. Sulimirski, 2046:The Savaran: The Original Knights 494:Roman chroniclers and historians 321:The origin of the word is Greek. 3101:. Moscow: Nauka. pp. 30–35. 2907: 2004: – Use of equines in combat 1869: 1849: 1748:mercenaries, while neighbouring 1724:after the 12th century. Emperor 1051:as early as the 2nd century BC ( 957:, the Hellenistic successors of 951:First Persian invasion of Greece 3257:. University of Oklahoma Press. 3223:. New York: St. Martin's Press. 3080:. T. I. Moscow. pp. 65–67. 2945: 2930: 2901: 2881:Cefu Yuangui 冊府元龜 Vol.1 帝王部·修武備 2872: 2844: 2816: 2787: 2759: 2731: 2704: 2660: 2633: 2605: 2586: 2577: 2561: 2545: 2536: 2504: 2491: 2471: 2464:Ammianus Marcellinus, (353 AD) 2458: 2445: 2420: 2408: 2396: 2383: 2371: 2329: 2272: 2260: 2248: 2236: 2224: 2212: 2178: 2048:. University of Oklahoma Press. 1932:Northern and Southern Dynasties 1829:Decline of the Byzantine Empire 1512:collapse of the Sassanid Empire 1449:Testudo or "tortoise" formation 1110:Mark Antony's Parthian Campaign 703:The previously mentioned early 267:) and his general and putative 262: 2149: 2137: 2124: 2111: 2067: 2051: 921:Hellenistic and Roman adoption 13: 1: 2655:thinly armoured horse-quartet 2628:thinly-armoured horse-quartet 2597:Notes on Turquois in the East 2191:. Oxford: Osprey. p. 4. 2029: 1154:and the establishment of the 1000:, by making extensive use of 650: 2391:The Journal of Roman Studies 1841:Horses in East Asian warfare 1486:cataphracts employed by the 1141:End of Roman rule in Britain 522: 448: 347: 341: 335: 329: 315:Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan 281: 7: 3264:Roman Antiquities, Book XXV 3219:Warry, John Gibson (1980). 2025: – Polish coat of arms 1995: 1320:developed ever more secure 1150:in Christian Europe in the 126:, through contact with the 95:, and typically wielding a 10: 3415: 3284:Cataphracts and Siegecraft 2963: 2952:"The Kültegin inscription" 2879:Wang 王, Qinruo 欽若 (1013). 2699:The armoured horse-quartet 2695:The armoured horse-quartet 2691:The armoured horse-quartet 2130:Mielczarek, Mariusz (1993) 1838: 1232:, equivalent to the Roman 1027:armies, but, according to 723:, which originated in the 516: 483:), itself composed of the 454: 442: 359: 353: 323: 3354:Military history of Korea 3349:Military history of Japan 3344:Military history of China 3339:Late Roman military units 3228:Macdowall, Simon (1995). 3203:Soria Molina, D. (2013) " 3188:Soria Molina, D. (2012) " 3169:Soria Molina, D. (2011) " 3143:10.2753/aae1061-195940047 2599:, Volume 13, Issues 1–2, 2497:Shahbazi, A. Sh. (2009). 2283:. Lulu.com. p. 237. 1301:) appeared much like the 1226: 1168:Western counterparts fell 592:, first mentioned in the 103:) as his primary weapon. 3041:Journal of Roman Studies 3003:Journal of Roman Studies 2922:: CS1 maint: location ( 2893:: CS1 maint: location ( 2864:: CS1 maint: location ( 2836:: CS1 maint: location ( 2808:: CS1 maint: location ( 2779:: CS1 maint: location ( 2751:: CS1 maint: location ( 2479:The Roman cavalry saddle 1835:Cataphracts in East Asia 1539:, all of which favoured 1443:team of cataphracts and 1212:cataphracts approaching 1174:Appearance and equipment 1158:particularly during the 1102:Battle of Cilician Gates 998:Publius Ventidius Bassus 588:, a Roman equivalent of 369:Lucius Cornelius Sisenna 3262:Marcellinus, Ammianus. 