Outer space - Knowledge

2182: 828: 512: 1929: 939:. The Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS), a fitted elastic garment designed in the 1960s for astronauts, prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kilopascals (0.3 psi). Supplemental oxygen is needed at 8 km (5 mi) to provide enough oxygen for breathing and to prevent water loss, while above 20 km (12 mi) pressure suits are essential to prevent ebullism. Most space suits use around 30–39 kilopascals (4–6 psi) of pure oxygen, about the same as the partial pressure of oxygen at the Earth's surface. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but evaporation of nitrogen dissolved in the blood could still cause 1543: 1163: 1979: 1943: 1893: 398: 1961: 1639: 2089: 10404: 1418: 2038: 1816: 2056: 2011: 9800: 49: 1911: 1858:(WHIM). Although the plasma is very hot by terrestrial standards, 10 K is often called "warm" in astrophysics. Computer simulations and observations indicate that up to half of the atomic matter in the universe might exist in this warm–hot, rarefied state. When gas falls from the filamentary structures of the WHIM into the galaxy clusters at the intersections of the cosmic filaments, it can heat up even more, reaching temperatures of 10 K and above in the so-called 11633: 1048: 10386: 11597: 2026: 1524: 2517: 10395: 11684: 1349: 1879: 11696: 2391: 11660: 11621: 11609: 10132: 1999: 912:—a rupture of the lungs, due to the large pressure differential between inside and outside the chest. Even if the subject's airway is fully open, the flow of air through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the rupture. Rapid decompression can rupture eardrums and sinuses, bruising and blood seep can occur in soft tissues, and shock can cause an increase in oxygen consumption that leads to 2615: 2074: 11672: 1850:(IGM). The density of these filaments of intergalactic medium is about one atom per cubic meter, which is 5–200 times the average density of the universe after including the cosmic voids. The IGM is inferred to be mostly primordial in composition, with 76% hydrogen by mass, and enriched with higher mass elements from high-velocity galactic outflows. 1341:, threatening any space activity in this region. Some of this debris re-enters Earth's atmosphere periodically. Although it meets the definition of outer space, the atmospheric density inside low-Earth orbital space, the first few hundred kilometers above the Kármán line, is still sufficient to produce significant 429:. When this happened, matter and energy became decoupled, allowing photons to travel freely through the continually expanding space. Matter that remained following the initial expansion has since undergone gravitational collapse to create stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects, leaving behind a deep 1148:

been argued for setting no specified singular altitude in international law, instead applying different limits depending on the case, in particular based on the craft and its purpose. Spacecraft have flown over foreign countries as low as 30 km (19 mi), as in the example of the Space Shuttle.

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speculated that the universe lacked a center and a circumference. He believed that the universe, while not infinite, could not be held as finite as it lacked any bounds within which it could be contained. These ideas led to speculations as to the infinite dimension of space by the Italian philosopher

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As gas falls into the intergalactic medium from the voids, it heats up to temperatures of 10 K to 10 K. Hence, collisions between atoms have enough energy to cause the bound electron to escape from the hydrogen nuclei; this is why the IGM is ionized. At these temperatures, it is called the

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and the Earth that have their own magnetic fields. These are shaped by the influence of the solar wind into the approximation of a teardrop shape, with the long tail extending outward behind the planet. These magnetic fields can trap particles from the solar wind and other sources, creating belts of

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of the present day universe at the equivalent of 5.9 protons per cubic meter, including dark energy, dark matter, and baryonic matter (ordinary matter composed of atoms). The atoms account for only 4.6% of the total energy density, or a density of one proton per four cubic meters. The density of the

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would require a large financial investment with little prospect of immediate return. An important factor in the total expense is the high cost of placing mass into Earth orbit: $ 9,000–$ 30,000 per kg, according to a 2006 estimate (allowing for inflation since then). The cost of access to space has

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arrived at a similar conclusion, arguing that the stars are visible to us only because they are surrounded by a thin aether or a void. This concept of an aether originated with ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who conceived of it as the medium through which the heavenly bodies move.

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where the influence of the galactic environment starts to dominate over the magnetic field and particle flux from the Sun. The distance and strength of the heliopause varies depending on the activity level of the solar wind. The heliopause in turn deflects away low-energy galactic cosmic rays, with

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The transition between Earth's atmosphere and outer space lacks a well-defined physical boundary, with the air pressure steadily decreasing with altitude until it mixes with the solar wind. Various definitions for a practical boundary have been proposed, ranging from 30 km (19 mi) out to

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mission lasting three years, a large fraction of the cells in an astronaut's body would be traversed and potentially damaged by high energy nuclei. The energy of such particles is significantly diminished by the shielding provided by the walls of a spacecraft and can be further diminished by water

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below about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) are subject to drag from the Earth's atmosphere, which decreases the orbital altitude. The rate of orbital decay depends on the satellite's cross-sectional area and mass, as well as variations in the air density of the upper atmosphere. At altitudes above

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There is no internationally recognized legal altitude limit on national airspace, although the Kármán line is the most frequently used for this purpose. Objections have been made to setting this limit too high, as it could inhibit space activities due to concerns about airspace violations. It has

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became convinced that space must be infinite, extending well beyond the mechanism that supported the Sun and the stars. The surviving books of the Hsüan Yeh school said that the heavens were boundless, "empty and void of substance". Likewise, the "sun, moon, and the company of stars float in the

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is defined by the United States government as all of outer space which lies further from Earth than a typical low-Earth-orbit, thus assigning the moon to deep-space. Other definitions vary the starting point of deep-space from, "That which lies beyond the orbit of the moon," to "That which lies

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For most of human history, space was explored by observations made from the Earth's surface—initially with the unaided eye and then with the telescope. Before reliable rocket technology, the closest that humans had come to reaching outer space was through balloon flights. In 1935, the American

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in 1963 and signed in 1967 by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the United States of America (USA), and the United Kingdom (UK). As of 2017, 105 state parties have either ratified or acceded to the treaty. An additional 25 states signed the treaty, without ratifying it.

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Space in proximity to the Earth is physically similar to the remainder of interplanetary space, but is home to a multitude of Earth–orbiting satellites and has been subject to extensive studies. For identification purposes, this volume is divided into overlapping regions of space.

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800 km (500 mi), orbital lifetime is measured in centuries. Below about 300 km (190 mi), decay becomes more rapid with lifetimes measured in days. Once a satellite descends to 180 km (110 mi), it has only hours before it vaporizes in the atmosphere.

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of stellar ejecta outward, distributing it throughout the interstellar medium, including the heavy elements previously formed within the star's core. The density of matter in the interstellar medium can vary considerably: the average is around 10 particles per m, but cold

1078:. The altitude of 118 km (73.3 mi) above Earth was the midpoint for charged particles transitioning from the gentle winds of the Earth's atmosphere to the more extreme flows of outer space. The latter can reach velocities well over 268 m/s (880 ft/s). 901:. At or above the Armstrong line, fluids in the throat and lungs boil away. More specifically, exposed bodily liquids such as saliva, tears, and liquids in the lungs boil away. Hence, at this altitude, human survival requires a pressure suit, or a pressurized capsule. 484:

that have much lower density, at least in terms of visible matter. Unlike matter and dark matter, dark energy seems not to be concentrated in galaxies: although dark energy may account for a majority of the mass-energy in the universe, dark energy's influence is 5

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gradient. Once the deoxygenated blood arrives at the brain, humans lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes. Blood and other body fluids boil when the pressure drops below 6.3 kilopascals (1 psi), and this condition is called

456:", meaning that photons on parallel paths at one point remain parallel as they travel through space to the limit of the observable universe, except for local gravity. The flat universe, combined with the measured mass density of the universe and the accelerating 1264:, this velocity is about 7,800 m/s (28,100 km/h; 17,400 mph); by contrast, the fastest piloted airplane speed ever achieved (excluding speeds achieved by deorbiting spacecraft) was 2,200 m/s (7,900 km/h; 4,900 mph) in 1967 by the 865:

hypothesis suggests that rocks ejected into outer space from life-harboring planets may successfully transport life forms to another habitable world. A conjecture is that just such a scenario occurred early in the history of the Solar System, with potentially

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allow chemical reactions to occur, including the formation of organic polyatomic species. Much of this chemistry is driven by collisions. Energetic cosmic rays penetrate the cold, dense clouds and ionize hydrogen and helium, resulting, for example, in the

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that surround these stars, with the volume of each sphere varying depending on the local density of the interstellar medium. The Local Bubble contains dozens of warm interstellar clouds with temperatures of up to 7,000 K and radii of 0.5–5 pc.

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for a human crew remains at present only a theoretical possibility. The distances to the nearest stars mean it would require new technological developments and the ability to safely sustain crews for journeys lasting several decades. For example, the

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Since 1958, outer space has been the subject of multiple United Nations resolutions. Of these, more than 50 have been concerning the international co-operation in the peaceful uses of outer space and preventing an arms race in space. Four additional

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by gravitational attraction. Atmospheres have no clearly delineated upper boundary: the density of atmospheric gas gradually decreases with distance from the object until it becomes indistinguishable from outer space. The Earth's atmospheric

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mountain in central France and found that the column was shorter by three inches. This decrease in pressure was further demonstrated by carrying a half-full balloon up a mountain and watching it gradually expand, then contract upon descent.

2134:, who denied the possible existence of a void in space. Based on this idea that a vacuum could not exist, in the West it was widely held for many centuries that space could not be empty. As late as the 17th century, the French philosopher 1185:, the Moon, and other celestial bodies. The treaty states that outer space is free for all nation states to explore and is not subject to claims of national sovereignty, calling outer space the "province of all mankind". This status as a 1476:

model. In the case of Earth this includes all space from the Earth to a distance of roughly 1% of the mean distance from Earth to the Sun, or 1.5 million km (0.93 million mi). Beyond Earth's Hill sphere extends along

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containers and other barriers. The impact of the cosmic rays upon the shielding produces additional radiation that can affect the crew. Further research is needed to assess the radiation hazards and determine suitable countermeasures.

932:. The steam may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Ebullism is slowed by the pressure containment of blood vessels, so some blood remains liquid. 8661:

Fichtner, Horst; Liu, W. William (2011), "Advances in Coordinated Sun-Earth System Science Through Interdisciplinary Initiatives and International Programs", written at Sopron, Hungary, in Miralles, M.P.; Almeida, J. Sánchez (eds.),

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One possibly alternative approach is passive radiative cooling—a sky-facing surface on the Earth spontaneously cools by radiating heat to the ultracold outer space through the atmosphere's longwave infrared (LWIR) transparency window

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per cubic meter. By comparison, the air humans breathe contains about 10 molecules per cubic meter. The low density of matter in outer space means that electromagnetic radiation can travel great distances without being scattered: the

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can disturb two regions of geospace, the radiation belts and the ionosphere. These storms increase fluxes of energetic electrons that can permanently damage satellite electronics, interfering with shortwave radio communication and

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have lowered access to space below 3500 dollars per kilogram. With these new rockets the cost to send materials into space remains prohibitively high for many industries. Proposed concepts for addressing this issue include, fully

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Frisch, Priscilla C.; Müller, Hans R.; Zank, Gary P.; Lopate, C. (May 6–9, 2002), "Galactic environment of the Sun and stars: interstellar and interplanetary material", in Livio, Mario; Reid, I. Neill; Sparks, William B. (eds.),

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Wassmann, Marko; et al. (May 2012), "Survival of Spores of the UV-ResistantBacillus subtilis Strain MW01 After Exposure to Low-Earth Orbit and Simulated Martian Conditions: Data from the Space Experiment ADAPT on EXPOSE-E",

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In 1976, eight equatorial states (Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, The Republic of the Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya, and Indonesia) met in Bogotá, Colombia: with their "Declaration of the First Meeting of Equatorial Countries", or the

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The lack of pressure in space is the most immediate dangerous characteristic of space to humans. Pressure decreases above Earth, reaching a level at an altitude of around 19.14 km (11.89 mi) that matches the

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turned the jurisdiction of all heavenly bodies (including the orbits around such bodies) over to the international community. The treaty has not been ratified by any nation that currently practices human spaceflight.

2205:. He correctly noted that the atmosphere of the Earth surrounds the planet like a shell, with the density gradually declining with altitude. He concluded that there must be a vacuum between the Earth and the Moon. 2559:

of the Earth. The latter role serves a variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, and

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Approximately 70% of the mass of the interstellar medium consists of lone hydrogen atoms; most of the remainder consists of helium atoms. This is enriched with trace amounts of heavier atoms formed through

984:, and overall malaise. The duration of space sickness varies, but it typically lasts for 1–3 days, after which the body adjusts to the new environment. Longer-term exposure to weightlessness results in 1189:

has been used, though not without opposition, to enforce the right to access and shared use of outer space for all nations equally, particularly non-spacefaring nations. It prohibits the deployment of

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that sometimes extends out to more than 100–200 Earth radii. For roughly four days of each month, the lunar surface is shielded from the solar wind as the Moon passes through the magnetotail.

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Daytime radiative cooling has attracted considerable attention recently due to its tremendous potential for passively exploiting the coldness of the universe as clean and renewable energy.

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activity of the gas, as it is on Earth. The radiation of outer space has a different temperature than the kinetic temperature of the gas, meaning that the gas and radiation are not in

752:. The peak flux of cosmic rays occurs at energies of about 10 eV, with approximately 87% protons, 12% helium nuclei and 1% heavier nuclei. In the high energy range, the flux of 1761:. The actual distance to the border of this cavity varies from 60 to 250 pc or more. This volume contains about 10–10 stars and the local interstellar gas counterbalances the 417:

The size of the whole universe is unknown, and it might be infinite in extent. According to the Big Bang theory, the very early universe was an extremely hot and dense state about

5436:"ESIL Reflection – Clearing up the Space Junk – On the Flaws and Potential of International Space Law to Tackle the Space Debris Problem – European Society of International Law" 5072:

Sangalli, L.; et al. (2009), "Rocket-based measurements of ion velocity, neutral wind, and electric field in the collisional transition region of the auroral ionosphere",

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influences. Satellites make use of the significantly reduced drag in space to stay in stable orbits, allowing them to efficiently span the whole globe, compared to for example

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are now only awarded to spacecraft crew members that "demonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety."

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have reached altitudes above Earth of up to 50 km. Up until 2021, the United States designated people who travel above an altitude of 50 mi (80 km) as astronauts.

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Flynn, G. J.; et al. (2003), "The Origin of Organic Matter in the Solar System: Evidence from the Interplanetary Dust Particles", in Norris, R.; Stootman, F. (eds.),

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knew that air had mass and so was subject to gravity. In 1640, he demonstrated that an established force resisted the formation of a vacuum. It would remain for his pupil

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universe is clearly not uniform; it ranges from relatively high density in galaxies—including very high density in structures within galaxies, such as planets, stars, and

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bow wave defines the transition from the solar wind flow to the interstellar medium. A bow shock is a third boundary characteristic of an astrosphere, laying outside the

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from the atmosphere to support itself, which he calculated to be at an altitude of about 83.8 km (52.1 mi). This distinguishes altitudes below as the region of

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Despite the harsh environment, several life forms have been found that can withstand extreme space conditions for extended periods. Species of lichen carried on the ESA

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Large-scale matter distribution in a cubic section of the universe. The blue fiber-like structures represent the matter, and the empty regions in between represent the

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of the Sun, which is of interest both for its proximity and for its interaction with the Solar System. This volume nearly coincides with a region of space known as the

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Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large-scale distribution of galaxies show that the universe has a foam-like structure, with

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with a perigee as low as 80 to 90 km (50 to 56 mi), surviving for multiple orbits. At an altitude of 120 km (75 mi), descending spacecraft such as

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temperature of the background radiation is about 2.7 K (−455 °F). The gas temperatures in outer space can vary widely. For example, the temperature in the

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retained support among some scientists until the early 20th century. This form of aether was viewed as the medium through which light could propagate. In 1887, the

1689:. These atoms are ejected into the interstellar medium by stellar winds or when evolved stars begin to shed their outer envelopes such as during the formation of a 1566:

where the solar wind remains active. The solar wind is a continuous stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun which creates a very tenuous atmosphere (the

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in low Earth orbit around the ISS, which clings to suits and equipment. Other regions of space could have very different smells, like that of different alcohols in

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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences – Origin and early evolution of solid matter in the Solar System

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charged particles such as the Van Allen radiation belts. Planets without magnetic fields, such as Mars, have their atmospheres gradually eroded by the solar wind.

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at 448,900 km (278,934 mi). This is located beyond the orbit of the Moon and therefore includes cislunar space. Translunar space is the region of lunar

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Raggio, J.; et al. (May 2011), "Whole Lichen Thalli Survive Exposure to Space Conditions: Results of Lithopanspermia Experiment with Aspicilia fruticulosa",

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in 1576. But the scale of the universe remained unknown until the first successful measurement of the distance to a nearby star in 1838 by the German astronomer

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required to pull free of Earth's gravitational field altogether and move into interplanetary space is about 11,200 m/s (40,300 km/h; 25,100 mph).

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Magnetic fields have been detected in the space around just about every class of celestial object. Star formation in spiral galaxies can generate small-scale

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Outer space has become an important element of global society. It provides multiple applications that are beneficial to the economy and scientific research.

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Near-Earth space showing the low-Earth (blue), medium Earth (green), and high Earth (red) orbits. The last extends beyond the radius of geosynchronous orbits

323:, as meaning 'the region beyond Earth's sky', predates the use of full term "outer space", with the earliest recorded use of this meaning in an epic poem by 11417: 7962:

Maccone, Claudio (August 2001), "Searching for bioastronomical signals from the farside of the Moon", in Ehrenfreund, P.; Angerer, O.; Battrick, B. (eds.),

1397:. These plasmas form a medium from which storm-like disturbances powered by the solar wind can drive electrical currents into the Earth's upper atmosphere. 1116:, is set at an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) as a working definition for the boundary between aeronautics and astronautics. This line is named after 10882: 10726: 10696: 4381: 2296:

in spiral nebulae were, on average, 10 magnitudes fainter than galactic novae, suggesting that the former are 100 times further away. The distance to the

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The variable space-weather conditions of geospace are affected by the behavior of the Sun and the solar wind; the subject of geospace is interlinked with

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in 1896. Using the estimated radiation of the background stars, he concluded that space must be heated to a temperature of 5–6 K. British physicist

3206: 10837: 1227:, they claimed control of the segment of the geosynchronous orbital path corresponding to each country. These claims are not internationally accepted. 6904: 2626:

The deep vacuum of space could make it an attractive environment for certain industrial processes, such as those requiring ultraclean surfaces. Like

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provides the basic framework for international space law. It covers the legal use of outer space by nation states, and includes in its definition of

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Wielebinski, Richard; Beck, Rainer (2010), "Cosmic Magnetic Fields − An Overview", in Block, David L.; Freeman, Kenneth C.; Puerari, Ivânio (eds.),

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Fitzpatrick, E. L. (May 2004), "Interstellar Extinction in the Milky Way Galaxy", in Witt, Adolf N.; Clayton, Geoffrey C.; Draine, Bruce T. (eds.),

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The concept that the space between the Earth and the Moon must be a vacuum was first proposed in the 17th century after scientists discovered that

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Mathiesen, B. F.; Evrard, A. E. (2001), "Four Measures of the Intracluster Medium Temperature and Their Relation to a Cluster's Dynamical State",

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is the space between the eight planets, the space between the planets and the Sun, as well as that space beyond the orbit of the outermost planet

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Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies

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that forms what is now called outer space. As light has a finite velocity, this theory constrains the size of the directly observable universe.

