749:
558:
942:
302:
3821:
3811:
3791:
388:
1482:
3801:
1496:
890:
874:
681:
870:. The SFR fuel is contained in steel cladding. Liquid sodium fills the space between the clad elements that make up the fuel assembly. One of the design challenges is the risks of handling sodium, which reacts explosively if it comes into contact with water. The use of liquid metal instead of water as coolant allows the system to work at atmospheric pressure, reducing the risk of leakage.
824:, a 500 MWe Sodium cooled fast reactor is being built at a cost of INR 5,677 crores (~US$ 900 million). After numerous delays, the government reported in March 2020 that the reactor might be operational in December 2021. The PFBR was to be followed by six more Commercial Fast Breeder Reactors (CFBRs) of 600 MW
2604:"The aim of Generation IV systems is to maintain the high level of safety achieved by today's reactors, while shifting from the current principle of "mastering accidents" (i.e. accepting that accidents can occur, but taking care that the population is not affected) to the principle of "excluding accidents"."
126:"the development of concepts for one or more Generation IV systems that can be licensed, constructed, and operated in a manner that will provide a competitively priced and reliable supply of energy ... while satisfactorily addressing nuclear safety, waste, proliferation and public perception concerns."
1162:
cautions, "the problem with new reactors and accidents is twofold: scenarios arise that are impossible to plan for in simulations; and humans make mistakes". As one director of a U.S. research laboratory put it, "fabrication, construction, operation, and maintenance of new reactors will face a steep
53:
No precise definition of a
Generation IV reactor exists. The term refers to nuclear reactor technologies under development as of approximately 2000, and whose designs were intended to represent 'the future shape of nuclear energy', at least at that time. The six designs selected were: the gas-cooled
1120:
at
Tsuruga, Japan. Using lead or molten salt coolants mitigates this problem as they are less reactive and have a high freezing temperature and ambient pressure. Lead has much higher viscosity, much higher density, lower heat capacity, and more radioactive neutron activation products than sodium.
240:
In 2000, GIF stated, "After the performance phase is complete for each system, at least six years and several US$ billion will be required for detailed design and construction of a demonstration system." In the
Roadmap update of 2013, the performance and demonstration phases were considerably
632:
SCWRs share the steam explosion and radioactive steam release hazards of BWRs and LWRs as well as the need for extremely expensive heavy duty pressure vessels, pipes, valves, and pumps. These shared problems are inherently more severe for SCWRs due to their higher temperatures.
116:. It was connected to the grid in December 2023, making it the world's first Gen IV reactor to enter commercial operation. In 2024, it was reported that China would also build the world’s first thorium molten salt nuclear power station, scheduled to be operational by 2029.
46:) – an international organization that coordinates the development of generation IV reactors – specifically selected six reactor technologies as candidates for generation IV reactors. The designs target improved safety, sustainability, efficiency, and cost. The
317:
The very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR) uses a graphite-moderated core with a once-through uranium fuel cycle, using helium or molten salt. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000°C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a
2857:
2251:
217:
At the Forum's
October 2021 meeting, the Forum members agreed to create a task force on non-electric applications of nuclear heat, including district and industrial heat applications, desalination and large-scale hydrogen production.
206:
In
November 2013, a brief overview of the reactor designs and activities by each forum member was made available. An update of the technology roadmap which details R&D objectives for the next decade was published in January 2014.
201:"as a co-operative international endeavour seeking to develop the research necessary to test the feasibility and performance of fourth generation nuclear systems, and to make them available for industrial deployment by 2030."
819:
efficiency in the FBTR for the first time reached the 100,000 megawatt-days per metric ton uranium (MWd/MTU) mark. This is considered an important milestone in Indian breeder reactor technology. Using that experience, the
54:
fast reactor (GFR), the lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR), the molten salt reactor (MSR), the sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR), the supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) and the very high-temperature reactor (VHTR).
851:, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, automatically slowing down the chain reaction, making it passively safe.
241:
shifted to later dates, while no targets for the commercialisation phases are set. According to the GIF in 2013, "It will take at least two or three decades before the deployment of commercial Gen IV systems."
128:
It coordinates the development of GEN IV technologies. It has been instrumental in coordinating research into the six types of
Generation IV reactors, and in defining the scope and meaning of the term itself.
462:
MCSFR does away with the graphite moderator. They achieve criticality using a sufficient volume of salt and fissile material. They can consume much more of the fuel and leave only short-lived waste.
933:
from other reactors, rather than breeding new fuel. The design reduces the half lives of the fissionable elements present in spent nuclear fuel while generating electricity largely as a byproduct.
2854:
2255:
1066:
The GEN IV Forum reframes the reactor safety paradigm, from accepting that nuclear accidents can occur and should be mastered, to eliminating the physical possibility of an accident. Active and
2239:
H. Boussier, S. Delpech, V. Ghetta et Al. : The Molten Salt
Reactor (MSR) in Generation IV: Overview and Perspectives, GIF SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS/2012 ANNUAL REPORT, NEA No. 7141, pp95
494:'s Molten Chloride Fast Reactor. This concept mixes the liquid natural uranium and molten chloride coolant in the reactor core, reaching very high temperatures at atmospheric pressure.
1967:
2147:
3314:
2885:
591:(LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through heat exchange cycle. As commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a
2542:
2389:
1865:
3508:
2425:
2407:
265:
than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance, and physical protection.
2477:
735:
In 2013 German, British, and French institutes finished a 3-year collaboration study on the follow-on industrial scale design. They were funded by the EU's 7th FWP
2876:
897:
The
European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative funded three Generation IV reactor systems. Advanced Sodium Technical Reactor for Industrial Demonstration (
2390:"The V4G4 Centre of Excellence for performing joint research, development and innovation in the field of Generation-4 (G4) nuclear reactors have been established"
3824:
2450:
2360:"The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative (ESNII) will support three Generation IV reactor systems: a sodium-cooled fast reactor, or SFR, called
1671:
1653:
2732:
2000:
2782:
713:
fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic-clad actinide compounds. Core configurations involve pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.
2955:
1935:
3619:
3764:
1805:
249:
Many reactor types were considered initially; the list was then refined to focus on the most promising technologies. Three systems are nominally
2585:
1163:
learning curve: advanced technologies will have a heightened risk of accidents and mistakes. The technology may be proven, but people are not".
2195:
2045:
603:) as the working fluid, it would have only one water phase. This makes the heat exchange method more similar to a pressurized water reactor (
257:. The Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) potentially can provide high quality process heat. Fast reactors offer the possibility of burning
1978:
1616:
Locatelli, Giorgio; Mancini, Mauro; Todeschini, Nicola (2013-10-01). "Generation IV nuclear reactors: Current status and future prospects".