3253:Nell, Grant S. (1995). 3244:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005). 3200:, 15, pp. 117–163. 2741:. Vol.16 擅興, Code 243 . 2455:, Book XXV pp. 477 2185:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005). 2171:Farrokh, Kaveh (2005). 1269:and fought against the 1090:Marcus Licinius Crassus 1011:, the Greek geographer 745:Ancient Iranian peoples 626:, Iran, 4th century CE. 464: 3185:, 14, pp. 69–122. 2726:armoured horse-quartet 2626:孔羣" translation: "The 2044:Nell, Grant S. (1995) 1825:Fall of Constantinople 1653:Strategikon of Maurice 1631: 1590:wars initiated in the 1561:Pushtigban Body Guards 1478: 1401: 1388:Tactics and deployment 1357: 1283: 1219: 1192: 1184: 1058:equites cataphractarii 934: 810: 711:, who would found the 684:, apart from advanced 627: 615: 595: 580: 574: 564: 554: 539: 531: 422: 410: 402: 386: 373: 318: 295: 265: 253–268 AD 50: 35:Historical reenactment 2973:Dumbarton Oaks Papers 2689:陶陶..." translation: " 2630:are very harmonious". 2510:Usamah Ibn-Munquidh, 2279:Head, Duncan (2016). 2097:. Osprey Publishing. 1928:Jin dynasty (266–420) 1714:Komnenian restoration 1614: 1472: 1427:social stratification 1395: 1348:Equestrian relief at 1347: 1279: 1194: 1190: 1181: 1092:(close benefactor of 928: 805: 643:domesticate the horse 621: 613: 367:, in the writings of 357:, a preposition, and 301: 289: 33: 3248:. Osprey Publishing. 2701:jaunted with joy..." 2380:, p. 276, fn. 2 2175:. Osprey Publishing. 1862:Northern Wei Dynasty 1202:Ammianus Marcellinus 863:North Arabian tribes 825:) as well as within 713:first Iranian Empire 560:Eastern Roman Empire 546:Western Roman Empire 523:pansidearoos ippotas 462:word for a warrior, 418:Ammianus Marcellinus 128:Eastern Roman Empire 3294:McMaster University 2937:Du 杜, You 佑 (801). 2794:Liu 劉, Xu 昫 (945). 2767:Tang Liu Dian (唐六典) 2693:strutted strong... 2063:. p. Figure 1. 2023:Ostoja coat of arms 1880:(550–577 AD) period 1786:Ostoja coat of arms 1549:Shapur II of Persia 1541:hit and run tactics 1275:Julian the Apostate 970:Kingdom of Pergamon 959:Alexander the Great 900:basin, such as the 875:Neo-Assyrian Empire 871:Tiglath-Pileser III 517:πανσιδήρους ἱππότας 68:and was fielded in 64:that originated in 2724:也。" translation: " 2620:Little War-Chariot 2529:2016-10-03 at the 2468:, Boox XXV pp. 481 2257:, pp. 269–270 1945:Anlushan Rebellion 1726:Alexios I Komnenos 1632: 1598:, it was noted by 1545:Roman-Persian wars 1479: 1402: 1358: 1311:used by the famed 1303:Hellenistic armies 1193: 1185: 1126:Notitia Dignitatum 1021:Caucasian Albanian 990:Tigranes the Great 943:Greco-Persian Wars 935: 847:plated-mail shirts 811: 690:selective breeding 628: 616: 597:Notitia Dignitatum 319: 296: 294:, 1st century BCE. 51: 3234:Osprey Publishing 2720:. quote: "駟介，四馬而被 2697:pranced proud... 