10502: 8053: 2421:, achieving Earth orbit at an altitude of 215–939 kilometres (134–583 mi). This was followed by the first human spaceflight in 1961, when 972:, and exposure to weightlessness has been shown to have deleterious effects on human health. Initially, more than 50% of astronauts experience 364:

to name the space of altitudes above Earth where spacecrafts reach conditions sufficiently free from atmospheric drag, differentiating it from

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Oppenheimer, Benjamin D.; Davé, Romeel (December 2006), "Cosmological simulations of intergalactic medium enrichment from galactic outflows",

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Interplanetary space contains the magnetic field generated by the Sun. There are magnetospheres generated by planets such as Jupiter, Saturn,

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crewed balloon flight reached an altitude of 22 km (14 mi). This was greatly exceeded in 1942 when the third launch of the German

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becomes noticeable, thus beginning the process of switching from steering with thrusters to maneuvering with aerodynamic control surfaces.

425:. About 380,000 years later the universe had cooled sufficiently to allow protons and electrons to combine and form hydrogen—the so-called 8019:

Chapmann, Glenn (May 22–27, 1991), "Space: the Ideal Place to Manufacture Microchips", in Blackledge, R.; Radfield, C.; Seida, S. (eds.),

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in 1964. Since that time, uncrewed spacecraft have successfully examined each of the Solar System's planets, as well their moons and many

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and comets. They remain a fundamental tool for the exploration of outer space, as well as for observation of the Earth. In August 2012,

196:, is conventionally used as the start of outer space in space treaties and for aerospace records keeping. Certain portions of the upper 10154: 8067:

Forgan, Duncan H.; Elvis, Martin (October 2011), "Extrasolar asteroid mining as forensic evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence",

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Boulares, Ahmed; Cox, Donald P. (December 1990), "Galactic hydrostatic equilibrium with magnetic tension and cosmic-ray diffusion",

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predicted 5 K for the temperature of space in 1948, based on the gradual decrease in background energy following the then-new

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Radiative cooling does not consume external energy but rather harvests coldness from outer space as a new renewable energy source.

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An alternative, third geoengineering approach would be enhanced cooling by thermal radiation from the Earth's surface into space.

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at the orbital distance of the Earth. This space is not completely empty, and is sparsely filled with cosmic rays, which include

796: 6065: 10907: 10666: 10586: 8719:, Space Telescope Science Institute symposium series, vol. 16, Baltimore, MD, US: Cambridge University Press, p. 21, 7996: 6775:

New Horizons in Astronomy; Proceedings of the Conference Held 16–18 October 2005 at The University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA

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The placing of artificial satellites in Earth orbit has produced numerous benefits and has become the dominating sector of the

1934: 590: 410: 5323: 5223:, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs/ Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, March 23, 2017, archived from 3463: 243:

was first measured. Humans began the physical exploration of space later in the same century with the advent of high-altitude

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ITU-R Radio Regulations, Article 1, Terms and definitions, Section VIII, Technical terms relating to space, paragraph 1.177.

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Withbroe, George L. (February 1988), "The temperature structure, mass, and energy flow in the corona and inner solar wind",

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Yoder, Charles F. (1995), "Astrometric and Geodetic Properties of Earth and the Solar System", in Ahrens, Thomas J. (ed.),

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indicated something was wrong with the concept. The idea of the luminiferous aether was then abandoned. It was replaced by

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proposed an experiment to test this hypothesis. In 1648, his brother-in-law, Florin Périer, repeated the experiment on the

992:. These effects can be minimized through a regimen of exercise. Other effects include fluid redistribution, slowing of the 445: 5825: 5723: 4604:

Harding, R. M.; Mills, F. J. (April 30, 1983), "Aviation medicine. Problems of altitude I: hypoxia and hyperventilation",

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emits a diffuse near-infrared radiation that can mask the emission of faint sources such as extrasolar planets. Moving an

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as they collide with the interstellar medium. For decades it was assumed that the Sun had a bow shock. In 2012, data from

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Geospace is populated by electrically charged particles at very low densities, the motions of which are controlled by the

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Wakker, B. P.; Savage, B. D. (2009), "The Relationship Between Intergalactic H I/O VI and Nearby (z<0.017) Galaxies",

2855:(n.) physical space independent of what occupies it. The region beyond the earth's atmosphere or beyond the solar system. 2043: 1574:/cm and is moving at a velocity of 350–400 km/s (780,000–890,000 mph). Interplanetary space extends out to the 1469: 17: 9423: 9101:

Mendillo, Michael (November 8–10, 2000), "The atmosphere of the moon", in Barbieri, Cesare; Rampazzi, Francesca (eds.),

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Fang, T.; et al. (2010), "Confirmation of X-Ray Absorption by Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium in the Sculptor Wall",

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originating from individual stars, or formed by solar wind emanating from the Sun. It is the space between the stars or

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and is the site of most of humanity's space activity. The region has seen high levels of space debris, sometimes dubbed

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Jafelice, Luiz C.; Opher, Reuven (July 1992), "The origin of intergalactic magnetic fields due to extragalactic jets",

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is steadily increasing at the rate of about four new species per year. Large regions of higher density matter known as

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A computer-generated map of objects orbiting Earth, as of 2005. About 95% are debris, not working artificial satellites

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Being essentially empty, outer space allows the earliest (redder) galaxies to be viewed without obstruction, as in the

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Outside a protective atmosphere and magnetic field, there are few obstacles to the passage through space of energetic

11440: 7532: 5617: 5224: 2745: 2711: 1855: 1802: 663:. All of the observable universe is filled with photons that were created during the Big Bang, which is known as the 625: 130: 5190: 1283:. The energy required to reach Earth orbital velocity at an altitude of 600 km (370 mi) is about 36 239:

decreased with altitude. The immense scale of outer space was grasped in the 20th century when the distance to the

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to create an apparatus that would produce a partial vacuum in 1643. This experiment resulted in the first mercury

11565: 9243:

Porter, Roy; Park, Katharine; Daston, Lorraine (2006), "The Cambridge History of Science: Early modern science",

2445:, which achieved lunar orbit and reached a maximum distance of 377,349 km (234,474 mi) from the Earth. 2323:. This theory holds that the universe originated from a state of extreme energy density that has since undergone 2238: 1194: 4343:"Survival of Plant Seeds, Their UV Screens, and nptII DNA for 18 Months Outside the International Space Station" 9510: 8346:

Wang, Tong; et al. (2021), "A structural polymer for highly efficient all-day passive radiative cooling",

4889:

Curtis, S. B.; Letaw, J. W. (1989), "Galactic cosmic rays and cell-hit frequencies outside the magnetosphere",

4342: 2573: 2460:

became the first planetary probe. It revealed the presence of the solar wind and performed the first fly-by of

2257:, which holds that the speed of light in a vacuum is a fixed constant, independent of the observer's motion or 1778: 757: 76: 4816:

Williams, David; et al. (June 23, 2009), "Acclimation during space flight: effects on human physiology",

2930:

Gupta, Anjali; et al. (May 2010), "Detection and Characterization of the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium",

11490: 7855:"Space Foundation Releases The Space Report 2023 Q2, Showing Annual Growth of Global Space Economy to $ 546B" 7306:

West, John B. (March 2013), "Torricelli and the Ocean of Air: The First Measurement of Barometric Pressure",

3198: 2524:

is an orbiting laboratory for space applications and habitability. Visible in the background is yellow-green

2499: 2312:. This established that the Andromeda galaxy, and by extension all galaxies, lay well outside the Milky Way. 1068: 1004:. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, and puffiness of the face. 4578: 1230:

An increasing issue of international space law and regulation has been the dangers of the growing number of

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Bykov, A. M.; et al. (February 2008), "Equilibration Processes in the Warm-Hot Intergalactic Medium",

4009: 2608: 2226: 1375:, which forms an interface between the Earth's magnetosphere and the solar wind. The inner boundary is the 1024: 749: 405:, where visible space is represented by the circular sections. At left, a dramatic expansion occurs in the 39: 8305: 7645:

Assis, A. K. T.; et al. (July 1995), "History of the 2.7 K Temperature Prior to Penzias and Wilson",

2331: 1677:

of sparse matter and radiation. The boundary between an astrosphere and interstellar space is known as an

10721: 9751: 7925:

Landgraf, M.; et al. (February 2001), "IRSI/Darwin: peering through the interplanetary dust cloud",

3018: 2521: 1406:

location and timing. Magnetic storms can be a hazard to astronauts, even in low Earth orbit. They create

699: 259:

in 1961. The economic cost of putting objects, including humans, into space is very high, limiting human

170: 119: 7812: 6011: 11650: 10094: 9799: 7854: 5768: 5018: 2507: 2222: 1828: 1517: 1186: 1167: 879: 672: 511: 103: 53: 8820:

Much ado about nothing: theories of space and vacuum from the Middle Ages to the scientific revolution

8195: 5461: 5168: 4220: 1928: 648:

in this range has large gradients of pressure, temperature and composition, and varies greatly due to

11480: 11475: 10656: 9756: 6394: 6202: 6152:"51 U.S.C 10101 -National and Commercial Space Programs, Subtitle I-General, Chapter 101-Definitions" 5414: 3705: 2588: 1403: 1394: 1019:

count. Over longer durations, symptoms include an increased risk of cancer, plus damage to the eyes,

730: 660: 516: 426: 422: 402: 95: 8396: 5491: 3346:

Planck Collaboration (2014), "Planck 2013 results. I. Overview of products and scientific results",

2264:

The first professional astronomer to support the concept of an infinite universe was the Englishman

11520: 9064: 8306:"Radiative cooling through the atmospheric window: A third, less intrusive geoengineering approach" 2760: 2649: 2580: 2544: 2181: 2165:

and created a scientific sensation in Europe. Torricelli suggested that since air has weight, then

1948: 1749:

of the Milky Way galaxy, with dense molecular clouds lying along the borders, such as those in the

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can result in fatigue, nausea, vomiting, as well as damage to the immune system and changes to the

357: 6971: 6552: 6046:, AGU reference shelf Series, vol. 1, Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, p. 1, 3284: 11600: 10089: 9869: 9660: 9645: 8512:

A history of physics in its elementary branches: including the evolution of physical laboratories

4862: 2805: 2750: 2740: 2692: 2619: 2371: 1686: 1602: 1465: 1276: 1210:. Still, there remains no legal prohibition against deploying conventional weapons in space, and 886: 767: 715: 656: 341: 6806:

McComas, D. J.; et al. (2012), "The Heliosphere's Interstellar Interaction: No Bow Shock",

6339: 6271: 5543: 5372: 1582:

The volume of interplanetary space is a nearly total vacuum, with a mean free path of about one

1162: 11721: 11455: 10420: 10330: 10207: 10202: 10081: 9629: 9506: 9107:, Padova, Italy at the Accademia Galileiana Di Scienze Lettere Ed Arti: Springer, p. 275, 8459:

Billings, Charles E. (1973), "Barometric Pressure", in Parker, James F.; West, Vita R. (eds.),

5045: 3309: 2645: 2641: 2584: 2579:

The absence of air makes outer space an ideal location for astronomy at all wavelengths of the

2158: 2122: 1942: 1892: 1758: 1575: 1520:, but which distance is also far less than the distance between Earth and any adjacent planet. 989: 940: 890: 586: 349: 308: 9496: 9332: 9262: 9102: 9024: 8918: 8798: 8583: 8440: 6863: 861:

has survived 559 days when exposed to low Earth orbit or a simulated Martian environment. The

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in intergalactic space is about 10 km, or 10 billion light years. In spite of this,

11726: 11510: 11485: 11123: 10741: 10288: 9741: 9688: 9673: 9588: 9568: 9548: 9437: 9308: 9288: 9224: 9140: 9044: 9004: 8898: 8878: 8838: 8818: 8778: 8642: 8603: 8540: 5217:

Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as of 1 January 2017

4068: 3039:

It turns out that roughly 68% of the Universe is dark energy. Dark matter makes up about 27%.

2727: 2569: 2186: 2065: 1537: 1287:/kg, which is six times the energy needed merely to climb to the corresponding altitude. The 1211: 1064: 993: 973: 756:

is only about 1% of that of protons. Cosmic rays can damage electronic components and pose a

628:. Above this altitude, isotropic gas pressure rapidly becomes insignificant when compared to 437: 225: 8520: 4753:

Webb, P. (1968), "The Space Activity Suit: An Elastic Leotard for Extravehicular Activity",

3369: 2988: 2873: 2338:

made a similar calculation to derive a temperature of 3.18 K in 1926. German physicist

1224: 1074:

In 2009, measurements of the direction and speed of ions in the atmosphere were made from a

710:. This has been used to show ordered magnetic fields that exist in several nearby galaxies. 11716: 11571: 11555: 11180: 10551: 10522: 10403: 10227: 9746: 9380: 8964: 8930: 8720: 8667: 8464: 8317: 8207: 8176: 8129: 8086: 7967: 7944: 7705: 7583: 7504: 7495:

Curtis, Heber D. (January 1988), "Novae in Spiral Nebulae and the Island Universe Theory",

7224: 7171: 7118: 7071: 7018: 6913: 6815: 6788: 6727: 6680: 6637: 6598: 6494: 6449: 6426: 6369: 6310: 6125: 6047: 5894: 5760: 5133: 5081: 4898: 4454: 4415: 4357: 4307: 4133: 4074: 4041: 3975: 3928: 3866: 3826: 3757: 3648: 3581: 3534: 3411: 3365: 3081: 2984: 2939: 2600: 2548: 2395: 2088: 1847: 1835:

that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a void spans a distance of 7–30 megaparsecs.

1790: 1785:

probes showed that the Sun's bow shock does not exist. Instead, these authors argue that a

1434: 1417: 1334: 909: 905: 845: 711: 707: 453: 213: 9178: 8959:

Kanas, Nick; Manzey, Dietrich (2008), "Basic Issues of Human Adaptation to Space Flight",

8120:

Burton, Rodney; et al. (May 2005), "Low-Cost Launch of Payloads to Low Earth Orbit",

1438: 8: 11700: 11515: 11495: 11308: 10998: 10486: 10350: 10325: 10293: 10212: 10063: 9904: 9678: 9474: 6529: 6106:

Granvik, Mikael; et al. (March 2012), "The population of natural Earth satellites",

2659: 2631: 2413:

climbed to an altitude of about 80 km (50 mi). In 1957, the uncrewed satellite

2330:

The earliest known estimate of the temperature of outer space was by the Swiss physicist

2234: 2094: 1978: 1952: 1859: 1806: 1770: 1762: 1681:. For the Sun, the astrosphere and astropause are called the heliosphere and heliopause. 1674: 1626: 1547: 1498: 1330: 1265: 1041: 1008: 827: 561: 418: 272: 174: 146: 72: 68: 9384: 8968: 8934: 8724: 8671: 8468: 8321: 8211: 8180: 8133: 8090: 7971: 7948: 7709: 7587: 7571: 7508: 7228: 7175: 7122: 7075: 7022: 6917: 6819: 6792: 6731: 6684: 6641: 6602: 6498: 6453: 6430: 6373: 6129: 6051: 5898: 5764: 5688: 5137: 5085: 4902: 4458: 4419: 4361: 4311: 4137: 4078: 4045: 3979: 3932: 3870: 3830: 3761: 3652: 3585: 3538: 3415: 3259: 2996: 2943: 2320: 1960: 1831:

lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms

489:

smaller than the influence of gravity from matter and dark matter within the Milky Way.

11688: 11613: 11535: 11505: 11450: 11327: 11303: 10802: 10736: 10601: 10561: 10412: 10375: 10335: 10314: 10257: 10232: 10136: 10076: 10015: 9899: 9821: 8416: 8368: 8283: 8257: 8223: 8102: 8076: 7934: 7721: 7673: 7601: 7328: 7240: 7214: 7187: 7161: 7134: 7108: 7061: 7034: 7030: 7008: 6841: 6778: 6750: 6653: 6614: 6588: 6510: 6115: 5910: 5589:, Astromaterials Research & Exploration Science: NASA Orbital Debris Program Office 5275: 5123: 5114:

McDowell, Jonathan C. (October 2018), "The edge of space: Revisiting the Karman Line",

4953: 4838: 4681: 4626: 4149: 4123: 3991: 3965: 3747: 3597: 3571: 3381: 3355: 3155: 3000: 2775: 2755: 2715: 2700: 2592: 2483: 2316: 2289: 2258: 2254: 2061: 1898: 1810: 1727: 1632: 1407: 1178: 898: 741: 629: 486: 406: 244: 209: 31:

This article is about the space between celestial bodies. For the general concept, see

8245: 7183: 6632:

Witt, Adolf N. (October 2001), "The Chemical Composition of the Interstellar Medium",

5906: 5370: 4689: 4114:

Letessier-Selvon, Antoine; Stanev, Todor (July 2011), "Ultrahigh energy cosmic rays",

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Brady, Maura (October 2007), "Space and the Persistence of Place in "Paradise Lost"",

379:" denotes existing in outer space, especially if carried by a spacecraft; similarly, " 11560: 11143: 11043: 11013: 10931: 10671: 10556: 10512: 10460: 10267: 10262: 10194: 10103: 10002: 9951: 9926: 9882: 9864: 9808: 9736: 9622: 9596: 9574: 9554: 9534: 9482: 9461: 9443: 9406: 9388: 9359: 9338: 9314: 9294: 9268: 9248: 9230: 9210: 9204: 9184: 9164: 9146: 9126: 9108: 9088: 9070: 9050: 9030: 9010: 8980: 8946: 8904: 8884: 8864: 8844: 8824: 8804: 8784: 8764: 8746: 8728: 8701: 8683: 8648: 8628: 8609: 8589: 8568: 8550: 8544: 8526: 8483: 8446: 8420: 8373: 8287: 8275: 8227: 8106: 8047: 7975: 7725: 7696:

Pfotzer, G. (June 1972), "History of the Use of Balloons in Scientific Experiments",

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Fixsen, D. J. (December 2009), "The Temperature of the Cosmic Microwave Background",

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tried to detect the Earth's motion through this medium by looking for changes in the

2194: 1902: 1869: 1598: 1583: 1486: 1454: 1398: 1308: 1257: 1253: 1094: 977: 913: 857: 851: 722: 718: 498: 217: 80: 10146: 8717:

Astrophysics of life. Proceedings of the Space Telescope Science Institute Symposium

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From the Earth's surface, the ultracold temperature of outer space can be used as a

2346:

to estimate an intergalactic temperature of 2.8 K in 1933. American physicists

2284:(compared to the modern value of 0.287″). This corresponds to a distance of over 10 2135: 1214:

have been successfully tested by the USA, USSR, China, and in 2019, India. The 1979

687:

reaches temperatures over 1,200,000–2,600,000 K (2,200,000–4,700,000 °F).

