Integral fast reactor

777:) includes an intermediate liquid-metal coolant loop between the reactor and the steam turbines. The purpose of this loop is to ensure that any explosion following the accidental mixing of sodium and turbine water would be limited to the secondary heat exchanger and not pose a risk to the reactor itself. Alternative designs use lead instead of sodium as the primary coolant. The disadvantages of lead are its higher density and viscosity, which increases pumping costs, and radioactive activation products resulting from neutron absorption. A lead-bismuth 2355:; alternatively, if operated as a breeder reactor, some of the pyroprocessed fuel could be consumed by the reactor (or other reactors located elsewhere). However, as is the case with conventional aqueous reprocessing, it would remain possible to chemically extract all the plutonium isotopes from the pyroprocessed fuel. In fact, it would be much easier to do so from the recycled product than from the original spent fuel. However, doing so would still be more difficult when compared to another conventional recycled nuclear fuel, 762:. Most LWRs also have negative reactivity coefficients; however, in an IFR, this effect is strong enough to stop the reactor from reaching core damage without external action from operators or safety systems. This was demonstrated in a series of safety tests on the prototype. Pete Planchon, the engineer who conducted the tests for an international audience, quipped "Back in 1986, we actually gave a small prototype advanced fast reactor a couple of chances to melt down. It politely refused both times." 4767: 4757: 4737: 471: 710:, and the fission products are eventually converted to glass and metal blocks for safer disposal. Because the combined transuranium elements and the fission products are highly radioactive, fuel-rod transfer and reprocessing operations use robotic or remote-controlled equipment. An additional claimed benefit of this is that since fissile material never leaves the facility (and would be lethal to handle if it did), this greatly reduces the 2599: 413: 4747: 372: 3294:"The isotopic analyses disclosed a species of mass 248 in constant abundance in three samples analysed over a period of about 10 months. This was ascribed to an isomer of Bk with a half-life greater than 9 . No growth of Cf was detected, and a lower limit for the β half-life can be set at about 10 . No alpha activity attributable to the new isomer has been detected; the alpha half-life is probably greater than 300 ." 2585: 2197: 2189: 1119: 162: 20: 2219:

however, the melting fuel is then extruded up the steel fuel cladding tubes and out of the active core region leading to permanent reactor shutdown and no further fission heat generation or fuel melting. With metal fuel, the cladding is not breached and no radioactivity is released even in extreme overpower transients.

189:(EBR-II). In the meantime, physicists at Argonne designed the IFR concept, and it was decided that the EBR-II would be converted to an IFR. Charles Till, a Canadian physicist from Argonne, was the head of the IFR project, and Yoon Chang was the deputy head. Till was positioned in Idaho, while Chang was in Illinois. 631:, decreasing fuel requirements by nearly two orders of magnitude compared to traditional once-through reactors, which extract less than 0.65% of the energy in mined uranium, and less than 5% of the enriched uranium with which they are fueled. This could greatly dampen concern about fuel supply or energy used in 2149:. The amount of fissile material needed could be a limiting factor to very widespread deployment of fast reactors if stocks of surplus weapons plutonium and LWR spent fuel plutonium are not sufficient. To maximize the rate at which fast reactors can be deployed, they can be operated in maximum breeding mode. 612:, are complementary and produce a fuel cycle that is proliferation-resistant and efficient in fuel usage, and a reactor with a high level of inherent safety, while minimizing the production of high-level waste. The practicality of these decisions has been demonstrated over many years of operation of EBR-II. 2572:

in a 1995 accident and fire. Reactions with water produce hydrogen which can be explosive. The sodium activation product (isotope) Na releases dangerous energetic photons when it decays (albeit having only short half-life of 15 hours). The reactor design keeps Na in the reactor pool and carries away

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does not separate out pure plutonium. Instead, it is left mixed with minor actinides and some rare earth fission products, which makes the theoretical ability to make a bomb directly out of it considerably dubious. Rather than being transported from a large centralized reprocessing plant to reactors

228:

IFR opponents also presented a report by the DOE's Office of Nuclear Safety regarding a former Argonne employee's allegations that Argonne had retaliated against him for raising concerns about safety, as well as about the quality of research done on the IFR program. The report received international

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from boiling of the water moderator/coolant; the less dense steam returns fewer and less-thermalized neutrons to the fuel, which are more likely to be captured by U-238 than induce fissions. However, the IFR's positive void coefficient could be reduced to an acceptable level by adding technetium to

2213:

generation from short-lived fission products and actinides is comparable in both cases, starting at a high level and decreasing with time elapsed after shutdown. The high volume of liquid sodium primary coolant in the pool configuration is designed to absorb decay heat without reaching fuel melting

2208:

used by LWRs (and even some fast breeder reactors), which is a poor conductor of heat and reaches high temperatures at the center of fuel pellets. The IFR also has a smaller volume of fuel, since the fissile material is diluted with fertile material by a ratio of 5 or less, compared to about 30 for

757:

are designed such that when they expand due to increased temperatures, more neutrons would be able to escape the core, thus reducing the rate of the fission chain reaction. In other words, an increase in the core temperature acts as a feedback mechanism that decreases the core power. This attribute

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Radioactivity and its associated dangers are roughly divided by an isotope's half-life. For example, given the 213,000-year half-life of technetium-99, combined with the IFR's 1/20 volume reduction, produces about 1/4,000,000 of the radiotoxicity of light-water reactor waste. The small size (about

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Like any fast reactor, by changing the material used in the blankets, the IFR can be operated over a spectrum from breeder to self-sufficient to burner. In breeder mode (using U-238 blankets) the reactor produces more fissile material than it consumes. This is useful for providing fissile material

350:(via dissolution) to common steels, and creates essentially no radioactive neutron activation byproducts. The disadvantage of sodium coolant, as opposed to lead coolant, is that sodium is chemically reactive, especially with water or air. Lead may be substituted for the eutectic alloy of lead and 2515:. The core must also be compact and contain the least amount of neutron-moderating material as possible. Metal sodium coolant in many ways has the most attractive combination of properties for this purpose. In addition to not being a neutron moderator, desirable physical characteristics include: 2218:

so they will coast down slowly (90 seconds) if power is removed. This coast-down further aids core cooling upon shutdown. If the primary cooling loop were to be somehow suddenly stopped, or if the control rods were suddenly removed, the metal fuel can melt, as accidentally demonstrated in EBR-I;

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The primary argument for pursuing IFR-style technology today is that it provides the best solution to the existing nuclear waste problem because fast reactors can be fueled from the waste products of existing reactors as well as from the plutonium used in weapons, as is the case in the operating

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actually have longer half-lives than the radioactive actinides. The concern about a waste cannot end after hundreds of years even if all the actinides are removed when the remaining waste contains radioactive fission products such as technetium-99, iodine-129, and cesium-135 with the half-lives

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rates, and the ratios of these troublesome isotopes (from a weapons manufacturing point of view) only increases as the fuel is burnt up for longer and longer, it is considerably more difficult to produce fission nuclear weapons of substantial yield from highly burnt up spent fuel than from

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Compared to current light-water reactors with a once-through fuel cycle that induces fission (and derives energy) from less than 1% of the uranium found in nature, a breeder reactor like the IFR has a very efficient fuel cycle (99.5% of uranium undergoes fission). The basic scheme uses

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The on-site reprocessing of fuel means that the volume of high-level nuclear waste leaving the plant is tiny compared to LWR spent fuel. In fact, in the U.S. most spent LWR fuel has remained in storage at the reactor site instead of being transported for reprocessing or placement in a

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Therefore, proliferation risks are considerably reduced with the IFR system by many metrics, but not entirely eliminated. The plutonium from advanced liquid metal reactor (ALMR) recycled fuel would have an isotopic composition similar to that obtained from other highly burnt up

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The waste products of IFR reactors either have a short half-life, which means that they decay quickly and become relatively safe, or a long half-life, which means that they are only slightly radioactive. Neither of the two forms of IFR waste produced contain plutonium or other

2137:

for starting up other plants. Using steel reflectors instead of U-238 blankets, the reactor operates in pure burner mode and is not a net creator of fissile material; on balance, it will consume fissile and fertile material and, assuming loss-free reprocessing, output no

341:

to be collected safely without significantly increasing pressure inside the fuel element, and also allows the fuel to expand without breaching the cladding, making metal rather than oxide fuel practical. The advantages of liquid sodium coolant, as opposed to liquid metal

2269:

The flammability of sodium is a risk to operators. Sodium burns easily in air and will ignite spontaneously on contact with water. The use of an intermediate coolant loop between the reactor and the turbines minimizes the risk of a sodium fire in the reactor core.

2709: 2133:; even these need not be completely removed. The electrorefined spent fuel is highly radioactive, but because new fuel need not be precisely fabricated like LWR fuel pellets but can simply be cast, remote fabrication can be used, reducing exposure to workers. 686:

could change the nuclear story fundamentally—potentially making the combination of 3rd and 4th generation plants a more attractive energy option than 3rd generation by itself would have been, both from the perspective of waste management and energy security.