2667:Classic of Poetry 2612:Classic of Poetry 2466:Roman Antiquities 2453:Roman Antiquities 2438:978-1-4728-3004-3 2107:978-1-8553-2224-0 2002:Horses in warfare 1903:Séraphin Couvreur 1623:circa 101 AD, at 1535:, Scythians, and 1464:fire and movement 1152:Early Middle Ages 1114:Battle of Nisibis 1096:) and his 35,000 1033:Hellenistic world 790:, Scythians, and 780:Greek city-states 741:Persian dynasties 682:Ancient Near East 404:lorica segmentata 394:Republican period 382:late Roman period 236:(53 BC) in upper 234:Battle of Carrhae 16:(Redirected from 3406: 3267: 3258: 3249: 3237: 3224: 3166: 3153: 3125: 3119: 3111: 3102: 3092: 3081: 3072: 3048:(1/2): 161–173, 3034: 2996: 2958: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2934: 2928: 2927: 2921: 2913: 2908:Li 李, Cunxu 存勖. 2905: 2899: 2898: 2892: 2884: 2876: 2870: 2869: 2863: 2855: 2848: 2842: 2841: 2835: 2827: 2820: 2814: 2813: 2807: 2799: 2791: 2785: 2784: 2778: 2770: 2763: 2757: 2756: 2750: 2742: 2735: 2729: 2708: 2702: 2664: 2658: 2637: 2631: 2609: 2603: 2590: 2584: 2581: 2575: 2565: 2559: 2549: 2543: 2540: 2534: 2521: 2515: 2508: 2502: 2495: 2489: 2475: 2469: 2462: 2456: 2449: 2443: 2442: 2424: 2418: 2417:, pp. 170f. 2412: 2406: 2400: 2394: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2354: 2353:, pp. 10ff. 2348: 2339: 2333: 2327: 2321: 2310: 2309:, pp. 163f. 2304: 2295: 2294: 2276: 2270: 2264: 2258: 2252: 2246: 2240: 2234: 2228: 2222: 2221:, pp. 161f. 2216: 2210: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2182: 2176: 2169: 2160: 2153: 2147: 2141: 2135: 2128: 2122: 2115: 2109: 2088: 2082: 2081: 2071: 2065: 2064: 2055: 2049: 2042: 2019: 1873: 1853: 1742:early modern era 1662:Sylloge Taktikon 1569:Praetorian Guard 1516:Sassanid dynasty 1514:. Initially the 1318:Persian military 1228: 1217: 1118:Emperor Macrinus 978:Hellenistic East 756:Eurasian steppes 737:Ancient Persians 725:Zagros Mountains 694:animal husbandry 655: 652: 600: 587: 577: 567: 557: 542: 536: 525: 519: 518: 467: 457: 456: 451: 445: 444: 425: 415: 407: 391: 376: 362: 361: 356: 355: 350: 344: 338: 332: 326: 325: 266: 264: 120:High Middle Ages 21: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3408: 3407: 3405: 3404: 3403: 3389:Iranian warfare 3334:Ancient Armenia 3309: 3308: 3280: 3213:Aquila Legionis 3198:Aquila Legionis 3183:Aquila Legionis 3113: 3112: 3091:(3rd ed.). 2986:10.2307/1291323 2966: 2961: 2954:lines 33-34 at 2950: 2946: 2935: 2931: 2915: 2914: 2906: 2902: 2886: 2885: 2877: 2873: 2857: 2856: 2850: 2849: 2845: 2829: 2828: 2822: 2821: 2817: 2801: 2800: 2792: 2788: 2772: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2760: 2744: 2743: 2739:Tang Code(唐律疏議) 2737: 2736: 2732: 2709: 2705: 2665: 2661: 2638: 2634: 2610: 2606: 2593:Berthold Laufer 2591: 2587: 2582: 2578: 2566: 2562: 2550: 2546: 2541: 2537: 2531:Wayback Machine 2522: 2518: 2509: 2505: 2496: 2492: 2476: 2472: 2463: 2459: 2450: 2446: 2439: 2425: 2421: 2413: 2409: 2401: 2397: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2357: 2349: 2342: 2334: 2330: 2322: 2313: 2305: 2298: 2291: 2277: 2273: 2265: 2261: 2253: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2229: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2183: 2179: 2170: 2163: 2154: 2150: 2142: 2138: 2129: 2125: 2116: 2112: 2089: 2085: 2072: 2068: 2057: 2056: 2052: 2043: 2036: 2032: 2017: 1998: 1885: 1884: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1874: 1866: 1865: 1854: 1843: 1837: 1730:weakest periods 1706:wedge formation 1625:Trajan's Column 1615:A depiction of 1609: 1580:East Roman army 1423:esprit de corps 1390: 1382:Persian Empires 