11664: 11637: 11625: 11545: 11445: 11350: 11298: 10731: 10606: 10571: 10492: 10480: 10440: 10345: 10278: 10042: 9993: 9846: 9726: 9693: 9521: 9516: 8972: 8938: 8675: 8408: 8363: 8355: 8325: 8267: 8215: 8167:

Crawford, I. A. (September 1990), "Interstellar Travel: A Review for Astronomers",

8137: 8094: 7713: 7605: 7591: 7574:(May 1931), "The Beginning of the World from the Point of View of Quantum Theory", 7512: 7323: 7315: 7232: 7179: 7126: 7079: 7026: 6921: 6823: 6745: 6735: 6688: 6645: 6606: 6502: 6457: 6133: 5902: 5141: 5089: 4948: 4940: 4906: 4833: 4825: 4665: 4621: 4613: 4423: 4365: 4315: 4274: 4141: 4082: 4049: 3983: 3936: 3874: 3834: 3666: 3589: 3542: 3457: 3419: 3373: 3147: 2992: 2790: 2707: 2664: 2511: 2335: 2305: 2297: 2277: 2269: 2221:

cosmology to the concept of an infinite universe filled with a substance he called

2209: 1988: 1745:, which is characterized by a lack of dense, cold clouds. It forms a cavity in the 1703: 1690: 1661:

Interstellar space is the physical space outside of the bubbles of plasma known as

1613: 1478: 1468:

remains dominant against gravitational potentials from other bodies, is the body's

1430: 1411: 1360: 1243: 1125: 1105: 1098: 1016: 924: 822: 680: 637: 506: 481: 449: 240: 229: 212:, which entered into force on 10 October 1967. This treaty precludes any claims of 189: 91: 9889: 5951: 3377: 1570:) for billions of kilometers into space. This wind has a particle density of 5–10 380: 11731: 11233: 11208: 10746: 10686: 10470: 10370: 10355: 10340: 10247: 10237: 10108: 10068: 10058: 10030: 9973: 9909: 9778: 8858: 8679: 8477: 8329: 8219: 6942: 6137: 4983:"Why defining the boundary of space may be crucial for the future of spaceflight" 3111: 2723: 2653: 2627: 2604: 2324: 2250: 2154: 1984: 1843: 1782: 1734:

to produce ionized carbon, which in turn can lead to organic chemical reactions.

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of photons by dust and gas, is an important factor in galactic and intergalactic

457: 264: 134: 8976: 6461: 5253:, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, January 1, 2008, archived from 4516: 4086: 3639:

Tadokoro, M. (1968), "A Study of the Local Group by Use of the Virial Theorem",

1605:. A cloud of interplanetary dust is visible at night as a faint band called the 376: 11470: 11435: 11218: 11108: 11073: 11058: 10993: 10988: 10887: 10787: 10706: 10681: 10646: 10591: 10566: 10435: 10283: 9983: 9946: 9710: 9683: 8522:

Theory of planetary atmospheres: an introduction to their physics and chemistry

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exist in interstellar space, which can form dust particles as tiny as 0.1

1606: 1590: 1458: 1442: 1342: 1190: 1113: 1082: 1020: 997: 985: 956: 894: 800: 744:

known as cosmic rays. These particles have energies ranging from about 10

578: 573: 541: 520: 472: 304: 138: 107: 9430:

All Earth in madness moved,—o'erthrown, / To outer space—driven—racked—undone!

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Astrophysical formulae: Radiation, gas processes, and high energy astrophysics

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Nicholson, W. L. (April 2010), "Towards a General Theory of Lithopanspermia",

4145: 3614: 3593: 2831: 2174: 1120:, who argued for an altitude where a vehicle would have to travel faster than 706:

to align themselves with a galaxy's magnetic field, resulting in weak optical

11710: 11500: 11355: 11238: 11213: 11194: 11138: 11018: 10976: 10971: 10711: 10701: 10661: 10536: 10430: 10385: 10360: 10242: 10222: 10020: 9978: 9968: 9841: 9836: 9816: 9328: 8397:"Heat-shedding with photonic structures: radiative cooling and its potential" 6423:

Bioastronomy 2002: Life Among the Stars, Proceedings of IAU Symposium No. 213

4944: 3854: 2785: 2561: 2540: 2495: 2351: 2339: 2265: 2170: 2142: 2037: 1750: 1646: 1364: 1247: 1121: 1090: 1001: 936: 867: 649: 617: 502: 461: 329: 248: 221: 188:

Outer space does not begin at a definite altitude above Earth's surface. The

142: 6828: 6777:, Frank N. Bash Symposium ASP Conference Series, vol. 352, p. 79, 6740: 6485:

Johnson, R. E. (August 1994), "Plasma-Induced Sputtering of an Atmosphere",

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Peebles, P.; Ratra, B. (2003), "The cosmological constant and dark energy",

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A wide field view of outer space as seen from Earth's surface at night. The

48: 11676: 11576: 11430: 11283: 11223: 11203: 11175: 11103: 10983: 10966: 10921: 10872: 10777: 10497: 10450: 10298: 10113: 10037: 9963: 9921: 9894: 9826: 9768: 9705: 9372: 8377: 8279: 8271: 7440: 7337: 6837: 6759: 6649: 5584: 5521: 5371:

Representatives of the States traversed by the Equator (December 3, 1976),

4962: 4918: 4847: 4677: 4526: 4483: 4435: 4377: 4327: 3796: 3431: 2473: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2377: 2347: 2301: 2218: 2166: 1970: 1916: 1742: 1666: 1654: 1559: 1494: 1383: 1372: 1231: 1171: 1137: 1129: 960: 944: 810: 745: 695: 684: 645: 296: 280: 256: 252: 236: 204:

are sometimes referred to as "near space". The framework for international

197: 9731: 5611: 4766: 4635: 4427: 4369: 4319: 3919:

Chiaki, Yanagisawa (June 2014), "Looking for Cosmic Neutrino Background",

3525:

Krumm, N.; Brosch, N. (October 1984), "Neutral hydrogen in cosmic voids",

2225:, which did not resist the motion of heavenly bodies. English philosopher 2055: 397: 11460: 11425: 11392: 11318: 11293: 11133: 11038: 11008: 10892: 10807: 10797: 10527: 10455: 9941: 9914: 9831: 9783: 9501:, Washington D. C.: United States Government Printing Office, p. 536 9351: 9334:

Heliophysics: Evolving Solar Activity and the Climates of Space and Earth

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Ferrière, Katia M. (2001), "The interstellar environment of our galaxy",

6399: 6081: 5316:"India Enters the Elite Club: Successfully Shot Down Low Orbit Satellite" 5094: 3839: 3752: 3662: 3576: 2595:

out past the dust increases its effectiveness. Likewise, a site like the

2405: 2381: 2246: 2198: 2047: 1910: 1839: 1832: 1820: 1786: 1698: 1662: 1567: 1542: 1514:

International Telecommunication Union responsible for radio communication

1473: 1450: 1387: 1215: 1012: 969: 814: 771: 703: 620:

at 100 kilometres (62 miles) of altitude, compared to 100,000 Pa for the

529: 465: 353: 324: 284: 260: 182: 178: 166: 115: 111: 5914: 4829: 3159: 2564:

of military activities. They facilitate the discovery and monitoring of

1638: 11465: 11407: 11370: 11345: 11243: 11053: 10916: 10025: 9931: 8823:, The Cambridge history of science series, Cambridge University Press, 8625:

The dawn of fluid dynamics: a discipline between science and technology

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A prospective look at medical problems from hazards of space operations

2950: 2780: 2765: 2696: 2684: 2529: 2434: 2410: 2343: 2285: 2146: 2131: 1920: 1714: 1678: 1482: 1376: 1280: 1272: 1047: 862: 832: 831:

Because of the hazards of a vacuum, astronauts must wear a pressurized

726: 676: 641: 605: 594: 477: 300: 201: 99: 8942: 8919:"Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus to Einstein and beyond" 6865:

NASA – IBEX Reveals a Missing Boundary at the Edge of the Solar System

6395:"What scientists found after sifting through dust in the solar system" 5667: 5665: 2025: 1593:

and various subatomic particles. There is gas, plasma and dust, small

1051:

Illustration of Earth's atmosphere gradual transition into outer space

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Essentials of physics: a text for students of science and engineering

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Galaxies and their Masks: A Conference in Honour of K.C. Freeman, FRS

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Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium

2770: 2672: 2482:

became the first man-made object to leave the Solar System and enter

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dissolved in the blood empties into the lungs to try to equalize the

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Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race

8141: 7881:"In a world of drones and satellites, why use a spy balloon anyway?" 6964: 5277:

Index of Online General Assembly Resolutions Relating to Outer Space

1260:

acceleration due to the horizontal component of its velocity. For a

11365: 11277: 11078: 10941: 10926: 10897: 10766: 10541: 10365: 10309: 10303: 10272: 10217: 10185: 9573:, Contemporary military, strategic, and security issues, ABC-CLIO, 8647:, Springer-Praxis books in astronomy and space sciences, Springer, 8262: 7517: 7236: 6692: 5662: 5128: 4931:

Setlow, Richard B. (November 2003), "The hazards of space travel",

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The local interstellar medium is a region of space within 100

1551: 1523: 1437:(GEO) at approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi), out to the 1133: 1060: 981: 929: 855:

germinated after being exposed to space for 1.5 years. A strain of

753: 734: 694:, creating turbulent magnetic field strengths of around 5–10 μ 668: 610: 545: 392: 365: 162: 123: 84: 9553:, History and Management of Technology Series, vol. 33, IET, 9161:

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Thermal Protection Systems Expert and Material Properties Database

3478: 3360: 3044: 2189:(left) used to demonstrate Otto von Guericke's vacuum pump (right) 904:

Out in space, sudden exposure of an unprotected human to very low

11530: 11360: 11313: 11272: 11228: 11170: 11165: 11128: 11118: 11113: 11068: 11063: 11003: 10936: 10827: 10822: 10772: 10651: 10641: 10394: 9029:, Astronomy and astrophysics library (3rd ed.), Birkhäuser, 9006:

Physics of Space Storms: From the Surface of the Sun to the Earth

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Cosmos: a survey of the general physical history of the Universe

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An Introduction to the Theory of Stellar Structure and Evolution

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NASA's Hubble Provides First Census of Galaxies Near Cosmic Dawn

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Klemperer, William (August 15, 2006), "Interstellar chemistry",

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remain legal under space law, even though they create hazardous

667:(CMB). (There is quite likely a correspondingly large number of 11581: 11402: 11384: 10847: 10817: 10319: 9761: 9614: 7732: 7344: 7263: 6245:: Space at distances from the Earth equal to, or greater than, 5854: 5842: 5814: 5349:, European Science Foundation, November 5, 2007, archived from 3402:

Turner, Michael S. (September 2009), "Origin of the Universe",

2683:

system. Other proposed interstellar propulsion systems include

2450: 2390: 1878: 1738: 1594: 1571: 1371:

lie within the geospace. The outer boundary of geospace is the

920: 870:-bearing rocks being exchanged between Venus, Earth, and Mars. 840: 775: 691: 582: 569: 430: 288: 276: 158: 88: 8883:, Springer Praxis Books / Space Exploration Series, Springer, 7964:

Exo-/astro-biology. Proceedings of the First European Workshop

7287: 6287: 5885:

Hones, Edward W. Jr. (March 1986), "The Earth's Magnetotail",

5517:

100 lbs to Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Small-Payload Launch Options

4297: 4172: 3890: 3888: 1329:

is the region of space extending from low Earth orbits out to

352:. The term was eventually popularized through the writings of 169:

consist almost entirely of empty space. Most of the remaining

10616: 10546: 7380: 4496: 4011:

ALMA reveals ghostly shape of 'coldest place in the universe'

3857:(January 1948), "The Temperature of Interstellar Matter. I", 3166: 2710:

cooling technology for various applications on Earth through

2461: 2448:

The first spacecraft to reach escape velocity was the Soviet

1513: 1512:

beyond the farthest reaches of the Solar System itself." The

1295: 557: 553: 32: 8196:"Enhanced radiative cooling paint with broken glass bubbles" 7995:

Hughes, Amanda Jane; Soldini, Stefania (November 26, 2020),

5961:, CENTRA Technology, Inc., pp. 1–69, January 14, 2011, 4797: 2635:

declined since 2013. Partially reusable rockets such as the

2614: 1998: 1730:. An ionized helium atom can then split relatively abundant 1429:

xGeo space is a concept used by the US to refer to space of

368:, identifying a legal space above territories free from the 7847: 7792: 7452: 6805: 6699: 6362:"A Shifting Shield Provides Protection Against Cosmic Rays" 5866: 4999: 4514: 4404: 3885: 3817:

Forbes, Jeffrey M. (2007), "Dynamics of the thermosphere",

3061: 3059: 2832:"Applicable definitions of outer space, space, and expanse" 2293: 2073: 1421:

Earth and the Moon as seen from cislunar space on the 2022

1086: 1028: 655:

The temperature of outer space is measured in terms of the

268: 154: 11671: 9085:

To infinity and beyond: a cultural history of the infinite

8963:, Space Technology Library, vol. 22, pp. 15–48, 8582:

Davis, Jeffrey R.; Johnson, Robert; Stepanek, Jan (2008),

7744: 6998: 6940: 6080:. This work lists a Hill sphere radius of 234.9 times the 5815:

Kintner, Paul; GMDT Committee and Staff (September 2002),

5513: 5373:"Declaration of the first meeting of equatorial countries" 5295: 4815: 3676: 3178: 1673:

within a nebula or galaxy. Interstellar space contains an

1485:

space. This space is co-populated by groups of co-orbital

843:

facility survived exposure for ten days in 2007. Seeds of

7924: 7657: 6553:"Interstellar space: What is it and where does it begin?" 6530:"How do we know when Voyager reaches interstellar space?" 6420: 6182: 6084:

of Earth, or 234.9 × 6,371 km = 1.5 million km.

5071: 4073:, Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 67–82, 3277: 2454:, which performed a fly-by of the Moon in 1959. In 1961, 1587: 1546:

The sparse plasma (blue) and dust (white) in the tail of

1256:

acceleration due to gravity is less than or equal to the

1007:

During long-duration space travel, radiation can pose an

935:

Swelling and ebullism can be reduced by containment in a

633: 344:

called "The Maiden of Moscow", but in astronomy the term

161:. Intergalactic space takes up most of the volume of the 9531:

Measuring the universe: the cosmological distance ladder

9142:

Handbook of space engineering, archaeology, and heritage

9139:

O'Leary, Beth Laura (2009), Darrin, Ann Garrison (ed.),

7835: 7404: 7392: 7368: 7356: 6267:, which is 19.2% of two million km, or about one-fifth. 6105: 6087: 5920: 5638: 5636: 5634: 4706: 4546:

Krebs, Matthew B.; Pilmanis, Andrew A. (November 1996),

4014:, National Radio Astronomy Observatory, October 24, 2013 3900: 3768: 3056: 2169:

should decrease with altitude. The French mathematician

1838:

Surrounding and stretching between galaxies, there is a

1631:"Interstellar space" redirects here. For the album, see 9247:, vol. 3, Cambridge University Press, p. 27, 9158: 8837:

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8836: 8148: 7903: 7774: 7497:

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7446: 7428: 7422: 5932: 5280:, United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, 2011, 3438: 2245:

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283:. Outer space represents a challenging environment for 9428:, How and Parsons, Canto X, section XIV, lines 14–15, 8713: 7897: 7780: 7476: 7045: 6883: 6521: 6170: 5565: 5520:, The Mitre Corporation, pp. 1–39, archived from 4113: 2850:(n.) space immediately outside the earth's atmosphere. 2201:: a device that would further refute the principle of 1206:

treaties have been negotiated and drafted by the UN's

11648: 10176: 8700:(7th ed.), New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 7098: 6444:

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6040:

Global earth physics a handbook of physical constants

5631: 4398: 4334: 4291: 2971:"Existence and nature of dark matter in the universe" 1579:

this modulation effect peaking during solar maximum.

790: 770:

have a burned/metallic odor, similar to the scent of

737:

sources, indicating the presence of magnetic fields.