487:
of conventional reactors. This latter design was found to be the most competitive by consultancy firm Energy
Process Development in 2015.
2060:
1105:
A specific risk of the SFR is related to using metallic sodium as a coolant. In case of a breach, sodium explosively reacts with water.
2290:
1070:
systems would be at least as effective as those of
Generation III systems and render the most severe accidents physically impossible.
236:
Demonstration: complete and license the detailed design and carry out construction and operation of prototype or demonstration systems.
226:
The GIF Forum has introduced development timelines for each of the six systems. Research and development is divided into three phases:
3014:
1224:
1054:, to be developed after the SVBR-100, it will dispense with the fertile blanket around the core and will supersede the sodium cooled
3253:
2330:
1953:
1402:
1307:
233:
Performance: verify and optimise "engineering-scale processes, phenomena and materials capabilities" under prototypical conditions;
2561:
2359:
3464:
3304:
3243:
2089:
1020:
3384:
2028:
1786:
3209:
2948:
1765:
418:
Molten salt can be used for thermal, epithermal and fast reactors. Since 2005 the focus has been on fast spectrum MSRs (MSFR).
2809:
2429:
1823:
2631:
1510:
2757:
2524:
1101:
Improved safety via features such as ambient pressure operation, automatic passive reactor shutdown, and alternate coolants.
3845:
3260:
2871:
1008:
with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550-800 °C. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by
795:
are being used to provide operating experience and technological solutions that will be applied to the construction of the
2411:
3177:
312:
113:
621:. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, the most commonly deployed power generating reactors, and superheated
3850:
3459:
2787:
353:
230:
Viability: test basic concepts under relevant conditions; identify and resolve all "potential technical show-stoppers";
2893:
2941:
1125:
1058:
design, to purportedly give enhanced proliferation resistance. Preparatory construction work commenced in May 2020.
3794:
3769:
3634:
572:
145:
716:
The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative provided funding for three Generation IV reactor systems:
3712:
3546:
3148:
3026:
2309:
1555:
1441:
1088:
763:
506:
421:
Other designs include integral molten salt reactors (e.g. IMSR) and molten chloride salt fast reactors (MCSFR).
402:
2011:
61:
has received the greatest share of funding that supports demonstration facilities. Moir and Teller consider the
3702:
3551:
3009:
1311:
821:
466:
2835:
656:
directly uses fission neutrons without moderation. Fast reactors can be configured to "burn", or fission, all
3476:
3309:
1200:
699:
445:
334:
305:
70:
66:
1744:
3556:
3265:
3019:
2331:"Technology Developments & Plant Efficiency for the Russian Nuclear Power Generation Market Wednesday"
3814:
3776:
3614:
3441:
3379:
3204:
3108:
2994:
2597:
2478:"India's First Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Has a New Deadline. Should We Trust It? – The Wire Science"
1319:
926:
694:
The gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed fuel cycle. The reactor is
566:
542:
65:, a less developed technology, as potentially having the greatest inherent safety of the six models. The
124:
The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) is an international organization with its stated goal being
3662:
3341:
1247:
1220:
925:
reactor is a modernized and commercial implementation of the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR), developed by
757:
2614:
2368:
supported by central and eastern Europe; and a lead-cooled fast reactor, LFR, technology pilot called
459:
than a thermal reactor due to the higher average speed of the neutrons that cause the fission events.
361:
3639:
3248:
3031:
2855:
Article from Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors.
1501:
1461:
1287:
1117:
812:
604:
338:
196:
47:
2226:
1954:"The Generation IV international forum holds their 36th meeting on Monday 18th Nov 2013 in Brussels"
3804:
3729:
3629:
3541:
2919:
2050:, p. 79-82 (4.5 MB). U.S. DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee and the GIF, Dec 2002
1570:
1449:
1374:
1367:
950:
706:
502:
192:
575:
concept. Because the average speed of the fission-causing neutrons within the fuel is faster than
3759:
3734:
3348:
3125:
2913:"In the wake of a severe plant accident, advanced reactor designs are getting renewed attention."
2510:
1787:"Dual criticality for Chinese demonstration HTR-PM : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News"
1465:
1347:
1110:
908:
689:
600:
498:
476:
274:
214:, the Canadian developer of a molten salt reactor, became the first private company to join GIF.
74:
35:
3717:
2276:
3624:
2202:
1540:
1275:
1067:
89:
1936:"Generation IV International Forum Updates Technology Roadmap and Builds Future Collaboration"
780:
Sodium-cooled fast reactors (SCFRs) have been operated in multiple countries since the 1980s.
455:. The fuel may be dispersed in a graphite matrix. These designs are more accurately termed an
3609:
3071:
2999:
2664:
2291:"Moltex Energy sees UK, Canada SMR licensing as springboard to Asia - Nuclear Energy Insider"
2213:
1565:
1545:
1535:
1530:
1031:
with construction expected by 2036. A reduced-power model called Guinevere was started up at
977:
878:
836:
614:(i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable simplification.
592:
538:
433:
425:
85:
2375:
3604:
3589:
2599:
What is the risk of a severe accident resembling Chernobyl or Fukushima in a Gen IV design?
1766:"China's HTR-PM reactor achieves first criticality : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News"
1702:
1625:
1429:
1009:
832:
653:
546:
93:
2492:
2122:
475:
that uses lead as a cooling medium with molten salt fuel, commonly a metal chloride, e.g.
8:
3739:
3524:
3118:
2986:
2965:
2252:"Idaho National Laboratory detailing some current efforts at developing Gen. IV reactors"
1550:
1437:
1409:
1228:
1084:
867:
792:
736:
665:
596:
588:
584:
522:
480:
479:, to aid in greater closed-fuel cycle capabilities. Other notable approaches include the
396:
327:
323:
78:
62:
58:
2334:
2240:
1706:
1629:
1038:
Two other lead-cooled fast reactors under development are the SVBR-100, a modular 100 MW
918:
operated for over thirty years at Idaho National Laboratory, but was shut down in 1994.
3644:
3481:
3408:
3219:
2714:
2364:
proposed by France, but subsequently cancelled; a gas-cooled fast reactor, GFR, called
2065:
1718:
1453:
1445:
1124:
Multiple proof of concept Gen IV designs have been built. For example, the reactors at
1109:
is used to prevent sodium oxidation. Argon can displace oxygen in the air and can pose
1095:
930:
863:
661:
611:
580:
510:
471:
456:
372:
319:
211:
203:
It was established in 2001, aiming at availability for industrial deployment by 2030.