1374:Sassanid Empire 1313:Greek phalanxes 1234:Lorica squamata 1218: 1200: 1176: 1137:Marcus Aurelius 1128:), such as the 1083:Battle of Immae 1007:At the time of 955:Seleucid Empire 923: 892:inhabiting the 890:Iranian peoples 851:mounted archers 815:Iranian plateau 800: 760:Iranian plateau 719:, known as the 666:Iranian Plateau 653: 639:early antiquity 608: 606:Iranian origins 489:griva-pana-bara 432:Classical Latin 284: 276:Late Roman army 261: 254:late Roman army 89:Lamellar armour 78:Northern Africa 70:ancient warfare 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3412: 3402: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3346: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3326: 3321: 3307: 3306: 3301: 3296: 3287: 3279: 3278:External links 3276: 3272: 3271: 3268: 3266:. p. 481. 3259: 3250: 3241: 3238: 3225: 3216: 3201: 3186: 3167: 3154: 3126: 3103: 3094: 3082: 3073: 3054:10.2307/299352 3035: 3016:10.2307/300572 2997: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2959: 2944: 2929: 2900: 2871: 2843: 2815: 2786: 2769:. Vol.22. 右尚署. 2758: 2730: 2703: 2659: 2632: 2604: 2585: 2576: 2560: 2544: 2535: 2516: 2503: 2499:Sassanian Army 2490: 2470: 2457: 2444: 2437: 2419: 2407: 2395: 2382: 2370: 2355: 2351:Perevalov 2002 2340: 2328: 2324:Perevalov 2002 2311: 2296: 2289: 2271: 2259: 2247: 2235: 2223: 2211: 2197: 2177: 2161: 2148: 2136: 2123: 2117:Leo Diaconis, 2110: 2091:Nicolle, David 2083: 2066: 2050: 2033: 2031: 2028: 2027: 2026: 2020: 2014:Komnenian army 2011: 2005: 1997: 1994: 1990:Latter Göktürk 1986:Tibetan Empire 1920:Inner Mongolia 1911:Three Kingdoms 1875: 1868: 1867: 1855: 1848: 1847: 1846: 1845: 1844: 1839:Main article: 1836: 1833: 1809:early firearms 1797:lamellar armor 1782:Clan of Ostoja 1722:Komnenian army 1718:Byzantine army 1678:Cataphractarii 1642:, akin to the 1608: 1605: 1573:late antiquity 1557:heavy infantry 1521:mounted archer 1389: 1386: 1293:("oar") or in 1259:Constantius II 1246:lamellar armor 1214:Roman infantry 1198: 1175: 1172: 1164:Eastern Romans 1106:Mount Gindarus 931:British Museum 922: 919: 799: 796: 729:Ancient Persia 654: 2000 BC 607: 604: 555:cataphractarii 283: 280: 175:Greco-Bactrian 57:was a form of 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3411: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3325: 3322: 3320: 3317: 3316: 3314: 3305: 3302: 3300: 3297: 3295: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3251: 3247: 3242: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3217: 3215:, 16, 75-123. 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3127: 3123: 3117: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3095: 3090: 3089: 3083: 3079: 3074: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3042: 3036: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3004: 2998: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2974: 2968: 2967: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2940: 2933: 2925: 2919: 2911: 2904: 2896: 2890: 2882: 2875: 2867: 2861: 2853: 2847: 2839: 2833: 2825: 2819: 2811: 2805: 2797: 2790: 2782: 2776: 2768: 2762: 2754: 2748: 2740: 2734: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2716:, "volume 4" 2715: 2712: 2707: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2645:, "volume 