293:. Chomsky defines UG as "the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages... by necessity." He states that UG expresses "the essence of human language," and believes that the structure-dependent rules of UG allow humans to interpret and create an infinite number of novel grammatical sentences. Chomsky asserts that UG is the underlying connection between all languages and that the various differences between languages are all relative with respect to UG. He claims that UG is essential to our ability to learn languages, and thus uses it as evidence in a discussion of how to form a potential 'theory of learning' for how humans learn all or most of our cognitive processes throughout our lives. The discussion of Chomsky's UG, its innateness, and its connection to how humans learn language has been one of the more covered topics in linguistics studies to date. However, there is division amongst linguists between those who support Chomsky's claims of UG and those who argued against the existence of an underlying shared grammar structure that can account for all languages.
425:, the idea "that most cognitive scientists, linguists included, speak only familiar European languages, all close cousins in structure," as a possible influence towards the various issues they identify in the assertions made on linguistic universals. With regards to Chomsky's universal grammar, these linguists claim that the explanation of the structure and rules applied to UG are either false due to a lack of detail into the various constructions used when creating or interpreting a grammatical sentence, or that the theory is unfalsifiable due to the vague and oversimplified assertions made by Chomsky. Instead, Evans and Levinson highlight the vast diversity that exists amongst the many languages spoken around the world to advocate for further investigation into the many cross-linguistic variations that do exist. Their article promotes linguistic diversity by citing multiple examples of variation in how "languages can be structured at every level:
258:. He argues that "theoretical categories, and their inter-relations construe an abstract model of language...; they are interlocking and mutually defining". Descriptive categories, by contrast, are those set up to describe particular languages. He argues that "When people ask about 'universals', they usually mean descriptive categories that are assumed to be found in all languages. The problem is there is no mechanism for deciding how much alike descriptive categories from different languages have to be before they are said to be 'the same thing'".
2082:
2074:
421:, and therefore it can be expected that they share some core similarities. Evans and Levinson believe that linguists who have previously proposed or supported concepts associated with linguistic universals have done so "under the assumption that most languages are English-like in their structure" and only after analyzing a limited range of languages. They identify
390:
determined by the physiology of how color is perceived, rather than linguistics. Thus, if a language possesses three color terms, the third will mean 'red', and if a language possesses four color terms, the next will mean 'yellow' or 'green'. If there are five color terms, then both 'yellow' and 'green' are added, if six, then 'blue' is added, and so on.
413:. They argue that across the 6,000-8,000 languages spoken around the world today, there are merely strong tendencies rather than universals at best. In their view, these arise primarily due to the fact that many languages are connected to one another through shared historical backgrounds or common lineage, such as group
389:
suggest that if a language possesses only two terms for describing color, their respective meanings will be 'black' and 'white' (or perhaps 'dark' and 'light'), and if a language possesses more than two color terms, then the additional terms will follow trends related to the focal colors, which are
235:
arguments are more common). Other explanations for linguistic universals have been proposed, for example, that linguistic universals tend to be properties of language that aid communication. If a language were to lack one of these properties, it has been argued, it would probably soon evolve into a
223:
before the noun they modify again usually have SOV order, so pre-nominal relative clauses imply SOV. On the other hand, SOV languages worldwide show little preference for pre-nominal relative clauses, and thus SOV implies little about the order of relative clauses. As the implication works only one
384:
include the idea that all languages possess words with the meaning '(biological) mother' and 'you (second person singular pronoun)' as well as statistical tendencies of meanings of basic color terms in relation to the number of color terms used by a respective language. Some
445:." They claim that increased understanding and acceptance of linguistic diversity over the concepts of false claims of linguistic universals, better stated to them as strong tendencies, will lead to more enlightening discoveries in the studies of human cognition.
218:
usually have SOV order, and likewise SOV languages usually have postpositions. The implication works both ways, and thus the universal is bidirectional. By contrast, in a unidirectional universal the implication works only one way. Languages that place
321:, or tendencies to have morphologically simple words for cognitively salient concepts. The human body, being a physiological universal, provides an ideal domain for research into semantic and lexical universals. In a seminal study,
169:, statements that may not be true for all languages but nevertheless are far too common to be the result of chance. They also have implicational and non-implicational forms. An example of the latter would be
116:, and thus linguists, as well as insufficient research into all of the world's languages in discussions related to linguistic universals, instead promoting these similarities as simply strong tendencies.