109:
2639:
748:
2976:
2718:
2706:
2097:
988:
that features a long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW
981:
724:
gas-cooled fast reactor, planned for central or eastern Europe. The central European
557:
534:
452:
286:
1722:
941:
725:
629:, also in wide use. 32 organizations in 13 countries are investigating the concept.
69:
designs operate at much higher temperatures than prior generations. This allows for
2933:
2698:
2148:"X-Energy Steps Into The Ring With Its Advanced Pebble Bed Modular Nuclear Reactor"
1710:
1633:
1520:
997:
898:
709:
for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are under consideration: composite
282:
2881:
1866:"China sets launch date for world's first thorium molten salt nuclear power plant"
668:, thus closing the fuel cycle. Alternatively, if configured differently, they can
3722:
3682:
3136:
2923:
2861:
2839:
2783:"Energy Department Announces New Investments in Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors…"
2193:
1841:
1690:
1560:
1525:
1515:
1394:
1295:
1291:
1271:
1047:
922:
840:
800:
669:
641:
607:). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.
576:
278:
262:
250:
31:
3214:
1920:
1896:
1637:
660:, and given enough time, therefore drastically reduce the actinides fraction in
640:-1700/393 (VVER-SCWR or VVER-SKD) – a Russian SCWR with double-inlet-core and a
301:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3417:
3324:
3293:
3275:
2686:
2660:
1881:
1594:
1159:
1077:
Nuclear waste that remains radioactive for a few centuries instead of millennia
1055:
882:
173:
3697:
2702:
2506:
3839:
3153:
2710:
2101:
1487:
703:
505:. Conventionally only fast spectrum reactors have been considered viable for
177:
783:
The two largest experimental sodium cooled fast reactors are in Russia, the
100:
was the first country to operate a demonstration generation-IV reactor, the
3428:
2543:"Nucléaire : la France abandonne la quatrième génération de réacteurs"
1094:
Potential to burn existing nuclear waste and produce electricity: a closed
1032:
848:
254:
161:
2872:
U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology
2687:"A Critical Evaluation of Nuclear Power and Renewable Electricity in Asia"
1015:
The European Sustainable Nuclear Industrial Initiative is funding a 100 MW
345:'s prismatic block Antares reactor to be deployed as a prototype by 2021.
322:
design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or
50:
in 2015 suggested that some might enter commercial operation before 2030.
3486:
3076:
1886:
GEN IV International Forum. Published 1 October 2013. Accessed Nov. 2021)
1001:
844:
804:
622:
618:
412:
169:
165:
1714:
1691:"Thorium-Fueled Underground Power Plant Based on Molten Salt Technology"
293:
emitted by fission to make them more likely to be captured by the fuel.
3192:
2170:
1433:
1283:
1267:
1083:
Broader range of fuels, including unencapsulated raw fuels (non-pebble
1043:
1005:
901:) was a sodium-cooled fast reactor, that was cancelled in August 2019.
811:, successfully operating before decommissioning in 1996. In India, the
771:
491:
387:
84:
The majority of reactors in operation around the world are considered
3197:
3187:
859:
657:
530:
526:
483:(SSR) concept, which encases the molten salt in the well-established
258:
181:
133:
3692:
2123:"Meet a Startup Making a New Kind of Safer, Smaller Nuclear Reactor"
1235:), Tsinghua University & China Nuclear Engineering Corporation (
1144:
961:
The lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) features a fast-neutron-spectrum
815:(FBTR) reached criticality in October 1985. In September 2002, fuel
513:. Thermal waste-burning was achieved by replacing a fraction of the
3566:
3561:
3501:
3170:
3098:
3081:
3066:
3041:
2830:
1240:
973:
484:
449:
441:
407:
A molten salt reactor (MSR) is a type of reactor where the primary
349:
105:
2003:
Technology Roadmap Update for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems
1155:
reactor are similar to the proposed pool type Gen IV SFR designs.
929:
between 1984 and 1994. The primary purpose of PRISM is burning up
3707:
3687:
3086:
3061:
2525:"UK and France Sign Landmark Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement"
1806:"China starts up world's first fourth-generation nuclear reactor"
1672:"Generation IV Nuclear Reactors: WNA - World Nuclear Association"
1481:
1303:
1299:
1279:
1042:
lead-bismuth cooled fast neutron reactor concept designed by OKB
1028:
970:
847:
isotopes. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on
796:
775:
767:
710:
518:
514:
408:
352:
was provided a five-year grant of up to $ 40 million by the
290:
2507:"Historical video about the Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) concept"
803:
first Gen IV reactor). The largest ever operated was the French
367:
Since 2021, the Chinese government is operating a demonstration
3496:
3491:
3471:
3451:
3436:
3319:
3056:
3036:
3004:
2586:
Preparatory construction for Brest-300 reactor begins in Russia
2196:"A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems"
1398:
1236:
1232:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1129:
1073:
Relative to Gen II-III, advantages of Gen IV reactors include:
1024:
956:
915:
855:
839:. Its goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by
816:
788:
784:
695:
626:
376:
368:
185:
157:
149:
137:
101:
2733:"GIF R&D Outlook for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems"
889:
873:
424:
Early thermal spectrum concepts and many current ones rely on
77:
for the efficient production of hydrogen and the synthesis of
3533:
3389:
3182:
3046:
2047:
A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems
1137:
1114:
1106:
698:-cooled. Its outlet temperature is 850 °C. It moves the
415:
mixture. It operates at high temperature and low pressure.
342:
153:
141:
97:
831:
The Gen IV SFR is a project that builds on the oxide fueled
680:
552:
3394:
3283:
3093:
3051:
2899:
1457:
1339:
1133:
966:
962:
637:
497:
Another notable feature of the MSR is the possibility of a
357:
2493:"Passively safe reactors rely on nature to keep them cool"
2194:
US DOE Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee (2002).
2029:"Updates from the Generation IV International Forum (GIF)"
1824:"China's demonstration HTR-PM enters commercial operation"
1615:
1080:
100–300x energy yield from the same amount of nuclear fuel
702:(VHTR) to a more sustainable fuel cycle. It uses a direct
3367:
3231:
2917:
International Thorium Energy Organisation - www.IThEO.org
2562:"Reactor-Accelerator Hybrid Achieves Successful Test Run"
34:
design technologies that are envisioned as successors of
2928:
2916:
2866:
904:
Numerous progenitors of the Gen IV SFR exist. The 400 MW
664:
produced by the present world fleet of thermal neutron
610:
Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) offer high
296:
2039:
1842:"The world's first HTR-PM starts commercial operation"
356:
to advance their reactor development. The Xe-100 is a
2665:"Japan Strains to Fix a Reactor Damaged Before Quake"
2325:
2323:
2090:"U.S. Acts to Spur Development of High-Tech Reactors"
2061:"Areva modular reactor selected for NGNP development"
2963:
1477:
119:
2882:
Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear?
