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Pebble debris and graphite dust blocked some of the coolant channels in the bottom reflector, as was discovered during fuel removal after final shut-down. A failure of insulation required frequent reactor shut-downs for inspection, because the insulation could not be repaired. Metallic components in the hot gas duct failed in
September 1988, probably due to thermal fatigue induced by unexpected hot gas currents. This failure led to a long shut-down for inspections. In August, 1989, the THTR company almost went bankrupt, but was rescued by the government. The unexpected high costs of THTR operation and the accident ended interest in THTR reactors. The government decided to terminate the THTR operation at the end of September, 1989. This particular reactor was built despite criticism at the design phase. Most of those design critiques by German physicists, and by American physicists at the National Laboratory level, went ignored until shutdown. Nearly every problem encountered by the THTR 300 reactor was predicted by the physicists who criticized it as "overly complex".
1065:. The reactor vessel was filled with light concrete in order to fix the radioactive dust and in 2012 the reactor vessel of 2,100 metric tons (2,100 long tons; 2,300 short tons) was to be moved to intermediate storage until a permanent solution is devised. The reactor buildings were to be dismantled and soil and groundwater decontaminated. AVR dismantling costs were expected to far exceed its construction costs. In August 2010, the German government estimated costs for AVR dismantling without consideration of the vessel dismantling at 600 million € ( $ 750 million, which corresponded to 0.4 € ($ 0.55) per kWh of electricity generated by the AVR. A separate containment was erected for dismantling purposes, as seen in the AVR-picture.
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536:. One reactor (not a PBR) caught fire because of the release of energy stored as crystalline dislocations (Wigner energy) in the graphite. The dislocations are caused by neutron passage through the graphite. Windscale regularly annealed the graphite to release accumulated Wigner energy. However, the effect was not anticipated, and since the reactor was cooled by ambient air in an open cycle, the process could not be reliably controlled, and led to a fire.
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inventory into the environment. Although the radiological impact was small, it had a disproportionate impact. The release was caused by a human error during a blockage of pebbles in a pipe. Trying to restart the pebbles' movement by increasing gas flow stirred up dust, always present in PBRs, which was then released, unfiltered, into the environment due to an erroneously open valve.
1037:. Since few neutrons are absorbed, the coolant remains less radioactive. It is practical to route the primary coolant directly to power generation turbines. Even though the power generation used primary coolant, it was reported that the AVR exposed its personnel to less than 1/5 as much radiation as a typical light water reactor.
1205:
Adams Atomic
Engines (AAE) design was self-contained so it could be adapted to extreme environments such as space, polar and underwater environments. Their design was for a nitrogen coolant passing directly though a conventional low-pressure gas turbine, and due to the rapid ability of the turbine to
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and operational problems. During removal of the fuel elements it became apparent that the neutron reflector under the pebble-bed core had cracked during operation. Some hundred fuel elements remained stuck in the crack. During this examination it was revealed that the AVR was the world's most heavily
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In 1978, the AVR suffered from a water/steam ingress accident of 30 metric tons (30 long tons; 33 short tons), which led to contamination of soil and groundwater by strontium-90 and by tritium. The leak in the steam generator leading to this accident was probably caused by high core temperatures (see
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The primary criticism of pebble-bed reactors is that encasing the fuel in graphite poses a hazard. Graphite can burn in the presence of air, which could happen if the reactor vessel is compromised. Fire could vaporize the fuel, which could then be released to the surroundings. Fuel kernels are coated
517:
Even in the event that all supporting machinery fails, the reactor will not crack, melt, explode or spew hazardous wastes. It heats to a designed "idle" temperature, and stays there. At idle, the reactor vessel radiates heat, but the vessel and fuel spheres remain intact and undamaged. The machinery
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is due to cooling system complexity, which is not a factor in PBRs. Conventional plants require extensive safety systems and redundant backups. Their reactor cores are dwarfed by cooling systems. Further, the core irradiates the water with neutrons causing the water and impurities dissolved in it to
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In most stationary designs, fuel replacement is continuous. Pebbles are placed in a bin-shaped reactor. Pebbles travel from the bottom to the top about ten times over a period of years, and are tested after each pass. Expended pebbles are removed to the nuclear-waste area, replaced by a new pebble.
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rated at 300 MW), using thorium as the fuel. THTR-300 suffered technical difficulties, and owing to these and political events in
Germany, was closed after four years of operation. An incident on 4 May 1986, only a few days after the Chernobyl disaster, allowed a release of part of the radioactive
1006:. The goal was to gain operational experience with a high-temperature gas-cooled reactor. Construction costs of AVR were 115 million Deutschmark (1966), corresponding to a 2010 value of 180 million €. The unit's first criticality was on August 26, 1966. The facility ran successfully for 21 years.