383:" means based in outer space or on a planet or moon. 340:

existed in a poem from 1842 by the English poet Lady

153:. Local concentrations of matter have condensed into 8581: 8028:, San Antonio, Texas, pp. 25–33, archived from 7464: 7275: 7251: 4791: 4773: 4472:

Tarver, William J.; et al. (October 24, 2022),

3746:, ASP Conference Series, vol. 309, p. 33, 3723: 3345: 3327: 3252: 540:

Outer space is the closest known approximation to a

348:

found its application for the first time in 1845 by

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7904:Harrington, J. D.; et al. (12 December 2012), 7756: 7564: 7534:

Cepheid Variable Stars & Distance Determination

6895: 6099: 5737: 4508: 4160: 4060: 2929: 6941:Wadsley, James W.; et al. (August 20, 2002), 6437: 5959:OECD/IFP Futures Project on "Future Global Shocks" 4549:Human pulmonary tolerance to dynamic over-pressure 4539: 4515:Battisti, Amanda S.; et al. (June 27, 2022), 4471: 2667:study, which proposed a spacecraft powered by the 2429:. The first humans to escape low Earth orbit were 2319:, first proposed in 1931 by the Belgian physicist 2315:The modern concept of outer space is based on the 2138:argued that the entirety of space must be filled. 2031:The Sun within the structure of the Milky Way 1410:seen at high latitudes in an oval surrounding the 908:, such as during a rapid decompression, can cause 8696:Freedman, Roger A.; Kaufmann, William J. (2005), 8297: 8119: 7872: 7640: 7638: 7054:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 6905:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 6711: 5609: 4465: 3641:Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 2726:into outer space, lowering ambient temperatures. 1081:Spacecraft have entered into a highly elliptical 622:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 251:and, then, crewed Earth orbit, first achieved by 11708: 9593:Progress in New Cosmologies: Beyond the Big Bang 9481:, W. W. Norton & Company, pp. 114–115, 9242: 8917:Holton, Gerald James; Brush, Stephen G. (2001), 8695: 7663: 7269: 6994: 6992: 6574: 6572: 5797:, ARES | NASA Orbital Debris Program Office 5109: 5107: 5105: 5037: 5026:, Federal Aviation Administration, July 20, 2021 4882: 4867:, National Space Biological Research Institute, 4555:, United States Air Force Armstrong Laboratory, 4340: 4218: 3397: 3395: 3050: 2956: 2217:in the 16th century. He extended the Copernican 1166:Conventional anti-satellite weapons such as the 192:, an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) above 126:, is 2.7 kelvins (−270 °C; −455 °F). 9371: 9326: 8303: 7644: 7525: 7204: 7051: 6368:, American Astronomical Society, p. 2992, 5848: 5682: 5680: 5671: 4854: 4809: 4066: 3735: 3484: 2679:, would require 36 years to reach the "nearby" 950: 733:have been detected even among the most distant 9567:Wong, Wilson; Fergusson, James Gordon (2010), 9515:, New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 9473: 9439:A concise history of solar and stellar physics 9436:Tassoul, Jean Louis; Tassoul, Monique (2004), 9435: 9418: 9310:Information Communication and Space Technology 9180:Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference 8495: 8187: 7635: 7558: 7386: 6257: 5979: 5483: 4718: 4478:, Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing, 3819:Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan 3682: 3555: 3172: 3076: 3074: 3011: 2824: 2308:in that galaxy, a new technique discovered by 2300:was determined in 1923 by American astronomer 10162: 9630: 9566: 9494: 9403:Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium 9123:The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China 8843:, National Geographic Books, pp. 89–90, 8394: 8160: 7994: 7145: 7092: 6989: 6901: 6766: 6664: 6569: 6325: 5743: 5507: 5301: 5152: 5102: 5005: 4642: 4545: 4442: 3392: 2932:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society 2695:. More advanced propulsion systems could use 1208:Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 1193:in outer space. The treaty was passed by the 440:has been determined from measurements of the 9505: 9498:United States Code 2006 Edition Supplement V 9379:(2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, 9120: 8664:The Sun, the Solar Wind, and the Heliosphere 8304:Zevenhovena, Ron; Fält, Martin (June 2018), 8193: 8113: 8012: 7955: 7689: 7293: 7151: 6934: 6799: 6527: 6478: 6386: 5878: 5677: 5535: 5020:FAA Commercial Space Astronaut Wings Program 4924: 4603: 4586:, Clinical Space Medicine, NASA, NASA-CR-856 3949: 3847: 3810: 3561: 3184: 2925: 2923: 2532:and the interstellar field of the Milky Way. 2126:. This concept built upon a 5th-century BCE 1717:. The tally of molecules discovered through 1333:. This region includes the major orbits for 1000:, balance disorders, and a weakening of the 133:is thought to account for about half of the 9570:Military space power: a guide to the issues 9202: 9138: 9125:, vol. 2, Cambridge University Press, 9009:, Environmental Sciences Series, Springer, 8958: 8916: 8660: 8518: 8345: 8066: 7738: 7488: 7350: 7198: 7154:The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 6670: 6443: 6353: 6308: 6296: 6263:The semi-major axis of the Moon's orbit is 5860: 5514:Dimotakis, P.; et al. (October 1999), 5394: 5337: 5307: 4888: 4803: 4212: 4107: 3774: 3741: 3524: 3339: 3190: 3071: 3065: 2976:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2962: 1769:When stars are moving at sufficiently high 1472:or gravity well, mostly described with the 1449:is a region outside of Earth that includes 1359:is a region of space that includes Earth's 533:(center), which is visually crossed by the 10169: 10155: 9637: 9623: 9546: 9293:, Translated by T. N. Mitchell, Springer, 9222: 8339: 8060: 8052:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 7804: 7299: 6188: 6144: 6030: 6004: 5715: 5711: 5709: 5610:Kennewell, John; McDonald, Andrew (2011), 5364: 5346:Columbus launch puts space law to the test 4570: 4502: 4025: 3780: 3632: 3103: 2860:(n.) great extent of something spread out. 9595:, Springer Science & Business Media, 9520: 9377:Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction 9290:Chemical Evolution and the Origin of Life 9286: 8856: 8803:, Springer Science & Business Media, 8608:, New Series in NASA History, JHU Press, 8496:Borowitz, Sidney; Beiser, Arthur (1971), 8388: 8367: 8261: 8080: 7988: 7938: 7612: 7595: 7516: 7434: 7327: 7218: 7165: 7112: 7083: 7065: 7012: 6925: 6827: 6782: 6749: 6739: 6717: 6705: 6625: 6592: 6119: 5808: 5127: 5093: 4952: 4837: 4648: 4625: 4448: 4127: 3969: 3940: 3838: 3751: 3698:The Kinetic Atmosphere: Molecular Numbers 3575: 3546: 3518: 3490: 3359: 3131: 2920: 1868:Overview of different scales of space as 1313: 919:As a consequence of rapid decompression, 9260: 9100: 9002: 8998:, Amsterdam: Menno Hertzberger & Co. 8896: 8546:After Sputnik: 50 years of the Space Age 8475: 8458: 8438: 8237: 8166: 8154: 8018: 7750: 7664:Woods, W. 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This can cause nausea and vomiting, 683:is 1 K (−458 °F), while the 460:, indicates that space has a non-zero 386: 224:for the peaceful uses of outer space, 177:is made up of an unknown form, dubbed 10150: 9618: 9420:Stuart Wortley, Emmeline Charlotte E. 9066:CRC handbook of chemistry and physics 8993: 8816: 8776: 8740: 8332:– via Elsevier Science Direct, 8230:– via Elsevier Science Direct, 8069:International Journal of Astrobiology 7775:Hardesty, Eisman & Krushchev 2008 7537:, CSIRO Australia, October 25, 2004, 7447:Olenick, Apostol & Goodstein 1986 7423:Olenick, Apostol & Goodstein 1986 7410: 7398: 7257: 6036: 5944: 5884: 5785: 5726:from the original on February 7, 2016 5571: 5554:from the original on October 30, 2010 5440:European Society of International Law 5159:Petty, John Ira (February 13, 2003), 5158: 4980: 4969: 4576: 4453:, vol. 1538, pp. 5272–528, 3694: 3302: 3236:"The Kármán Line: Where space begins" 3137: 2898: 1779:Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) 1620: 1056:1,600,000 km (990,000 mi). 665:cosmic microwave background radiation 519:is visible as the horizontal band of 413:. Neither time nor size are to scale. 9528: 9350: 9082: 9062: 9022: 8758: 7810: 7541:from the original on August 30, 2011 7482: 7470: 7374: 7305: 6852: 6631: 6392: 6360:Kohler, Susanna (December 1, 2017), 6321:from the original on March 19, 2015. 6217: 5687:Howell, Elizabeth (April 24, 2015), 5600: 5459: 4818:Canadian Medical Association Journal 4752: 4451:Astrobiology Science Conference 2010 4266: 4249:"Interesting Fact of the Month 2021" 4241: 4178: 4166: 3497:Wollack, Edward J. (June 24, 2011), 3450: 3444: 3233: 3220: 2905:, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, 2871: 2801:Timeline of Solar System exploration 2547:like television, provide a means of 1011:. Exposure to high-energy, ionizing 893:. This pressure level is called the 446:Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 67:) is the expanse that exists beyond 9046:An Introduction to Modern Cosmology 8780:Atmospheric Science and Environment 8502:Note: this source gives a value of 7914:from the original on 22 March 2015. 6861: 6528:Jia-Rui Cook (September 12, 2013), 5968:from the original on March 14, 2012 5650:(in Kinyarwanda), December 15, 2022 5403:"Who Owns the Geostationary Orbit?" 4860: 3657:This source estimates a density of 3285:"Spaceborne definition and meaning" 3116:, The Online Etymology Dictionary, 2997:10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002233 2622:system to beam energy down to Earth 2044:Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way 1969:and interstellar medium map of the 1497:, with some NEOs at times becoming 1252:A spacecraft enters orbit when its 1097:(termed the Entry Interface), when 409:, and at the center, the expansion 24: 11541:Nexus for Exoplanet System Science 8903:, University of California Press, 8585:Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine 8567:, University of California Press, 8479:Non-Rocket Space Launch and Flight 8243: 6446:Physics of the Inner Heliosphere I 5490:Shiner, Linda (November 1, 2007), 5054:from the original on July 14, 2009 5044:Thompson, Andrea (April 9, 2009), 4792:Davis, Johnson & Stepanek 2008 4219:Lizzie Schiffman (July 17, 2013), 3787:Squire, Tom (September 27, 2000), 3507:from the original on July 26, 2016 3196: 2551:, and permit direct monitoring of 2468:. The first fly-by of Mars was by 2342:used the total measured energy of 2130:argument by the Greek philosopher 1773:, their astrospheres can generate 1550:are being shaped by pressure from 1112:, and used internationally by the 791:Effect on biology and human bodies 25: 11743: 11441:Atomic and molecular astrophysics 10178:Molecules detected in outer space 9610: 9206:Space Physics and Space Astronomy 8644:An introduction to space robotics 8519:Chamberlain, Joseph Wyan (1978), 8514:, New York: The Macmillan Company 8463:, vol. 3006 (2nd ed.), 8122:Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 7813:"Voyager 1 Has Left Solar System" 7811:Wall, Mike (September 12, 2013), 6953:from the original on June 9, 2009 6872:from the original on May 12, 2012 5907:10.1038/scientificamerican0386-40 5753:NASA Sti/Recon Technical Report N 5719:The cislunar gateway with no gate 5689:"What Is a Geosynchronous Orbit?" 3466:from the original on June 1, 2012 3424:10.1038/scientificamerican0909-36 3110:Harper, Douglas (November 2001), 3029:from the original on June 2, 2013 2899:Chuss, David T. (June 26, 2008), 2746:List of government space agencies 2712:passive daytime radiative cooling 2272:. He showed that the star system 2081:Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex 1693:. The cataclysmic explosion of a 1653:(center) as it collides with the 1554:and the solar wind, respectively. 1455:Moon's orbital space around Earth 897:, named after American physician 556:to move freely along their ideal 216:and permits all states to freely 11694: 11682: 11670: 11658: 11631: 11619: 11607: 11596: 11595: 10402: 10393: 10384: 10130: 9798: 9644: 9203:Papagiannis, Michael D. (1972), 8900:Spacefaring: The Human Dimension 8863:(2nd ed.), Academic Press, 8401:Journal of Materials Chemistry C 7085:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10989.x 6544: 5986:Hitchens, Theresa (2022-04-21), 5460:Hill, James V. H. 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(2007), 7184:10.1088/0067-0049/182/1/378 6462:10.1007/978-3-642-75361-9_5 5849:Schrijver & Siscoe 2010 5672:Schrijver & Siscoe 2010 5644:"42 USC 18302: Definitions" 5407:Annals of Air and Space Law 4981:Grush, Loren (2018-12-13). 4193:What Does Space Smell Like? 4087:10.1007/978-1-4419-7317-7_5 3988:10.1088/0004-637X/707/2/916 3485:Sparke & Gallagher 2007 3462:, NASA, December 21, 2012, 3378:10.1051/0004-6361/201321529 3203:Online Etymology Dictionary 2733: 2522:International Space Station 2239:Michelson–Morley experiment 1823:of the intergalactic medium 1294:Orbiting spacecraft with a 1035: 442:cosmic microwave background 419:13.8 billion years ago 372:jurisdiction of countries. 10: 11748: 9405:, Wiley Classics Library, 8506:molecules per cubic meter. 8445:, CRC Press, p. 253, 8431: 8360:10.1038/s41467-020-20646-7 7559:Tyson & Goldsmith 2004 7387:Tassoul & Tassoul 2004 7320:10.1152/physiol.00053.2012 6611:10.1103/RevModPhys.73.1031 6204:Collins English Dictionary 5586:Frequently Asked Questions 5496:, Air & Space Magazine 4891:Advances in Space Research 4577:Busby, D. E. (July 1967), 4475:Aerospace Pressure Effects 4222:What Does Space Smell Like 3683:Borowitz & Beiser 1971 3289:Collins English Dictionary 3260:"Definition of SPACEBORNE" 3019:"Dark Energy, Dark Matter" 2902:Cosmic Background Explorer 2836:Merriam-Webster dictionary 2508:Commercialization of space 2493: 2417:was launched by a Russian 2375: 2365: 2193:In 1650, German scientist 1987:around the Sun inside the 1800: 1630: 1624: 1535: 1464:The region where a body's 1306: 1302: 1275:must travel faster than a 1241: 1187:common heritage of mankind 1155: 1039: 996:, decreased production of 954: 880:Uncontrolled decompression 877: 808: 794: 673:cosmic neutrino background 564:stage. The deep vacuum of 496: 471:Estimates put the average 444:using satellites like the 390: 287:because of the hazards of 220:. Despite the drafting of 137:in the universe, having a 135:baryonic (ordinary) matter 29: 11590: 11481:Earliest known life forms 11476:Diffuse interstellar band 11416: 11336: 11261: 11152: 11087: 11027: 10955: 10947:Protonated cyanoacetylene 10861: 10755: 10717:Protonated carbon dioxide 10677:Hydromagnesium isocyanide 10625: 10411: 10382: 10193: 10184: 10126: 10051: 10001: 9992: 9857: 9807: 9796: 9719: 9659: 9652: 9547:Williamson, Mark (2006), 9307:Razani, Mohammad (2012), 9287:Rauchfuss, Horst (2008), 9023:Lang, Kenneth R. (1999), 8797:Goodman, John M. (2006), 8563:Davies, P. C. W. (1977), 8461:Bioastronautics Data Book 8442:Fundamentals of Astronomy 8099:10.1017/S1473550411000127 7207:The Astrophysical Journal 7131:10.1007/s11214-008-9309-4 7001:The Astrophysical Journal 6976:Harvard & Smithsonian 6943:"The Universe in Hot Gas" 6581:Reviews of Modern Physics 5302:Wong & Fergusson 2010 5006:Wong & Fergusson 2010 4618:10.1136/bmj.286.6375.1408 4146:10.1103/RevModPhys.83.907 4116:Reviews of Modern Physics 3958:The Astrophysical Journal 3594:10.1103/RevModPhys.75.559 3564:Reviews of Modern Physics 3234:Betz, Eric (2023-11-27). 3082:"Where does space begin?" 2650:momentum exchange tethers 2545:long-range communications 1369:Van Allen radiation belts 873: 661:thermodynamic equilibrium 517:interplanetary dust cloud 458:expansion of the universe 403:expansion of the universe 96:electromagnetic radiation 11526:Iron–sulfur world theory 11521:Photodissociation region 11224:Methyl-cyano-diacetylene 9587:Wszolek, Bogdan (2013), 9209:, Taylor & Francis, 9104:Earth-Moon Relationships 9087:, Princeton paperbacks, 9003:Koskinen, Hannu (2010), 8623:Eckert, Michael (2006), 8510:Cajori, Florian (1917), 7294:Needham & Ronan 1985 5401:Gangale, Thomas (2006), 4945:10.1038/sj.embor.7400016 4728:Human Exposure to Vacuum 2959:, pp. 573, 599–601. 