2758:"Key components of second HTR-PM reactor connected"
743:
533:) is below the consumption rate, thus reducing the
2354:
2352:
2320:
2053:
617:The mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost
16:New nuclear reactor technologies under development
2310:"Molten salt and traveling wave nuclear reactors"
1649:
1647:
936:
877:The sustainable fuel-cycle proposed in the 1990s
3837:
2602:GEN IV International Forum (accessed Nov. 2021).
2591:
2588:, Nuclear Engineering International. 22 May 2020
2509:. Nuclear Engineering at Argonne. 3 March 2014.
996:. The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing
675:
2632:"4th Generation Nuclear Power — OSS Foundation"
2469:
2349:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1113:concerns for workers. This was a factor at the
992:, and a large monolithic plant at 1,200 MW
893:IFR concept (Black and White with clearer text)
191:The Forum was initiated in January 2000 by the
2929:International Thorium Energy Committee - iThEC
2891:
2884:(Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian
1666:
1664:
1644:
1302:), China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) (
1035:in March 2009 and became operational in 2012.
858:and fueled by a metallic alloy of uranium and
3620:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
2949:
2777:
2775:
1596:Welcome to Generation IV International forum.
1590:
1588:
1586:
984:. Proposals include a small 50 to 150 MW
739:, with the goal of making a sustainable VHTR.
2475:
2120:
1988:
1658:. World Nuclear Association, update Dec 2020
911:operated for ten years at Hanford; the 20 MW
854:One SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid
752:Pool design Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)
571:The supercritical water reactor (SCWR) is a
465:Most MSR designs are derived from the 1960s
382:
1914:
1877:
1875:
1661:
1611:
1609:
1607:
1605:
3800:
2956:
2942:
2888:about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.
2810:"China begins building pilot fast reactor"
2772:
2307:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
1883:FAQ 2: When will Gen IV reactors be built?
1797:
1781:
1779:
1760:
1758:
1688:
1583:
587:as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically
2559:
2308:Tennenbaum, Jonathan (February 4, 2020).
1742:
636:One SCWR design under development is the
561:Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)
553:Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR)
3532:
2898:Mechanical Engineering (the magazine of
2684:
2560:Hellemans, Alexander (12 January 2012).
2490:
2087:
1872:
1602:
1308:Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research
940:
888:
872:
747:
679:
556:
469:(MSRE). Variants include the conceptual
386:
300:
2867:Generation IV International Forum (GIF)
2680:
2678:
2659:
2178:
1776:
1755:
1172:Summary of designs for Gen IV reactors
1021:accelerator-driven sub-critical reactor
3838:
3547:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
2615:"Strategies to Address Global Warming"
2408:"the European Gas cooled Fast Reactor"
1736:
672:more actinide fuel than they consume.
3552:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
2937:
2685:Sovacool, Benjamin K. (August 2010).
2277:"Europe: Moltex' Stable Salt Reactor"
2145:
1889:
1743:De Clercq, Geert (October 13, 2014).
1511:List of small modular reactor designs
881:concept (color), an animation of the
2675:
2476:Ramachandran, R. (August 20, 2020).
1925:GEN IV International Forum Nov 2021)
1803:
1689:Moir, Ralph; Teller, Edward (2005).
1118:Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor Monju
490:Another design under development is
364:, or 320 MWe in a 'four-pack'.
297:Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR)
132:As of 2021, active members include:
3557:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1132:are similar to the proposed Gen IV
1004:. The reactor is cooled by natural
313:High-temperature gas-cooled reactor
268:
114:high-temperature gas-cooled reactor
13:
3366:
2121:Fehrenbacher, Katie (2016-02-16).
1804:Howe, Colleen (December 6, 2023).
1342:-1700/393 (VVER-SCWR or VVER-SKD)
1166:
579:, it is more accurately termed an
354:United States Department of Energy
14:
3862:
2848:
2451:"Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors"
2295:analysis.nuclearenergyinsider.com
1126:Fort St. Vrain Generating Station
1050:(Lead-cooled fast reactor) 300 MW
120:Generation IV International Forum
40:Generation IV International Forum
3820:
3819:
3810:
3809:
3799:
3790:
3789:
3640:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
2892:Gail H. Marcus (December 2011).
2513:from the original on 2021-12-21.
2333:. March 24, 2010. Archived from
1970:Genesis of Generation IV Concept
1745:"Can Sodium Save Nuclear Power?"
1494:
1480:
1436:, Elysium Industries, Thorizon,
744:Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR)
647:
583:than a thermal reactor. It uses
573:reduced moderation water reactor
261:to further reduce waste and can
244:
146:European Atomic Energy Community
92:systems, as the majority of the
2894:"Nuclear Power After Fukushima"
2824:
2802:
2750:
2725:
2653:
2624:
2607:
2579:
2553:
2535:
2517:
2499:
2484:
2443:
2418:
2400:
2382:
2301:
2283:
2269:
2244:
2233:
2164:
2139:
2114:
2081:
2021:
1960:
1946:
1928:
1858:
1834:
1816:
1556:Liquid fluoride thorium reactor
764:Experimental Breeder Reactor II
517:in the spent nuclear fuel with
403:Liquid fluoride thorium reactor
3630:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
2426:"The GOFASTR research program"
2088:Fountain, Henry (2016-01-19).
2010:. January 2014. Archived from
1977:. January 2014. Archived from
1682:
1655:Generation IV Nuclear Reactors
1312:Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
937:Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR)
822:Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
467:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment
448:by flowing into a core with a
1:
1577:
1061:
885:technology is also available.
700:very-high-temperature reactor
684:Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)
676:Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR)
521:. The net production rate of
341:approved a design similar to
335:next generation nuclear plant
306:Very-high-temperature reactor
180:. Non-active members include
71:high temperature electrolysis
67:very-high-temperature reactor
3430:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
2691:Journal of Contemporary Asia
2372:that is proposed by Belgium"
2201:. GIF-002-00. Archived from
2175:X Energy (accessed Feb 2023)
1264:30–150, 300–1500, 1000–2000
728:are pursuing the technology.
221:
7:
3846:Nuclear power reactor types
3777:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
2457:. World Nuclear Association
2146:Conca, James (2017-03-27).
2033:Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
1638:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.06.101
1473:
1417:Fluoride or chloride salts
1391:20–180, 300–1200, 600–1000
927:Argonne National Laboratory
567:Supercritical water reactor
96:systems have been retired.