1129:
The overly complex design of the reactor, which is contrary to the general concept of self-moderated thorium reactors designed in the U.S., also suffered from the unplanned high destruction rate of pebbles during the test series and the resulting higher contamination of the containment structure.
1126:), a commission of inquiry was appointed. The radioactivity in the vicinity of the THTR-300 was finally found to result 25% from Chernobyl and 75% from THTR-300. The handling of this minor accident severely damaged the credibility of the German pebble-bed community, which lost support in Germany.
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Pebble-bed reactors are gas-cooled, sometimes at low pressures. The spaces between the pebbles replace the piping in conventional reactors. Since there is no actual piping in the core and the coolant contains no hydrogen, embrittlement is not a failure concern. The preferred gas, helium, does not
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at higher temperatures. This reduces the number of neutrons available to cause fission, and reduces power. Doppler broadening therefore creates a negative feedback: as fuel temperature increases, reactor power decreases. All reactors have reactivity feedback mechanisms. The pebble-bed reactor is
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Because the reactor is designed to handle high temperatures, it can cool by natural circulation and survive accident scenarios, which may raise the temperature of the reactor to 1,600 °C (2,910 °F). Such high temperatures allow higher thermal efficiencies than possible in traditional
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Pyrolytic graphite is the main structural material in pebbles. It sublimates at 4,000 °C (7,230 °F), more than double the design temperature of most reactors. It slows neutrons effectively, is strong, inexpensive, and has a long history of use in reactors and other high temperature
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designed so that this effect is relatively strong, inherent to the design, and does not depend on moving parts. If the rate of fission increases, temperature increase and
Doppler broadening reduces the rate of fission. This negative feedback creates passive control of the reaction process.
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A Pretoria-based company, Stratek Global, created a variant of the PBMR reactor. The
Stratek HTMR-100 reactor functions at 750 °C (1,380 °F). It directs the heat into water to create steam and is helium-cooled. The HTMR-100 reactor produces output of 35 MWe.
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advanced the idea in the 1950s. The crucial insight was to combine fuel, structure, containment, and neutron moderator in a small, strong sphere. The concept depended on the availability of engineered forms of silicon carbide and pyrolytic carbon that were strong.
1971:
413:. The pebble design is relatively simple, with each sphere consisting of the nuclear fuel, fission product barrier, and moderator (which in a traditional water reactor would all be different parts). Grouping sufficient pebbles in the correct geometry creates
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Rainer
Moormann (2008). "A safety re-evaluation of the AVR pebble bed reactor operation and its consequences for future HTR concepts". Berichte des Forschungszentrums Jülich. Forschungszentrum Jülich, Zentralbibliothek, Verlag.
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change speeds, it can be used in applications where instead of the turbine's output being converted to electricity, the turbine itself could directly drive a mechanical device, for instance, a propeller aboard a ship.
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PBRs can use fuel pebbles made from various fuels in the same design (though perhaps not simultaneously). Proponents claim that pebble-bed reactors can use thorium, plutonium and natural unenriched uranium, as well as
1734:"E. Wahlen, J. Wahl, P. Pohl (AVR GmbH): Status of the AVR decommissioning project with special regard to the inspection of the core cavity for residual fuel. WM'00 Conference, February 27 - March 2, 2000, Tucson, AZ"
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at
Windscale and Chernobyl—both graphite-moderated reactors. However, PBRs are cooled by inert gases to prevent fire. All designs have at least one layer of silicon carbide that serves as a fire break and seal.
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The reactor is cooled by an inert, fireproof gas, which has no phase transitions—it is always in the gaseous phase. The moderator is solid carbon; it does not act as a coolant, or move, or change phase.
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applications. For example, pyrolytic graphite is also used, unreinforced, to construct missile reentry nose-cones and large solid rocket nozzles. Its strength and hardness come from its anisotropic crystals.
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was considered valuable technology. However, the AVR's fuel design contained the fuel so well that the transmuted fuels were uneconomic to extract—it was cheaper to use mined and purified uranium.
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requires all waste to be safely contained, requiring waste storage facilities. Pebble defects may complicate storage. Graphite pebbles are more difficult to reprocess due to their construction.
1193:, the latter of which sued Eskom. The reactor was never completed and the testing facility was decommissioned and placed in a "care and maintenance mode" to protect the IP and the assets.
424:(such as helium, nitrogen or carbon dioxide) circulates through the spaces between the fuel pebbles to carry heat away from the reactor. Pebble-bed reactors must keep the pebbles'
792:, recommended that average hot helium temperatures be limited to 800 °C (1,470 °F) minus the uncertainty of the core temperatures (about 200 °C or 360 °F).