1672:
2046:
1557:
365:. Subsequent research has shown that most of these features have to be considered cross-linguistic tendencies rather than true universals. Several languages like
1088:
283:, is what began research into linguistic universals. This led to his proposal for a shared underlying grammar structure for all languages, a concept he called
890:
745:
325:(1976) proposed a number of universals in the semantics of body part terminology, including the following: in any language, there will be distinct terms for
1176:
1034:
195:. Often it turns out that these exceptional languages are undergoing a shift from one type of language to another. In the case of Latin, its descendant
716:
Dryer, Matthew S. (1998) "Why
Statistical Universals are Better Than Absolute Universals" Chicago Linguistic Society 33: The Panels, pp. 123â145.
541:
Halliday, M.A.K. 2002. A personal perspective. In On
Grammar, Volume 1 in the Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday. London and New York: Continuum p12.
386:
1665:
108:, have argued against the existence of absolute linguistic universals that are shared across all languages. These linguists cite problems such as
2017:
1131:
1186:
911:
309:, have pursued the search for a hypothetic irreducible semantic core of all languages. A modern variant of this approach can be found in the
317:
and associates. See, for example, and Other lines of research suggest cross-linguistic tendencies to use body part terms metaphorically as
187:. Strictly speaking, a tendency is not a kind of universal, but exceptions to most statements called universals can be found. For example,
2085:
2056:
1658:
279:
as it pertains to our ability to rapidly learn any language without formal instruction and with limited input, or what he refers to as a
807:
Rosch, E. & Mervis, C.B. & Gray, W.D. & Johnson, D.M. & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976) 'Basic
Objects In Natural Categories',
2051:
405:
are two linguists who have written against the existence of linguistic universals, making a particular mention towards issues with
151:. An implicational universal applies to languages with a particular feature that is always accompanied by another feature, such as
1108:
17:
1136:
1052:
885:
828:
1604:
1562:
862:
464:
90:
1619:
1225:
730:
Ferguson, Charles A. (1968) 'Historical background of universals research'. In: Greenberg, Ferguson, & Moravcsik,
1220:
711:
100:
Though there has been significant research into linguistic universals, in more recent time some linguists, including
682:
1992:
1583:
1366:
814:
Wilkins, David P. (1993) âFrom part to person: natural tendencies of semantic change and the search for cognatesâ,
1834:
214:. In a bidirectional universal two features each imply the existence of each other. For example, languages with
2109:
373:
lack a general term meaning 'body'. On the basis of such data it has been argued that the highest level in the
1599:
1341:
1215:
1098:
988:
723:& Miriam van Staden (2006) 'Cross-linguistic categorisation of the body: Introduction' (special issue of
310:
162:, while non-implicational universals just state the existence (or non-existence) of one particular feature.
2114:
2104:
2041:
1083:
983:
683:
General principles of human anatomical partonomy and speculations on the growth of partonomic nomenclature
250:
categories in resolving the matter of the existence of linguistic universals, a distinction he takes from
1639:
1609:
1431:
871:
305:, research into linguistic universals has taken place in a number of ways. Some linguists, starting with
200:
179:
1940:
1930:
1476:
1057:
1047:
1042:
947:
1839:
1804:
1716:
921:
916:
906:
398:
101:
1915:
1766:
1067:
1062:
855:
434:
154:
2024:
1999:
1721:
1701:
1682:
1396:
1024:
926:
834:
370:
280:
158:
144:). Absolute universals apply to every known language and are quite few in number; an example is
1849:
1391:
1146:
176:. However, most tendencies, like their universal counterparts, are implicational. For example,
1251:
629:"The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science"
1925:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1486:
1166:
1121:
517:
are examples of the rare languages which truly lack nasal consonants as normal speech sounds.
276:
1809:
1783:
1386:
1321:
1261:
1171:
1151:
973:
968:
510:
290:
1346:
818:, Cognitive Anthropology Research Group at the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics.
655:
8:
1960:
1799:
1441:
1306:
1161:
978:
848:
66:
829:
Some
Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the Order of Meaningful Elements
2077:
2061:
1920:
1885:
1870:
1741:
1696:
1526:
1156:
459:
77:, or other abilities of the mind. The field originates from discussions influenced by
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1975:
1965:
1895:
1844:
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1511:
1199:
1116:
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756:
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228:
196:
113:
82:
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402:
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105:
86:
35:
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1381:
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1351:
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1276:
1256:
942:
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366:
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1416:
1955:
1751:
1521:
1461:
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1336:
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1093:
490:
454:
322:
1271:
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1326:
1291:
1194:
1126:
998:
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109:
1935:
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1401:
1371:
1361:
1356:
664:
469:
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215:
183:
78:
1945:
1731:
1536:
1531:
1446:
1281:
720:
192:
178:
With overwhelmingly greater-than-chance frequency, languages with normal
69:, and intends to reveal generalizations across languages, likely tied to
62:
289:(UG), which he claimed must exist somewhere in the human brain prior to
1578:
1491:
1331:
1311:
1296:
318:
251:
74:
227:
Linguistic universals in syntax are sometimes held up as evidence for
1316:
498:
Papers from the 33rd Annual
Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society
442:
430:
426:
381:
374:
302:
70:
52:
203:, which is a much more common order among prepositional languages.