2567:

Significant drawbacks to using sodium are its extreme fire hazardousness in the presence of any significant amounts of air (oxygen) and its spontaneous combustion with water, rendering sodium leaks and flooding dangerous. This was the case at the

2855:

Report of investigation into allegations of retaliation for raising safety and quality of work issues regarding Argonne National Laboratory's Integral Fast Reactor Project, Report Number DOE/NS-0005P, 1991 Dec 01 OSTI Identifier OSTI ID:

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and loss of heat sink without SCRAM. In addition to the passive shutdown of the reactor, the convection current generated in the primary coolant system will prevent fuel damage (core meltdown). These capabilities were demonstrated in the

2209:

LWR fuel. The IFR core requires more heat removal per core volume during operation than the LWR core; but on the other hand, after a shutdown, there is far less trapped heat that is still diffusing out and needs to be removed. However,

220:

Simultaneously, in 1994 Energy Secretary O'Leary awarded the lead IFR scientist with $ 10,000 and a gold medal, with the citation stating his work to develop IFR technology provided "improved safety, more efficient use of fuel and less

1236:

vessels. In its first few decades of use, before the MLFPs decay to lower levels of heat production, geological repository capacity is constrained not by volume but by heat generation. This limits early repository emplacement.

564:, a reasonably low melting point and a high boiling point, and excellent compatibility with other materials including structural materials and fuel. The high heat capacity of the coolant and the elimination of water from the 1244:

The potential complete removal of plutonium from the waste stream of the reactor reduces the concern that now exists with spent nuclear fuel from most other reactors, namely that a spent fuel repository could be used as a

2713: 1171:

is 1/20th the volume of spent fuel produced by a light-water plant of the same power output, and is often considered to be all unusable waste. 70% of fission products are either stable or have half-lives under one year.

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is not going ahead, this fund has collected over the years and presently $ 25 billion has piled up on the Government's doorstep for something they have not delivered, that is, reducing the hazard posed by the waste.)

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An advantage to the removal and burn up of actinides (include plutonium) from the IFR's spent fuel is the elimination of concerns about leaving spent fuel (or indeed conventional – and therefore comparatively lower

2452:

in Russia, the developers of the IFR acknowledge that it is 'uncontested that the IFR can be configured as a net producer of plutonium'. If instead of processing spent fuel, the ALMR system were used to reprocess

2293:. Half-life is only 15 hours, so this isotope is not a long-term hazard. Nevertheless, the presence of sodium-24 further necessitates the use of the intermediate coolant loop between the reactor and the turbines. 254:(D-IL), funding for the reactor was slashed, and it was ultimately canceled in 1994, at a greater cost than finishing it. When this was brought to President Clinton's attention, he said "I know; it's a symbol." 2480:

Cost assessments taking account of the complete life cycle show that fast reactors could be no more expensive than water-moderated water-cooled reactors, currently the most widely used reactors in the world.

746:, meaning that in the case of a power loss or unexpected reactor shutdown, the heat from the reactor core would be sufficient to keep the coolant circulating even if the primary cooling pumps were to fail. 559:

The use of liquid metal coolant removes the need for a pressure vessel around the reactor. Sodium has excellent nuclear characteristics, a high heat capacity and heat transfer capacity, low density, low

3431:

fuel assembly with initial U-235 enrichment of 4.5 wt % that has accumulated 45 GWd/MTU burnup. Isotopic composition of used nuclear fuel as a function of burnup for a generic PWR fuel assembly.

742:, and primary cooling pumps are immersed in a pool of liquid sodium or lead, making a loss of primary coolant extremely unlikely. The coolant loops are designed to allow for cooling through natural 2433:. This offers an intrinsic degree of proliferation resistance. However, if a blanket of uranium is used to surround the core during breeding, the plutonium made in the blanket is usually of a high 1067:

nor from all the fission products, and are therefore relatively difficult to use in nuclear weapons. Also, as plutonium never has to leave the site, it is far less open to unauthorized diversion.

1316:

IFRs use virtually all of the energy content in the uranium fuel whereas a traditional light-water reactor uses less than 0.65% of the energy in mined uranium and less than 5% of the energy in

2107:

isotopes. Assuming no leakage of actinides to the waste stream during reprocessing, a 1 GWe IFR-style reactor would consume about 1 ton of fertile material per year and produce about 1 ton of

2560:

Protects other components from corrosion by maintaining an oxygen- and water-free environment (sodium would react with any trace amounts to make sodium oxide or sodium hydroxide and hydrogen)

235:

entitled its article "Report backs whistleblower", and also noted conflicts of interest on the part of a DOE panel that assessed IFR research. In contrast, the article that appeared in

3141: 2963: 2164:. (Currently, in the United States, utilities pay a flat rate of 1/10 of a cent per kilowatt hour to the Government for disposal of high-level radioactive waste by law under the 2176:

Reprocessing nuclear fuel using pyroprocessing and electrorefining has not yet been demonstrated on a commercial scale, so investing in a large IFR-style plant may be a higher

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1.5 tonnes per gigawatt-year) permits expensive disposal methods such as insoluble synthetic rock. The hazards are far less than those from fossil fuel wastes or dam failures.

2156:

is low compared to the expected cost of large-scale pyroprocessing and electrorefining equipment and the cost of building a secondary coolant loop, the higher fuel costs of a

2444:

Although some recent proposals for the future of the ALMR/IFR concept have focused more on its ability to transform and irreversibly use up plutonium, such as the conceptual

2168:. If this charge were based on the longevity of the waste, closed fuel cycles might become more financially competitive. As the planned geological repository in the form of 1130:

in a LWR. Current thermal-neutron fission reactors cannot fission actinide nuclides that have an even number of neutrons. Thus, these build up and are generally treated as

1192:, another 5% of fission products, could in principle be recycled into fuel-pin cladding, where it does not matter that it is radioactive. Excluding the contribution from 597:

aqueous process, it is economical in capital cost, and is unsuitable for the production of weapons material, again unlike PUREX which was developed for weapons programs.

94:

flow. Even with its normal shutdown devices disabled, the reactor shut itself down safely without overheating anywhere in the system. The IFR project was canceled by the

3654:

Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor: The complex history of a simple reactor technology, with emphasis on its scientific bases for non-specialists

2916:

Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor, the Complex History of a Simple Reactor Technology, with Emphasis on Its Scientific Basis for Non-specialists

4454: 2323:

recycling of spent LWR fuel. For one thing, it may operate at higher burnups and therefore increase the relative abundance of the non-fissile, but fertile, isotopes

765:

Liquid sodium presents safety problems because it ignites spontaneously on contact with air and can cause explosions on contact with water. This was the case at the

1060:

processes, to remove transuranics and actinides from the wastes and concentrate them. These concentrated fuels are then reformed, on-site, into new fuel elements.

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Reprocessing is essential to achieve most of the benefits of a fast reactor, improving fuel usage and reducing radioactive waste by several orders of magnitude.

294:, and other institutions to evaluate 19 of the best reactor designs on 27 different criteria. The IFR ranked #1 in their study which was released April 9, 2002. 2710:"GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Encourages Congress to Support Development of Recycling Technology to Turn Used Nuclear Fuel into an Asset – GE Energy press release" 4770: 1329: 213:(D-MA) and O'Leary led the opposition to the reactor, arguing that it would be a threat to non-proliferation efforts, and that it was a continuation of the 2759: 2347:

to its dispersed nuclear fleet of LWRs – the IFR pyroprocessed fuel would be much more resistant to unauthorized diversion. The material with the mix of

1249:

at some future date. Also, despite the million-fold reduction in radiotoxicity offered by this scheme, there remain concerns about radioactive longevity:

3901: 1184:

to isotopes with very short half-lives (15.46 seconds and 12.36 hours) by neutron absorption within a reactor, effectively destroying them (see more:

2554:

Compatible with other materials used in the core (does not react or dissolve stainless steel), so no special corrosion protection measures are needed

2477:

design (311 MWe modules) reduces costs and allows nuclear plants of various sizes (311 MWe and any integer multiple) to be economically constructed.

2460:

in the electrorefiner, the resulting plutonium would be a superior material, with a nearly ideal isotope composition for nuclear weapons manufacture.

2399:

sources. Although this makes the material less attractive for weapons production, it could nonetheless be used in less sophisticated weapons or with

3228:

Plus radium (element 88). While actually a sub-actinide, it immediately precedes actinium (89) and follows a three-element gap of instability after

4565: 3334: 2734: 4710: 662:– many of which last tens of thousands of years or longer and make conventional nuclear waste disposal so problematic. Most of the radioactive 3558: 2129:

process is designed to do. The purpose of reprocessing in the IFR fuel cycle is simply to reduce the level of those fission products that are

670:: they are intensely radioactive in the short term but decay quickly. Through many cycles, the IFR ultimately causes 99.9% of the uranium and 3522:

Poplavskii, V. M.; Chebeskov, A. N.; Matveev, V. I. (2004-06-01). "BN-800 as a New Stage in the Development of Fast Sodium-Cooled Reactors".

2222:

Self-regulation of the IFR's power level depends mainly on thermal expansion of the fuel, which allows more neutrons to escape, damping the

3868: 3152: 1430: 2411: 678:. These have much shorter half-lives; in 300 years, their radioactivity will fall below that of the original uranium ore. The fact that 3267:

Milsted, J.; Friedman, A. M.; Stevens, C. M. (1965). "The alpha half-life of berkelium-247; a new long-lived isomer of berkelium-248".