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1573:"Key differences in the fabrication, irradiation and high temperature accident testing of US and German TRISO-coated particle fuel, and their implications on fuel performance"
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Some designs do not include a containment building, leaving reactors more vulnerable to attack. However, most are surrounded by a reinforced concrete containment structure.
1967:, "Control for a closed cycle gas turbine system", published 1994-05-03, issued 1993. Patent expired on 2006-05-03 due to failure to pay maintenance fees.
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770:) due to limited pebble retention capabilities for metallic fission products. The report claimed that even modern fuel elements do not sufficiently retain
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Dust formation from pebble friction under pebble breach (Dust acts as a mobile fission product carrier, if fission products escape the fuel particles.)
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1603:"NRC: Speech - 027 - "Regulatory Perspectives on the Deployment of High Temperature Gas-Cooled Reactors in Electric and Non-Electric Energy Sectors""
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reactors. As of 2021, four sites were being considered for a 6-reactor successor, the HTR-PM600. The reactor entered service in
December 2023.
409:) contained within spherical pebbles a little smaller than the size of a tennis ball and made of pyrolytic graphite, which acts as the primary
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Each pebble, within the vessel, is a 60 millimetres (2.4 in) hollow sphere of pyrolytic graphite, wrapped in fireproof silicon carbide.
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Most PBR designs include multiple reinforcing levels of containment to prevent contact between the radioactive materials and the biosphere:
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In a safety test using the German AVR reactor, all the control rods were removed, and coolant flow was halted. The fuel remained undamaged.
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235:(up to 50%) while the gases do not dissolve contaminants or absorb neutrons as water does, so the core has less in the way of radioactive
611:. German-produced fuel-pebbles release about 1000 times less radioactive gas than the U.S. equivalents, due to that construction method.
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1535:
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Pyrolytic carbon can burn in air when the reaction is catalyzed by a hydroxyl radical (e.g., from water). Infamous examples include the
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where it heats another gas or produces steam. The turbine exhaust is warm and may be used to heat buildings or in other applications.
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easily absorb neutrons or impurities. Therefore, compared to water, it is both more efficient and less likely to become radioactive.
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1185:, the government-owned electrical utility to operate at 940 °C (1,720 °F). The PBMR project was opposed by groups such as
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In 2004 China licensed the AVR technology and developed a reactor for power generation. The 10 megawatt prototype is called the
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1213:, stopping heat generation if the fuel in the engine gets too hot in the event of a loss of coolant or a loss of coolant flow.
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Following the experience with the AVR, Germany constructed a full scale power station (the thorium high-temperature reactor or
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1250:'s (DOE) Advanced Reactor Concept Cooperative Agreement in 2016 and its Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program (ARDP) in 2020.
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Like all high temperature designs, the AAE engine would have been inherently safe, as the engine naturally shuts down due to
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Thus PBRs passively reduce to a safe power-level in an accident scenario. This is the design's main passive safety feature.
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Key
Differences in the Fabrication of US and German TRISO-COATED Particle Fuel, and their Implications on Fuel Performance
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471:. Such reactors do not need to operate well at the varying neutron profiles caused by partially withdrawn control rods.
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design. It has received funding from private sources and various government grants and contracts, notably through the
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have limited absorbance in carbon, so some fuel kernels could accumulate enough gas to rupture the silicon carbide.
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AVR, experimental high-temperature reactor : 21 years of successful operation for a future energy technology
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in the reactor, or a fuel defect could contaminate the power production equipment, it may be brought instead to a
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1359:"A future for nuclear energy: pebble bed reactors, Int. J. Critical Infrastructures, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.330–345"
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NGNP Point Design - Results of the
Initial Neutronics and Thermal-Hydraulic Assessments During FY-03, Rev. 1
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AVR - Experimental High-Temperature Reactor, 21 Years of Successful Operation for A Future Energy Technology
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R. Baeumer, THTR-300 Erfahrungen mit einer fortschrittlichen Technologie, Atomwirtschaft, May 1989, p. 226.
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criticism section). A re-examination of this accident was announced by the local government in July 2010.
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1142:. It is a conventional helium-cooled, helium-turbine design. In 2021 the Chinese then built a 211 MW
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with a layer of silicon carbide to isolate the graphite. While silicon carbide is strong in abrasion and
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Convection of the gas, driven by the heat of the pebbles, ensures that the pebbles are passively cooled.