1230:
147:
752:
volume 1, pp. 5â40, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John
Benjamins.
491:"Why statistical universals are better than absolute universals"
739:
Semantic and
Lexical Universals - Theory and Empirical Findings
438:
94:
750:
Meaning and
Universal Grammar - Theory and Empirical Findings
418:
188:
56:
45:
2047:
Institute of
Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences
41:
746:"The search for the shared semantic core of all languages"
1558:
European
Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing
380:
Some other examples of proposed linguistic universals in
124:
Linguists distinguish between two kinds of universals:
1680:
224:
way, the proposed universal is a unidirectional one.
377:of body part terms would be the word for 'person'.
783:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
772:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
737:Goddard, Cliff and Wierzbicka, Anna (eds.). 1994.
568:
38:, potentially true for all of them. For example,
2096:
2018:Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages
870:
569:Goddard, Cliff; Wierzbicka, Anna, eds. (1994).
34:is a pattern that occurs systematically across
1666:
856:
627:Evans, Nicolas; Levinson, Stephen C. (2009).
626:
417:in Europe that were all derived from ancient
165:Also in contrast to absolute universals are
85:, but was largely pioneered by the linguist
2057:Russian State University for the Humanities
790:. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
695:Language Universals and Linguistic Typology
1673:
1659:
863:
849:
797:. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education (Longman).
795:Linguistic Typology: Morphology and Syntax
639:(5). Cambridge University Press: 429â492.
741:. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
654:
644:
97:, from a study of some thirty languages.
2052:Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
689:3, no. 3, Folk Biology, pp. 400â424
27:Universally-occurring linguistic pattern
610:Wilkins (1993), Enfield et al. 2006:17.
553:
526:
14:
2097:
1137:Generative second-language acquisition
802:Oxford Handbook of Linguistic Typology
761:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
1654:
844:
748:. In Goddard & Wierzbicka (eds.)
699:Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
622:
620:
618:
616:
488:
242:has argued for a distinction between
1605:Bilingualism: Language and Cognition
549:
547:
357:; similarly, if there are terms for
353:, there will be a distinct term for
261:
171:The vast majority of languages have
775:Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.) (1978b)
764:Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.) (1978a)
706:. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. 2nd ed.
393:
24:
1620:Journal of Second Language Writing
804:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
755:Greenberg, Joseph H. (ed.) (1963)
613:
349:; if there is a distinct term for
25:
2126:
822:
544:
465:Greenberg's linguistic universals
2081:
2080:
2072:
1993:Journal of Language Relationship
1584:L2 Syntactic Complexity Analyzer
788:Cognitive Foundations of Grammar
65:is closely tied to the study of
51:If a language is spoken, it has
604:
571:Semantic and lexical universals
531:. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.
236:language having that property.
656:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-C29E-4
595:
586:
577:
562:
535:
520:
504:
482:
119:
13:
1:
1099:Good language learner studies
837:by the University of Konstanz
732:Universals of human languages
633:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
475:
311:natural semantic metalanguage
2042:Evolution of Human Languages
1084:Language learning strategies
800:Song, Jae Jung (ed.) (2011)
777:Universals of Human Language
766:Universals of Human Language
296:
7:
1640:The Modern Language Journal
872:Second-language acquisition
558:. New York: Pantheon Books.
448:
361:, then there are terms for
91:forty-five basic universals
10:
2131:
1058:Willingness to communicate
1048:Critical period hypothesis
1043:Language-learning aptitude
675:
529:Language the cultural tool
489:Dryer, Matthew S. (1998).
265:
2070:
2034:
2009:
1984:
1858:
1775:
1717:Linguistic reconstruction
1689:
1592:
1571:
1550:
1239:
1208:
1185:
1107:
1076:
1033:
1007:
961:
935:
899:
878:
646:10.1017/S0140525X0999094X
61:Research in this area of
2035:Institutions and schools
1916:Vladislav Illich-Svitych
1089:Communication strategies
1068:Metalinguistic awareness
1063:Foreign language anxiety
681:Brown, Cecil H. (1976) "
527:Everett, Daniel (2012).