533:

Metal fuel with a sodium-filled void inside the cladding to allow fuel expansion has been demonstrated in EBR-II. Metallic fuel makes

481: 3960: 3376: 3320:" nuclides with half-lives significantly in excess of Th; e.g., while Cd has a half-life of only fourteen years, that of Cd is eight 726:(LWRs) the core must be maintained at a high pressure to keep the water liquid at high temperatures. In contrast, since the IFR is a 4199: 3835: 3720: 2007: 781:, as used in some Russian submarine reactors, has lower viscosity and density, but the same activation product problems can occur. 4410: 4250: 4189: 3840: 2319:

remains weapons-usable – but the IFR fuel cycle has some design features that make proliferation more difficult than the current

4330: 1399:] have been evaluated in the LCA literature. The limited literature that evaluates this potential future technology reports 4155: 3894: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 2988: 1423: 430: 385: 275: 3830: 3482: 3661: 3642: 3614: 759: 271: 122:(from SuperPRISM), also called PRISM (power reactor innovative small module), is the name of a nuclear power plant design by 90:. On April 3, 1986, two tests demonstrated the safety of the IFR concept. These tests simulated accidents involving loss of 4801: 4791: 4206: 540:

Fabrication of metallic fuel is easier and cheaper than ceramic (oxide) fuel, especially under remote handling conditions.

214: 3442: 4123: 1300:

could be reduced to an acceptable level by adding technetium to the core, helping destroy the long-lived fission product

229:

attention, with a notable difference in the coverage it received from major scientific publications. The British journal

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emissions from nuclear power are only a fraction of traditional fossil sources and comparable to renewable technologies.

4405: 3847: 3776: 3763: 3750: 3733: 3714: 3697: 3386: 587:

Onsite processing is what makes the IFR "integral". This and the use of pyroprocessing both reduce proliferation risk.

267: 3800: 3887: 2923: 515: 452: 399: 291: 138:; the design incorporates a PRISM reactor plus TerraPower's Traveling Wave design with a molten salt storage system. 2503:

that does not moderate or block neutrons (like water does in an LWR) so that they have sufficient energy to fission

2204:

The IFR uses metal alloy fuel (uranium, plutonium, and/or zirconium), which is a good conductor of heat, unlike the

4740: 4715: 4580: 3321: 2945:"Roger Blomquist of ANL (Argonne National Lab) on IFR (Integral Fast Reactor) @ TEAC6 . Stated at ~ 19–21 minutes" 2425:

than that produced in other reactors, making it less attractive for weapons use, particularly in first-generation

4658: 4492: 4094: 3972: 3625: 2114: 186: 166: 87: 23: 3672: 3425:

Categorization of Used Nuclear Fuel Inventory in Support of a Comprehensive National Nuclear Fuel Cycle Strategy

4648: 4497: 3955: 3853: 3017:"Roger Blomquist of ANL (Argonne National Lab) on IFR (Integral Fast Reactor) @ TEAC6 . Stated at ~ 13 minutes" 2834: 2783: 434: 3412: 3352:"Historical video about the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept. Uploaded by – Nuclear Engineering at Argonne" 2573:

heat for power production using a secondary sodium loop, but this adds costs to construction and maintenance.

593:(using an electrorefiner) has been demonstrated at EBR-II as practical on the scale required. Compared to the 4422: 4255: 1229: 283: 1246: 1074:

transuranics from the waste cycle is that the remaining waste becomes a much shorter-term hazard. After the

4502: 4211: 3965: 3201: 1641: 1602: 1569: 1542: 491: 3202:

Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Nuclear Electricity Generation: Systematic Review and Harmonization

3063:"Roger Blomquist of ANL (Argonne National Lab) on IFR (Integral Fast Reactor) @ TEAC6 . Stated at ~ 17:30" 2812: 72: 4760: 4722: 4560: 4387: 4325: 4150: 4054: 3940: 3792: 3569: 3188: 2692: 1268: 727: 147: 43: 1391:

presently under construction, it did summarize the LCA findings of in-development reactor technologies:

971: 943: 333:

with liquid sodium filling in the space between the fuel and the cladding. A void above the fuel allows

4608: 4287: 3232:(84) where no nuclides have half-lives of at least four years (the longest-lived nuclide in the gap is 2244: 1933: 1902: 1879: 1857: 1826: 1185: 774: 391: 105: 3769:

The Nuclear Imperative: A Critical Look at the Approaching Energy Crisis (More Physics for Presidents)

1134:

after conventional reprocessing. An argument for fast reactors is that they can fission all actinides.

4796: 4585: 4194: 3977: 3428: 2590: 2569: 766: 178: 151: 123: 83: 1241:

generation of MLFPs from IFRs is about the same per unit power as from any kind of fission reactor.

576:

Containing all of the primary coolant in a pool produces several safety and reliability advantages.

4750: 4675: 4575: 4487: 3788: 3573: 2688: 2622: 2421:

Plutonium produced in the fuel of a breeder reactor generally has a higher fraction of the isotope

2165: 735: 608:

The four basic decisions of metallic fuel, sodium coolant, pool design, and onsite reprocessing by

4705: 4680: 4294: 4071: 3361: 3126: 2760:"PacifiCorp, TerraPower Evaluating Deployment of Up to Five Additional Natrium Advanced Reactors" 2612: 2500: 2407: 2312: 2302: 2049: 792: 769:

in a 1995 accident and fire. To reduce the risk of explosions following a leak of water from the

754: 675: 655: 423: 330: 251: 4663: 1228:

from reprocessing could stay at reactor sites for some time, but are intensely radioactive from

346:, are that liquid sodium is far less dense and far less viscous (reduced pumping costs), is not 4570: 2632: 1388: 750: 683: 4600: 4017: 3945: 3859: 3424: 2617: 2474: 2426: 2376: 2251: 2100: 1478: 1380: 1360: 1305: 1293: 1221: 1189: 1181: 1048:, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). 817: 711: 679: 263: 155: 102: 3240:). Radium's longest lived isotope, at 1,600 years, thus merits the element's inclusion here. 3082:

Sasahara, Akihiro; Matsumura, Tetsuo; Nicolaou, Giorgos; Papaioannou, Dimitri (April 2004).

706:, and nuclear fission products. The uranium and transuranium elements are recycled into new 600:

Pyroprocessing makes metallic fuel the fuel of choice. The two decisions are complementary.

4550: 4535: 3725: 3478: 3276: 2496: 2041: 1396: 1345:

emissions (if via energy sources which are not carbon neutral, such as fossil fuels) and CO

883: 703: 691: 671: 565: 355: 109: 64: 3605:

Prescription For The Planet: The Painless Remedy for Our Energy & Environmental Crises

3392: 3036: 2886: 8: 4685: 4470: 4064: 3932: 3911: 3677: 3629: 3535: 2627: 2387: 2308: 2146: 2125:) does not need to produce pure plutonium, free of fission product radioactivity, as the 2092: 1404: 1280:, and do not measure hazards in proportion to those from natural sources such as medical 1254: 1216:(in a gram-to-gram comparison) within 200–400 years, and continues to decline afterward. 1144: 1079: 723: 487: 347: 247: 206: 3874: 3413:

Managing Military Uranium and Plutonium in the United States and the Former Soviet Union

3280: 4590: 4427: 4354: 4165: 3689: 3539: 3317: 3304: 2396: 2348: 2235: 2032: 1107: 174: 68: 2989:"An Introduction to Argonne National Laboratory's INTEGRAL FAST REACTOR (IFR) PROGRAM" 2375:– spent fuel, which can contain weapons-usable plutonium isotope concentrations) in a 2226:. LWRs have less effect from thermal expansion of fuel (since much of the core is the 1276:

However, these concerns do not consider the plan to store such materials in insoluble

1253:

that actinide removal would offer few if any significant advantages for disposal in a

297:

At present, there are no integral fast reactors in commercial operation. However, the

3922: 3772: 3759: 3746: 3742: 3729: 3710: 3706: 3693: 3657: 3638: 3610: 3568:. Office of Nuclear Energy | Department of Energy | University of Chicago, 3382: 3288: 3217: 3084:"Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and MOX Spent Fuels" 2919: 2651:

Estimates from Argonne National Laboratory place the output of waste of a 1,000

2563:

Lightweight (low density) improves resistance to seismic inertia events (earthquakes)

2437:

quality, containing very little Pu-240, making it highly attractive for weapons use.

2231: 2227: 1193: 1131: 1091: 1064: 647: 544: 222: 135: 60: 3543: 2992: 2064:, or other sources. During operation, the reactor breeds more fissile material from 3879: 3531: 3284: 3213: 3095: 2456: 2380: 2239: 2153: 2142: 2076: 2065: 1493: 1317: 1297: 1233: 1225: 1208:/fission products remaining after reprocessing the TRU fuel is less radiotoxic (in 1205: 1168: 1156: 1095: 835: 731: 623:(such as the IFR) could in principle extract almost all of the energy contained in 231: 202: 3670: 3189:

Reduction of the Sodium-Void Coefficient of Reactivity by Using a Technetium Layer

2805:"ENERGY AND WATER DEVELOPMENT APPROPRIATIONS ACT OF 1995 (Senate – June 30, 1994)" 2440:

If operated as a breeder instead of a burner, the IFR has proliferation potential:

1296:, belaying even these comparatively low concerns. For example, the IFR's positive 1044:

isotopes to ever leave the site. The reactor was an unmoderated design running on

4668: 4628: 4082: 3603: 3486: 3303:

This is the heaviest nuclide with a half-life of at least four years before the "

3254: 3250: 3209: 2445: 2400: 2359:, as the IFR recycled fuel contains more fission products and, due to its higher 2266:. The ultimate goal is that no radioactivity is released under any circumstance. 2157: 2122: 2108: 2084: 1994: 1511: 1470: 1353: 1213: 1201: 1087: 1053: 1036:

The goals of the IFR project were to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by

822: 778: 663: 659: 643: 620: 609: 287: 76: 52: 4160: 2238:(which acts on thermal and epithermal neutrons, not fast neutrons) and negative 2192:

IFR concept (color); an animation of the pyroprocessing cycle is also available.