2761:Outline of space science 2581:electromagnetic spectrum 1949:Local Interstellar Cloud 544:. It has effectively no 165:, but even galaxies and 75:. It contains ultra-low 11601:Category:Astrochemistry 11191:, fullerene, buckyball) 10878:Cyanobutadiynyl radical 10853:Silicon-carbide cluster 10843:Protonated formaldehyde 9522:2027/nyp.33433071596906 9507:Von Humboldt, Alexander 9327:Schrijver, Carolus J.; 9261:Prialnik, Dina (2000), 9063:Lide, David R. (1993), 9043:Liddle, Andrew (2015), 8994:Kelly, Suzanne (1965), 7670:Apollo 8 Flight Journal 7351:Holton & Brush 2001 6927:10.1093/mnras/257.1.135 6829:10.1126/science.1221054 6741:10.1073/pnas.0605352103 6393:NASA (March 12, 2019), 5861:Fichtner & Liu 2011 4804:Kanas & Manzey 2008 4670:10.1136/jramc-157-01-15 4606:British Medical Journal 3942:10.3389/fphy.2014.00030 3370:2014A&A...571A...1P 2989:1987ARA&A..25..425T 2878:, Elsevier, p. 6, 2806:Timeline of spaceflight 2751:List of topics in space 2741:Absolute space and time 2701:relativistic velocities 2693:beam-powered propulsion 2642:reusable launch systems 2620:space-based solar power 2425:was sent into orbit on 2372:Human presence in space 1687:stellar nucleosynthesis 1518:Moon's orbital distance 1466:gravitational potential 1277:sub-orbital spaceflight 1271:To achieve an orbit, a 887:vapor pressure of water 768:extravehicular activity 700:Davis–Greenstein effect 572:, as it contains a few 480:—to conditions in vast 342:Emmeline Stuart-Wortley 208:was established by the 131:plasma between galaxies 54:Webb's First Deep Field 11614:Outer space portal 11456:Circumstellar envelope 10421:Aluminium(I) hydroxide 10331:Phosphorus mononitride 10208:Aluminium monofluoride 10203:Aluminium monochloride 10137:Outer space portal 9529:Webb, Stephen (1999), 9495:United States (2016), 9458:Conceptual revolutions 9456:Thagard, Paul (1992), 8860:Optical interferometry 8857:Hariharan, P. (2003), 8817:Grant, Edward (1981), 8759:Genz, Henning (2001), 8741:Gatti, Hilary (2002), 8602:Dickson, Paul (2010), 8272:10.1021/acsami.1c02145 7672:, NASA, archived from 6972:"Intergalactic medium" 6650:10.1098/rsta.2001.0889 6338:, NASA, archived from 6311:"Interplanetary space" 5167:, NASA, archived from 3795:, NASA, archived from 2728:Photonic metamaterials 2646:non-rocket spacelaunch 2623: 2585:Hubble Space Telescope 2570:stratospheric balloons 2543:. They allow relay of 2533: 2399: 2197:constructed the first 2190: 2159:Evangelista Torricelli 2153:The Italian scientist 2118:nature abhors a vacuum 1824: 1706:can hold 10–10 per m. 1658: 1603:microwave spectroscopy 1555: 1528: 1433:, ranging from beyond 1426: 1395:Earth's magnetic field 1353: 1314:Regions near the Earth 1212:anti-satellite weapons 1174: 1065:high-altitude balloons 1052: 1025:gastrointestinal tract 990:spaceflight osteopenia 941:decompression sickness 836: 774:fumes, resulting from 624:(IUPAC) definition of 537: 414: 350:Alexander von Humboldt 226:anti-satellite weapons 145:per cubic metre and a 57: 11511:Interplanetary medium 11486:Extraterrestrial life 11124:Octatetraynyl radical 10742:Tricarbon monosulfide 10289:Magnesium monohydride 9769:Extraterrestrial life 8783:, Allied Publishers, 8777:Ghosh, S. N. (2000), 8641:Ellery, Alex (2000), 8439:Barbieri, C. (2006), 8348:Nature Communications 8244:Ma, Hongchen (2021), 7698:Space Science Reviews 7676:on September 23, 2008 7308:Physiology (Bethesda) 7101:Space Science Reviews 6487:Space Science Reviews 4428:10.1089/ast.2011.0772 4370:10.1089/ast.2011.0744 4320:10.1089/ast.2010.0588 4181:, p. 11-217. 3859:Astrophysical Journal 3086:Aerospace Engineering 2617: 2519: 2393: 2187:Magdeburg hemispheres 2184: 1818: 1641: 1545: 1538:Interplanetary medium 1526: 1481:path its orbital and 1420: 1351: 1335:artificial satellites 1165: 1124:to derive sufficient 1108:, established by the 1050: 994:cardiovascular system 974:space motion sickness 830: 514: 438:shape of the universe 400: 333:, published in 1667. 271:. On the other hand, 51: 11638:Chemistry portal 11626:Astronomy portal 11572:RNA world hypothesis 11556:PAH world hypothesis 11249:Heptatrienyl radical 11181:Buckminsterfullerene 11069:Methylcyanoacetylene 10577:Silicon carbonitride 10552:Methylidynephosphane 10518:Magnesium isocyanide 10426:Aluminium isocyanide 10228:Carbon monophosphide 9475:Tyson, Neil deGrasse 9245:Early Modern Science 7801:, pp. 7, 68–69. 5952:"Geomagnetic Storms" 5722:, The Space Review, 5353:on December 15, 2008 5095:10.1029/2008JA013757 3921:Frontiers in Physics 3840:10.2151/jmsj.85b.193 3744:Astrophysics of Dust 3527:Astronomical Journal 3314:Cambridge Dictionary 2969:Trimble, V. (1987), 2601:far side of the Moon 2396:first image of Earth 2332:Charles É. Guillaume 2325:continuous expansion 2317:"Big Bang" cosmology 2108:History of discovery 1870:regions around Earth 1848:intergalactic medium 1844:galactic filamentary 1793:and the astropause. 1532:Interplanetary space 1499:temporary satellites 1435:geosynchronous orbit 1331:geostationary orbits 910:pulmonary barotrauma 846:Arabidopsis thaliana 760:to space travelers. 712:Magneto-hydrodynamic 228:have been tested in 214:national sovereignty 120:background radiation 38:For other uses, see 11516:Interstellar medium 11496:Forbidden mechanism 11309:Hydrogen isocyanide 10999:Hexatriynyl radical 10582:c-Silicon dicarbide 10487:Hydrogen isocyanide 10351:Silicon monosulfide 10326:Phosphorus monoxide 10294:Methylidyne radical 10253:Fluoromethylidynium 10213:Aluminium(II) oxide 9385:2007gitu.book.....S 8969:2008spp..book.....K 8935:2001PhT....54j..69H 8725:2005asli.symp...21F 8672:2011sswh.book..341F 8541:"Mariner 2 Mock-up" 8469:1973NASSP3006.....P 8322:2018Ene...152...27Z 8256:(16): 19282–19290, 8212:2022REne..194..129Y 8181:1990QJRAS..31..377C 8134:2006JSpRo..43..696B 8091:2011IJAsB..10..307F 7972:2001ESASP.496..277M 7949:2001ESABu.105...60L 7741:, pp. 209–224. 7710:1972SSRv...13..199P 7588:1931Natur.127..706L 7561:, pp. 114–115. 7509:1988PASP..100....6C 7461:, pp. 206–209. 7449:, pp. 357–365. 7377:, pp. 127–128. 7353:, pp. 267–268. 7229:2001ApJ...546..100M 7176:2009ApJS..182..378W 7123:2008SSRv..134..141B 7076:2006MNRAS.373.1265O 7023:2010ApJ...714.1715F 6918:1992MNRAS.257..135J 6820:2012Sci...336.1291M 6793:2006ASPC..352...79R 6732:2006PNAS..10312232K 6726:(33): 12232–12234, 6685:1990ApJ...365..544B 6642:2001RSPTA.359.1949W 6603:2001RvMP...73.1031F 6499:1994SSRv...69..215J 6454:1990pihl.book..207L 6431:2004IAUS..213..275F 6374:2017nova.pres.2992K 6130:2012Icar..218..262G 6052:1995geph.conf....1Y 5899:1986SciAm.254c..40H 5887:Scientific American 5863:, pp. 341–345. 5765:1999STIN...9941786P 5674:, p. 363, 379. 5171:on October 27, 2011 5138:2018AcAau.151..668M 5086:2009JGRA..114.4306S 5047:Edge of Space Found 4933:Science and Society 4903:1989AdSpR...9c.293C 4830:10.1503/cmaj.090628 4794:, pp. 270–271. 4612:(6375): 1408–1410, 4505:, pp. 188–189. 4459:2010LPICo1538.5272N 4420:2012AsBio..12..498W 4362:2012AsBio..12..517T 4312:2011AsBio..11..281R 4225:, Popular Science, 4138:2011RvMP...83..907L 4079:2010gama.conf...67W 4046:1988ApJ...325..442W 3980:2009ApJ...707..916F 3933:2014FrP.....2...30Y 3897:, pp. 195–196. 3871:1948ApJ...107....6S 3831:2007JMeSJ..85B.193F 3799:on October 15, 2011 3762:2004ASPC..309...33F 3653:1968PASJ...20..230T 3586:2003RvMP...75..559P 3539:1984AJ.....89.1461K 3487:, pp. 329–330. 3447:, pp. 105–308. 3416:2009SciAm.301c..36T 3404:Scientific American 3173:Stuart Wortley 1841 3053:, pp. 650–653. 2944:2010AAS...21631808G 2660:Interstellar travel 2632:space manufacturing 2235:luminiferous aether 2095:Observable Universe 1953:interstellar medium 1860:intracluster medium 1807:Intracluster medium 1797:Intergalactic space 1771:peculiar velocities 1711:number of molecules 1675:interstellar medium 1627:Interstellar medium 1491:horseshoe librators 1470:sphere of influence 1266:North American X-15 1118:Theodore von Kármán 1042:observable universe 1009:acute health hazard 742:subatomic particles 719:elliptical galaxies 566:intergalactic space 487:orders of magnitude 427:recombination epoch 387:Formation and state 358:Theodore von Kármán 273:uncrewed spacecraft 218:explore outer space 175:observable universe 147:kinetic temperature 81:near-perfect vacuum 18:Intergalactic space 11536:Molecules in stars 11506:Intergalactic dust 11451:Circumstellar dust 11393:Naphthalene cation 11328:Trihydrogen cation 11304:Hydrogen deuteride 11229:Methyltriacetylene 11064:Hexapentaenylidene 10883:E-Cyanomethanimine 10803:Cyclopropenylidene 10737:Tricarbon monoxide 10727:Silicon tricarbide 10697:Methylene amidogen 10687:Isothiocyanic acid 10602:Thioxoethenylidene 10562:Trihydrogen cation 10376:Titanium(II) oxide 10336:Potassium chloride 10315:Sulfur mononitride 10258:Helium hydride ion 10233:Carbon monosulfide 10052:Other technologies 9083:Maor, Eli (1991), 8413:10.1039/D2TC00318J 7718:10.1007/BF00175313 7686:TIMETAG 003:42:55. 7621:Big Bang Cosmology 7413:, pp. 97–107. 7401:, pp. 99–104. 6507:10.1007/BF02101697 6299:, pp. 12–149. 6156:United States Code 5875:, pp. 32, 42. 5544:"Earth Fact Sheet" 4755:Aerospace Medicine 3855:Spitzer, Lyman Jr. 3711:on 7 December 2013 3240:Astronomy Magazine 2776:Space and survival 2624: 2593:infrared telescope 2553:weather conditions 2549:precise navigation 2534: 2484:interstellar space 2400: 2280:of just 0.31 2259:frame of reference 2255:special relativity 2191: 1903:Near-Earth objects 1899:Inner Solar System 1825: 1811:Intergalactic dust 1728:trihydrogen cation 1659: 1649:of the young star 1633:Interstellar Space 1621:Interstellar space 1556: 1529: 1487:Near-Earth Objects 1427: 1399:Geomagnetic storms 1354: 1225:Bogotá Declaration 1179:Outer Space Treaty 1175: 1053: 1027:. On a round-trip 968:for life in Earth 899:Harry G. Armstrong 837: 630:radiation pressure 548:, allowing stars, 538: 464:, which is called 415: 407:inflationary epoch 210:Outer Space Treaty 69:Earth's atmosphere 58: 11646: 11645: 11561:Pseudo-panspermia 11257: 11256: 11204:Cyanodecapentayne 11144:N-Methylformamide 11119:Methyldiacetylene 11044:Aminoacetonitrile 11014:Methyl isocyanate 10932:Methyl isocyanide 10813:Isocyanoacetylene 10793:Cyanoformaldehyde 10672:Hydrogen peroxide 10557:Potassium cyanide 10513:Magnesium cyanide 10466:Disilicon carbide 10461:Dicarbon monoxide 10268:Hydrogen fluoride 10263:Hydrogen chloride 10144: 10143: 10122: 10121: 10031:Carbonated drinks 10003:Human spaceflight 9883:of items in space 9794: 9793: 9602:978-1-4899-1225-1 9580:978-0-313-35680-3 9560:978-0-86341-553-1 9540:978-1-85233-106-1 9488:978-0-393-05992-2 9467:978-0-691-02490-5 9449:978-0-691-11711-9 9412:978-0-471-29335-4 9394:978-0-521-85593-8 9365:978-0-8050-7256-3 9344:978-0-521-11294-9 9329:Siscoe, George L. 9320:978-1-4398-4163-1 9300:978-3-540-78822-5 9274:978-0-521-65937-6 9254:978-0-521-57244-6 9236:978-0-19-974807-5 9216:978-0-677-04000-4 9190:978-0-16-050631-4 9170:978-0-521-30430-6 9152:978-1-4200-8431-3 9132:978-0-521-31536-4 9114:978-0-7923-7089-5 9094:978-0-691-02511-7 9076:978-0-8493-0595-5 9056:978-1-118-50214-3 9036:978-3-540-29692-8 9016:978-3-642-00310-3 8986:978-1-4020-6769-3 8952:978-0-8135-2908-0 8943:10.1063/1.1420555 8910:978-0-520-23677-6 8890:978-0-387-77639-2 8870:978-0-12-311630-7 8850:978-1-4262-0321-3 8830:978-0-521-22983-8 8810:978-0-387-23671-1 8790:978-81-7764-043-4 8770:978-0-7382-0610-3 8763:, Da Capo Press, 8752:978-0-8014-8785-9 8734:978-0-521-82490-3 8707:978-0-7167-8694-8 8689:978-90-481-9786-6 8654:978-1-85233-164-1 8634:978-3-527-40513-8 8615:978-0-8018-9504-3 8595:978-0-7817-7466-6 8574:978-0-520-03247-7 8556:978-0-06-089781-9 8549:, HarperCollins, 8532:978-0-12-167250-8 8489:978-0-08-045875-5 8452:978-0-7503-0886-1 8407:(27): 9915–9937, 7981:978-92-9092-806-5 7844:, pp. 97–99. 7777:, pp. 89–90. 7753:, pp. 60–63. 7485:, pp. 71–73. 7365:, pp. 64–66. 7296:, pp. 82–87. 6708:, pp. 72–81. 6471:978-3-642-75363-3 6071:on April 26, 2012 6061:978-0-87590-851-9 5574:, pp. 47–48. 5257:on April 27, 2011 5230:on March 22, 2018 5165:Human Spaceflight 5116:Acta Astronautica 4939:(11): 1013–1016, 4864:Radiation Effects 4861:Kennedy, Ann R., 4824:(13): 1317–1323, 4806:, pp. 15–48. 4096:978-1-4419-7317-7 3197:Harper, Douglas, 3185:Von Humboldt 1845 2885:978-0-444-59874-5 2875:Vacuum Technology 2872:Roth, A. (2012), 2720:thermal radiation 2716:longwave infrared 2504:Earth observation 2386:Human spaceflight 2368:Space exploration 2310:Henrietta Leavitt 2306:cepheid variables 2195:Otto von Guericke 1967:Star associations 1951:and neighbouring 1917:Solar System 1885:Earth-Moon System 1791:termination shock 1584:astronomical unit 1431:high Earth orbits 1412:geomagnetic poles 1309:Location of Earth 1095:atmospheric entry 858:Bacillus subtilis 852:Nicotiana tabacum 702:causes elongated 626:standard pressure 568:is not devoid of 562:initial formation 499:Space environment 360:used the term of 303:that causes both 285:human exploration 141:of less than one 83:of predominantly 79:, constituting a 16:(Redirected from 11739: 11699: 11698: 11697: 11687: 11686: 11685: 11675: 11674: 11663: 11662: 11661: 11654: 11636: 11635: 11634: 11624: 11623: 11622: 11612: 11611: 11610: 11599: 11598: 11546:Organic compound 11446:Chemical formula 11351:Dihydroxyacetone 11299:Hydrogen cyanide 10984:Cyanodiacetylene 10838:Propadienylidene 10732:Thioformaldehyde 10607:Titanium dioxide 10572:Sodium hydroxide 10493:Hydrogen sulfide 10481:Hydrogen cyanide 10441:Carbonyl sulfide 10406: 10397: 10388: 10346:Silicon monoxide 10279:Hydroxyl radical 10191: 10190: 10171: 10164: 10157: 10148: 10147: 10135: 10134: 10133: 9999: 9998: 9802: 9657: 9656: 9639: 9632: 9625: 9616: 9615: 9605: 9583: 9563: 9543: 9525: 9524: 9502: 9491: 9470: 9452: 9432: 9415: 9397: 9373:Sparke, Linda S. 9368: 9347: 9323: 9303: 9283: 9282: 9281: 9257: 9239: 9219: 9199: 9198: 9197: 9173: 9155: 9135: 9117: 9097: 9079: 9059: 9039: 9019: 8999: 8990: 8955: 8913: 8893: 8873: 8853: 8833: 8813: 8793: 8773: 8755: 8737: 8710: 8692: 8657: 8637: 8619: 8598: 8577: 8559: 8535: 8515: 8505: 8501: 8492: 8472: 8455: 8425: 8424: 8392: 8386: 8385: 8371: 8343: 8337: 8336: 8301: 8295: 8294: 8265: 8241: 8235: 8234: 8200:Renewable Energy 8191: 8185: 8184: 8164: 8158: 8152: 8146: 8145: 8117: 8111: 8110: 8084: 8064: 8058: 8057: 8051: 8043: 8041: 8040: 8034: 8027: 8016: 8010: 8009: 8007: 8006: 7992: 7986: 7985: 7959: 7953: 7952: 7942: 7940:astro-ph/0103288 7922: 7916: 7915: 7910:, NASA, 12-428, 7901: 7895: 7894: 7892: 7891: 7876: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7866: 7859:Space Foundation 7851: 7845: 7839: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7828: 7808: 7802: 7796: 7790: 7784: 7778: 7772: 7766: 7760: 7754: 7748: 7742: 7736: 7730: 7729: 7693: 7687: 7685: 7683: 7681: 7661: 7655: 7654: 7642: 7633: 7632: 7630: 7629: 7616: 7610: 7609: 7599: 7597:10.1038/127706b0 7568: 7562: 7556: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7546: 7529: 7523: 7522: 7520: 7492: 7486: 7480: 7474: 7468: 7462: 7456: 7450: 7444: 7438: 7432: 7426: 7420: 7414: 7408: 7402: 7396: 7390: 7384: 7378: 7372: 7366: 7360: 7354: 7348: 7342: 7341: 7331: 7303: 7297: 7291: 7285: 7279: 7273: 7267: 7261: 7255: 7249: 7248: 7222: 7220:astro-ph/0004309 7202: 7196: 7195: 7169: 7149: 7143: 7142: 7116: 7107:(1–4): 141–153, 7096: 7090: 7089: 7087: 7069: 7067:astro-ph/0605651 7060:(4): 1265–1292, 7049: 7043: 7042: 7016: 6996: 6987: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6968: 6962: 6961: 6959: 6958: 6938: 6932: 6931: 6929: 6899: 6893: 6887: 6881: 6880: 6878: 6877: 6859: 6850: 6849: 6831: 6814:(6086): 1291–3, 6803: 6797: 6796: 6786: 6784:astro-ph/0601117 6770: 6764: 6763: 6753: 6743: 6715: 6709: 6703: 6697: 6696: 6668: 6662: 6661: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6596: 6594:astro-ph/0106359 6587:(4): 1031–1066, 6576: 6567: 6566: 6564: 6563: 6548: 6542: 6541: 6525: 6519: 6518: 6493:(3–4): 215–253, 6482: 6476: 6475: 6441: 6435: 6434: 6418: 6412: 6411: 6409: 6407: 6390: 6384: 6383: 6381: 6380: 6357: 6351: 6350: 6348: 6347: 6329: 6323: 6322: 6306: 6300: 6297:Papagiannis 1972 6294: 6285: 6284: 6282: 6281: 6266: 6261: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6250: 6238: 6237: 6231: 6221: 6215: 6214: 6212: 6211: 6198: 6192: 6186: 6180: 6174: 6168: 6167: 6165: 6163: 6148: 6142: 6141: 6123: 6103: 6097: 6091: 6085: 6079: 6077: 6076: 6070: 6064:, archived from 6045: 6034: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6023: 6012:"Why We Explore" 6008: 6002: 6001: 5999: 5998: 5992:Breaking Defense 5983: 5977: 5976: 5974: 5973: 5967: 5956: 5948: 5942: 5936: 5930: 5924: 5918: 5917: 5882: 5876: 5870: 5864: 5858: 5852: 5846: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5836: 5830: 5823: 5812: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5802: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5773: 5767:, archived from 5750: 5741: 5735: 5734: 5732: 5731: 5713: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5684: 5675: 5669: 5660: 5659: 5657: 5655: 5648:uscode.house.gov 5640: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5625: 5607: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5594: 5581: 5575: 5569: 5563: 5562: 5560: 5559: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5530: 5529: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5502: 5501: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5478: 5477: 5457: 5451: 5450: 5448: 5447: 5432: 5426: 5425: 5423: 5422: 5413:, archived from 5398: 5392: 5391: 5389: 5388: 5368: 5362: 5361: 5359: 5358: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5332: 5331: 5322:, archived from 5311: 5305: 5299: 5293: 5292: 5290: 5289: 5272: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5236: 5235: 5229: 5222: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5201: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5176: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5131: 5111: 5100: 5099: 5097: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5060: 5059: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5031: 5025: 5015: 5009: 5003: 4997: 4996: 4994: 4993: 4978: 4967: 4966: 4956: 4928: 4922: 4921: 4886: 4880: 4879: 4877: 4876: 4858: 4852: 4851: 4841: 4813: 4807: 4801: 4795: 4789: 4783: 4777: 4771: 4770: 4750: 4744: 4743: 4741: 4740: 4735:on July 21, 2009 4722: 4716: 4715:, pp. 1–34. 