261:. This system was plagued with problems and the technology was abandoned. The AVR design was licensed to
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from burning in the presence of air if the reactor wall is breached (the flammability of the pebbles is
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The reactor is usually in a room with two-meter-thick walls with doors that can be closed, and cooling
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for structural integrity and fission product containment. Thousands of pebbles are amassed to create a
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NGNP Point Design – Results of the Initial Neutronics and Thermal-Hydraulic Assessments During FY-03
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2126:"The Economic Impact of the Proposed Demonstration Plant for the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor Design"
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Computation of Dancoff Factors for Fuel Elements Incorporating Randomly Packed TRISO Particles
1936:"HTMR-100 team aim for pebble bed SMR in South Africa : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News"
1297: – Type of nuclear reactor that operates at high temperatures as part of normal operation
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is a private American nuclear reactor and fuel design engineering company. It is developing a
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Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP) Project – Preliminary Assessment Of Two Possible Designs
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1381:. Association of German Engineers (VDI), The Society for Energy Technologies. pp. 9–23.
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Assessment of Candidate Molten Salt Coolants for the Advanced High Temperature Reactor (AHTR)
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199:. The core is cooled by a gas that does not react chemically with the fuel elements, such as
152:
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1964:
1804:"China's HTR-PM reactor achieves first criticality : New Nuclear - World Nuclear News"
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Association of German Engineers (VDI), the Society for Energy Technologies (publ.) (1990).
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demonstration plant, which connects two reactors to a single turbine producing 210 MW
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1054:) nuclear installation and that this contamination was present as dust (the worst form).
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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The Next Generation Nuclear Plant – Insights Gained from the INEEL Point Design Studies
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and general PBR features drew attention. The claims are contested. The report cited:
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1830:"China's Pebble Bed Reactor Finally Starts Commercial Operation | NextBigFuture.com"
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become radioactive. The high-pressure piping in the primary side eventually becomes
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Localized fuel temperature instabilities resulted in heavy vessel contamination by
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Elevated core temperatures (>200 °C or 360 °F above calculated values)
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by British desert troops in WWII. Commercial development came in the 1960s via the
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When the reactor temperature rises, the atoms in the fuel move rapidly, causing
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A pebble-bed power plant combines a gas-cooled core and a novel fuel packaging.
178:(TRISO) particles. These TRISO particles consist of a fissile material (such as
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described PBRs as "in every way ... safer than the present nuclear reactors".
174:(which acts as the moderator), and contain thousands of fuel particles called
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499:, which forms the bulk of the uranium, is much more likely to absorb fast or
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170:-sized elements (approx. 6.7 cm or 2.6 in in diameter) are made of
2009:
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D. A. Petti; J. Buongiorno; J. T. Maki; R. R. Hobbins; G. K. Miller (2003).
575:
Low density porous pyrolytic carbon, high density nonporous pyrolytic carbon
285:, operating commercially since 2023. Other designs are under development by
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707:. The waste tends to be less hazardous and simpler to handle. Current US
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applications, it has less resistance to expansion and shear forces. Some
496:
468:
298:
254:
179:
167:
1708:"ORNL Review Vol. 36, No. 1, 2003 - Nuclear Power and Research Reactors"
730:
The cooling circuit can be contaminated with metallic fission products (
618:
166:
The basic design features spherical fuel elements called pebbles. These
2403:
923: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
351: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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Impossible to place standard measurement equipment in the reactor core
2408:
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1626:
771:
700:
421:
391:
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Conceptual Design of a Very High Temperature Pebble-Bed Reactor 2003
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PBRs are intentionally operated above the 250 °C (482 °F)
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24:
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In spite of the limited amount of radioactivity released (0.1 GBq
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In June 2004, it was announced that a new PBMR would be built at
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1985:
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High Temperature Reactor 2006 Conference, Sandton, South Africa
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1885:"Earthlife Africa Sues for Public Power Giant's Nuclear Plans"
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It was decommissioned on December 1, 1988, in the wake of the
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does not accumulate. This solves a problem discovered in the
495:. The fuel then experiences a wider range of neutron speeds.
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270:
236:
212:
1511:"Fabrication of pyrolytic graphite rocket nozzle components"
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demonstration reactor, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor (
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The fission fuel is in the form of metal oxides or carbides.
2605:
2494:
2304:
2262:
266:
1769:"China leading world in next generation of nuclear plants"
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Der Spiegel (German news magazine), no. 24 (1986) p. 28–30
1285: – New nuclear reactor technologies under development
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originated the concept and the name in 1947 at Oak Ridge.
151:(VHTR), one of the six classes of nuclear reactors in the
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Earthlife Africa: Nuclear Energy Costs the Earth campaign
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Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
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in the 1940s, inspired by the innovative design of the
467:
Some designs are throttled by temperature rather than
2040:
Differences in American and German TRISO-coated fuels
1279: – US/Russian design concept ~1997 - never built
695:
PBR waste volumes are much greater, but have similar
2174:
1258:
1216:The company went out of business in December 2010.