1292:). Furthermore, some of the radioactive fission products are being targeted for 1180:, which constitute 6% of fission products, have very long half-lives but can be 4623: 4618: 4613: 4363: 4270: 4239: 4221: 3446: 2490: 2449: 2415: 2223: 2177: 2169: 2130: 2118: 2104: 2061: 2014: 1502: 1485: 1408: 1372: 1335: 1152: 739: 695: 632: 590: 534: 298: 19: 4643: 3864: 3415:, Matthew Bunn and John P. Holdren, Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. 1997. 22:403–86 3351: 3116: 3062: 3016: 2944: 4785: 4099: 3081: 2604: 2422: 2410:", although in more recent categorizations it would instead be considered as 2332: 2328: 2324: 2247: 2205: 1364: 1301: 1173: 1123: 859: 770: 548: 3797:

Archived material from a site about the IFR formerly hosted by UC Berkeley:

2406:

In 1962, the U.S. government detonated a nuclear device using then-defined "

1019: 910: 4374: 2290: 2282: 2161: 2037: 1045: 1037: 1008: 926: 899: 848: 828: 707: 198: 154:'s national laboratory system, and currently operated on a contract by the 113: 56: 2351:

in an IFR would stay at the reactor site and then be burnt up practically

2160:

over the expected operating lifetime of the plant are offset by increased

4432: 4022: 2508: 2386:

Because reactor-grade plutonium contains isotopes of plutonium with high

2080: 1474: 1454: 1265: 1197: 1041: 957: 698:. This process separates spent fuel into 3 fractions: uranium, plutonium 243: 95: 3671:

William E. Hannum; Gerald E. Marsh; George S. Stanford (December 2005).

3100: 3083: 2495:

Unlike reactors that use relatively slow low energy (thermal) neutrons,

2383:, which could be mined in the future for the purpose of making weapons. 1341:

during operation, although construction and fuel processing result in CO

4138: 3841:(archived) Reactor Burns Waste as Fuel in Nuclear Recycling Experiment 2339: 2286: 2210: 2096: 2057: 1285: 1238: 1177: 1127: 1057: 875: 841: 743: 437: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 210: 127: 4143: 4133: 3848:

Integral Fast Reactors: Source of Safe, Abundant, Non-Polluting Power

3233: 2278: 2274: 2138: 2053: 1459: 1164: 1083: 1071: 667: 651: 561: 326: 302: 182: 4638: 412: 4512: 4507: 4447: 4116: 4044: 4027: 4012: 3987: 3229: 2504: 2344: 2215: 1450: 1075: 986: 801: 26:, which served as the prototype for the integral fast reactor (IFR) 2338:

Unlike PUREX reprocessing, the IFR's electrolytic reprocessing of

266:

roadmap, the DOE tasked a 242-person team of scientists from DOE,

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was entitled "Was Argonne Whistleblower Really Blowing Smoke?".

119: 91: 674:

to undergo fission and produce power; so, its only waste is the

86:(DOE) began designing an IFR in 1984 and built a prototype, the 4442: 4437: 4417: 4397: 4382: 4265: 4002: 3982: 3950: 2434: 2372: 2364: 2360: 2316: 2277:

is produced. This is highly radioactive, emitting an energetic

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life cycle GHG emissions... similar to or lower than LWRs [

1400: 1277: 1143:

Integral fast reactors (IFRs) can produce much less waste than

1099: 334: 314: 173:

Argonne previously had a branch campus named "Argonne West" in

3169: 3167: 3165: 2473:, can be built in a factory and transported to the site. This 2196: 2188: 4479: 4335: 4128: 3992: 3692:

and Charles C. Humpstone, 166 pages, Harper & Row (1973)

2320: 2258: 2126: 2017:(thermal neutron capture cross section greater than 3k barns) 1281: 1103: 594: 338: 318: 209:, there was pressure from the top to cancel the IFR. Senator 3651: 753:

advantages as compared with conventional LWRs. The fuel and

642:

fast reactors are fuel-efficient: because fast neutrons can

4340: 4229: 4039: 3997: 3503: 3491: 3460: 3162: 2835:"Ax Again Aimed at Argonne (Chicago Tribune – Feb 8, 1994)" 2784:"Dr. Charles Till | Nuclear Reaction | FRONTLINE" 2549: 1464: 1118: 811: 579: 343: 3521: 3037:"Passively safe reactors rely on nature to keep them cool" 2865:

Report backs whistleblower, Nature 356, 469 (9 April 1992)

2655:

plant operating at 70% capacity at 1,700 pounds/year.

161: 4313: 4177: 3427:. page 35 figure 21. Discharge isotopic composition of a 2652: 2356: 126:

based on the IFR. In 2022, GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy and

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https://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/plutonium.htmBreeder

3378:

Plentiful Energy: The Story of the Integral Fast Reactor

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temperature. The primary sodium pumps are designed with

1371:

The collective LCA literature indicates that life cycle

1349:-emitting cements are used in the construction process. 1167:. Due to pyroprocessing, the total volume of true waste/ 112:

design. Other countries have also designed and operated

3631:

Technical Options for the Advanced Liquid Metal Reactor

2257:

IFRs are able to withstand both a loss of flow without

1063:

The available fuel metals are never separated from the

67:). IFRs can breed more fuel and are distinguished by a 3756:

Thorium Fuel Cycle – Potential Benefits and Challenges

3335:

Energy Dept. Told to Stop Collecting Nuclear Waste Fee

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Low pumping power (from lightweight and low viscosity)

2343:

at other locations – as is common now in France, from

2068:– at most about 5% more from uranium and 1% more from 1113: 301:, a very similar fast reactor operated as a burner of 3739:

The Second Nuclear Era: A New Start for Nuclear Power

3341:, November 20, 2013, p. A20 (retrieved April 2, 2014) 3114: 1330:

Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources

714:

potential of possible diversion of fissile material.

305:

stockpiles, became commercially operational in 2014.

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Additional benefits to using liquid sodium include:

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fuel must be at least 20% fissile, greater than the