4710: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4700: 4694: 4688:, archived from 4655: 4646: 4640: 4639: 4629: 4601: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4585: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4565: 4564: 4554: 4543: 4537: 4536: 4534: 4533: 4512: 4506: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4491: 4490: 4469: 4463: 4462: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4402: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4392: 4386: 4347: 4338: 4332: 4331: 4295: 4289: 4288: 4286: 4285: 4270: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4260: 4245: 4239: 4238: 4236: 4234: 4216: 4210: 4209: 4207: 4205: 4188: 4182: 4176: 4170: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4131: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4064: 4058: 4057: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4020: 4019: 4006: 4000: 3999: 3973: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3916: 3910: 3909:, p. 28–30. 3904: 3898: 3892: 3883: 3882: 3851: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3804: 3784: 3778: 3775:Chamberlain 1978 3772: 3766: 3765: 3755: 3753:astro-ph/0401344 3739: 3733: 3727: 3721: 3720: 3718: 3716: 3710: 3704:, archived from 3703: 3692: 3686: 3680: 3674: 3672: 3667:atomic mass unit 3660: 3656: 3636: 3630: 3629: 3627: 3625: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3579: 3577:astro-ph/0207347 3559: 3553: 3552: 3550: 3522: 3516: 3515: 3513: 3512: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3454: 3448: 3442: 3436: 3435: 3399: 3390: 3389: 3363: 3343: 3337: 3331: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3321: 3306: 3300: 3299: 3297: 3296: 3281: 3275: 3274: 3272: 3271: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3247: 3246: 3231: 3218: 3217: 3215: 3214: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3140:Milton Quarterly 3135: 3129: 3128: 3126: 3125: 3107: 3101: 3100: 3098: 3097: 3078: 3069: 3063: 3054: 3048: 3042: 3041: 3036: 3034: 3015: 3009: 3008: 2966: 2960: 2954: 2948: 2947: 2927: 2918: 2917: 2915: 2914: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2869: 2863: 2862: 2843: 2842: 2828: 2791:Space technology 2714:. This enhances 2665:Daedalus Project 2512:Space habitation 2336:Arthur Eddington 2321:Georges Lemaître 2298:Andromeda Galaxy 2270:Friedrich Bessel 2210:Nicolaus Cusanus 2091: 2079:Laniakea SCl in 2076: 2058: 2040: 2028: 2013: 2001: 1989:Orion-Cygnus Arm 1985:Molecular clouds 1981: 1963: 1945: 1931: 1913: 1895: 1881: 1723:molecular clouds 1704:molecular clouds 1691:planetary nebula 1489:(NEOs), such as 1361:upper atmosphere 1327: 1326: 1325:Near-Earth space 1279:along an arcing 1244:Geocentric orbit 1126:aerodynamic lift 1122:orbital velocity 1099:atmospheric drag 1023:, lungs and the 1017:white blood cell 947:if not managed. 925:partial pressure 823:Animals in space 780:molecular clouds 681:Boomerang Nebula 638:dynamic pressure 616: 560:, following the 523:, including the 507:Space weathering 450:spatial geometry 436:The present day 401:Timeline of the 241:Andromeda galaxy 73:celestial bodies 43: 36: 21: 11747: 11746: 11742: 11741: 11740: 11738: 11737: 11736: 11707: 11706: 11705: 11695: 11693: 11683: 11681: 11669: 11659: 11657: 11649: 11647: 11642: 11632: 11630: 11620: 11618: 11608: 11606: 11586: 11412: 11388: 11379: 11332: 11322: 11265: 11253: 11234:Propionaldehyde 11209:Ethylene glycol 11198: 11190: 11186: 11157: 11155: 11148: 11104:Cyanohexatriyne 11090: 11083: 11030: 11023: 10958: 10951: 10911: 10864: 10857: 10828:Methoxy radical 10758: 10751: 10747:Thiocyanic acid 10628: 10621: 10531: 10471:Ethynyl radical 10407: 10401: 10400: 10399: 10398: 10392: 10391: 10390: 10389: 10380: 10371:Sulfur monoxide 10356:Sodium chloride 10341:Silicon carbide 10248:Diatomic carbon 10238:Carbon monoxide 10180: 10175: 10145: 10140: 10131: 10129: 10118: 10047: 9988: 9853: 9803: 9790: 9715: 9648: 9643: 9613: 9608: 9603: 9581: 9561: 9541: 9489: 9468: 9450: 9413: 9395: 9366: 9345: 9321: 9301: 9279: 9277: 9275: 9255: 9237: 9217: 9195: 9193: 9191: 9171: 9153: 9133: 9115: 9095: 9077: 9057: 9037: 9017: 8987: 8953: 8911: 8891: 8871: 8851: 8831: 8811: 8791: 8771: 8753: 8735: 8708: 8690: 8655: 8635: 8616: 8596: 8575: 8557: 8533: 8503: 8490: 8453: 8434: 8429: 8428: 8393: 8389: 8344: 8340: 8302: 8298: 8242: 8238: 8192: 8188: 8165: 8161: 8153: 8149: 8142:10.2514/1.16244 8118: 8114: 8065: 8061: 8045: 8044: 8038: 8036: 8032: 8025: 8017: 8013: 8004: 8002: 7993: 7989: 7982: 7960: 7956: 7923: 7919: 7902: 7898: 7889: 7887: 7885:Washington Post 7877: 7873: 7864: 7862: 7853: 7852: 7848: 7840: 7836: 7826: 7824: 7809: 7805: 7797: 7793: 7785: 7781: 7773: 7769: 7761: 7757: 7749: 7745: 7737: 7733: 7694: 7690: 7679: 7677: 7662: 7658: 7643: 7636: 7627: 7625: 7618: 7617: 7613: 7569: 7565: 7557: 7553: 7544: 7542: 7531: 7530: 7526: 7493: 7489: 7481: 7477: 7469: 7465: 7457: 7453: 7445: 7441: 7433: 7429: 7421: 7417: 7409: 7405: 7397: 7393: 7385: 7381: 7373: 7369: 7361: 7357: 7349: 7345: 7304: 7300: 7292: 7288: 7280: 7276: 7268: 7264: 7256: 7252: 7203: 7199: 7150: 7146: 7097: 7093: 7050: 7046: 6997: 6990: 6981: 6979: 6970: 6969: 6965: 6956: 6954: 6939: 6935: 6900: 6896: 6888: 6884: 6875: 6873: 6860: 6853: 6804: 6800: 6771: 6767: 6716: 6712: 6704: 6700: 6669: 6665: 6630: 6626: 6577: 6570: 6561: 6559: 6549: 6545: 6526: 6522: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6448:, p. 207, 6442: 6438: 6419: 6415: 6405: 6403: 6391: 6387: 6378: 6376: 6358: 6354: 6345: 6343: 6330: 6326: 6307: 6303: 6295: 6288: 6279: 6277: 6273:Moon Fact Sheet 6268: 6265:384,400 km 6264: 6262: 6258: 6248: 6246: 6235: 6233: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6218: 6209: 6207: 6200: 6199: 6195: 6189:Williamson 2006 6187: 6183: 6175: 6171: 6161: 6159: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6104: 6100: 6092: 6088: 6074: 6072: 6068: 6062: 6043: 6035: 6031: 6021: 6019: 6018:, June 13, 2013 6010: 6009: 6005: 5996: 5994: 5984: 5980: 5971: 5969: 5965: 5954: 5950: 5949: 5945: 5937: 5933: 5925: 5921: 5883: 5879: 5871: 5867: 5859: 5855: 5847: 5843: 5834: 5832: 5828: 5821: 5813: 5809: 5800: 5798: 5791: 5790: 5786: 5777: 5775: 5771: 5748: 5742: 5738: 5729: 5727: 5714: 5707: 5697: 5695: 5685: 5678: 5670: 5663: 5653: 5651: 5642: 5641: 5632: 5623: 5621: 5608: 5601: 5592: 5590: 5583: 5582: 5578: 5570: 5566: 5557: 5555: 5540: 5536: 5527: 5525: 5512: 5508: 5499: 5497: 5493:X-15 Walkaround 5488: 5484: 5475: 5473: 5458: 5454: 5445: 5443: 5434: 5433: 5429: 5420: 5418: 5399: 5395: 5386: 5384: 5369: 5365: 5356: 5354: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5329: 5327: 5312: 5308: 5300: 5296: 5287: 5285: 5274: 5273: 5269: 5260: 5258: 5247: 5246: 5242: 5233: 5231: 5227: 5220: 5214: 5213: 5209: 5199: 5197: 5187: 5183: 5174: 5172: 5157: 5153: 5112: 5103: 5070: 5066: 5057: 5055: 5042: 5038: 5029: 5027: 5023: 5017: 5016: 5012: 5004: 5000: 4991: 4989: 4979: 4970: 4929: 4925: 4897:(10): 293–298, 4887: 4883: 4874: 4872: 4859: 4855: 4814: 4810: 4802: 4798: 4790: 4786: 4778: 4774: 4751: 4747: 4738: 4736: 4723: 4719: 4711: 4707: 4698: 4696: 4692: 4653: 4647: 4643: 4602: 4598: 4589: 4587: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4562: 4560: 4552: 4544: 4540: 4531: 4529: 4513: 4509: 4503:Piantadosi 2003 4501: 4497: 4488: 4486: 4470: 4466: 4447: 4443: 4403: 4399: 4390: 4388: 4384: 4345: 4339: 4335: 4296: 4292: 4283: 4281: 4271: 4267: 4258: 4256: 4247: 4246: 4242: 4232: 4230: 4217: 4213: 4203: 4201: 4190: 4189: 4185: 4177: 4173: 4165: 4161: 4112: 4108: 4097: 4065: 4061: 4030: 4026: 4017: 4015: 4008: 4007: 4003: 3954: 3950: 3917: 3913: 3905: 3901: 3893: 3886: 3852: 3848: 3815: 3811: 3802: 3800: 3785: 3781: 3773: 3769: 3740: 3736: 3728: 3724: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3701: 3693: 3689: 3681: 3677: 3670: 3658: 3637: 3633: 3623: 3621: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3560: 3556: 3523: 3519: 3510: 3508: 3495: 3491: 3483: 3479: 3469: 3467: 3456: 3455: 3451: 3443: 3439: 3400: 3393: 3344: 3340: 3332: 3328: 3319: 3317: 3308: 3307: 3303: 3294: 3292: 3283: 3282: 3278: 3269: 3267: 3264:Merriam-Webster 3258: 3257: 3253: 3244: 3242: 3232: 3221: 3212: 3210: 3195: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3136: 3132: 3123: 3121: 3108: 3104: 3095: 3093: 3080: 3079: 3072: 3064: 3057: 3049: 3045: 3032: 3030: 3017: 3016: 3012: 2967: 2963: 2955: 2951: 2928: 2921: 2912: 2910: 2897: 2893: 2886: 2870: 2866: 2856: 2851: 2846: 2840: 2838: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2756:Olbers' paradox 2736: 2724:infrared window 2654:space elevators 2628:asteroid mining 2605:radio telescope 2603:could shield a 2597:Daedalus crater 2514: 2492: 2388: 2374: 2366:Main articles: 2364: 2251:Albert Einstein 2227:William Gilbert 2155:Galileo Galilei 2116:suggested that 2110: 2105: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2101: 2092: 2084: 2083: 2077: 2069: 2068: 2059: 2051: 2050: 2041: 2033: 2032: 2029: 2021: 2020: 2014: 2006: 2005: 2002: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1982: 1974: 1973: 1964: 1956: 1955: 1946: 1938: 1937: 1932: 1924: 1923: 1914: 1906: 1905: 1896: 1888: 1887: 1882: 1873: 1872: 1813: 1801:Main articles: 1799: 1732:carbon monoxide 1719:radio astronomy 1671:stellar systems 1636: 1629: 1623: 1552:solar radiation 1548:comet Hale–Bopp 1540: 1534: 1479:Earth's orbital 1459:Lagrange points 1443:transfer orbits 1345:on satellites. 1339:space pollution 1324: 1323: 1316: 1311: 1305: 1289:escape velocity 1262:low Earth orbit 1250: 1242:Main articles: 1240: 1191:nuclear weapons 1160: 1154: 1076:sounding rocket 1069:Astronaut wings 1045: 1038: 998:red blood cells 963: 955:Main articles: 953: 882: 876: 863:lithopanspermia 825: 819:Plants in space 807: 805:Bioastronautics 795:Main articles: 793: 788: 765:low Earth orbit 675:.) The current 614: 613:drops to about 589:, which is the 509: 497:Main articles: 495: 395: 389: 317: 265:low Earth orbit 245:balloon flights 149:of millions of 114:. The baseline 108:magnetic fields 94:, permeated by 44: 37: 30: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 11745: 11735: 11734: 11729: 11724: 11719: 11704: 11703: 11691: 11679: 11667: 11644: 11643: 11641: 11640: 11628: 11616: 11604: 11591: 11588: 11587: 11585: 11584: 11579: 11574: 11569: 11563: 11558: 11553: 11548: 11543: 11538: 11533: 11528: 11523: 11518: 11513: 11508: 11503: 11498: 11493: 11488: 11483: 11478: 11473: 11471:Cosmochemistry 11468: 11463: 11458: 11453: 11448: 11443: 11438: 11436:Astrochemistry 11433: 11428: 11422: 11420: 11414: 11413: 11411: 11410: 11405: 11400: 11395: 11390: 11386: 11382: 11377: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11342: 11340: 11334: 11333: 11331: 11330: 11325: 11320: 11316: 11311: 11306: 11301: 11296: 11291: 11289:Formyl radical 11286: 11281: 11275: 11269: 11267: 11259: 11258: 11255: 11254: 11252: 11251: 11246: 11241: 11236: 11231: 11226: 11221: 11219:Methyl acetate 11216: 11211: 11206: 11201: 11196: 11192: 11188: 11184: 11178: 11173: 11168: 11162: 11160: 11150: 11149: 11147: 11146: 11141: 11136: 11131: 11126: 11121: 11116: 11111: 11109:Dimethyl ether 11106: 11101: 11095: 11093: 11085: 11084: 11082: 11081: 11076: 11074:Methyl formate 11071: 11066: 11061: 11059:Glycolaldehyde 11056: 11051: 11046: 11041: 11035: 11033: 11025: 11024: 11022: 11021: 11016: 11011: 11006: 11001: 10996: 10994:Glycolonitrile 10991: 10989:Ethylene oxide 10986: 10981: 10980: 10979: 10969: 10963: 10961: 10953: 10952: 10950: 10949: 10944: 10939: 10934: 10929: 10924: 10919: 10914: 10909: 10905: 10900: 10895: 10890: 10888:Cyclopropenone 10885: 10880: 10875: 10869: 10867: 10859: 10858: 10856: 10855: 10850: 10845: 10840: 10835: 10830: 10825: 10820: 10815: 10810: 10805: 10800: 10795: 10790: 10788:Cyanoacetylene 10785: 10780: 10775: 10770: 10763: 10761: 10753: 10752: 10750: 10749: 10744: 10739: 10734: 10729: 10724: 10719: 10714: 10709: 10707:Methyl radical 10704: 10699: 10694: 10689: 10684: 10682:Isocyanic acid 10679: 10674: 10669: 10664: 10659: 10654: 10649: 10647:Isocyanic acid 10644: 10639: 10633: 10631: 10623: 10622: 10620: 10619: 10614: 10609: 10604: 10599: 10594: 10592:Sulfur dioxide 10589: 10584: 10579: 10574: 10569: 10567:Sodium cyanide 10564: 10559: 10554: 10549: 10544: 10539: 10534: 10529: 10525: 10520: 10515: 10510: 10505: 10500: 10495: 10490: 10484: 10478: 10476:Formyl radical 10473: 10468: 10463: 10458: 10453: 10448: 10443: 10438: 10436:Carbon dioxide 10433: 10428: 10423: 10417: 10415: 10409: 10408: 10383: 10381: 10379: 10378: 10373: 10368: 10363: 10358: 10353: 10348: 10343: 10338: 10333: 10328: 10323: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10301: 10296: 10291: 10286: 10284:Iron(II) oxide 10281: 10276: 10270: 10265: 10260: 10255: 10250: 10245: 10240: 10235: 10230: 10225: 10220: 10215: 10210: 10205: 10199: 10197: 10188: 10182: 10181: 10174: 10173: 10166: 10159: 10151: 10142: 10141: 10127: 10124: 10123: 10120: 10119: 10117: 10116: 10111: 10106: 10101: 10100: 10099: 10098: 10097: 10095:for spacecraft 10092: 10084: 10079: 10071: 10066: 10061: 10055: 10053: 10049: 10048: 10046: 10045: 10040: 10035: 10034: 10033: 10023: 10018: 10013: 10007: 10005: 9996: 9990: 9989: 9987: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9971: 9966: 9961: 9960: 9959: 9949: 9944: 9939: 9934: 9929: 9924: 9919: 9918: 9917: 9912: 9902: 9897: 9892: 9887: 9886: 9885: 9880: 9872: 9867: 9861: 9859: 9855: 9854: 9852: 9851: 9850: 9849: 9839: 9834: 9829: 9824: 9819: 9813: 9811: 9805: 9804: 9797: 9795: 9792: 9791: 9789: 9788: 9787: 9786: 9776: 9774:Microorganisms 9771: 9766: 9765: 9764: 9759: 9754: 9749: 9744: 9739: 9734: 9723: 9721: 9717: 9716: 9714: 9713: 9708: 9703: 9702: 9701: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9676: 9671: 9669:The human body 9665: 9663: 9654: 9650: 9649: 9642: 9641: 9634: 9627: 9619: 9612: 9611:External links 9609: 9607: 9606: 9601: 9584: 9579: 9564: 9559: 9544: 9539: 9526: 9503: 9492: 9487: 9471: 9466: 9453: 9448: 9433: 9416: 9411: 9398: 9393: 9369: 9364: 9348: 9343: 9324: 9319: 9304: 9299: 9284: 9273: 9258: 9253: 9240: 9235: 9220: 9215: 9200: 9189: 9174: 9169: 9156: 9151: 9136: 9131: 9118: 9113: 9098: 9093: 9080: 9075: 9060: 9055: 9049:, John Wiley, 9040: 9035: 9020: 9015: 9000: 8991: 8985: 8956: 8951: 8914: 8909: 8894: 8889: 8874: 8869: 8854: 8849: 8834: 8829: 8814: 8809: 8794: 8789: 8774: 8769: 8756: 8751: 8738: 8733: 8711: 8706: 8693: 8688: 8658: 8653: 8638: 8633: 8620: 8614: 8599: 8594: 8579: 8573: 8560: 8555: 8536: 8531: 8516: 8507: 8493: 8488: 8473: 8471:, NASA SP-3006 8456: 8451: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8427: 8426: 8387: 8383:(λ ~ 8–13 μm). 8338: 8296: 8236: 8186: 8159: 8147: 8128:(3): 696–698, 8112: 8075:(4): 307–313, 8059: 8011: 7987: 7980: 7954: 7933:(105): 60–63, 7917: 7896: 7871: 7846: 7834: 7803: 7791: 7779: 7767: 7755: 7743: 7731: 7704:(2): 199–242, 7688: 7656: 7634: 7611: 7563: 7551: 7524: 7518:10.1086/132128 7487: 7475: 7473:, p. 195. 7463: 7451: 7439: 7435:Hariharan 2003 7427: 7425:, p. 356. 7415: 7403: 7391: 7379: 7367: 7355: 7343: 7298: 7286: 7274: 7262: 7250: 7237:10.1086/318249 7197: 7144: 7091: 7044: 6988: 6963: 6933: 6912:(1): 135–151, 6894: 6882: 6851: 6798: 6765: 6710: 6706:Rauchfuss 2008 6698: 6693:10.1086/169509 6663: 6624: 6568: 6543: 6520: 6477: 6470: 6436: 6413: 6385: 6352: 6324: 6315:Universe Today 6301: 6286: 6256: 6216: 6193: 6181: 6169: 6143: 6114:(1): 262–277, 6098: 6096:, p. 253. 6086: 6060: 6029: 6003: 5978: 5943: 5941:, p. 244. 5931: 5929:, p. 275. 5919: 5877: 5865: 5853: 5851:, p. 379. 5841: 5807: 5784: 5736: 5705: 5676: 5661: 5630: 5599: 5576: 5564: 5534: 5506: 5482: 5452: 5427: 5393: 5363: 5336: 5306: 5294: 5267: 5240: 5207: 5181: 5151: 5101: 5080:(A4): A04306, 5064: 5036: 5010: 4998: 4968: 4923: 4881: 4853: 4808: 4796: 4784: 4772: 4761:(4): 376–383, 4745: 4717: 4705: 4641: 4596: 4569: 4538: 4507: 4495: 4464: 4441: 4414:(5): 498–507, 4397: 4356:(5): 517–528, 4333: 4306:(4): 281–292, 4290: 4265: 4240: 4211: 4183: 4171: 4169:, p. 462. 