387:theories of color naming
191:is an SOV language with
155:trial grammatical number
2025:The Languages of Africa
1722:Internal reconstruction
1702:Etymological dictionary
1683:comparative linguistics
1025:Word lists by frequency
719:Enfield, Nick J. &
704:Typology and Universals
692:Comrie, Bernard (1981)
573:. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
556:Reflections on Language
281:poverty of the stimulus
275:'s work related to the
206:Universals may also be
159:dual grammatical number
89:, who derived a set of
18:Implicational universal
1147:Interaction hypothesis
1132:Dynamic Systems Theory
835:The Universals Archive
831:by Joseph H. Greenberg
793:Song, Jae Jung (2001)
758:Universals of Language
744:Goddard, Cliff (2002)
734:, pp. 7–31.
554:Chomsky, Noam (1975).
93:, mostly dealing with
2110:Linguistic universals
1926:Alexis Manaster Ramer
1167:Processability theory
1122:Comprehensible output
891:Common misconceptions
277:innateness hypothesis
1767:LeipzigâJakarta list
1727:Linguistic universal
1177:Skill-based theories
1172:Order of acquisition
1152:Interface hypothesis
1035:Individual variation
1020:Linguistic universal
974:Contrastive rhetoric
969:Contrastive analysis
816:Working paper No. 23
809:Cognitive Psychology
786:Heine, Bernd (1997)
687:American Ethnologist
291:language acquisition
114:cognitive scientists
32:linguistic universal
2115:Language comparison
2105:Linguistic typology
1961:Vitaly Shevoroshkin
1600:Applied Linguistics
1572:Computational tools
1240:Notable researchers
1162:Noticing hypothesis
979:Error (linguistics)
601:Rosch et al. (1976)
500:. pp. 123â145.
403:Stephen C. Levinson
146:All languages have
106:Stephen C. Levinson
67:linguistic typology
40:All languages have
2078:Linguistics portal
2062:Santa Fe Institute
1921:Frederik Kortlandt
1886:Aharon Dolgopolsky
1742:Origin of language
1697:Comparative method
1157:Interface position
1008:Linguistic factors
912:Classroom research
702:Croft, W. (2002).
460:Cultural universal
409:'s proposal for a
363:INDIVIDUAL FINGERS
153:If a language has
2092:
2091:
1976:Alfredo Trombetti
1966:Georgiy Starostin
1896:Harold C. Fleming
1776:Language families
1648:
1647:
1610:Language Learning
1200:Input enhancement
1117:Competition model
1015:Language transfer
948:Heritage language
725:Language Sciences
415:Romance languages
411:Universal Grammar
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
307:Gottfried Leibniz
286:universal grammar
268:Universal grammar
262:Universal grammar
229:universal grammar
197:Romance languages
142:non-implicational
83:Universal Grammar
81:'s proposal of a
36:natural languages
16:(Redirected from
2122:
2084:
2083:
2076:
1971:Sergei Starostin
1951:Martine Robbeets
1911:Murray Gell-Mann
1901:Joseph Greenberg
1876:Allan R. Bomhard
1762:Dolgopolsky list
1747:Paleolinguistics
1712:Lexicostatistics
1707:Glottochronology
1675:
1668:
1661:
1652:
1651:
1615:Language Testing
1187:In the classroom
1142:Input hypothesis
962:Learner language
953:Multi-competence
865:
858:
851:
842:
841:
669:
668:
658:
648:
624:
611:
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602:
599:
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584:
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394:Counterarguments
362:
358:
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350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
240:Michael Halliday
221:relative clauses
173:nasal consonants
87:Joseph Greenberg
21:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2095:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2066:
2030:
2005:
1980:
1941:Holger Pedersen
1931:Sergei Nikolaev
1906:Eugene Helimski
1881:Svetlana Burlak
1854:
1840:North Caucasian
1805:Elamo-Dravidian
1771:
1737:Mass comparison
1685:
1679:
1649:
1644:
1635:TESOL Quarterly
1588:
1567:
1546:
1235:
1204:
1181:
1103:
1072:
1029:
1003:
989:Error treatment
957:
943:Multilingualism
931:
895:
874:
869:
825:
678:
673:
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614:
609:
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591:
587:
583:Goddard (2002).