2391:(conventional) moderately burnt up LWR spent fuel. 2099:from traditional LWRs, and even include nonfissile 3602: 2464: 1379:Although the paper primarily dealt with data from 1147:(LWRs), and can even utilize other waste as fuel. 2887:Generation IV roadmap. Evaluation Summaries. 2002 2075:The fertile material in fast reactor fuel can be 1159:waste can also be used as fuel in fast reactors. 4783: 3865:Integral Fast Reactors by Tom Blees, part 2 of 3 3142:"Återanvändning av lång sluten bränslecykel möj" 1232:(MLFPs) and need to be stored securely, like in 3375:Till and Chang, Charles E. and Yoon Il (2011). 3139: 2200:IFR concept (black and white with clearer text) 1979: 1974: 1967: 1946: 1939: 1927: 1918: 1798: 1793: 1779: 1070:Another important benefit of removing the long- 571: 3860:IFR Q&A with Tom Blees and George Stanford 3374: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2712:. Genewscenter.com. 2009-06-18. Archived from 2484: 1863: 1849: 1842: 1835: 1830: 1818: 1813: 1808: 185:from Argonne West built what was known as the 4566:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 3895: 3745:et al., 460 pages, Praeger Publishers (1985) 3623: 3509: 3497: 3466: 3173: 3057: 3055: 3053: 1911: 1906: 1892: 1883: 1761: 1756: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1729: 1719: 1714: 1700: 1693: 1669: 1664: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1635: 1630: 1623: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1596: 1591: 1586: 1581: 1431: 484:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies 242:Despite support for the reactor by then-Rep. 1419:Actinides and fission products by half-life 784: 3771:, Jeff Eerkens, 212 pages, Springer (2010) 3445:. World Nuclear Association. Archived from 3368: 3184: 3182: 3117:"Dealing with the Used Fuel (Reprocessing)" 2983: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2975: 2932: 1686:in the range of 100 a–210 ka ... 1557: 1548: 1530: 1407:] and purports to consume little or no 400:Learn how and when to remove these messages 4746: 3902: 3888: 3253:fission of uranium-235, e.g. in a typical 3050: 2957: 2548:Cleaning with chlorine produces non-toxic 2414:, typical of that produced by low burn up 1438: 1424: 1288:, or naturally radioactive rocks (such as 650:components. Transuranic waste consists of 568:increase the inherent safety of the core. 494:this issue before removing this message. 146:Research on IFR reactors began in 1984 at 3728:, 284 pages, Simon & Schuster (1981) 3600: 3099: 3088:Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology 2913: 2880: 1264:of greatest concern in scenarios such as 1196:(TRU) – which are isotopes produced when 977: 682:are being designed to use the waste from 551:than oxide, which has safety advantages. 516:Learn how and when to remove this message 453:Learn how and when to remove this message 361: 4478: 3721:2081: A Hopeful View of the Human Future 3703:Sustainable energy – Without the Hot Air 3179: 3011: 3009: 2972: 2195: 2187: 2008:naturally occurring radioactive material 1997:cross section in the range of 8–50 barns 1117: 1040:plutonium and to eliminate the need for 948: 734:, dramatically reducing the danger of a 580:Onsite reprocessing using pyroprocessing 160: 98:in 1994, three years before completion. 18: 3652:Charles E. Till; Yoon Il Chang (2011). 3556: 1272:between 213,000 and 15.7 million years. 537:the reprocessing technology of choice. 354:, as used as reactor coolant in Soviet 150:in Argonne, Illinois, as a part of the 4784: 4493:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 3831:(archived) Fuel Manufacturing Facility 2914:Till, Charles; Chang, Yoon Il (2011). 1110:from the non-fuel reactor components. 276:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 4498:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 3883: 3115:Professor David Ruzic (14 May 2019). 3006: 2909: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2811:. Library of Congress. Archived from 2757: 2684: 2682: 1960: 1679: 1204:in an LWR but does not fission – all 1056:separation, a common method in other 760:temperature coefficient of reactivity 730:, the core could operate at close to 666:produced by an IFR have much shorter 308: 272:Massachusetts Institute of Technology 181:. In the past, at the branch campus, 1098:– with half-lives of 90 years ( 464: 435:adding citations to reliable sources 406: 365: 217:that had been canceled by Congress. 215:Clinch River Breeder Reactor Project 4503:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 3637:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 3440: 3236:with a half life of less than four 3212:, published online April 17, 2012, 3200:Warner, Ethan S.; Heath, Garvin A. 2877:, Vol. 256, No. 5055, 17 April 1992 1114:Comparisons to light-water reactors 488:create a more balanced presentation 13: 4312: 3709:, 384 pages, UIT Cambridge (2009) 3594: 3559:"Sodium as a Fast Reactor Coolant" 3557:Fanning, Thomas H. (May 3, 2007). 3536:10.1023/B:ATEN.0000041204.70134.20 2892: 2837:. Chicago Tribune. 8 February 1994 2679: 134:SFR-based nuclear power plants in 14: 4813: 3854:Frontline interview with Dr. Till 3821:(archived) Safety Characteristics 3782: 3381:. CreateSpace. pp. 157–158. 2469:A commercial version of the IFR, 2183: 2115:The IFR fuel cycle's reprocessing 1323: 554: 381:This section has multiple issues. 329:. The fuel is contained in steel 4766: 4765: 4756: 4755: 4745: 4736: 4735: 4586:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 3875:The IFR's role in global warming 3811:(archived) Integral Fast Reactor 3364:from the original on 2021-12-12. 3218:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00472.x 3129:from the original on 2021-12-12. 2968:www.stralsakerhetsmyndigheten.se 2597: 2583: 2296: 1138: 773:, the IFR design (as with other 638:What is more important today is 528: 469: 411: 370: 201:in 1992, and the appointment of 3626:Office of Technology Assessment 3550: 3515: 3472: 3434: 3418: 3406: 3344: 3327: 3310: 3297: 3260: 3243: 3222: 3108: 3075: 3029: 2868: 2658: 2645: 2537:Thermal and radiation stability 2465:Reactor design and construction 2363:, more proliferation-resistant 2048:material can initially include 1334:Both IFRs and LWRs do not emit 422:needs additional citations for 389:or discuss these issues on the 197:With the election of President 192: 187:Experimental Breeder Reactor II 167:Experimental Breeder Reactor II 108:(SFR) is its closest surviving 88:Experimental Breeder Reactor II 24:Experimental Breeder Reactor II 4576:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 3826:(archived) Fuel Cycle Facility 3673:"Smarter Use of Nuclear Waste" 3140:Janne Wallenius (2007-04-01). 2859: 2849: 2827: 2797: 2776: 2751: 2727: 2702: 2545:Abundant and low-cost material 2528:Excellent thermal conductivity 2243:the core, helping destroy the 1102:) and less, or 211,100 years ( 1090:) are recycled, the remaining 130:began exploring locating five 1: 3206:Journal of Industrial Ecology 2672: 2026: 1311: 1230:medium-lived fission products 690:"Integral" refers to on-site 615: 257: 4376:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 3850:by George S. Stanford, Ph.D. 3816:(archived) IFR Metallic Fuel 3686:The Restoration of the Earth 3289:10.1016/0029-5582(65)90719-4 2991:. 2007-10-09. Archived from 2448:and the in operation (2014) 2152:Because the current cost of 1962:... nor beyond 15.7 Ma 1383:, and did not analyze the CO 572:Pool design rather than loop 313:The IFR is cooled by liquid 7: 4802:Unfinished nuclear reactors 4792:Nuclear power reactor types 4723:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 3793:Argonne National Laboratory 2758:Patel, Sonal (2022-10-27). 2693:Argonne National Laboratory 2576: 2485:Liquid metal sodium coolant 2457:fertile (breeding) material 2273:Under neutron bombardment, 1681:No fission products have a 1414: 1186:long-lived fission products 1122:Transmutation flow between 775:sodium-cooled fast reactors 738:. The entire reactor core, 728:liquid metal cooled reactor 148:Argonne National Laboratory 10: 4818: 4561:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 2889:18 slides – some illegible 2809:103rd Congressional Record 2699:, accessed 1 November 2022 2488: 2300: 2245:long-lived fission product 2030: 1327: 603: 177:, that is now part of the 141: 106:sodium-cooled fast reactor 4731: 4698: 4686:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 4599: 4581:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 4546: 4529: 4469: 4396: 4388:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 4362: 4353: 4305: 4285: 4238: 4220: 4176: 4081: 4063: 3931: 3918: 3836:(archived) The IFR Vision 3789:The Integral Fast Reactor 3758:, IAEA, 105 pages (2005) 3429:pressurized water reactor 2591:Nuclear Technology portal 2570:Monju Nuclear Power Plant 2180:than a conventional LWR. 1989: 1469: 1458: 1449: 1417: 1387:emissions by 2050 of the 1224:. The smaller volumes of 785:Efficiency and fuel cycle 767:Monju Nuclear Power Plant 717: 543:Metallic fuel has better 246:(D-IL) and U.S. Senators 179:Idaho National Laboratory 152:U.S. Department of Energy 124:GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy 84:U.S. Department of Energy 4751:List of nuclear reactors 4591:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 4207:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 3867:– Interview with author 3609:. BookSurge Publishing. 