10:
3867:
3615:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
1791:www.world-nuclear-news.org
1770:www.world-nuclear-news.org
954:
948:
843:plutonium and eliminating
761:
758:Sodium-cooled fast reactor
755:
687:
564:
400:
394:
310:
3851:Idaho National Laboratory
3785:
3752:
3740:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
3653:
3635:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
3600:
3583:
3523:
3450:
3442:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
3416:
3407:
3359:
3339:
3292:
3274:
3230:
3135:
3117:
2985:
2972:
2703:10.1080/00472331003798350
1502:Nuclear technology portal
1448:, Thorium Tech Solution (
1288:GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy
866:, the "nuclear waste" of
813:Fast Breeder Test Reactor
599:(not to be confused with
391:Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)
383:Molten-salt reactor (MSR)
339:Idaho National Laboratory
197:U.S. Department of Energy
48:World Nuclear Association
3805:List of nuclear reactors
3645:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
3261:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
1571:List of nuclear reactors
1368:Energy Multiplier Module
1010:thermochemical processes
951:Lead-cooled fast reactor
945:Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor
507:utilization or reduction
444:salt. The fluid reaches
411:or the fuel itself is a
371:200-MW high temperature
333:In 2012, as part of its
193:Office of Nuclear Energy
90:third generation reactor
3795:Nuclear fusion reactors
3760:Organic nuclear reactor
2966:nuclear fission reactor
2788:US Department of Energy
1599:GIF (accessed Feb 2023)
1027:. It is to be built in
909:Fast Flux Test Facility
807:reactor at over 1200 MW
791:(880 MWe gross). These
690:Gas-cooled fast reactor
535:nuclear storage problem
477:plutonium(III) chloride
440:), dissolved in molten
360:that would generate 80
326:via the thermochemical
36:generation III reactors
2221:Cite journal requires
1541:Generation III reactor
946:
894:
886:
753:
685:
562:
392:
375:as a successor to its
308:
1566:Small modular reactor
1546:Integral Fast Reactor
1536:Generation II reactor
1531:List of reactor types
944:
892:
879:Integral fast reactor
876:
837:integral fast reactor
835:and the metal fueled
751:
683:
595:(BWR). Since it uses
593:boiling water reactor
560:
539:nuclear proliferation
434:thorium tetrafluoride
426:uranium tetrafluoride
390:
304:
3625:Traveling-wave (TWR)
3109:Supercritical (SCWR)
2812:. World Nuclear News
2760:. World Nuclear News
2636:www.ossfoundation.us
2531:. February 22, 2012.
2394:www.alphagalileo.org
1772:. 13 September 2021.
1430:Seaborg Technologies
868:light water reactors
833:fast breeder reactor
666:light water reactors
589:light water reactors
523:transuranic elements
289:is used to slow the
79:carbon-neutral fuels
2995:Aqueous homogeneous
2877:Gen IV presentation
1922:Origins of the GIF.
1830:. December 6, 2023.
1749:Scientific American
1715:10.13182/NT05-A3655
1707:2005NucTe.151..334M
1630:2013EnPol..61.1503L
1551:Stable salt reactor
1336:300–700, 1000–1500
1229:Tsinghua University
1195:Example developers
1173:
737:framework programme
597:supercritical water
585:supercritical water
541:concerns and other
481:Stable Salt Reactor
397:Molten salt reactor
328:sulfur-iodine cycle
324:hydrogen production
75:sulfur–iodine cycle
63:molten-salt reactor
59:sodium fast reactor
3815:Nuclear technology
2922:2016-03-06 at the
2860:2014-11-09 at the
2838:2022-12-29 at the
2669:The New York Times
2094:The New York Times
2069:. 15 February 2012
2066:World Nuclear News
1828:World Nuclear News
1695:Nuclear Technology
1454:Terrestrial Energy
1446:Copenhagen Atomics
1171:
1046:in Russia and the
947:
931:spent nuclear fuel
895:
887:
864:spent nuclear fuel
754:
686:
662:spent nuclear fuel
612:thermal efficiency
581:epithermal reactor
563:
545:associated with a
511:spent nuclear fuel
472:Dual fluid reactor
457:epithermal reactor
393:
373:pebble bed reactor
320:pebble bed reactor
309:
281:that uses slow or
212:Terrestrial Energy
3833:
3832:
3825:Nuclear accidents
3748:
3747:
3579:
3578:
3575:
3574:
3519:
3518:
3403:
3402:
3335:
3334:
2886:Ecology Institute
2549:. 29 August 2019.
2455:world-nuclear.org
1676:world-nuclear.org
1471:
1470:
1186:Temperature (°C)
1180:Neutron spectrum
1158:Nuclear engineer
1136:designs, and the
982:closed fuel cycle
980:) coolant with a
720:Allegro: a 100 MW
348:In January 2016,
287:neutron moderator
86:second generation
3858:
3823:
3822:
3813:
3812:
3803:
3802:
3793:
3792:
3735:Helium gas (GFR)
3598:
3597:
3593:
3530:
3529:
3414:
3413:
3364:
3363:
3357:
3356:
3352:
3351:
3133:
3132:
3129:
3128:
2958:
2951:
2944:
2935:
2934:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2843:
2828:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2795:
2779:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2765:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2738:. 21 August 2009
2737:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2682:
2673:
2672:
2663:(17 June 2011).
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2638:. Archived from
2628:
2622:
2621:
2619:
2611:
2605:
2595:
2589:
2583:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2572:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2503:
2497:
2496:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2473:
2467:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2428:. Archived from
2422:
2416:
2415:
2410:. Archived from
2404:
2398:
2397:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2374:. Archived from
2356:
2347:
2346:
2344:
2342:
2327:
2318:
2317:
2305:
2299:
2298:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2279:. 20 April 2015.
2273:
2267:
2266:
2264:
2263:
2254:. Archived from
2248:
2242:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2224:
2219:
2217:
2209:
2207:
2200:
2191:
2176:
2172:Reactor: Xe-100.
2168:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2158:
2143:
2137:
2136:
2134:
2133:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2057:
2051:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2025:
2019:
2018:
2017:on 25 June 2014.