719:
In 2008, a report about safety aspects of Germany's
603:, then washed, dried and calcined. U.S. kernels use
559:
designed to resist aircraft crashes and earthquakes.
1692:. Nuclear Engineering International. Archived from
1665:. Nuclear Engineering International. Archived from
1629:. Berichte des Forschungszentrums Jülich JUEL-4275.
1068:
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
277:. The HTR-10 prototype was developed into China's
1479:
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1986:"Company formerly known as Adams Atomic Engines"
223:) have been suggested. The pebble bed design is
1851:"South Africa: Energy and Environmental Issues"
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457:conventional, water-cooled nuclear power plant
2831:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)
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2095:Coalition Against Nuclear Energy South Africa
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1564:
1528:
518:can be repaired or the fuel can be removed.
1690:"Pebble Bed Reactor - Safety in perspective"
1422:"Pebble Bed Modular Reactor - What is PBMR?"
432:). The heated gas is run directly through a
1911:
1793:
850:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3011:
2167:
2153:
2140:NPR: South Africa Invests in Nuclear Power
1291: – Cancelled American reactor project
2053:Idaho National Laboratory - United States
2035:Research on innovative reactors in Jülich
1953:
1341:
1013:The AVR was originally designed to breed
957:Learn how and when to remove this message
939:Learn how and when to remove this message
464:and requires inspection and replacement.
420:The pebbles are held in a vessel, and an
367:Learn how and when to remove this message
109:Learn how and when to remove this message
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2110:Pebble Bed Modular Reactor - PBMR - Home
1350:
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974:
157:
120:
1914:"Hogan ends pebble bed reactor project"
1200:
682:
569:The reactor vessel is typically sealed.
436:. However, if the gas from the primary
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2758:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)
2030:MIT page on Modular Pebble Bed Reactor
654:
2763:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)
2148:
1959:
1865:from the original on February 4, 2007
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191:) surrounded by a ceramic coating of
16:Type of very-high-temperature reactor
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1150:, which incorporates two 250 MW
921:adding citations to reliable sources
892:
856:
815:
649:
613:
599:All kernels are precipitated from a
349:adding citations to reliable sources
320:
291:University of California at Berkeley
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
2768:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)
1440:"How the PBMR Fueling System Works"
242:The concept was first suggested by
13:
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1988:. Atomicengines.com. June 29, 2011
1912:Linda Ensor (September 17, 2010).
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1277:Gas turbine modular helium reactor
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594:
14:
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2003:
1859:Energy Information Administration
1828:Wang, Brian (December 13, 2023).
1777:. October 5, 2004. Archived from
1661:Rainer Moormann (April 1, 2009).
1332:Williams, D.F. (March 24, 2006).
831:This article has multiple issues.
690:
607:, while German (AVR) kernels use
528:temperature of graphite, so that
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2851:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)
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1225:This section is an excerpt from
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1069:Thorium high-temperature reactor
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820:
617:
555:Most reactors are enclosed in a
429:
325:
23:
2078:, August 25 – September 3, 2004
1978:
1928:
1905:
1877:
1843:
1821:
1761:
1752:
1743:
1726:
1700:
1681:
1654:
1613:
1595:
1162:
992:experimental reactor consortium
908:needs additional citations for
839:or discuss these issues on the
440:can be made radioactive by the
336:needs additional citations for
125:Sketch of a pebble-bed reactor.
34:needs additional citations for
2841:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)
1688:Albert Koster (May 29, 2009).
1577:Nuclear Engineering and Design
1503:
1473:
1432:
1414:
1395:
1368:
1325:
714:
566:that can be filled with water.
546:
1:
2115:Atomic Energy in South Africa
1589:10.1016/S0029-5493(03)00033-5
1489:. Norton Press. p. 170.