3039:. Ne.anl.gov. 2013-12-13 2638: 2623:Lead-cooled fast reactor 2525:High boiling temperature 2166:Nuclear Waste Policy Act 736:loss-of-coolant accident 676:nuclear fission products 262:In 2001, as part of the 4741:Nuclear fusion reactors 4706:Organic nuclear reactor 3912:nuclear fission reactor 3806:(archived) Introduction 2613:Gas-cooled fast reactor 2519:Low melting temperature 2501:nuclear reactor coolant 2408:reactor-grade plutonium 2313:reactor grade plutonium 2303:reactor grade plutonium 2050:highly enriched uranium 1389:Generation III reactors 758:is known as a negative 680:4th generation reactors 656:reactor-grade plutonium 2966:pg 15 see SV/g chart, 2633:Traveling wave reactor 2462: 2427:nuclear weapon designs 2201: 2193: 1413: 1395:Theoretical FBRs [ 1381:Generation II reactors 1377: 1274: 1135: 1106:) and more – plus any 646:or "burn out" all the 362:Basic design decisions 274:(MIT), Stanford, ANL, 170: 27: 16:Nuclear reactor design 3801:(archived) page index 2995:on September 15, 2008 2618:Generation IV reactor 2497:fast-neutron reactors 2442: 2377:geological repository 2315:– which even at high 2252:nuclear transmutation 2199: 2191: 2101:isotopes of plutonium 2006:№, primarily a 1993:₡, has thermal 1397:fast breeder reactors 1393: 1369: 1363:(LCA) emissions from 1361:life cycle assessment 1306:nuclear transmutation 1251: 1222:geological repository 1121: 704:transuranium elements 684:3rd generation plants 672:transuranium elements 356:Alfa-class submarines 164: 156:University of Chicago 79:at the reactor site. 51:), is a design for a 32:integral fast reactor 22: 4571:Traveling-wave (TWR) 4055:Supercritical (SCWR) 3510:U.S. Congress (1994) 3498:U.S. Congress (1994) 3467:U.S. Congress (1994) 3174:U.S. Congress (1994) 3151:: 15. Archived from 2412:fuel-grade plutonium 2311:(LWRs) both produce 2309:light-water reactors 2042:low-enriched uranium 1405:light water reactors 1257:because some of the 1145:light-water reactors 724:light-water reactors 431:improve this article 110:fast breeder reactor 44:liquid-metal reactor 3941:Aqueous homogeneous 3678:Scientific American 3281:1965NucPh..71..299M 3101:10.3327/jnst.41.448 2628:Molten salt reactor 2388:spontaneous fission 2147:activation products 2093:reprocessed uranium 1356:review analyzing CO 1255:geologic repository 1108:activation products 1080:reprocessed uranium 795: 694:by electrochemical 248:Carol Moseley Braun 207:Secretary of Energy 4761:Nuclear technology 3690:Theodore B. Taylor 3601:Tom Blees (2008). 3485:2013-07-01 at the 3441:WNA (March 2009). 3339:The New York Times 3318:classically stable 3305:sea of instability 3249:Specifically from 2815:on 10 January 2016 2522:Low vapor pressure 2507:isotopes that are 2397:spent nuclear fuel 2349:plutonium isotopes 2236:Doppler broadening 2230:) but have strong 2202: 2194: 2044:used in LWRs. The 2033:Nuclear fuel cycle 1570:> 9 a 1136: 1065:plutonium isotopes 789: 309:Technical overview 175:Idaho Falls, Idaho 171: 69:nuclear fuel cycle 38:), originally the 28: 4779: 4778: 4771:Nuclear accidents 4694: 4693: 4525: 4524: 4521: 4520: 4465: 4464: 4349: 4348: 4281: 4280: 3743:Alvin M. Weinberg 3726:Gerard K. O'Neill 3707:David J.C. MacKay 3663:978-1-4663-8460-6 3644:978-1-4289-2068-2 3616:978-1-4196-5582-1 3333:Matthew L. Wald, 3316:Excluding those " 2786:. PBS. 2014-01-16 2232:negative feedback 2228:neutron moderator 2060:, decommissioned 2024: 2023: 1985:0.7–14.1 Ga 1981: 1976: 1969: 1948: 1941: 1929: 1920: 1913: 1908: 1894: 1885: 1865: 1851: 1844: 1837: 1832: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1800: 1795: 1781: 1763: 1758: 1746: 1741: 1736: 1731: 1721: 1716: 1702: 1695: 1671: 1666: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1637: 1632: 1625: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1598: 1593: 1588: 1583: 1559: 1550: 1532: 1367:determined that: 1194:transuranic waste 1132:transuranic waste 1092:radioactive waste 1034: 1033: 749:The IFR also has 648:transuranic waste 545:heat conductivity 526: 525: 518: 508: 507: 486:. Please help to 478:This section may 463: 462: 455: 404: 317:and fueled by an 223:radioactive waste 136:Kemmerer, Wyoming 61:neutron moderator 4809: 4797:Nuclear reactors 4769: 4768: 4759: 4758: 4749: 4748: 4739: 4738: 4681:Helium gas (GFR) 4544: 4543: 4539: 4476: 4475: 4360: 4359: 4310: 4309: 4303: 4302: 4298: 4297: 4079: 4078: 4075: 4074: 3904: 3897: 3890: 3881: 3880: 3682: 3667: 3648: 3636: 3620: 3608: 3588: 3587: 3585: 3584: 3578: 3572:. Archived from 3563: 3554: 3548: 3547: 3519: 3513: 3507: 3501: 3495: 3489: 3476: 3470: 3464: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3454: 3438: 3432: 3422: 3416: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3391:. Archived from 3372: 3366: 3365: 3360:. 3 March 2014. 3348: 3342: 3331: 3325: 3314: 3308: 3301: 3295: 3292: 3264: 3258: 3247: 3241: 3226: 3220: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3177: 3171: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3146: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3112: 3106: 3105: 3103: 3079: 3073: 3072: 3059: 3048: 3047: 3045: 3044: 3033: 3027: 3026: 3013: 3004: 3003: 3001: 3000: 2985: 2970: 2961: 2955: 2954: 2941: 2930: 2929: 2911: 2890: 2884: 2878: 2872: 2866: 2863: 2857: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2831: 2825: 2824: 2822: 2820: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2792: 2791: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2771: 2770: 2755: 2749: 2748: 2746: 2745: 2731: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2721: 2706: 2700: 2686: 2666: 2662: 2656: 2649: 2607: 2602: 2601: 2593: 2588: 2587: 2586: 2381:dry cask storage 2254:in the process. 2240:void coefficient 2154:enriched uranium 2143:fission products 2109:fission products 2077:depleted uranium 2066:fertile material 1980: 1975: 1968: 1947: 1940: 1928: 1919: 1912: 1907: 1903:1.61–6.5 Ma 1893: 1884: 1864: 1850: 1843: 1836: 1831: 1819: 1814: 1809: 1799: 1794: 1780: 1769:8.3–8.5 ka 1762: 1757: 1750:4.7–7.4 ka 1745: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1725:1.3–1.6 ka 1720: 1715: 1701: 1694: 1684: 1670: 1665: 1656: 1651: 1646: 1636: 1631: 1624: 1617: 1612: 1607: 1597: 1592: 1587: 1582: 1558: 1549: 1531: 1471:Fission products 1440: 1433: 1426: 1415: 1318:enriched uranium 1308:in the process. 1298:void coefficient 1234:dry cask storage 1226:high level waste 1206:high level waste 1200:captures a slow 1169:fission products 1157:Depleted uranium 1096:fission products 1024: 1021: 1016: 994: 981: 973: 968: 952: 945: 940: 934: 915: 912: 907: 888: 885: 864: 861: 855: 824: 796: 793:fission products 788: 732:ambient pressure 664:fission products 621:Breeder reactors 521: 514: 503: 500: 473: 472: 465: 458: 451: 447: 444: 438: 415: 407: 396: 374: 373: 366: 337:and radioactive 4817: 4816: 4812: 4811: 4810: 4808: 4807: 4806: 4782: 4781: 4780: 4775: 4727: 4690: 4595: 4540: 4533: 4532: 4517: 4461: 4392: 4367: 4345: 4317: 4299: 4292: 4291: 4290: 4277: 4243: 4234: 4216: 4181: 4172: 4086: 4069: 4068: 4067: 4059: 3973:Natural fission 3927: 3926: 3914: 3908: 3785: 3664: 3656:. CreateSpace. 3645: 3634: 3624:U.S. Congress, 3617: 3597: 3595:Further reading 3592: 3591: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3561: 3555: 3551: 3520: 3516: 3508: 3504: 3496: 3492: 3487:Wayback Machine 3477: 3473: 3465: 3461: 3452: 3450: 3439: 3435: 3423: 3419: 3411: 3407: 3398: 3396: 3389: 3373: 3369: 3350: 3349: 3345: 3332: 3328: 3315: 3311: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3269:Nuclear Physics 3265: 3261: 3255:nuclear reactor 3251:thermal neutron 3248: 3244: 3227: 3223: 3210:Yale University 3199: 3195: 3187: 3180: 3172: 3163: 3155: 3144: 3138: 3134: 3113: 3109: 3080: 3076: 3071:. 12 July 2014. 3061: 3060: 3051: 3042: 3040: 3035: 3034: 3030: 3025:. 12 July 2014. 3015: 3014: 3007: 2998: 2996: 2987: 2986: 2973: 2962: 2958: 2953:. 12 July 2014. 2943: 2942: 2933: 2926: 2918:. p. 114. 2912: 2893: 2885: 2881: 2873: 2869: 2864: 2860: 2854: 2850: 2840: 2838: 2833: 2832: 2828: 2818: 2816: 2803: 2802: 2798: 2789: 2787: 2782: 2781: 2777: 2768: 2766: 2756: 2752: 2743: 2741: 2733: 2732: 2728: 2719: 2717: 2708: 2707: 2703: 2687: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2669: 2663: 2659: 2650: 2646: 2641: 2603: 2596: 2589: 2584: 2582: 2579: 2493: 2487: 2467: 2446:PRISM (reactor) 2416:Magnox reactors 2401:fusion boosting 2305: 2299: 2186: 2158:thermal reactor 2131:neutron poisons 2123:electrorefining 2121:(in this case, 2085:natural uranium 2062:nuclear weapons 2035: 2029: 2020: 1995:neutron capture 1858:327–375 ka 1827:150–250 ka 1706:430–900 a 1685: 1682: 1677:141–351 a 1462: 1445: 1444: 1386: 1359: 1354:Yale University 1348: 1344: 1339: 1332: 1326: 1314: 1259:fission product 1214:natural uranium 1202:thermal neutron 1141: 1116: 1088:minor actinides 1022: 1014: 992: 966: 938: 932: 913: 905: 886: 862: 853: 833: 820: 809: 807: 791: 787: 740:heat exchangers 722:In traditional 720: 660:minor actinides 618: 610:electrorefining 606: 582: 574: 557: 531: 522: 511: 510: 509: 504: 498: 495: 474: 470: 459: 448: 442: 439: 428: 416: 375: 371: 364: 311: 260: 195: 144: 77:electrorefining 53:nuclear reactor 17: 12: 11: 5: 4815: 4805: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4777: 4776: 4774: 4773: 4763: 4753: 4743: 4732: 4729: 4728: 4726: 4725: 4720: 4719: 4718: 4713: 4702: 4700: 4696: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4689: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4616: 4605: 4603: 4597: 4596: 4594: 4593: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4556:Integral (IFR) 4553: 4547: 4541: 4530: 4527: 4526: 4523: 4522: 4519: 4518: 4516: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4500: 4495: 4490: 4484: 4482: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4460: 4459: 4458: 4457: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4445: 4440: 4435: 4420: 4415: 4414: 4413: 4402: 4400: 4394: 4393: 