2016:
2009:
1997:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1976:
1964:
1958:
1957:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1932:
1926:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1897:"GIF Membership"
1893:
1887:
1879:
1870:
1869:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1801:
1795:
1794:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1762:
1753:
1752:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1686:
1680:
1679:
1668:
1659:
1651:
1642:
1641:
1613:
1600:
1592:
1521:Nuclear material
1504:
1499:
1498:
1497:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1462:Southern Company
1440:, Flibe Energy (
1414:Fast or thermal
1327:Water or Sodium
1324:Thermal or fast
1174:
1170:
577:thermal neutrons
543:technical issues
499:thermal spectrum
283:thermal neutrons
269:Thermal reactors
251:thermal reactors
94:first generation
3866:
3865:
3861:
3860:
3859:
3857:
3856:
3855:
3836:
3835:
3834:
3829:
3781:
3744:
3649:
3594:
3587:
3586:
3571:
3515:
3446:
3421:
3399:
3371:
3353:
3346:
3345:
3344:
3331:
3297:
3288:
3270:
3235:
3226:
3140:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3113:
3027:Natural fission
2981:
2980:
2968:
2962:
2924:Wayback Machine
2906:
2904:
2862:Wayback Machine
2851:
2846:
2840:Wayback Machine
2829:
2825:
2815:
2813:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2793:
2791:
2781:
2780:
2773:
2763:
2761:
2756:
2755:
2751:
2741:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2730:
2726:
2683:
2676:
2661:Tabuchi, Hiroko
2658:
2654:
2645:
2643:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2580:
2570:
2568:
2566:Science Insider
2558:
2554:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2505:
2504:
2500:
2489:
2485:
2474:
2470:
2460:
2458:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2435:
2433:
2424:
2423:
2419:
2406:
2405:
2401:
2396:. 27 July 2023.
2388:
2387:
2383:
2358:
2357:
2350:
2340:
2338:
2329:
2328:
2321:
2306:
2302:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2261:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2238:
2234:
2222:
2220:
2211:
2210:
2205:
2198:
2192:
2179:
2169:
2165:
2156:
2154:
2144:
2140:
2131:
2129:
2119:
2115:
2106:
2104:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2070:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2044:
2040:
2027:
2026:
2022:
2014:
2007:
1999:
1998:
1989:
1984:on 8 July 2014.
1981:
1974:
1966:
1965:
1961:
1952:
1951:
1947:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1919:
1915:
1905:
1903:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1880:
1873:
1868:. 26 July 2024.
1864:
1863:
1859:
1850:
1848:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1802:
1798:
1785:
1784:
1777:
1764:
1763:
1756:
1741:
1737:
1727:
1725:
1687:
1683:
1670:
1669:
1662:
1652:
1645:
1614:
1603:
1593:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1561:Breeder reactor
1526:Nuclear physics
1516:Nuclear reactor
1500:
1495:
1493:
1486:
1479:
1476:
1333:Open or closed
1296:OKBM Afrikantov
1169:
1167:Design projects
1064:
1053:
1041:
1018:
998:fertile uranium
995:
991:
987:
959:
953:
939:
914:
907:
827:
810:
801:OKBM Afrikantov
778:
760:
746:
723:
692:
678:
650:
569:
555:
439:
431:
405:
399:
385:
315:
299:
279:nuclear reactor
275:thermal reactor
271:
263:breed more fuel
247:
224:
122:
32:nuclear reactor
17:
12:
11:
5:
3864:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3827:
3817:
3807:
3797:
3786:
3783:
3782:
3780:
3779:
3774:
3773:
3772:
3767:
3756:
3754:
3750:
3749:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3670:
3659:
3657:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3610:Integral (IFR)
3607:
3601:
3595:
3584:
3581:
3580:
3577:
3576:
3573:
3572:
3570:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3538:
3536:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3506:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3474:
3469:
3468:
3467:
3456:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3411:
3405:
3404:
3401:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3376:
3374:
3369:
3361:
3354:
3340:
3337:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3301:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3289:
3287:
3286:
3280:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3240:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3207:
3202:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3180:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3168:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3145:
3143:
3138:
3130:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3084:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3029:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3007:
2997:
2991:
2989:
2983:
2982:
2974:
2973:
2970:
2969:
2961:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2914:
2889:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2850:
2849:External links
2847:
2845:
2844:
2823:
2801:
2771:
2749:
2724:
2697:(3): 369–400.
2674:
2652:
2623:
2606:
2590:
2578:
2552:
2534:
2529:POWER Magazine
2516:
2498:
2491:David Baurac.
2483:
2468:
2442:
2417:
2414:on 2013-12-13.
2399:
2381:
2378:on 2013-10-09.
2348:
2337:on May 1, 2015
2319:
2300:
2282:
2268:
2243:
2232:
2223:|journal=
2208:on 2007-11-29.
2177:
2163:
2138:
2113:
2080:
2052:
2038:
2020:
1987:
1959:
1945:
1927:
1913:
1888:
1871:
1857:
1846:en.cnnc.com.cn
1833:
1815:
1796:
1775:
1754:
1735:
1701:(3): 334–340.
1681:
1660:
1643:
1601:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1518:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1491:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1468:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1406:
1405:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1337:
1334:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1316:
1315:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1244:
1243:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1168:
1165:
1160:David Lochbaum
1103:
1102:
1099:
1092:
1081:
1078:
1068:passive safety
1063:
1060:
1056:BN-600 reactor
1051:
1039:
1016:
993:
989:
985:
949:Main article:
938:
935:
912:
905:
883:pyroprocessing
825:
808:
756:Main article:
745:
742:
741:
740:
729:
726:Visegrád Group
721:
688:Main article:
677:
674:
649:
646:
642:breeding ratio
565:Main article:
554:
551:
537:, without the
437:
429:
395:Main article:
384:
381:
311:Main article:
298:
295:
270:
267:
253:and three are
246:
243:
238:
237:
234:
231:
223:
220:
174:United Kingdom
121:
118:
104:in Shidaowan,
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3863:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3843:
3841:
3826:
3818:
3816:
3808:
3806:
3798:
3796:
3788:
3787:
3784:
3778:
3775:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3762:
3761:
3758:
3757:
3755:
3751:
3741:
3738:
3736:
3733:
3731:
3728:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3669:
3666:
3665:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3658:
3656:
3655:Generation IV
3652:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3605:Breeder (FBR)
3603:
3602:
3599:
3596:
3591:
3582:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3522:
3510:
3507:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3449:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3422:
3415:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3373:
3365:
3362:
3358:
3355:
3350:
3343:
3338:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3298:
3291:
3285:
3282:
3281:
3279:
3277:
3273:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3242:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3229:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3206:
3203:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3185:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3172:
3169:
3166:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3151:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3144:
3142:
3134:
3131:
3127:
3120:
3116:
3110:
3107:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3068:
3065:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2998:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2978:
2971:
2967:
2959:
2954:
2952:
2947:
2945:
2940:
2939:
2936:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2903:
2901:
2895:
2890:
2887:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2852:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2827:
2811:
2805:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2778:
2776:
2759:
2753:
2734:
2728:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2679:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2656:
2642:on 2021-02-01
2641:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2616:
2610:
2601:
2600:
2594:
2587:
2582:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2548:
2544:
2538:
2530:
2526:
2520:
2512:
2508:
2502:
2494:
2487:
2479:
2472:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2432:on 2016-06-10
2431:
2427:
2421:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2377:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2355:
2353:
2336:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2315:
2311:
2304:
2296:
2292:
2286:
2278:
2272:
2258:on 2014-11-09
2257:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2236:
2228:
2215:
2204:
2197:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2174:
2173:
2167:
2153:
2149:
2142:
2128:
2124:
2117:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2056:
2049:
2048:
2042:
2034:
2030:
2024:
2013:
2006:
2004:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1980:
1973:
1971:
1963:
1955:
1949:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1924:
1923:
1917:
1902:
1898:
1892:
1885:
1884:
1878:
1876:
1867:
1861:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1829:
1825:
1819:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1792:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1771:
1767:
1761:
1759:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1657:
1656:
1650:
1648:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1624:: 1503–1520.