1486:Physics for Future Presidents
1319:
1295:Very high temperature reactor
1289:Next Generation Nuclear Plant
149:very-high-temperature reactor
136:) is a design for a graphite-
2641:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz
1239:high-temperature gas-cooled
7:
3062:Nuclear power reactor types
2988:Aircraft Reactor Experiment
2045:September 21, 2004, at the
1855:EIA Country Analysis Briefs
1254:
1219:
162:Graphite pebble for reactor
10:
3078:
2826:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)
1940:www.world-nuclear-news.org
1808:www.world-nuclear-news.org
1710:. Ornl.gov. Archived from
1224:
1169:Pebble bed modular reactor
1166:
1072:
968:
795:
2996:
2963:
2951:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)
2864:
2846:Reduced-moderation (RMWR)
2811:
2794:
2734:
2661:
2653:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)
2627:
2618:
2570:
2550:
2503:
2485:
2441:
2346:
2328:
2196:
2183:
1540:Free, accessed 4/10/2008"
1269:Nuclear technology portal
870:This section needs to be
486:
316:
307:Idaho National Laboratory
211:. Other coolants such as
3016:List of nuclear reactors
2856:Dual fluid reactor (DFR)
2472:Steam-generating (SGHWR)
2010:IAEA HTGR Knowledge Base
1890:Environment News Service
1774:South China Morning Post
1133:
153:Generation IV initiative
3006:Nuclear fusion reactors
2971:Organic nuclear reactor
2177:nuclear fission reactor
2130:University of Greenwich
176:tristructural-isotropic
1663:"PBR safety revisited"
1642:Cite journal requires
1467:June 13, 2006, at the
1021:. A practical thorium
996:Jülich Research Centre
980:
811:
455:Much of the cost of a
163:
130:The pebble-bed reactor
126:
2124:Steve Thomas (2005),
2072:, March 21 – 25, 2004
1552:on September 21, 2004
1283:Generation IV reactor
1035:neutron cross-section
978:
397:are in the form of a
301:company Romawa B.V.,
161:
124:
2836:Traveling-wave (TWR)
2320:Supercritical (SCWR)
1781:on February 11, 2012
1357:Kadak, A.C. (2005).
1248:Department of Energy
1201:Adams Atomic Engines
1029:The AVR used helium
994:), was built at the
917:improve this article
683:Containment building
557:containment building
345:improve this article
303:Adams Atomic Engines
233:nuclear power plants
58:"Pebble-bed reactor"
43:improve this article
3057:Pebble bed reactors
2206:Aqueous homogeneous
1916:. Businessday.co.za
1050:beta-contaminated (
655:Graphite combustion
539:Berkeley professor
501:epithermal neutrons
3026:Nuclear technology
1407:2006-06-14 at the
1211:Doppler broadening
1047:Chernobyl disaster
981:
801:Farrington Daniels
629:. You can help by
493:Doppler broadening
313:and Kairos Power.
244:Farrington Daniels
172:pyrolytic graphite
164:
147:. It is a type of
127:
3044:
3043:
3036:Nuclear accidents
2959:
2958:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2730:
2729:
2614:
2613:
2546:
2545:
2138:(April 17, 2006)
1696:on June 26, 2010.
1496:978-0-393-33711-2
1481:Richard A. Muller
1452:on March 9, 2008.
967:
966:
959:
949:
948:
941:
891:
890:
854:
668:products such as
650:Design criticisms
647:
646:
541:Richard A. Muller
411:neutron moderator
377:
376:
369:
119:
118:
111:
93:
3069:
3034:
3033:
3024:
3023:
3014:
3013:
3004:
3003:
2946:Helium gas (GFR)
2809:
2808:
2804:
2741:
2740:
2625:
2624:
2575:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2562:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2339:
2169:
2162:
2155:
2146:
2145:
2105:PBMR (Pty.) Ltd.
2066:, September 2003
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1965:Adams, Rodney M.
1957:
1951:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1847:
1841:
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1836:
1825:
1819:
1818:
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1814:
1800:
1791:
1790:
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1765:
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1756:
1750:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1730:
1724:
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1719:
1704:
1698:
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1685:
1679:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1645:
1640:
1638:
1630:
1617:
1611:
1610:
1605:. Archived from
1599:
1593:
1592:
1583:(2–3): 281–297.
1568:
1562:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1551:
1545:. Archived from
1544:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1521:
1507:
1501:
1500:
1477:
1471:
1460:
1454:
1453:
1451:
1445:. Archived from
1444:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1424:. Archived from
1418:
1412:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1363:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1329:
1300:
1271:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1191:Earthlife Africa
1124:
1122:
1121:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1098:
1096:
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962:
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944:
937:
933:
930:
924:
901:
893:
886:
883:
877:
865:
864:
857:
846:
824:
823:
816:
768:
767:
766:
759:
758:
748:
747:
746:
739:
738:
678:
676:
675:
642:
639:
621:
614:
477:enriched uranium
372:
365:
361:
358:
352:
329:
321:
222:
189:
187:
186:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3077:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3040:
2992:
2955:
2860:
2805:
2798:
2797:
2782:
2726:
2657:
2632:
2610:
2582:
2564:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2542:
2508:
2499:
2481:
2446:
2437:
2351:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2324:
2238:Natural fission
2192:
2191:
2179:
2173:
2047:Wayback Machine
2006:
2001:
1991:
1989:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1972:
1958:
1954:
1944:
1942:
1934:
1933:
1929:
1919:
1917:
1910:
1906:
1896:
1894:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1868:
1866:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1834:
1832:
1826:
1822:
1812:
1810:
1802:
1801:
1794:
1784:
1782:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1736:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1717:
1715:
1714:on July 1, 2013
1706:
1705:
1701:
1686:
1682:
1672:
1670:
1669:on May 30, 2012
1659:
1655:
1643:
1641:
1632:
1631:
1618:
1614:
1609:on May 3, 2015.