4159: 4122:(3): 907–942, 4106: 4095: 4059: 4054:10.1086/166015 4024: 4001: 3964:(2): 916–920, 3948: 3911: 3899: 3884: 3879:10.1086/144984 3846: 3809: 3779: 3767: 3734: 3722: 3687: 3675: 3631: 3606: 3570:(2): 559–606, 3554: 3548:10.1086/113647 3517: 3489: 3477: 3449: 3437: 3391: 3338: 3336:, pp. 33. 3326: 3301: 3276: 3251: 3219: 3189: 3177: 3175:, p. 410. 3165: 3146:(3): 167–182, 3130: 3102: 3070: 3055: 3043: 3010: 2961: 2949: 2919: 2891: 2884: 2864: 2822: 2821: 2819: 2816: 2814: 2811: 2809: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2763: 2758: 2753: 2748: 2743: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2681:Alpha Centauri 2618:Concept for a 2566:climate change 2557:remote sensing 2491: 2488: 2439:William Anders 2363: 2360: 2243:speed of light 2215:Giordano Bruno 2136:René Descartes 2109: 2106: 2093: 2086: 2085: 2078: 2071: 2070: 2060: 2053: 2052: 2042: 2035: 2034: 2030: 2023: 2022: 2018:Milky Way 2015: 2008: 2007: 2003: 1996: 1995: 1994: 1983: 1976: 1975: 1965: 1958: 1957: 1947: 1940: 1939: 1933: 1926: 1925: 1915: 1908: 1907: 1897: 1890: 1889: 1883: 1876: 1875: 1874: 1867: 1866: 1865: 1864: 1798: 1795: 1751:constellations 1645:formed by the 1625:Main article: 1622: 1619: 1607:zodiacal light 1536:Main article: 1533: 1530: 1447:Cislunar space 1315: 1312: 1304: 1301: 1239: 1236: 1156:Main article: 1153: 1150: 1114:United Nations 1059:High-altitude 1037: 1034: 1021:nervous system 986:muscle atrophy 966:Humans evolved 957:Weightlessness 952: 949: 895:Armstrong line 878:Main article: 875: 872: 801:Space medicine 792: 789: 787: 784: 729:. Non-thermal 579:mean free path 574:hydrogen atoms 542:perfect vacuum 521:zodiacal light 494: 491: 473:energy density 421:which rapidly 391:Main article: 388: 385: 316: 313: 305:muscle atrophy 249:rocket flights 222:UN resolutions 139:number density 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11744: 11733: 11730: 11728: 11725: 11723: 11722:Space plasmas 11720: 11718: 11715: 11714: 11712: 11702: 11692: 11690: 11680: 11678: 11673: 11668: 11666: 11656: 11655: 11652: 11639: 11629: 11627: 11617: 11615: 11605: 11603: 11602: 11593: 11592: 11589: 11583: 11580: 11578: 11575: 11573: 11570: 11567: 11564: 11562: 11559: 11557: 11554: 11552: 11549: 11547: 11544: 11542: 11539: 11537: 11534: 11532: 11529: 11527: 11524: 11522: 11519: 11517: 11514: 11512: 11509: 11507: 11504: 11502: 11501:Homochirality 11499: 11497: 11494: 11492: 11489: 11487: 11484: 11482: 11479: 11477: 11474: 11472: 11469: 11467: 11464: 11462: 11459: 11457: 11454: 11452: 11449: 11447: 11444: 11442: 11439: 11437: 11434: 11432: 11429: 11427: 11424: 11423: 11421: 11419: 11415: 11409: 11406: 11404: 11401: 11399: 11396: 11394: 11391: 11389: 11383: 11381: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11356:Methoxyethane 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11343: 11341: 11339: 11335: 11329: 11326: 11324: 11317: 11315: 11312: 11310: 11307: 11305: 11302: 11300: 11297: 11295: 11292: 11290: 11287: 11285: 11282: 11279: 11276: 11274: 11271: 11270: 11268: 11264: 11260: 11250: 11247: 11245: 11242: 11240: 11239:Butyronitrile 11237: 11235: 11232: 11230: 11227: 11225: 11222: 11220: 11217: 11215: 11214:Ethyl formate 11212: 11210: 11207: 11205: 11202: 11200: 11193: 11182: 11179: 11177: 11174: 11172: 11169: 11167: 11164: 11163: 11161: 11159: 11151: 11145: 11142: 11140: 11139:Propionitrile 11137: 11135: 11132: 11130: 11127: 11125: 11122: 11120: 11117: 11115: 11112: 11110: 11107: 11105: 11102: 11100: 11097: 11096: 11094: 11092: 11086: 11080: 11077: 11075: 11072: 11070: 11067: 11065: 11062: 11060: 11057: 11055: 11052: 11050: 11047: 11045: 11042: 11040: 11037: 11036: 11034: 11032: 11026: 11020: 11019:Vinyl alcohol 11017: 11015: 11012: 11010: 11007: 11005: 11002: 11000: 10997: 10995: 10992: 10990: 10987: 10985: 10982: 10978: 10977:Vinyl cyanide 10975: 10974: 10973: 10972:Acrylonitrile 10970: 10968: 10965: 10964: 10962: 10960: 10954: 10948: 10945: 10943: 10940: 10938: 10937:Pentynylidyne 10935: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10925: 10923: 10920: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10906: 10904: 10901: 10899: 10896: 10894: 10891: 10889: 10886: 10884: 10881: 10879: 10876: 10874: 10871: 10870: 10868: 10866: 10860: 10854: 10851: 10849: 10846: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10834: 10833:Methylenimine 10831: 10829: 10826: 10824: 10821: 10819: 10816: 10814: 10811: 10809: 10806: 10804: 10801: 10799: 10796: 10794: 10791: 10789: 10786: 10784: 10781: 10779: 10776: 10774: 10771: 10768: 10765: 10764: 10762: 10760: 10754: 10748: 10745: 10743: 10740: 10738: 10735: 10733: 10730: 10728: 10725: 10723: 10720: 10718: 10715: 10713: 10712:Propynylidyne 10710: 10708: 10705: 10703: 10702:Methyl cation 10700: 10698: 10695: 10693: 10690: 10688: 10685: 10683: 10680: 10678: 10675: 10673: 10670: 10668: 10665: 10663: 10662:Fulminic acid 10660: 10658: 10655: 10653: 10650: 10648: 10645: 10643: 10640: 10638: 10635: 10634: 10632: 10630: 10624: 10618: 10615: 10613: 10610: 10608: 10605: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10568: 10565: 10563: 10560: 10558: 10555: 10553: 10550: 10548: 10545: 10543: 10540: 10538: 10537:Nitrous oxide 10535: 10533: 10526: 10524: 10521: 10519: 10516: 10514: 10511: 10509: 10506: 10504: 10501: 10499: 10496: 10494: 10491: 10488: 10485: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10432: 10431:Amino radical 10429: 10427: 10424: 10422: 10419: 10418: 10416: 10414: 10410: 10405: 10396: 10387: 10377: 10374: 10372: 10369: 10367: 10364: 10362: 10361:Sodium iodide 10359: 10357: 10354: 10352: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10342: 10339: 10337: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10324: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10305: 10302: 10300: 10297: 10295: 10292: 10290: 10287: 10285: 10282: 10280: 10277: 10274: 10271: 10269: 10266: 10264: 10261: 10259: 10256: 10254: 10251: 10249: 10246: 10244: 10243:Cyano radical 10241: 10239: 10236: 10234: 10231: 10229: 10226: 10224: 10223:Carbon cation 10221: 10219: 10216: 10214: 10211: 10209: 10206: 10204: 10201: 10200: 10198: 10196: 10192: 10189: 10187: 10183: 10179: 10172: 10167: 10165: 10160: 10158: 10153: 10152: 10149: 10139: 10138: 10125: 10115: 10112: 10110: 10107: 10105: 10102: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10087: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10078: 10075: 10074: 10072: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10064:Manufacturing 10062: 10060: 10057: 10056: 10054: 10050: 10044: 10041: 10039: 10036: 10032: 10029: 10028: 10027: 10024: 10022: 10019: 10017: 10014: 10012: 10009: 10008: 10006: 10004: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9991: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9962: 9958: 9955: 9954: 9953: 9950: 9948: 9945: 9943: 9940: 9938: 9935: 9933: 9930: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9916: 9913: 9911: 9908: 9907: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9896: 9893: 9891: 9888: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9875: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9862: 9860: 9856: 9848: 9845: 9844: 9843: 9840: 9838: 9837:Magnetosphere 9835: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9814: 9812: 9810: 9806: 9801: 9785: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9753: 9750: 9748: 9745: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9735: 9733: 9730: 9729: 9728: 9725: 9724: 9722: 9718: 9712: 9709: 9707: 9704: 9700: 9697: 9696: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9675: 9672: 9670: 9667: 9666: 9664: 9662: 9658: 9655: 9651: 9647: 9640: 9635: 9633: 9628: 9626: 9621: 9620: 9617: 9604: 9598: 9594: 9590: 9585: 9582: 9576: 9572: 9571: 9565: 9562: 9556: 9552: 9551: 9545: 9542: 9536: 9532: 9527: 9523: 9518: 9514: 9513: 9508: 9504: 9500: 9499: 9493: 9490: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9472: 9469: 9463: 9459: 9454: 9451: 9445: 9441: 9440: 9434: 9431: 9427: 9426: 9421: 9417: 9414: 9408: 9404: 9399: 9396: 9390: 9386: 9382: 9378: 9374: 9370: 9367: 9361: 9357: 9353: 9349: 9346: 9340: 9336: 9335: 9330: 9325: 9322: 9316: 9313:, CRC Press, 9312: 9311: 9305: 9302: 9296: 9292: 9291: 9285: 9276: 9270: 9266: 9265: 9259: 9256: 9250: 9246: 9241: 9238: 9232: 9228: 9227: 9221: 9218: 9212: 9208: 9207: 9201: 9192: 9186: 9182: 9181: 9175: 9172: 9166: 9162: 9157: 9154: 9148: 9144: 9143: 9137: 9134: 9128: 9124: 9119: 9116: 9110: 9106: 9105: 9099: 9096: 9090: 9086: 9081: 9078: 9072: 9068: 9067: 9061: 9058: 9052: 9048: 9047: 9041: 9038: 9032: 9028: 9027: 9021: 9018: 9012: 9008: 9007: 9001: 8997: 8992: 8988: 8982: 8978: 8974: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8957: 8954: 8948: 8944: 8940: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8924: 8923:Physics Today 8920: 8915: 8912: 8906: 8902: 8901: 8895: 8892: 8886: 8882: 8881: 8875: 8872: 8866: 8862: 8861: 8855: 8852: 8846: 8842: 8841: 8835: 8832: 8826: 8822: 8821: 8815: 8812: 8806: 8802: 8801: 8795: 8792: 8786: 8782: 8781: 8775: 8772: 8766: 8762: 8757: 8754: 8748: 8744: 8739: 8736: 8730: 8726: 8722: 8718: 8712: 8709: 8703: 8699: 8694: 8691: 8685: 8681: 8677: 8673: 8669: 8665: 8659: 8656: 8650: 8646: 8645: 8639: 8636: 8630: 8627:, Wiley-VCH, 8626: 8621: 8617: 8611: 8607: 8606: 8600: 8597: 8591: 8587: 8586: 8580: 8576: 8570: 8566: 8561: 8558: 8552: 8548: 8547: 8542: 8537: 8534: 8528: 8524: 8523: 8517: 8513: 8508: 8499: 8494: 8491: 8485: 8481: 8480: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8457: 8454: 8448: 8444: 8443: 8437: 8436: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8391: 8384: 8379: 8375: 8370: 8365: 8361: 8357: 8353: 8349: 8342: 8335: 8331: 8327: 8323: 8319: 8315: 8311: 8307: 8300: 8293: 8289: 8285: 8281: 8277: 8273: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8240: 8233: 8229: 8225: 8221: 8217: 8213: 8209: 8205: 8201: 8197: 8190: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8163: 8157:, p. xv. 8156: 8155:Bolonkin 2010 8151: 8143: 8139: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8116: 8108: 8104: 8100: 8096: 8092: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8074: 8070: 8063: 8055: 8049: 8035:on 2011-07-06 8031: 8024: 8023: 8015: 8000: 7999: 7991: 7983: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7965: 7958: 7950: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7932: 7928: 7921: 7913: 7909: 7908: 7900: 7886: 7882: 7875: 7860: 7856: 7850: 7843: 7838: 7822: 7819:, Space.com, 7818: 7814: 7807: 7800: 7795: 7789:, p. 86. 7788: 7783: 7776: 7771: 7764: 7759: 7752: 7751:Harrison 2002 7747: 7740: 7735: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7692: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7660: 7652: 7648: 7641: 7639: 7623: 7622: 7615: 7607: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7589: 7585: 7582:(3210): 706, 7581: 7577: 7573: 7567: 7560: 7555: 7540: 7536: 7535: 7528: 7519: 7514: 7510: 7506: 7502: 7498: 7491: 7484: 7479: 7472: 7467: 7460: 7455: 7448: 7443: 7436: 7431: 7424: 7419: 7412: 7407: 7400: 7395: 7389:, p. 22. 7388: 7383: 7376: 7371: 7364: 7359: 7352: 7347: 7339: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7321: 7317: 7313: 7309: 7302: 7295: 7290: 7283: 7278: 7272:, p. 27. 7271: 7266: 7260:, p. 10. 7259: 7254: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7201: 7193: 7189: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7148: 7140: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7106: 7102: 7095: 7086: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7048: 7040: 7036: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6995: 6993: 6977: 6973: 6967: 6952: 6948: 6944: 6937: 6928: 6923: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6906: 6898: 6892:, p. 67. 6891: 6886: 6871: 6867: 6866: 6858: 6856: 6847: 6843: 6839: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6809: 6802: 6794: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6776: 6769: 6761: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6721: 6714: 6707: 6702: 6694: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6667: 6659: 6655: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6628: 6620: 6616: 6612: 6608: 6604: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6586: 6582: 6575: 6573: 6558: 6554: 6547: 6539: 6535: 6531: 6524: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6488: 6481: 6473: 6467: 6463: 6459: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6440: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6417: 6402: 6401: 6396: 6389: 6375: 6371: 6367: 6363: 6356: 6342:on 2009-10-14 6341: 6337: 6336: 6328: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6305: 6298: 6293: 6291: 6275: 6274: 6260: 6253: 6244: 6228: 6227: 6220: 6206: 6205: 6197: 6191:, p. 97. 6190: 6185: 6179:, p. 57. 6178: 6173: 6157: 6153: 6147: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6102: 6095: 6094:Barbieri 2006 6090: 6083: 6067: 6063: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6042: 6041: 6033: 6017: 6013: 6007: 5993: 5989: 5982: 5964: 5960: 5953: 5947: 5940: 5935: 5928: 5927:Mendillo 2000 5923: 5916: 5912: 5908: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5881: 5874: 5873:Koskinen 2010 5869: 5862: 5857: 5850: 5845: 5827: 5820: 5819: 5811: 5796: 5795: 5794:Photo Gallery 5788: 5774:on 2000-09-01 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5747: 5740: 5725: 5721: 5720: 5712: 5710: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5681: 5673: 5668: 5666: 5649: 5645: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5619: 5615: 5614: 5606: 5604: 5588: 5587: 5580: 5573: 5568: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5538: 5524:on 2017-08-29 5523: 5519: 5518: 5510: 5495: 5494: 5486: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5456: 5441: 5437: 5431: 5417:on 2011-09-27 5416: 5412: 5408: 5404: 5397: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5352: 5348: 5347: 5340: 5326:on 2019-03-28 5325: 5321: 5317: 5310: 5303: 5298: 5283: 5279: 5278: 5271: 5256: 5252: 5251: 5244: 5226: 5219: 5218: 5211: 5196: 5192: 5185: 5170: 5166: 5162: 5155: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5096: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5079: 5075: 5068: 5053: 5050:, space.com, 5049: 5048: 5040: 5022: 5021: 5014: 5008:, p. 16. 5007: 5002: 4988: 4984: 4977: 4975: 4973: 4964: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4946: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4927: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4885: 4870: 4866: 4865: 4857: 4849: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4805: 4800: 4793: 4788: 4782:, p. 68. 4781: 4776: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4749: 4734: 4730: 4729: 4721: 4714: 4713:Billings 1973 4709: 4695:on 2012-04-26 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4652: 4645: 4637: 4633: 4628: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4582: 4581: 4573: 4558: 4551: 4550: 4542: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4519: 4511: 4504: 4499: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4476: 4468: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4445: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4401: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4344: 4337: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4254: 4250: 4244: 4228: 4224: 4223: 4215: 4199: 4195: 4194: 4187: 4180: 4175: 4168: 4163: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4110: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4071: 4063: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4028: 4013: 4012: 4005: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3952: 3943: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3908: 3903: 3896: 3895:Prialnik 2000 3891: 3889: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3850: 3841: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3821:, Series II, 3820: 3813: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3783: 3776: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3754: 3749: 3745: 3738: 3732:, p. 93. 3731: 3726: 3707: 3700: 3699: 3691: 3684: 3679: 3668: 3664: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3635: 3620: 3616: 3610: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3578: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3558: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3533:: 1461–1463, 3532: 3528: 3521: 3506: 3502: 3501: 3493: 3486: 3481: 3465: 3461: 3460: 3453: 3446: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3398: 3396: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3362: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3342: 3335: 3330: 3315: 3311: 3305: 3290: 3286: 3280: 3265: 3261: 3255: 3241: 3237: 3230: 3228: 3226: 3224: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3187:, p. 39. 