1623:
1619:
1618:Energy Policy
1612:
1610:
1608:
1606:
1598:
1597:
1591:
1589:
1587:
1582:
1572:
1569:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1552:
1549:
1547:
1544:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1492:
1489:
1488:Energy portal
1483:
1478:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:Moltex Energy
1435:
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1321:
1318:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1245:
1242:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1194:
1191:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1164:
1161:
1156:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1059:
1057:
1049:
1045:
1036:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1013:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
983:
979:
975:
972:
968:
964:
958:
952:
943:
934:
932:
928:
924:
921:GE Hitachi's
919:
917:
910:
902:
900:
891:
884:
880:
875:
871:
869:
865:
861:
857:
852:
850:
849:fast neutrons
846:
842:
838:
834:
829:
823:
818:
814:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
759:
750:
738:
734:
730:
727:
719:
718:
717:
714:
712:
708:
705:
704:Brayton cycle
701:
697:
691:
682:
673:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
648:Fast reactors
645:
643:
639:
634:
630:
628:
624:
620:
615:
613:
608:
606:
602:
601:critical mass
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
568:
559:
550:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
495:
493:
488:
486:
482:
478:
474:
473:
468:
463:
460:
458:
454:
451:
447:
443:
435:
427:
422:
419:
416:
414:
410:
404:
398:
389:
380:
378:
374:
370:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
346:
344:
340:
337:competition,
336:
331:
329:
325:
321:
314:
307:
303:
294:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
266:
264:
260:
256:
255:fast reactors
252:
245:Reactor types
242:
235:
232:
229:
228:
227:
219:
215:
213:
210:In May 2019,
208:
204:
202:
198:
194:
189:
187:
183:
179:
178:United States
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
130:
127:
117:
115:
111:
108:, which is a
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
55:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
20:Generation IV
3663:Sodium (SFR)
3654:
3590:fast-neutron
3429:
2975:
2905:. Retrieved
2897:
2831:
2826:
2814:. Retrieved
2804:
2792:. Retrieved
2786:
2762:. Retrieved
2752:
2740:. Retrieved
2727:
2694:
2690:
2668:
2655:
2644:. Retrieved
2640:the original
2635:
2626:
2609:
2598:
2593:
2581:
2569:. Retrieved
2565:
2555:
2546:
2537:
2528:
2519:
2501:
2486:
2471:
2461:19 September
2459:. Retrieved
2454:
2445:
2434:. Retrieved
2430:the original
2420:
2412:the original
2402:
2393:
2384:
2376:the original
2369:
2365:
2361:
2339:. Retrieved
2335:the original
2313:
2303:
2294:
2285:
2271:
2260:. Retrieved
2256:the original
2246:
2235:
2214:cite journal
2203:the original
2171:
2166:
2155:. Retrieved
2151:
2141:
2130:. Retrieved
2126:
2116:
2105:. Retrieved
2093:
2083:
2071:. Retrieved
2064:
2055:
2046:
2041:
2032:
2023:
2012:the original
2002:
1979:the original
1969:
1962:
1948:
1939:
1930:
1921:
1916:
1904:. Retrieved
1900:
1891:
1882:
1860:
1849:. Retrieved
1845:
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1799:
1790:
1769:
1748:
1738:
1726:. Retrieved
1698:
1694:
1684:
1675:
1654:
1621:
1617:
1595:
1395:BREST-OD-300
1157:
1123:
1104:
1072:
1065:
1048:BREST-OD-300
1037:
1014:
1002:transuranics
960:
920:
903:
896:
853:
830:
782:
779:
732:
715:
693:
654:fast reactor
651:
635:
631:
616:
609:
570:
547:fast reactor
503:waste-burner
496:
489:
470:
464:
461:
423:
420:
417:
406:
366:
347:
332:
316:
272:
248:
239:
225:
216:
209:
205:
200:
190:
162:South Africa
131:
125:
123:
83:
56:
52:
43:
39:
27:
23:
19:
18:
3698:Superphénix
3525:Molten-salt
3477:VHTR (HTGR)
3254:HW BLWR 250
3220:R4 Marviken
3149:Pressurized
3119:Heavy water
3103:many others
3032:Pressurized
2987:Light water
2571:29 December
2547:Le Monde.fr
2341:December 4,
1189:Fuel cycle
845:transuranic
805:Superphenix
707:gas turbine
623:fossil fuel
619:electricity
446:criticality
413:molten salt
170:Switzerland
166:South Korea
148:(Euratom),
3840:Categories
3482:PBR (PBMR)
2907:23 January
2842:(LeadCold)
2832:The SEALER
2794:16 January
2742:August 30,
2646:2009-07-23
2436:2013-12-04
2314:Asia Times
2262:2009-06-24
2157:2021-10-12
2132:2021-10-12
2107:2021-10-12
1940:Energy.gov
1851:2023-12-11
1578:References
1434:TerraPower
1268:TerraPower
1192:Size (MW)
1096:fuel cycle
1062:Assessment
1044:Gidropress
1006:convection
955:See also:
772:Toshiba 4S
762:See also:
492:TerraPower
401:See also:
110:pebble-bed
3534:Fluorides
3198:IPHWR-700
3193:IPHWR-540
3188:IPHWR-220
2977:Moderator
2964:Types of
2719:154882872
2711:0047-2336
2102:0362-4331
1901:gen-4.org
1728:March 22,
1426:250–1000
1211:900–1000
1138:pool type
1115:loop type
860:plutonium
658:actinides
644:of 0.95.
531:americium
527:plutonium
485:fuel rods
453:moderator
330:process.