3" 2644: 2641: 2636: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2613: 2608: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2589: 2580: 2574: 2573:9780500020715 2570: 2564: 2558: 2557:1 84176 485 X 2554: 2548: 2539: 2532: 2528: 2525: 2520: 2513: 2507: 2500: 2494: 2487: 2484: 2480: 2474: 2467: 2461: 2454: 2448: 2440: 2434: 2430: 2423: 2416: 2411: 2405:, p. 168 2404: 2399: 2392: 2386: 2379: 2374: 2368:, p. 166 2367: 2362: 2360: 2352: 2347: 2345: 2337: 2336:Campbell 1987 2332: 2325: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2292: 2290:9781326256562 2286: 2282: 2275: 2269:, p. 163 2268: 2263: 2256: 2251: 2245:, p. 162 2244: 2239: 2233:, p. 266 2232: 2227: 2220: 2215: 2200: 2198:9781841767130 2194: 2190: 2189: 2181: 2174: 2168: 2166: 2159:41 (4): 7–21. 2158: 2152: 2145: 2140: 2133: 2127: 2121:4.3, 5.2, 8.9 2120: 2114: 2108: 2104: 2103:1-8553-2224-2 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2079: 2078: 2070: 2062: 2061: 2054: 2047: 2041: 2039: 2034: 2024: 2021: 2015: 2012: 2009: 2006: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1967:Mongol Empire 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1891: 1879: 1872: 1863: 1859: 1852: 1842: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1737: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1702:Klibanophoros 1699: 1695: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1654: 1648: 1645: 1641: 1640:Martiobarbuli 1637: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1604: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1476: 1471: 1467: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1456: 1450: 1446: 1445:horse archers 1442: 1441:combined arms 1438: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1399: 1394: 1385: 1383: 1379: 1378:horse archery 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1355: 1351: 1346: 1342: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1326: 1323: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1309: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1282: 1278: 1276: 1272: 1271:Sassanid army 1268: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1224: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1197: 1189: 1180: 1171: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1144: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1094:Julius Caesar 1091: 1086: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1059: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1039: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 974: 971: 966: 964: 960: 956: 952: 948: 947:Ionian Revolt 944: 940: 932: 927: 918: 915: 910: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 886: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 843:Shalmaneser I 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 816: 809: 804: 795: 793: 792:North Arabian 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 770:, Scythians, 769: 765: 764:Median Empire 761: 757: 753: 748: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 718: 714: 710: 706: 701: 699: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 656:were largely 648: 644: 640: 636: 633: 632:Central Asian 625: 620: 612: 603: 601: 599: 598: 591: 590:horse archers 586: 584: 