1601:
1600:
1596:
1569:
1565:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1534:
1533:
1529:
1519:
1517:
1509:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1478:
1474:
1469:Wayback Machine
1461:
1457:
1449:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1433:
1428:on May 3, 2015.
1420:
1419:
1415:
1409:Wayback Machine
1400:
1396:
1389:
1373:
1369:
1361:
1355:
1351:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1314:Rainer Moormann
1298:
1267:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1251:
1244:nuclear reactor
1230:
1222:
1203:
1171:
1165:
1160:
1153:
1145:
1136:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1115:
1107:
1105:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1077:
1071:
1043:
1041:Decommissioning
1023:breeder reactor
988:
979:AVR in Germany.
973:
963:
952:
951:
950:
945:
934:
928:
925:
914:
902:
887:
881:
878:
875:
866:
862:
825:
821:
814:
805:Rudolf Schulten
798:
790:Rainer Moormann
765:
763:
762:
761:
757:
755:
754:
753:
752:
745:
743:
742:
741:
737:
735:
734:
733:
732:
717:
693:
685:
674:
672:
671:
670:
669:
657:
652:
643:
637:
634:
627:needs expansion
609:uranium dioxide
605:uranium carbide
597:
595:Fuel production
549:
489:
373:
362:
356:
353:
342:
330:
319:
295:General Atomics
284:
259:Rudolf Schulten
248:Benghazi burner
220:
216:
193:silicon carbide
185:
183:
182:
181:
180:
145:nuclear reactor
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3075:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3028:
3018:
3008:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2990:
2985:
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2978:
2967:
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2957:
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2921:
2916:
2911:
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2896:
2891:
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2881:
2870:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2821:Integral (IFR)
2818:
2812:
2806:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2788:
2787:
2784:
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2781:
2780:
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2760:
2755:
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2738:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2685:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2667:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2622:
2616:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2608:
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2598:
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2391:
2386:
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2376:
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2356:
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2349:
2341:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2322:
2317:
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2312:
2307:
2302:
2301:
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2295:
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2255:
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2235:
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2208:
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2117:
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2107:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2085:
2084:, January 2005
2079:
2073:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2054:
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2049:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2012:
2005:
2004:External links
2002:
2000:
1999:
1977:
1952:
1927:
1904:
1893:. July 4, 2005
1876:
1842:
1820:
1792:
1760:
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1699:
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1653:
1644:|journal=
1612:
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1387:
1367:
1349:
1343:10.2172/885975
1323:
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1311:
1309:Nuclear safety
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1167:Main article:
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969:Main article:
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691:Waste handling
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534:Windscale fire
488:
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446:heat exchanger
375:
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225:passively safe
218:
209:carbon dioxide
184:
117:
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99:September 2013
31:
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15:
9:
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4:
3:
2:
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2866:Generation IV
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2020:3-18-401015-5
2017:
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1813:September 28,
1809:
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1237:Generation IV
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1188:
1187:Koeberg Alert
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1158:Other designs
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929:December 2023
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906:This section
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882:December 2023
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706:
705:kilowatt-hour
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697:radioactivity
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625:This section
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530:Wigner energy
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395:nuclear fuels
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334:This section
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54:Find sources:
48:
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38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
2874:Sodium (SFR)
2801:fast-neutron
2692:
2640:
2186:
2089:South Africa
1992:September 5,
1990:. Retrieved
1980:
1955:
1943:. Retrieved
1939:
1930:
1920:September 5,
1918:. Retrieved
1907:
1895:. Retrieved
1888:
1879:
1869:December 15,
1867:. Retrieved
1854:
1845:
1835:December 15,
1833:. Retrieved
1823:
1811:. Retrieved
1807:
1783:. Retrieved
1779:the original
1772:
1763:
1754:
1745:
1728:
1718:September 5,
1716:. Retrieved
1712:the original
1702:
1694:the original
1683:
1671:. Retrieved
1667:the original
1656:
1635:cite journal
1615:
1607:the original
1597:
1580:
1576:
1566:
1556:February 25,
1554:. Retrieved
1547:the original
1537:
1530:
1518:. Retrieved
1514:
1505:
1485:
1475:
1458:
1447:the original
1434:
1426:the original
1416:
1397:
1377:
1370:
1352:
1327:
1304:Nuclear fuel
1215:
1208:
1204:
1195:
1179:South Africa
1172:
1163:South Africa
1137:
1128:
1086:
1078:
1056:
1052:strontium-90
1044:
1033:, has a low
1028:
1012:
1008:
1004:West Germany
991:
982:
953:
935:
926:
915:Please help
910:verification
907:
879:
871:
847:
840:
834:
833:Please help
830:
799:
787:
718:
699:measured in
694:
686:
658:
638:October 2021
635:
631:adding to it
626:
598:
585:
581:
550:
538:
523:
520:
516:
513:
509:
506:
490:
481:
473:
469:control rods
466:
454:
450:
419:
381:
378:
363:
357:January 2021
354:
343:Please help
338:verification
335:
263:South Africa
257:designed by
241:
229:
197:reactor core
165:
133:
129:
128:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
2909:Superphénix
2736:Molten-salt
2688:VHTR (HTGR)
2465:HW BLWR 250
2431:R4 Marviken
2360:Pressurized
2330:Heavy water
2314:many others
2243:Pressurized
2198:Light water
1897:October 18,
1785:October 18,
1146:gross unit
1019:thorium-232
1015:uranium-233
971:AVR reactor
721:AVR reactor
715:2008 report
709:legislation
662:compression
547:Containment
497:Uranium-238
415:criticality
255:AVR reactor
252:West German
168:tennis ball
3051:Categories
2693:PBR (PBMR)
1961:US 5309492
1520:October 6,
1336:(Report).