259:actinides
222:Timelines
199:’s (DOE)
182:Argentina
134:Australia
3567:TMSR-LF1
3562:TMSR-500
3542:Fuji MSR
3502:THTR-300
3342:Graphite
3205:PHWR KWU
3171:ACR-1000
3099:IPWR-900
3082:ACPR1000
3077:HPR-1000
3067:CPR-1000
3042:APR-1400
2920:Archived
2858:Archived
2836:Archived
2511:Archived
1723:36982574
1474:See also
1450:FUJI MSR
1420:700–800
1385:480–800
1330:510–625
1241:X-energy
1217:250–300
1205:Thermal
1183:Coolant
1019:LFR, an
974:eutectic
841:breeding
787:and the
501:nuclear
450:graphite
442:fluoride
350:X-energy
291:neutrons
176:and the
106:Shandong
28:reactors
3708:FBR-600
3688:CFR-600
3683:BN-1200
3349:coolant
3276:Organic
3161:CANDU 9
3158:CANDU 6
3126:coolant
3087:ACP1000
3062:CAP1400
3000:Boiling
2816:15 July
2764:15 July
2366:Allegro
2127:Fortune
1810:Reuters
1703:Bibcode
1626:Bibcode
1466:ThorCon
1423:Closed
1388:Closed
1361:Closed
1355:Helium
1304:CFR-600
1300:BN-1200
1280:Toshiba
1272:Natrium
1261:Closed
1255:Sodium
1208:Helium
1111:hypoxia
1029:Belgium
1023:called
971:bismuth
817:burn up
797:BN-1200
776:CFR-600
768:S-PRISM
731:GoFastR
711:ceramic
627:boilers
519:thorium
515:uranium
509:of the
409:coolant
195:of the
73:or for
3753:Others
3693:Phénix
3678:BN-800
3673:BN-600
3668:BN-350
3497:HTR-PM
3492:HTR-10
3472:UHTREX
3437:Magnox
3432:(UNGG)
3325:Lucens
3320:KS 150
3057:ATMEA1
3037:AP1000
3020:Kerena
2717:
2709:
2370:Myrrha
2362:Astrid
2152:Forbes
2100:
2073:4 June
1906:24 May
1721:
1403:SEALER
1399:MYRRHA
1237:HTR-PM
1233:HTR-10
1153:BN-800
1149:BN-600
1145:Phénix
1141:EBR-II
1130:HTR-10
1025:MYRRHA
957:MYRRHA
916:EBR II
899:ASTRID
856:sodium
828:each.
789:BN-800
785:BN-600
774:, and
696:helium
625:fired
525:(e.g.
377:HTR-10
369:HTR-PM
186:Brazil
172:, the
158:Russia
150:France
144:, the
138:Canada
102:HTR-PM
38:. The
24:Gen IV
3770:Piqua
3765:Arbus
3723:PRISM
3465:MHR-T
3460:GTMHR
3390:EGP-6
3385:AMB-X
3360:Water
3305:HWGCR
3244:HWLWR
3183:IPHWR
3154:CANDU
3015:ESBWR
2736:(PDF)
2715:S2CID
2618:(PDF)
2206:(PDF)
2199:(PDF)
2015:(PDF)
2008:(PDF)
1982:(PDF)
1975:(PDF)
1719:S2CID
1382:Lead
1379:Fast
1364:1200
1352:Fast
1292:PRISM
1252:Fast
1214:Open
1177:Type
1107:Argon
923:PRISM
670:breed
432:) or
343:Areva
277:is a
154:Japan
142:China
112:type
98:China
3730:Lead
3713:CEFR
3703:PFBR
3585:None
3395:RBMK
3380:AM-1
3310:EL-4
3284:WR-1
3266:AHWR
3210:MZFR
3178:CVTR
3167:AFCR
3094:VVER
3052:APWR
3047:APR+
3010:ABWR
2909:2012
2900:ASME
2818:2021
2796:2016
2766:2021
2744:2018
2707:ISSN
2573:2014
2463:2022
2343:2013
2227:help
2098:ISSN
2075:2019
1908:2020
1730:2012
1458:IMSR
1442:LFTR
1358:850
1340:VVER
1320:SCWR
1258:550
1225:HTTR
1221:JAEA
1201:VHTR
1151:and
1134:VHTR
1128:and
1089:LFTR
1000:and
967:lead
963:lead
793:NPPs
638:VVER
529:and
436:(ThF
358:PBMR
285:. A
188:.
184:and
88:and
57:The
30:are
3718:PFR
3509:PMR
3487:AVR
3409:Gas
3347:by
3315:KKN
3249:ATR
3164:EC6
3124:by
3072:EPR
3005:BWR
2699:doi
1711:doi
1699:151
1634:doi
1460:),
1452:),
1444:),
1410:MSR
1375:LFR
1348:GFR
1306:),
1294:),
1286:),
1278:),
1276:TWR
1248:SFR
1239:),
1227:),
1085:MSR
1033:Mol
978:LBE
965:or
862:or
605:PWR
428:(UF
362:MWe
44:GIF
3842::
3452:He
3418:CO
3294:CO
3215:R3
2896:.
2785:.
2774:^
2713:.
2705:.
2695:40
2693:.
2689:.
2677:^
2667:.
2634:.
2564:.
2545:.
2527:.
2453:.
2392:.
2351:^
2322:^
2312:.
2293:.
2218::
2216:}}
2212:{{
2180:^
2150:.
2125:.
2096:.
2092:.
2063:.
2031:.
1990:^
1938:.
1899:.
1874:^
1844:.
1826:.
1808:.
1789:.
1778:^
1768:.
1757:^
1747:.
1717:.
1709:.
1697:.
1693:.
1674:.
1663:^
1646:^
1632:.
1622:61
1620:.
1604:^
1585:^
1464:,
1432:,
1401:,
1397:,
1314:)
1284:4S
1274:,
1147:,
1143:,
1091:).
1087:,
1012:.
770:,
766:,
652:A
549:.
379:.
273:A
168:,
164:,
160:,
156:,
152:,
140:,
136:,
81:.
26:)
3592:)
3588:(
3420:2
3372:O
3370:2
3368:H
3296:2
3236:O
3234:2
3232:H
3141:O
3139:2
3137:D
2957:e
2950:t
2943:v
2911:.
2902:)
2820:.
2798:.
2768:.
2746:.
2721:.
2701::
2671:.
2649:.
2620:.
2575:.
2495:.
2480:.
2465:.
2439:.
2345:.
2316:.
2297:.
2265:.
2229:)
2225:(
2160:.
2135:.
2110:.
2077:.
2035:.
2005:"
2001:"
1972:"
1968:"
1956:.
1942:.
1910:.
1854:.
1812:.
1793:.
1751:.
1732:.
1713::
1705::
1678:.
1640:.
1636::
1628::
1456:(
1310:(
1298:(
1290:(
1282:(
1270:(
1231:(
1223:(
1098:.
1052:e
1040:e
1017:t
994:e
990:e
986:e
976:(
969:/
913:e
906:t
826:e
809:e
799:(
733::
722:t
438:4
430:4
42:(
22:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.