576: 571: 566: 561: 556: 551: 547: 541: 535: 534: 527: 524: 513: 509: 505: 504:Asclepiodotus 501: 497: 492: 490: 486: 482: 481: 475: 471: 466: 461: 450: 449:klibanophoroi 439: 435: 433: 429: 424: 419: 414: 413: 412:lorica hamata 406: 405: 399: 395: 390: 389: 383: 378: 375: 370: 366: 349: 343: 337: 331: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 293: 292:Orlat plaques 288: 279: 277: 273: 270: 259: 255: 251: 247: 246:light cavalry 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 226:Roman cavalry 222: 220: 216: 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 192: 188: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 131: 129: 125: 121: 118:up until the 117: 113: 109: 104: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 81: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 62:heavy cavalry 60: 56: 48: 44: 40: 36: 32: 19: 3273: 3263: 3254: 3245: 3229: 3220: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3162: 3158: 3134: 3130: 3107: 3098: 3087: 3077: 3045: 3039: 3007: 3001: 2977: 2971: 2955: 2947: 2938: 2932: 2909: 2903: 2880: 2874: 2851: 2846: 2823: 2818: 2795: 2789: 2766: 2761: 2738: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2713: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2666: 2662: 2654: 2650: 2647:p. 68 of 163 2642: 2635: 2627: 2623: 2611: 2607: 2596: 2588: 2579: 2563: 2547: 2538: 2519: 2511: 2506: 2498: 2493: 2488:, pp. 33–50. 2485: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2465: 2460: 2452: 2447: 2428: 2422: 2410: 2398: 2390: 2385: 2373: 2338:, p. 25 2331: 2326:, p. 10 2280: 2274: 2262: 2250: 2238: 2226: 2214: 2202:. Retrieved 2187: 2180: 2172: 2156: 2151: 2144:Robert Drews 2139: 2131: 2126: 2118: 2113: 2094: 2086: 2076: 2069: 2059: 2053: 2045: 1983: 1975:Yuan dynasty 1888: 1886: 1864:(386–534 AD) 1820: 1790: 1774:Draco banner 1745: 1738: 1710: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1670:Kataphraktoi 1669: 1661: 1651: 1649: 1639: 1633: 1577: 1564: 1553:Comitatenses 1529:Hephthalites 1507: 1497: 1492: 1480: 1458:, a type of 1453: 1437:Fire support 1435: 1431:caste system 1422: 1403: 1398:Issyk kurgan 1359: 1327: 1306: 1298: 1290: 1284: 1280: 1229: 1220: 1195: 1162:, while the 1145: 1122:vexillations 1087: 1066: 1056: 1006: 994:Tigranocerta 975: 967: 936: 911: 887: 827:Greater Iran 819:Central Asia 812: 808:Northern Yan 749: 705:Indo-Iranian 702: 686:metalworking 670:Greater Iran 629: 624:Taq-e Bostan 593: 528: 512:Leo Diaconis 493: 488: 477: 473: 443:κλιβανοφόροι 437: 436: 379: 342:cataphractos 336:cataphraktos 330:kataphraktos 320: 223: 132: 105: 82: 54: 52: 39:Sasanian-era 18:Kataphraktoi 3205:Cataphracti 3190:Cataphracti 3175:cataphracti 3137:(4): 7–21, 2980:: 271–291, 2718:p. 8 of 163 2675:Men of Qing 1971:Kublai Khan 1962:Song Empire 1954:Western Xia 1940:Tang Empire 1907:James Legge 1878:Northern Qi 1801:scale armor 1784:and become 1766:Lithuanians 1734:Justinian I 1621:Dacian wars 1596:Justinian I 1254:breastplate 1242:plated mail 1170:in 476 AD. 1133:Auxiliaries 1098:legionaries 896:region and 883:Sennacherib 867:Babylonians 784:Babylonians 717:horse breed 514:calls them 470:Old Persian 348:katafraktos 324:Κατάφρακτος 248:tactics to 238:Mesopotamia 151:Achaemenids 85:Scale armor 72:throughout 