4391: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4371: 4369: 4365: 4357: 4351: 4350: 4347: 4346: 4344: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4322: 4320: 4315: 4307: 4300: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4275: 4274: 4273: 4268: 4263: 4258: 4247: 4245: 4241: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4232: 4226: 4224: 4218: 4217: 4215: 4214: 4209: 4204: 4203: 4202: 4197: 4186: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4173: 4171: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4147: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4126: 4121: 4120: 4119: 4114: 4111: 4108: 4105: 4091: 4089: 4084: 4076: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4057: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4036: 4035: 4030: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3985: 3975: 3970: 3969: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3943: 3937: 3935: 3929: 3928: 3920: 3919: 3916: 3915: 3907: 3906: 3899: 3892: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3872: 3862: 3857: 3851: 3845: 3844: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3828: 3823: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3795: 3784: 3783:External links 3781: 3780: 3779: 3777:978-9048186662 3766: 3764:978-9201034052 3753: 3751:978-0275901837 3736: 3734:978-0671242572 3717: 3715:978-0954452933 3700: 3698:978-0060142315 3683: 3668: 3662: 3649: 3643: 3621: 3615: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3589: 3549: 3530:(6): 386–390. 3514: 3502: 3490: 3471: 3459: 3433: 3417: 3405: 3388:978-1466384606 3387: 3367: 3343: 3326: 3309: 3296: 3259: 3242: 3221: 3193: 3178: 3161: 3158:on 2014-05-19. 3132: 3107: 3094:(4): 448–456. 3074: 3049: 3028: 3005: 2971: 2964:Nucleus-4-2007 2956: 2931: 2924: 2891: 2879: 2867: 2858: 2848: 2826: 2796: 2775: 2764:POWER Magazine 2750: 2726: 2701: 2697:www.ne.anl.gov 2677: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2668: 2667: 2657: 2643: 2642: 2640: 2637: 2636: 2635: 2630: 2625: 2620: 2615: 2609: 2608: 2594: 2578: 2575: 2565: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2552: 2546: 2539: 2538: 2535: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2523: 2520: 2491:BN-600 reactor 2486: 2483: 2466: 2463: 2450:BN-800 reactor 2298: 2295: 2285:followed by a 2224:chain reaction 2185: 2184:Passive safety 2182: 2178:financial risk 2170:Yucca Mountain 2119:pyroprocessing 2105:minor actinide 2028: 2025: 2022: 2021: 2019: 2018: 2015:neutron poison 2011: 2004: 1998: 1990: 1987: 1986: 1983: 1978: 1973: 1971: 1965: 1964: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1952: 1950: 1944: 1943: 1938: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1924: 1922: 1916: 1915: 1910: 1905: 1900: 1898: 1896: 1891: 1888: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1867: 1862: 1860: 1855: 1853: 1848: 1846: 1840: 1839: 1834: 1829: 1824: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1806: 1805: 1804:32–76 ka 1802: 1797: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1767: 1765: 1760: 1755: 1752: 1751: 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1711: 1708: 1707: 1704: 1699: 1697: 1692: 1689: 1688: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1668: 1663: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1627: 1621: 1620: 1615: 1610: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1579: 1578: 1576: 1574: 1572: 1567: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1555: 1554: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1540: 1538: 1536: 1534: 1528: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1509: 1500: 1491: 1482: 1481: 1468: 1457: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1442: 1435: 1428: 1420: 1418: 1384: 1357: 1346: 1342: 1337: 1328:Main article: 1325: 1324:Carbon dioxide 1322: 1313: 1310: 1247:plutonium mine 1153:BN-800 reactor 1140: 1137: 1115: 1112: 1032: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1017: 1011: 1005: 1004: 1001: 998: 995: 989: 983: 982: 974: 969: 967: 963: 960: 954: 953: 946: 941: 939: 935: 929: 923: 922: 919: 916: 908: 902: 896: 895: 892: 889: 881: 878: 872: 871: 868: 865: 857: 851: 845: 844: 839: 826: 815: 805: 799: 786: 783: 771:steam turbines 751:passive safety 719: 716: 696:pyroprocessing 617: 614: 605: 602: 591:Pyroprocessing 581: 578: 573: 570: 556: 555:Sodium coolant 553: 535:pyroprocessing 530: 527: 524: 523: 506: 505: 490:. Discuss and 477: 475: 468: 461: 460: 419: 417: 410: 405: 379: 378: 376: 369: 363: 360: 310: 307: 299:BN-800 reactor 259: 256: 194: 191: 143: 140: 65:"fast" reactor 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4814: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4789: 4787: 4772: 4764: 4762: 4754: 4752: 4744: 4742: 4734: 4733: 4730: 4724: 4721: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4708: 4707: 4704: 4703: 4701: 4697: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4611: 4610: 4607: 4606: 4604: 4602: 4601:Generation IV 4598: 4592: 4589: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4577: 4574: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4551:Breeder (FBR) 4549: 4548: 4545: 4542: 4537: 4528: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4504: 4501: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4489: 4486: 4485: 4483: 4481: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4468: 4456: 4453: 4449: 4446: 4444: 4441: 4439: 4436: 4434: 4431: 4430: 4429: 4426: 4425: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4412: 4409: 4408: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4377: 4373: 4372: 4370: 4368: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4352: 4342: 4339: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4321: 4319: 4311: 4308: 4304: 4301: 4296: 4289: 4284: 4272: 4269: 4267: 4264: 4262: 4259: 4257: 4254: 4253: 4252: 4249: 4248: 4246: 4244: 4237: 4231: 4228: 4227: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4213: 4210: 4208: 4205: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4191: 4188: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4175: 4167: 4164: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4131: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4115: 4112: 4109: 4106: 4103: 4102: 4101: 4098: 4097: 4096: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4080: 4077: 4073: 4066: 4062: 4056: 4053: 4048: 4046: 4043: 4041: 4038: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4025: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4004: 4001: 3999: 3996: 3994: 3991: 3989: 3986: 3984: 3981: 3980: 3979: 3976: 3974: 3971: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3948: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3938: 3936: 3934: 3930: 3925: 3924: 3917: 3913: 3905: 3900: 3898: 3893: 3891: 3886: 3885: 3882: 3876: 3873: 3870: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3855: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3827: 3824: 3822: 3819: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3798: 3796: 3794: 3790: 3787: 3786: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3737: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3722: 3718: 3716: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3684: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3659: 3655: 3650: 3646: 3640: 3633: 3632: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3612: 3607: 3606: 3599: 3598: 3579:on 2013-01-13 3575: 3571: 3567: 3560: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3524:Atomic Energy 3518: 3512:, p. 36. 3511: 3506: 3500:, p. 32. 3499: 3494: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3475: 3469:, p. 34. 3468: 3463: 3449:on 2010-03-30 3448: 3444: 3437: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3414: 3409: 3395:on 2011-06-05 3394: 3390: 3384: 3380: 3379: 3371: 3363: 3359: 3358: 3353: 3347: 3340: 3336: 3330: 3323: 3319: 3313: 3306: 3300: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3263: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3225: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3190: 3185: 3183: 3176:, p. 30. 3175: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3154: 3150: 3143: 3136: 3128: 3124: 3123: 3118: 3111: 3102: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3078: 3070: 3069: 3064: 3058: 3056: 3054: 3038: 3032: 3024: 3023: 3018: 3012: 3010: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2982: 2980: 2978: 2976: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2952: 2951: 2946: 2940: 2938: 2936: 2927: 2925:9781466384606 2921: 2917: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2888: 2883: 2876: 2871: 2862: 2852: 2836: 2830: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2800: 2785: 2779: 2765: 2761: 2754: 2740: 2736: 2730: 2716:on 2013-12-03 2715: 2711: 2705: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2685: 2683: 2678: 2661: 2654: 2648: 2644: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2621: 2619: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2606: 2605:Energy portal 2600: 2595: 2592: 2581: 2574: 2571: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2542: 2536: 2533: 2531:Low viscosity 2530: 2527: 2524: 2521: 2518: 2517: 2516: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2492: 2482: 2478: 2476: 2475:small modular 2472: 2461: 2459: 2458: 2451: 2447: 2441: 2438: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2423:plutonium-240 2419: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2404: 2402: 2398: 2392: 2389: 2384: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2368: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2334: 2333:plutonium-242 2330: 2329:plutonium-240 2326: 2325:plutonium-238 