1320:References
1241:pebble-bed
836:improve it
701:becquerels
462:embrittled
142:gas-cooled
69:newspapers
2745:Fluorides
2409:IPHWR-700
2404:IPHWR-540
2399:IPHWR-220
2188:Moderator
2175:Types of
2128:, PSIRU,
1627:2128/3136
1515:issuu.com
842:talk page
772:strontium
588:accidents
526:annealing
422:inert gas
401:(usually
392:plutonium
138:moderated
2778:TMSR-LF1
2773:TMSR-500
2753:Fuji MSR
2713:THTR-300
2553:Graphite
2416:PHWR KWU
2382:ACR-1000
2310:IPWR-900
2293:ACPR1000
2288:HPR-1000
2278:CPR-1000
2253:APR-1400
2043:Archived
1945:June 24,
1863:Archived
1673:April 2,
1483:(2008).
1465:Archived
1405:Archived
1255:See also
1233:X-energy
1227:X-energy
1220:X-Energy
1081:THTR-300
1075:THTR-300
442:neutrons
430:disputed
426:graphite
407:carbides
311:X-energy
297:(U.S.),
215:(molten
205:nitrogen
2919:FBR-600
2899:CFR-600
2894:BN-1200
2560:coolant
2487:Organic
2372:CANDU 9
2369:CANDU 6
2337:coolant
2298:ACP1000
2273:CAP1400
2211:Boiling
1175:Koeberg
1031:coolant
872:updated
796:History
776:caesium
666:fission
601:sol-gel
564:plenums
438:coolant
434:turbine
399:ceramic
388:thorium
384:uranium
273:as the
265:as the
83:scholar
2964:Others
2904:Phénix
2889:BN-800
2884:BN-600
2879:BN-350
2708:HTR-PM
2703:HTR-10
2683:UHTREX
2648:Magnox
2643:(UNGG)
2536:Lucens
2531:KS 150
2268:ATMEA1
2248:AP1000
2231:Kerena
2018:
1973:
1963:,
1493:
1385:
1148:HTR-PM
1140:HTR-10
1059:Cs-137
1000:Jülich
487:Safety
403:oxides
317:Design
279:HTR-PM
275:HTR-10
237:fluids
217:Li(BeF
201:helium
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
2981:Piqua
2976:Arbus
2934:PRISM
2676:MHR-T
2671:GTMHR
2601:EGP-6
2596:AMB-X
2571:Water
2516:HWGCR
2455:HWLWR
2394:IPHWR
2365:CANDU
2226:ESBWR
2100:Eskom
1737:(PDF)
1550:(PDF)
1543:(PDF)
1450:(PDF)
1443:(PDF)
1411:pg 20
1362:(PDF)
1183:Eskom
1134:China
1063:Sr-90
1017:from
983:A 15
299:Dutch
271:China
213:FLiBe
90:JSTOR
76:books
2941:Lead
2924:CEFR
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2796:None
2606:RBMK
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2521:EL-4
2495:WR-1
2477:AHWR
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2305:VVER
2263:APWR
2258:APR+
2221:ABWR
2132:, UK
2016:ISBN
1994:2013
1947:2023
1922:2013
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1871:2015
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1815:2021
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1675:2009
1648:help
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1383:ISBN
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1061:and
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269:and
267:PBMR
62:news
2929:PFR
2720:PMR
2698:AVR
2620:Gas
2558:by
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