3186: 3181: 3174: 3169: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3119: 3115: 3114: 3106: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3077: 3075: 3068:, p. 84. 3067: 3062: 3060: 3052: 3047: 3040: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2977: 2972: 2965: 2958: 2953: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2926: 2924: 2908: 2904: 2903: 2895: 2887: 2881: 2877: 2876: 2868: 2861: 2859: 2854: 2849: 2837: 2833: 2827: 2823: 2807: 2804: 2802: 2799: 2797: 2794: 2792: 2789: 2787: 2786:Space station 2784: 2782: 2779: 2777: 2774: 2772: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2759: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2747: 2744: 2742: 2739: 2738: 2731: 2729: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2704: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2621: 2616: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2541:space economy 2537: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2496:Space science 2487: 2485: 2481: 2480: 2475: 2474:minor planets 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2458: 2453: 2452: 2446: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2407: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2373: 2369: 2359: 2357: 2353: 2352:Robert Herman 2349: 2345: 2341: 2340:Erich Regener 2337: 2333: 2328: 2326: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2266:Thomas Digges 2262: 2260: 2256: 2253:'s theory of 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2188: 2185:The original 2183: 2179: 2176: 2172: 2171:Blaise Pascal 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2151: 2148: 2144: 2143:ancient China 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2124: 2119: 2115: 2100: 2096: 2090: 2082: 2075: 2067: 2063: 2057: 2049: 2045: 2039: 2027: 2019: 2012: 2000: 1990: 1986: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1962: 1954: 1950: 1944: 1936: 1935:Nearest stars 1930: 1922: 1918: 1912: 1904: 1900: 1894: 1886: 1880: 1871: 1863: 1861: 1857: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1794: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1735: 1733: 1729: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1707: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1682: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1667:stellar winds 1664: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1647:magnetosphere 1644: 1640: 1634: 1628: 1618: 1615: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1591:atomic nuclei 1589: 1585: 1580: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1553: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1495:Earth trojans 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1462: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1424: 1419: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1389: 1385: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1365:magnetosphere 1362: 1358: 1350: 1346: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1328: 1320: 1310: 1300: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1249: 1248:Orbital decay 1245: 1235: 1233: 1228: 1226: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1199: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1173: 1169: 1164: 1159: 1149: 1145: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1091:Space Shuttle 1088: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1072: 1070: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1049: 1043: 1033: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1005: 1003: 1002:immune system 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 980:, headaches, 979: 975: 971: 967: 962: 958: 948: 946: 945:gas embolisms 942: 938: 937:pressure suit 933: 931: 926: 922: 917: 915: 911: 907: 902: 900: 896: 892: 888: 881: 871: 869: 868:microorganism 864: 860: 859: 854: 853: 848: 847: 842: 834: 829: 824: 820: 816: 812: 806: 802: 798: 783: 781: 777: 773: 769: 766: 761: 759: 758:health threat 755: 751: 747: 743: 738: 736: 732: 731:radio sources 728: 724: 720: 717: 714:processes in 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 688: 686: 682: 678: 674: 670: 666: 662: 658: 653: 651: 650:space weather 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 612: 607: 602: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 575: 571: 567: 563: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 536: 532: 531: 526: 522: 518: 513: 508: 504: 503:Space weather 500: 490: 488: 483: 479: 474: 469: 467: 463: 462:vacuum energy 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 434: 432: 428: 424: 420: 412: 408: 404: 399: 394: 384: 382: 378: 373: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 338:outward space 334: 332: 331: 330:Paradise Lost 326: 322: 312: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 233: 231: 227: 223: 219: 215: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 186: 184: 180: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 152: 148: 144: 143:hydrogen atom 140: 136: 132: 127: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 55: 50: 46: 41: 34: 19: 11727:Environments 11701:Solar System 11594: 11577:Spectroscopy 11550: 11431:Astrobiology 11284:Formaldehyde 11176:Benzonitrile 10967:Acetaldehyde 10922:Methanethiol 10873:Acetonitrile 10778:Carbodiimide 10657:Formaldehyde 10652:Cyanoethynyl 10503:Iron cyanide 10498:Hydroperoxyl 10299:Nitric oxide 10128: 10016:Architecture 9900:Colonization 9874:Archaeology 9689:Neuroscience 9646:... in space 9592: 9569: 9549: 9533:, Springer, 9530: 9511: 9497: 9478: 9457: 9438: 9429: 9424: 9402: 9376: 9356:The Big Bang 9355: 9352:Silk, Joseph 9333: 9309: 9289: 9278:, retrieved 9263: 9244: 9225: 9205: 9194:, retrieved 9179: 9160: 9141: 9122: 9103: 9084: 9065: 9045: 9025: 9005: 8995: 8960: 8926: 8922: 8899: 8879: 8859: 8839: 8819: 8799: 8779: 8760: 8742: 8716: 8697: 8663: 8643: 8624: 8604: 8584: 8564: 8545: 8521: 8511: 8497: 8482:, Elsevier, 8478: 8460: 8441: 8404: 8400: 8390: 8381: 8354:(365): 365, 8351: 8347: 8341: 8333: 8313: 8309: 8299: 8291: 8253: 8249: 8239: 8231: 8203: 8199: 8189: 8172: 8168: 8162: 8150: 8125: 8121: 8115: 8072: 8068: 8062: 8037:, retrieved 8030:the original 8021: 8014: 8003:, retrieved 7997: 7990: 7963: 7957: 7930: 7927:ESA Bulletin 7926: 7920: 7906: 7899: 7888:, retrieved 7884: 7874: 7863:, retrieved 7861:, 2023-07-25 7858: 7849: 7837: 7827:13 September 7825:, retrieved 7816: 7806: 7794: 7787:Collins 2007 7782: 7770: 7758: 7746: 7739:O'Leary 2009 7734: 7701: 7697: 7691: 7678:, retrieved 7674:the original 7669: 7659: 7650: 7646: 7626:, retrieved 7620: 7614: 7579: 7575: 7572:Lemaître, G. 7566: 7554: 7543:, retrieved 7533: 7527: 7500: 7496: 7490: 7478: 7466: 7459:Thagard 1992 7454: 7442: 7437:, p. 2. 7430: 7418: 7406: 7394: 7382: 7370: 7358: 7346: 7314:(2): 66–73, 7311: 7307: 7301: 7289: 7284:, p. 5. 7277: 7265: 7253: 7210: 7206: 7200: 7157: 7153: 7147: 7104: 7100: 7094: 7057: 7053: 7047: 7004: 7000: 6980:, retrieved 6978:, 2022-06-16 6975: 6966: 6955:, retrieved 6946: 6936: 6909: 6903: 6897: 6890:Wszolek 2013 6885: 6874:, retrieved 6864: 6811: 6807: 6801: 6774: 6768: 6723: 6719: 6713: 6701: 6676: 6672: 6666: 6633: 6627: 6584: 6580: 6560:. Retrieved 6556: 6546: 6536:, 2013-278, 6533: 6523: 6490: 6486: 6480: 6445: 6439: 6422: 6416: 6404:, retrieved 6398: 6388: 6377:, retrieved 6365: 6355: 6344:, retrieved 6340:the original 6334: 6327: 6314: 6304: 6278:, retrieved 6272: 6259: 6242: 6240: 6234:, retrieved 6225: 6219: 6208:, retrieved 6203: 6196: 6184: 6177:Dickson 2010 6172: 6160:, retrieved 6155: 6146: 6111: 6107: 6101: 6089: 6073:, retrieved 6066:the original 6039: 6032: 6022:December 17, 6020:, retrieved 6015: 6006: 5995:, retrieved 5991: 5981: 5970:, retrieved 5958: 5946: 5939:Goodman 2006 5934: 5922: 5893:(3): 40–47, 5890: 5886: 5880: 5868: 5856: 5844: 5833:, retrieved 5817: 5810: 5799:, retrieved 5793: 5787: 5776:, retrieved 5769:the original 5759:, NASA: 13, 5756: 5752: 5739: 5728:, retrieved 5718: 5696:, retrieved 5692: 5654:December 17, 5652:, retrieved 5647: 5622:, retrieved 5612: 5591:, retrieved 5585: 5579: 5567: 5556:, retrieved 5547: 5537: 5526:, retrieved 5522:the original 5516: 5509: 5498:, retrieved 5492: 5485: 5474:, retrieved 5466:Space Future 5465: 5455: 5444:, retrieved 5442:, 2023-03-09 5439: 5430: 5419:, retrieved 5415:the original 5410: 5406: 5396: 5385:, retrieved 5376: 5366: 5355:, retrieved 5351:the original 5345: 5339: 5328:, retrieved 5324:the original 5319: 5309: 5304:, p. 4. 5297: 5286:, retrieved 5276: 5270: 5259:, retrieved 5255:the original 5249: 5243: 5232:, retrieved 5225:the original 5216: 5210: 5198:, retrieved 5194: 5184: 5173:, retrieved 5169:the original 5164: 5154: 5119: 5115: 5077: 5073: 5067: 5056:, retrieved 5046: 5039: 5028:, retrieved 5019: 5013: 5001: 4990:. Retrieved 4986: 4936: 4932: 4926: 4894: 4890: 4884: 4873:, retrieved 4863: 4856: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4799: 4787: 4775: 4758: 4754: 4748: 4737:, retrieved 4733:the original 4727: 4720: 4708: 4697:, retrieved 4690:the original 4664:(1): 85–91, 4661: 4657: 4644: 4609: 4605: 4599: 4588:, retrieved 4579: 4572: 4561:, retrieved 4548: 4541: 4530:, retrieved 4517: 4510: 4498: 4487:, retrieved 4474: 4467: 4450: 4444: 4411: 4408:Astrobiology 4407: 4400: 4389:, retrieved 4353: 4350:Astrobiology 4349: 4336: 4303: 4300:Astrobiology 4299: 4293: 4282:. Retrieved 4278: 4268: 4257:. Retrieved 4255:. 2023-08-03 4252: 4243: 4233:February 19, 4231:, retrieved 4221: 4214: 4204:February 19, 4202:, retrieved 4192: 4186: 4174: 4162: 4119: 4115: 4109: 4069: 4062: 4037: 4033: 4027: 4016:, retrieved 4010: 4004: 3961: 3957: 3951: 3924: 3920: 3914: 3907:Spitzer 1978 3902: 3862: 3858: 3849: 3822: 3818: 3812: 3801:, retrieved 3797:the original 3792: 3782: 3777:, p. 2. 3770: 3743: 3737: 3725: 3715:13 September 3713:, retrieved 3706:the original 3697: 3690: 3678: 3644: 3640: 3634: 3622:, retrieved 3618: 3615:"False Dawn" 3609: 3567: 3563: 3557: 3530: 3526: 3520: 3509:, retrieved 3499: 3492: 3480: 3468:, retrieved 3458: 3452: 3440: 3410:(3): 36–43, 3407: 3403: 3351: 3347: 3341: 3329: 3318:, retrieved 3313: 3304: 3293:, retrieved 3291:, 2022-05-17 3288: 3279: 3268:, retrieved 3266:, 2022-05-17 3263: 3254: 3243:. Retrieved 3239: 3211:, retrieved 3202: 3192: 3180: 3168: 3143: 3139: 3133: 3122:, retrieved 3112: 3105: 3094:, retrieved 3085: 3066:O'Leary 2009 3046: 3038: 3031:, retrieved 3023:NASA Science 3022: 3013: 2980: 2974: 2964: 2952: 2935: 2931: 2911:, retrieved 2901: 2894: 2874: 2867: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2845: 2839:, retrieved 2835: 2826: 2705: 2658: 2625: 2578: 2562:surveillance 2538: 2535: 2477: 2455: 2449: 2447: 2431:Frank Borman 2423:Yuri Gagarin 2404: 2401: 2378:Astronautics 2348:Ralph Alpher 2329: 2314: 2302:Edwin Hubble 2290:Heber Curtis 2263: 2232: 2219:heliocentric 2207: 2203:horror vacui 2202: 2192: 2167:air pressure 2152: 2140: 2123:horror vacui 2121: 2117: 2111: 2066:Laniakea SCl 1971:Local Bubble 1852: 1837: 1833:cosmic voids 1826: 1821:cosmic voids 1768: 1763:astrospheres 1743:Local Bubble 1736: 1708: 1683: 1665:, formed by 1663:astrospheres 1660: 1655:Orion Nebula 1611: 1581: 1560:Solar System 1557: 1508: 1507: 1463: 1451:lunar orbits 1446: 1428: 1392: 1384:heliophysics 1381: 1373:magnetopause 1356: 1355: 1322: 1321: 1317: 1293: 1270: 1251: 1232:space debris 1229: 1221: 1200: 1182: 1176: 1172:space debris 1168:SM-3 missile 1152:Legal status 1146: 1141: 1138:astronautics 1130:aerodynamics 1103: 1080: 1073: 1058: 1054: 1006: 964: 961:Radiobiology 934: 918: 903: 883: 856: 850: 844: 838: 811:Astrobiology 786:Human access 762: 739: 708:polarization 689: 685:solar corona 654: 646:thermosphere 603: 539: 528: 527:(edges) and 524: 470: 435: 416: 374: 361: 356:after 1901. 345: 337: 335: 328: 320: 318: 297:Microgravity 281:Solar System 257:Soviet Union 253:Yuri Gagarin 237:air pressure 234: 198:stratosphere 187: 167:star systems 128: 71:and between 64: 60: 59: 45: 11717:Outer space 11689:Spaceflight 11551:Outer space 11461:Cosmic dust 11426:Abiogenesis 11338:Unconfirmed 11294:Heavy water 11134:Ethanethiol 11049:Cyanoallene 11039:Acetic acid 11009:Methylamine 10893:Diacetylene 10808:Formic acid 10798:Cyanomethyl 10456:Diazenylium 10446:CCP radical 10322:(molecular) 10306:(molecular) 10275:(molecular) 9927:Exploration 9865:Advertising 9809:Environment 9784:Astrobotany 9747:Fruit flies 8206:: 129–136, 8175:: 377–400, 7842:Razani 2012 7799:Harris 2008 7763:Orloff 2001 7680:October 29, 7653:(3): 79–87. 7363:Cajori 1917 7282:Eckert 2006 7007:(2): 1715, 6679:: 544–558, 6400:EurekAlert! 6082:mean radius 5122:: 668–677, 4780:Ellery 2000 4040:: 442–467, 3825:: 193–213, 3730:Davies 1977 3671:1.66 × 10 g 3663:Local Group 3659:7 × 10 g/cm 3624:14 February 3619:www.eso.org 3334:Liddle 2015 2983:: 425–472, 2848:Outer space 2685:light sails 2528:of Earth's 2490:Application 2406:Explorer II 2382:Spaceflight 2362:Exploration 2344:cosmic rays 2292:noted that 2288:. In 1917, 2286:light years 2247:null result 2199:vacuum pump 2175:Puy de Dôme 2128:ontological 2048:Local Group 1781:and NASA's 1699:shock waves 1697:propagates 1568:heliosphere 1503:quasi-moons 1474:Hill sphere 1388:magnetotail 1258:centrifugal 1254:centripetal 1238:Earth orbit 1216:Moon Treaty 1183:outer space 1106:Kármán line 1013:cosmic rays 815:Astrobotany 772:arc welding 727:radio lobes 704:dust grains 671:called the 606:atmospheres 530:gegenschein 493:Environment 478:black holes 466:dark energy 411:accelerates 381:space-based 354:H. G. Wells 346:outer space 325:John Milton 315:Terminology 261:spaceflight 230:Earth orbit 190:Kármán line 183:dark energy 179:dark matter 171:mass-energy 116:temperature 100:cosmic rays 63:(or simply 61:Outer space 11711:Categories 11466:Cosmic ray 11408:Silylidyne 11371:Hemolithin 11346:Anthracene 11263:Deuterated 11244:Pyrimidine 11054:Ethanimine 10917:Ketenimine 10773:Butadiynyl 10597:Thioformyl 10451:Chloronium 10109:Telescopes 9994:Technology 9847:Weathering 9694:Psychology 9679:Locomotion 9280:2015-03-26 9196:2008-01-28 8263:2103.03902 8039:2010-01-12 8005:2024-05-29 7890:2024-04-24 7865:2024-04-24 7628:2024-04-24 7545:2011-09-12 7411:Kelly 1965 7399:Gatti 2002 7258:Grant 1981 7213:(1): 100, 7160:(1): 378, 6982:2024-04-16 6957:2009-06-19 6876:2012-05-14 6562:2024-01-30 6379:2019-01-31 6346:2009-10-20 6280:2023-09-23 6251:10 km 6243:deep space 6236:2018-02-05 6210:2018-01-15 6162:January 5, 6075:2011-12-31 5997:2022-12-17 5972:2012-04-07 5835:2012-04-15 5801:2024-04-27 5778:2012-05-05 5730:2016-02-10 5698:8 December 5624:2011-12-31 5593:2024-04-29 5572:Ghosh 2000 5558:2012-05-10 5528:2012-01-21 5500:2009-06-19 5476:2012-03-18 5446:2024-04-24 5421:2011-10-14 5387:2011-10-14 5357:2009-12-30 5330:2019-03-28 5288:2009-12-30 5261:2009-12-30 5234:2018-03-22 5195:The Nation 5175:2011-12-16 5129:1807.07894 5058:2009-06-19 5030:2022-12-18 4992:2024-04-30 4875:2011-12-16 4739:2009-06-19 4699:2011-12-16 4590:2022-12-20 4563:2011-12-23 4532:2022-12-18 4518:Barotrauma 4489:2024-04-25 4391:2013-05-19 4284:2024-09-18 4259:2024-09-18 4018:2020-10-07 3803:2011-10-23 3511:2011-10-14 3320:2024-04-28 3295:2022-05-18 3270:2022-05-18 3245:2024-04-30 3213:2008-03-24 3124:2009-06-19 3096:2015-11-10 2913:2013-04-27 2841:2024-06-17 2813:References 2781:Space race 2766:Panspermia 2697:antimatter 2530:ionosphere 2494:See also: 2435:Jim Lovell 2419:R-7 rocket 2411:A-4 rocket 2376:See also: 2282:arcseconds 2147:Zhang Heng 2132:Parmenides 1921:Oort cloud 1775:bow shocks 1679:astropause 1651:LL Orionis 1576:heliopause 1509:Deep space 1505:to Earth. 1483:co-orbital 1377:ionosphere 1307:See also: 1281:trajectory 1273:spacecraft 1142:free space 1063:, such as 833:space suit 809:See also: 677:black body 642:solar wind 595:scattering 591:absorption 587:extinction 525:false dawn 377:Spaceborne 362:free space 301:physiology 202:mesosphere 11665:Astronomy 11398:Phosphine 11266:molecules 11199:fullerene 11099:Acetamide 10903:Formamide 10783:Cyanamide 10637:Acetylene 10612:Tricarbon 10523:Methylene 10508:Isoformyl 10413:Triatomic 10186:Molecules 10090:for Earth 10077:Batteries 10059:Logistics 10011:Accidents 9957:Christmas 9822:Corrosion 9762:Tortoises 9720:Non-human 8421:249695930 8288:232147880 8228:248972097 8107:119111392 8082:1103.5369 7726:120710485 7483:Webb 1999 7471:Maor 1991 7375:Genz 2001 7192:119247429 7167:0903.2259 7114:0801.1008 7014:1001.3692 6846:206540880 6557:Space.com 6515:121800711 6121:1112.3781 5693:Space.com 5377:Space Law 5200:6 October 4987:The Verge 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