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2304: 2297:Proliferation 2294: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2276: 2271: 2267: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2253: 2249: 2248:technetium-99 2246: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2220: 2217: 2212: 2207: 2206:uranium oxide 2198: 2190: 2181: 2179: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2159: 2155: 2150: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2134: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2034: 2016: 2012: 2009: 2005: 2003: 1999: 1996: 1992: 1991: 1988: 1984: 1972: 1966: 1963: 1957: 1955: 1953: 1951: 1945: 1937: 1935: 1934:15–24 Ma 1932: 1925: 1923: 1917: 1904: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1890: 1889: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1872: 1870: 1869: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1847: 1841: 1828: 1825: 1823: 1807: 1803: 1791: 1789: 1788: 1785:24.1 ka 1784: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1772: 1768: 1766: 1754: 1753: 1749: 1728: 1724: 1712: 1710: 1709: 1705: 1698: 1691: 1690: 1687: 1676: 1674: 1662: 1661: 1643: 1640: 1628: 1622: 1604: 1601: 1580: 1577: 1575: 1573: 1571: 1568: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1556: 1553: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1539: 1537: 1535: 1529: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1501: 1499: 1497: 1492: 1490: 1489: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1441: 1436: 1434: 1429: 1427: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1412: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1392: 1390: 1382: 1376: 1374: 1368: 1366: 1365:nuclear power 1362: 1355: 1350: 1340: 1331: 1321: 1319: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1302:technetium-99 1299: 1295: 1294:transmutation 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1263: 1260: 1256: 1250: 1248: 1242: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1174:Technetium-99 1170: 1166: 1160: 1158: 1154: 1148: 1146: 1139:Nuclear waste 1133: 1129: 1125: 1120: 1111: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1094:isotopes are 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1058:metallurgical 1055: 1049: 1047: 1046:fast neutrons 1043: 1039: 1029: 1026: 1018: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1002: 999: 996: 990: 988: 985: 984: 980: 975: 970: 964: 961: 959: 956: 955: 951: 947: 942: 936: 930: 928: 925: 924: 920: 917: 909: 903: 901: 898: 897: 893: 890: 882: 879: 877: 874: 873: 869: 866: 858: 852: 850: 847: 846: 843: 840: 837: 832: 831: 827: 819: 816: 813: 808: 804: 800: 798: 797: 794: 790:Medium-lived 782: 780: 776: 772: 768: 763: 761: 756: 752: 747: 745: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 715: 713: 712:proliferation 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 688: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 636: 634: 630: 626: 622: 613: 611: 601: 598: 596: 592: 588: 585: 577: 569: 567: 563: 552: 550: 549:heat capacity 546: 541: 538: 536: 529:Metallic fuel 520: 517: 502: 493: 489: 485: 483: 476: 467: 466: 457: 454: 446: 436: 432: 426: 425: 420:This section 418: 414: 409: 408: 403: 401: 394: 393: 388: 387: 382: 377: 368: 367: 359: 357: 353: 349: 345: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 306: 304: 300: 295: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 264:Generation IV 255: 253: 249: 245: 240: 238: 234: 233: 226: 224: 218: 216: 212: 208: 204: 203:Hazel O'Leary 200: 190: 188: 184: 180: 176: 168: 163: 159: 157: 153: 149: 139: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 115: 114:fast reactors 111: 107: 104: 103:Generation IV 101:The proposed 99: 97: 93: 89: 85: 80: 78: 74: 70: 66: 62: 58: 57:fast neutrons 54: 50: 46: 45: 41: 37: 33: 25: 21: 4609:Sodium (SFR) 4555: 4536:fast-neutron 4375: 3921: 3768: 3755: 3738: 3719: 3702: 3685: 3676: 3653: 3630: 3628:(May 1994). 3604: 3581:. Retrieved 3574:the original 3565: 3552: 3527: 3523: 3517: 3505: 3493: 3474: 3462: 3451:. Retrieved 3447:the original 3436: 3420: 3408: 3397:. Retrieved 3393:the original 3377: 3370: 3355: 3346: 3338: 3329: 3312: 3299: 3272: 3268: 3262: 3245: 3237: 3224: 3205: 3196: 3153:the original 3148: 3135: 3120: 3110: 3091: 3087: 3077: 3066: 3041:. Retrieved 3031: 3020: 2997:. Retrieved 2993:the original 2967: 2959: 2948: 2915: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2861: 2851: 2839:. Retrieved 2829: 2817:. Retrieved 2813:the original 2808: 2799: 2788:. Retrieved 2778: 2767:. Retrieved 2763: 2753: 2742:. Retrieved 2738: 2729: 2718:. Retrieved 2714:the original 2704: 2696: 2660: 2647: 2566: 2540: 2534:Light weight 2494: 2479: 2468: 2454: 2443: 2439: 2420: 2405: 2393: 2385: 2369: 2352: 2337: 2306: 2291:magnesium-24 2272: 2268: 2256: 2221: 2203: 2175: 2162:capital cost 2151: 2135: 2113: 2074: 2038:Fast reactor 2036: 1961: 1880:1.33 Ma 1680: 1642:29–97 a 1603:10–29 a 1513: 1504: 1495: 1487: 1394: 1378: 1370: 1351: 1333: 1315: 1275: 1258: 1252: 1243: 1218: 1190:Zirconium-93 1161: 1149: 1142: 1069: 1062: 1054:pyroelectric 1050: 1035: 978: 949: 829: 802: 764: 748: 721: 692:reprocessing 689: 639: 637: 619: 607: 599: 589: 586: 583: 575: 566:reactor core 558: 542: 539: 532: 512: 496: 482:undue weight 479: 449: 440: 429:Please help 424:verification 421: 397: 390: 384: 383:Please help 380: 312: 296: 284:Westinghouse 261: 241: 236: 230: 227: 219: 199:Bill Clinton 196: 193:Cancellation 172: 145: 131: 118: 100: 81: 73:reprocessing 48: 42: 39: 35: 31: 29: 4644:Superphénix 4471:Molten-salt 4423:VHTR (HTGR) 4200:HW BLWR 250 4166:R4 Marviken 4095:Pressurized 4065:Heavy water 4049:many others 3978:Pressurized 3933:Light water 3443:"Plutonium" 3322:quadrillion 2819:16 December 2509:fissionable 2455:irradiated 2429:similar to 2081:uranium-238 1958:80 Ma 1526:<0.001% 1523:0.04–1.25% 1455:decay chain 1409:uranium ore 1286:cosmic rays 1266:groundwater 1198:uranium-238 1042:transuranic 268:UC Berkeley 250:(D-IL) and 244:Dick Durbin 96:US Congress 4786:Categories 4428:PBR (PBMR) 3583:2014-01-24 3566:Ne.doe.gov 3453:2010-02-28 3399:2011-06-23 3275:(2): 299. 3043:2014-01-24 2999:2014-01-24 2790:2014-01-24 2769:2022-10-27 2744:2022-10-28 2720:2014-01-24 2673:References 2550:table salt 2489:See also: 2367:than MOX. 2340:spent fuel 2301:See also: 2287:beta decay 2211:decay heat 2097:spent fuel 2058:spent fuel 2031:See also: 2027:Fuel cycle 1543:4–6 a 1312:Efficiency 1239:Decay heat 1182:transmuted 1178:iodine-129 744:convection 702:and other 668:half-lives 616:Advantages 547:and lower 499:March 2014 443:March 2014 386:improve it 258:Since 2000 252:Paul Simon 211:John Kerry 183:physicists 128:TerraPower 71:that uses 4480:Fluorides 4144:IPHWR-700 4139:IPHWR-540 4134:IPHWR-220 3923:Moderator 3910:Types of 3871:about IFR 3869:Tom Blees 3481:reactors 3234:radon-222 2735:"Natrium" 2307:IFRs and 2279:gamma ray 2275:sodium-24 2216:flywheels 2141:but only 2139:actinides 2056:from LWR 2054:plutonium 2013:þ, 2000:ƒ, 1683:half-life 1460:Half-life 1451:Actinides 1165:actinides 1084:plutonium 1076:actinides 1072:half-life 779:eutectate 708:fuel rods 652:actinides 562:viscosity 392:talk page 348:corrosive 327:plutonium 303:plutonium 4513:TMSR-LF1 4508:TMSR-500 4488:Fuji MSR 4448:THTR-300 4288:Graphite 4151:PHWR KWU 4117:ACR-1000 4045:IPWR-900 4028:ACPR1000 4023:HPR-1000 4013:CPR-1000 3988:APR-1400 3544:96585192 3483:Archived 3362:Archived 3230:polonium 3127:Archived 2856:6030509, 2841:18 March 2577:See also 2511:but not 2505:actinide 2345:La Hague 2289:to form 2079:(mostly 1269:leaching 1262:nuclides 1210:sieverts 1038:breeding 997:0.00005 755:cladding 700:isotopes 331:cladding 169:(EBR II) 40:advanced 4654:FBR-600 4634:CFR-600 4629:BN-1200 4295:coolant 4222:Organic 4107:CANDU 9 4104:CANDU 6 4072:coolant 4033:ACP1000 4008:CAP1400 3946:Boiling 3570:Argonne 3357:YouTube 3277:Bibcode 3149:Nucleus 3122:YouTube 3068:YouTube 3022:YouTube 2950:YouTube 2875:Science 2739:NRC Web 2689:The IFR 2513:fissile 2471:S-PRISM 2431:Fat Man 2353:in-situ 2317:burnups 2281:of 2.7 2089:thorium 2070:thorium 2046:fissile 2002:fissile 1520:4.5–7% 1463:range ( 1352:A 2012 1290:granite 1212:) than 1023: 1015: 993: 933: 914: 906: 887: 863: 854: 644:fission 629:thorium 625:uranium 604:Summary 492:resolve 352:bismuth 323:uranium 280:Toshiba 237:Science 205:as the 142:History 132:Natrium 120:S-PRISM 92:coolant 59:and no 4699:Others 4639:Phénix 4624:BN-800 4619:BN-600 4614:BN-350 4443:HTR-PM 4438:HTR-10 4418:UHTREX 4383:Magnox 4378:(UNGG) 4271:Lucens 4266:KS 150 4003:ATMEA1 3983:AP1000 3966:Kerena 3775: 3762: 3749: 3732: 3713: 3696: 3660: 3641: 3613: 3542: 3385: 3324:years. 3191:page 2 2922: 2435:Pu-239 2373:burnup 2365:Pu-240 2361:burnup 2331:, and 2264:EBR-II 2010:(NORM) 1401:median 1282:x-rays 1278:Synroc 1100:Sm-151 1086:, and 1020:0.5314 962:30.23 911:0.0008 884:0.2180 880:10.76 860:0.0803 718:Safety 633:mining 335:helium 315:sodium 232:Nature 55:using 4716:Piqua 4711:Arbus 4669:PRISM 4411:MHR-T 4406:GTMHR 4336:EGP-6 4331:AMB-X 4306:Water 4251:HWGCR 4190:HWLWR 4129:IPHWR 4100:CANDU 3961:ESBWR 3635:(PDF) 3577:(PDF) 3562:(PDF) 3540:S2CID 3156:(PDF) 3145:(PDF) 2639:Notes 2499:need 2321:PUREX 2259:SCRAM 2234:from 2127:PUREX 2095:from 2091:, or 1479:yield 1104:Tc-99 965:6.337 937:4.505 856:4.76 818:Yield 595:PUREX 480:lend 339:xenon 319:alloy 4676:Lead 4659:CEFR 4649:PFBR 4531:None 4341:RBMK 4326:AM-1 4256:EL-4 4230:WR-1 4212:AHWR 4156:MZFR 4124:CVTR 4113:AFCR 4040:VVER 3998:APWR 3993:APR+ 3956:ABWR 3773:ISBN 3760:ISBN 3747:ISBN 3730:ISBN 3711:ISBN 3694:ISBN 3658:ISBN 3639:ISBN 3611:ISBN 3383:ISBN 3238:days 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Integral fast reactor

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