47:mail armour 43:scale armor 3384:Sarmatians 3313:Categories 3209:clibanarii 3194:clibanarii 3179:clibanarii 2956:Türk Bitig 2677:" quote: " 2649:. quote: " 2622:" quote: " 2601:p. 306-307 2415:Eadie 1967 2403:Eadie 1967 2378:Rubin 1955 2366:Eadie 1967 2307:Eadie 1967 2267:Eadie 1967 2255:Rubin 1955 2243:Eadie 1967 2231:Rubin 1955 2219:Eadie 1967 2204:20 January 2030:References 1936:Sui Empire 1918:tribes of 1858:terracotta 1856:A Chinese 1793:chain mail 1698:Clibanarii 1666:Late Latin 1364:such as a 1335:chain mail 1250:chain mail 1156:knighthood 1049:Roman army 982:the battle 902:Massagetae 806:Chanfron, 768:Massagetae 658:Bronze-Age 585:Clibanarii 583:Sagittarii 575:clibanarii 570:Byzantines 565:clibanarii 540:clibanarii 533:clibanarii 510:historian 480:grivpanvar 474:*griwbanar 438:Clibanarii 428:clibanarii 311:Khalchayan 191:Byzantines 139:Sarmatians 93:chain mail 55:cataphract 3165:: 264–283 3151:161826066 3116:cite book 3070:163396768 3032:162374857 3010:: 13–29, 2918:cite book 2889:cite book 2860:cite book 2832:cite book 2804:cite book 2775:cite book 2747:cite book 2669:"Airs of 2614:"Airs of 2483:Britannia 2119:Historiae 1979:East Asia 1965:emerging 1817:gunpowder 1805:cuirasses 1746:Latinikon 1674:Romanized 1617:Sarmatian 1600:Procopius 1488:Scythians 1419:Near East 1350:Firuzabad 1339:Firuzabad 1230:Folidotos 1227:φολιδωτός 1148:feudalism 1130:Sarmatian 1071:Gallienus 1038:Sarmatian 914:Black Sea 855:Aramaeans 823:Silk Road 788:Assyrians 698:Near East 550:Latinized 508:Byzantine 282:Etymology 258:Gallienus 195:Georgians 179:Sassanids 163:Seleucids 159:Armenians 147:Parthians 135:Scythians 116:antiquity 3171:Contarii 3159:Historia 2595:(1913), 2527:Archived 1996:See also 1924:Liaoning 1890:Shi Jing 1821:en masse 1644:plumbata 1592:Caucasus 1362:side-arm 1308:sarissae 1199:— 1160:Crusades 1075:Aurelian 1053:Polybios 1029:Plutarch 1017:Armenian 1009:Augustus 1002:slingers 986:Lucullus 963:Seleucid 898:Aral Sea 894:Khwarezm 865:and the 835:Khwarezm 833:and the 678:Kassites 676:and the 581:Equites 455:κλίβανος 398:Vegetius 317:, nb 40. 272:Aureolus 250:skirmish 230:Anatolia 207:Jurchens 112:infantry 3324:Cavalry 2994:1291323 2964:Sources 2134:, p. 14 2093:(1992) 1916:Xianbei 1770:Khazars 1750:Bulgars 1638:called 1584:Iberian 1565:Savaran 1537:Kushans 1533:Xiongnu 1504:Persian 1499:Savaran 1494:Persian 1484:Iranian 1415:lancers 1411:mounted 1407:archers 1322:saddles 1210:Persian 1204:, late 1081:at the 1079:Zenobia 1063:Hadrian 1043:on the 1041:lancers 1025:Persian 831:Assyria 709:Medians 674:Mitanni 662:Iranian 647:chariot 635:steppes 485:Iranian 465:grivpan 460:Persian 392:in the 388:Equites 360:φρακτός 269:usurper 242:equites 219:Songhai 215:Tanguts 211:Mongols 203:Koreans 199:Chinese 167:Attalid 124:knights 108:charges 74:Eurasia 59:armored 3149: 3068: 3062:299352 3060: 3030: 3024:300572 3022: 2992: 2711:Zhu Xi 2685:麃麃... 2681:旁旁... 2640:Zhu Xi 2571: 2555: 2435: 2287: 2195: 2101: 2008:Lancer 1973:. The 1956:, and 1899:Zhu Xi 1815:, and 1813:cannon 1799:, and 1658:Leo VI 1508:سواران 1475:kontos 1455:Kontos 1409:(both 1299:Contus 1291:Kontos 1273:under 1267:Persia 1183:horse. 1045:Danube 1023:, and 1013:Strabo 939:Greeks 869:. 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