582:
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545:
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536:
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521:
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493:
487:
483:
478:
451:
396:
359:INDIVIDUAL TOES
315:Anna Wierzbicka
299:
270:
264:
256:Louis Hjelmslev
233:epistemological
132:, often called
122:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2118:
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2013:
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2003:
1996:
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1981:
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1968:
1963:
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1956:Merritt Ruhlen
1953:
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1835:DenĂ©âCaucasian
1832:
1827:
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1817:
1812:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1779:
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1752:Proto-language
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1487:Silva-Corvalan
1484:
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1444:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
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1399:
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1387:Larsen-Freeman
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
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1359:
1354:
1349:
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1334:
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1209:Aptitude tests
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1179:
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371:Kuuk Thaayorre
323:Cecil H. Brown
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184:postpositional
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435:morphological
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423:ethnocentrism
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399:Nicolas Evans
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216:postpositions
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208:bidirectional
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102:Nicolas Evans
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19:
2023:
2016:
1998:
1991:
1936:Sorin Paliga
1850:Indo-Pacific
1782:
1757:Swadesh list
1726:
1551:Associations
1019:
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592:Heine (1997)
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470:Swadesh list
431:phonological
397:
379:
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284:
273:Noam Chomsky
271:
238:
226:
205:
199:switched to
193:prepositions
177:
170:
164:
152:
145:
123:
99:
79:Noam Chomsky
50:
39:
31:
29:
1946:Ilia Peiros
1830:Sino-Uralic
1825:Indo-Uralic
1820:Ural-Altaic
1784:Proto-human
1732:Macrofamily
1681:Long-range
1322:Ervin-Tripp
721:Asifa Majid
511:Lushootseed
319:adpositions
248:theoretical
244:descriptive
140:(opposite:
130:statistical
128:(opposite:
120:Terminology
63:linguistics
2099:Categories
1810:Eurasiatic
1579:Coh-Metrix
1412:MacWhinney
1077:Strategies
1053:Motivation
476:References
252:J.R. Firth
231:(although
182:order are
167:tendencies
134:tendencies
75:perception
53:consonants
1859:Linguists
1800:Nostratic
1522:VanPatten
1337:van Geert
1257:Bialystok
1252:ArgĂŒelles
922:Phonology
917:Education
907:Attrition
900:Subfields
439:syntactic
382:semantics
375:partonomy
303:semantics
297:Semantics
71:cognition
2086:Category
1985:Journals
1690:Concepts
1593:Journals
1527:Verspoor
1467:Pimsleur
1432:Matthews
1352:Guardado
1347:Grosjean
1302:van Dijk
1267:Crossley
1247:Alderson
936:Learners
779:Vol. 3:
768:Vol. 4:
665:19857320
449:See also
443:semantic
427:phonetic
148:pronouns
126:absolute
112:amongst
1845:Austric
1795:Amerind
1563:EUROSLA
1507:Terrell
1482:Schmitt
1477:Schmidt
1427:Matsuda
1417:ManchĂłn
1377:Krashen
1367:Johnson
1357:Harding
1307:Dörnyei
1277:Cumming
1262:Carroll
1231:CANAL-F
927:Writing
886:Outline
879:General
676:Sources
515:Rotokas
407:Chomsky
1815:Altaic
1790:Borean
1625:System
1512:Ullman
1497:Storch
1492:Slobin
1472:Rivers
1452:Ortega
1447:Nation
1437:Meisel
1422:Marian
1407:Mackey
1372:Kormos
1362:Jarvis
1297:Corder
1292:Bygate
1282:de Bot
1272:Csizér
770:Syntax
710:
663:
367:Tidore
345:, and
136:) and
95:syntax
57:vowels
2010:Books
1532:White
1502:Swain
1462:Polio
1402:Lowie
1382:Kroll
1342:Green
1327:Flynn
1317:Ellis
1312:Ellis
1287:Brown
494:(PDF)
419:Latin
347:MOUTH
189:Latin
49:, or
46:verbs
42:nouns
1537:Wray
1517:Vaid
1457:Pica
1397:Long
1332:Gass
1226:PLAB
1221:DLAB
1216:MLAT
708:ISBN
661:PMID
513:and
441:and
401:and
369:and
355:HAND
351:FOOT
343:NOSE
339:EYES
331:HEAD
327:BODY
254:and
246:and
104:and
55:and
44:and
1542:Yip
685:."
651:hdl
641:doi
335:ARM
313:of
301:In
210:or
201:SVO
180:SOV
2101::
1392:Li
727:).
659:.
649:.
637:32
635:.
631:.
615:^
546:^
496:.
437:,
433:,
429:,
341:,
337:,
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329:,
73:,
30:A
1674:e
1667:t
1660:v
864:e
857:t
850:v
697:.
667:.
653::
643::
59:.
20:)
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